PC237 Lab Manual

Hasan Shodiev, Terry Sturtevant1

Winter, 2012

1 Physics Lab Instructors

ii
Contents

1 Goals for Physics 237 1

2 Instructions for Physics 237 3

2.1 Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Exercise on Reflection and Refraction of Light 7

3.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3.1 Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3.2 Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4.1 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4.3 Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4.4 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5 Bonus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.6 Recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.8 Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Exercise on The Brewster Angle 19

4.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2.1 Production of Polarized Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3.1 Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
iv CONTENTS

4.4 Recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.6 Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5 Exercise on the Michelson Interferometer 29

5.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3.1 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3.3 Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3.4 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4 Recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.6 Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6 Exercise on Newtons Rings 35

6.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.2.1 Newtons Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3.1 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3.3 Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3.4 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.4 Recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.6 Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

7 Exercise on Generalized Least Squares Fitting 43

7.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.3.1 Non-linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.3.2 Linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.3.3 Goodness of fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.5 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
CONTENTS v

7.5.1 Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.7 Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

8 Thin Lenses 59
8.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.4.1 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.4.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.4.3 Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.4.4 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.5 Bonus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

A Aligning the Spectrometer 67

A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
A.1.1 Levelling the Spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
A.1.2 Telescope Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
A.1.3 Collimator Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
vi CONTENTS
List of Figures

3.1 Reflection of Light at a Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.2 Virtual Image Produced by a Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Refraction of Light as it Passes from one Medium to Another . 10
3.4 Refraction of Light Passing Through a Glass Slab . . . . . . . 12

4.1 The Polarization of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.2 Brewsters Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3 Polarization by Successive Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 Polarization by Reflection and by Transmission . . . . . . . . 24

6.1 PlanoConvex Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6.2 Newtons Rings Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

7.1 Plot of Sample Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.2 Graph of Fit to A + B/x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3 Graph of Fit to A + B/x + C/x2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.4 Graph of Fit to A + B/x + C/x2 + D/x3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

8.1 Light Passing Through a Thin Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

8.2 Location of Back Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.3 Focal Plane of a Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.4 Front Focal Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.5 Important Points in the Object and Image Planes . . . . . . . 62

A.1 Telescope Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

A.2 Collimator Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
viii LIST OF FIGURES
List of Tables

3.1 Light reflecting from a mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.2 Light refracting through a slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Calculated index of refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Light refracting through a prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5 Calculated refraction angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.1 Sketch of spectrometer scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4.2 Angle where maximum polarization is observed . . . . . . . . 28

5.1 Mercury lamp data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6.1 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

7.1 Sample Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.2 Data for Fit to A + B/x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3 LINEST 2 parameter output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.4 Data for Fit to A + B/x + C/x2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.5 LINEST 3 parameter output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.6 Data for Fit to A + B/x + C/x2 + D/x3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.7 LINEST 4 parameter output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.8 Comparisson of Fit Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.9 FDistribution Table ( = 0.05) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.10 Fit comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
x LIST OF TABLES
Chapter 1

Goals for Physics 237

Thes labs will familiarize you with some basic optics concepts such as:

polarization

dispersion

interference

It may involve other areas such as:

data analysis

technical communication
2 Goals for Physics 237
Chapter 2

Instructions for Physics 237

2.1 Expectations
By this stage of your university career, there are certain things expected of
you. Some of them are as follows:

You are expected to come to the lab prepared. This means first of all
that you will attend all lectures so that you have all of the information
you need to do the labs. After you have been told what lab you will
be doing, you should read it ahead and be clear on what it requires.
You should bring the lab manual, lecture notes, etc. with you to every
lab. (Of course you will be on time so you do not miss important
information and instructions.)

You are expected to be adaptable and use common sense. In labs it

is often necessary to change certain details (eg. component values or
procedures) at lab time from what is written in the manual. You should
be alert to changes, and think rationally about those changes a react
accordingly.

You are expected to value the time of instructors and lab demonstrators.
This means that you make use of the lab time when it is scheduled,
and try to make it as productive as possible. This means not arriving
late or leaving early and then seeking help at other times for what you
missed.
4 Instructions for Physics 237

You are expected to use all of the resources at your disposal. This in-
cludes everything in the lab manual, textbooks for other related courses,
the library, etc.

You are expected to be professional about your work. This means

meeting deadlines, understanding and meeting requirements for labs,
reports, etc. This means doing what should be done, rather than what
you think you can get away with. This means proofreading reports for
spelling, grammar, etc. before handing them in.

You are expected to collect your own data. This means that you per-
form experiments with your partner and no one else. If, due to an
emergency, you are forced to use someone elses data, you must explain
why you did so and explain whose data you used. Otherwise, you are
committing plagiarism.

You are expected to do your own work. This means that you prepare
your reports with your partner and no one else. If you ask someone
else for advice about something in the lab, make sure that anything you
write down is based on your own understanding. If you are basically
regurgitating someone elses ideas, even in your own words, you are
committing plagiarism. (See the next point.)

You are expected to understand your own report. Even if you divide
work, such as writing up labs, with your partner, you are each still
responsible for all of the information in your report.

You are expected to be organized This includes recording raw data with
sufficient information so that you can understand it, keeping proper
backups of data, reports, etc., hanging on to previous reports, and so
on. It also means starting work early so there is enough time to clarify
points, write up your report and hand it in on time.

You are expected to act on feedback from instructors, markers, etc. If

you get something wrong, find out how to do it right and do so.

You are expected to actively participate in your own education. This

means that in the lab, you do not leave tasks to your partner because
you do not understand them. This means that you try and learn how
2.1 Expectations 5

and why to do something, rather than merely finding out the result of
doing something.
6 Instructions for Physics 237
Chapter 3

Exercise on Reflection and

Refraction of Light

3.1 Purpose
This exercise is designed for the demonstration of the law of reflection of light
from a mirror surface and the location of the image of the object formed by
a mirror. Further, the law of refraction of light is demonstrated and the path
of light rays through a glass prism is studied. The index of refraction for the
glass used is measured as well.

3.2 Introduction
This exercise will develop skills in dealing with uncertainties in trigonometric
functions. The focus is on geometric optics.

3.3 Theory
3.3.1 Reflection
When a beam of light in air strikes a medium with different electrical prop-
erties (here the metallic surface of a mirror, or glass) some of the light is
reflected at the interface. The fraction of light reflected depends on the elec-
trical properties of the material. This paper reflects about 60% of the light
8 Exercise on Reflection and Refraction of Light

incident upon it, while a polished mirror surface reflects more than 90% of
incident light.
If the material surface is relatively rough on the scale of the wavelength of
visible light, such as this paper, the light is reflected in all directions: a beam
of light is diffused by the surface upon reflection. This is the reason that you
dont see a clear reflected image of the lights on the ceiling from this paper.
On the other hand, for very smooth surfaces such as that of a mirror the
reflected rays are not diffused at all, so that the eye can focus them and form
a real image of the reflected object on its retina. Such reflection is termed
regular or specular.
The law for reflection from specular surfaces has been known for centuries;
it states that

the angle of incidence (i) equals the angle of reflection (r)

as they are defined in Figure 3.1. ( i and r are measured relative to the
normal to the reflecting surface at the point where reflection occurs.)
When an optical element such as a mirror is placed in the line of sight, rays
of light entering the eye from the mirror appear to have come from a point
behind the mirror. We say that a virtual image of the object exists behind
the mirror. The word virtual means the image is not real, that the light rays
dont actually come from it, but they appear to do so. On the other hand,
rays from the object are reflected from the mirror and enter the eye where
they are focused on the retina creating a real image of the object there.
As in Figure 3.2, two rays from a point object are reflected from a mirror
to the eye. If the path of the actual reflected rays is traced behind the mirror
(as dashed lines) they appear to have come from an object behind the mirror
which is the virtual image of the object.

3.3.2 Refraction
It was stated previously that when a ray of light in air strikes a medium with
different electrical properties some of the light is reflected at the interface;
the light that isnt reflected is refracted into the next material (glass in our
case).
3.3 Theory 9

surface normal

incident ray reflected ray

i r

mirror surface

Figure 3.1: Reflection of Light at a Mirror

normals

eye

object

virtual image mirror surface

virtual rays

Figure 3.2: Virtual Image Produced by a Mirror

10 Exercise on Reflection and Refraction of Light

i
normal

air incident ray reflected ray

na
ng
refracted ray
glass

Figure 3.3: Refraction of Light as it Passes from one Medium to Another

When light passes through the interface between two media into the second,
its direction is changed in accordance with Snells Law of Refraction which
relates the angles of incidence and refraction and the indices of refraction of
each of the media.

Consider the interface between air and glass in Figure 3.3 which defines the
angles of incidence (i) and refraction (r) as measured with respect to the
normal to the surface at the point of incidence.

The index of refraction or refractive index (n) for a material is the ratio
of the speed of light in a vacuum (v0 ) to the speed of light in the material
(vm ) whence n = v0 /vm .

Snells Law states that

na sin i = ng sin r
3.4 Procedure 11

where na is the refractive index of air, and to a very good approximation

na 1
We can thus rewrite Snells Law for air to glass as
sin i = ng sin r
where ng is the refractive index of the glass.
For the case where the light passes through a sheet of glass with parallel sides,
consider Figure 3.4. The ray is incident in air at angle i and is refracted to
angle r at the first interface;
(sin i = ng sin r)

At the second interface the ray is incident at angle i0 and is refracted to air
at angle r0 ;
(ng sin i0 = sin r0 )

Note: The uncertainty in sin is given by

sin |cos |
for in radians.
Note: The uncertainty in Arcsin(x) is given by
1
Arcsin(x) x
1 x2
(in radians). Note that this gets very big as x approaches 1.

3.4 Procedure
3.4.1 Apparatus
Plane mirror (front-surfaced)
Thick glass prism
Pin-board and hat pins
Protractor, straight-edge,plane sheets of clean 81/2 11 paper.
12 Exercise on Reflection and Refraction of Light

normal
incident ray
i
air

i0
glass ng
r

air emergent ray

r0

Figure 3.4: Refraction of Light Passing Through a Glass Slab

3.4.2 Preparation
Since this is the first week of labs, there are no pre-lab requirements.

3.4.3 Experimentation
In-lab Tasks
The in-lab tasks are included with each part.

Part 1: Angles of Incidence and Reflection

Please do not touch the mirror surfaces.

Note that the mirror is front-surfaced; light is reflected from its front sur-
face In household mirrors, the silvering is placed on the back of a sheet of
glass and sealed in so that the reflecting surface will last for years and years.
In front-surfaced mirrors, the light rays dont have to pass through the glass
first in order to be reflected.
3.4 Procedure 13

1. Draw a line down the centre of a piece of clear paper and place it on
the pin-board. Set the mirror surface against this line near the centre
of the page, standing on edge. On the front side of the mirror, off to
one side, stick a hat-pin vertically into the pin-board to serve as an
object. Viewing the image of this pin in the mirror, place two hat pins
along the direction of a reflected ray. Keep the two pins as far apart as
possible.
2. Remove the pins, and circle these three holes in the paper.
3. Repeat this procedure once more for another viewing direction, using
something other than circles to mark the other set of holes.
4. From each of the two sets of pin-holes you have the direction of the
reflected ray, which you can extend to find the point of reflection at the
mirror. From the point of reflection and the object pin hole, you can
draw the incident ray direction. Remove pins, mirror and sheet, and
draw in all incident and reflected rays and the surface normal at each
point of reflection. Measure the incident and reflected angles for each
of the rays and enter them in Table 3.1.

IT1: Show your diagram to the lab instructor.

Part 2: Virtual Images

1. Begin with paper, line, and mirror as in the previous part. Draw a
large letter V somewhere in front of the mirror. Mark the two ends of
the V in some way (such as A, B, C) so that you can tell them apart
in the reflection. Hint: Make the two arms of the V different lengths
and it will make them easier to distinguish.
2. Place a pin in one of the strategic points of the (object) letter, (say
A), and find the incident and reflected rays in two directions, labelling
them (such as A1 for the points in one direction, and and A2 for the
two points in the other direction).
3. Repeat with hat-pins placed in the other strategic points of the object
letter.
14 Exercise on Reflection and Refraction of Light

4. Remove pins and mirror, and on the sheet extend each pair of reflected
rays back behind the mirror as dashed lines, to where they intersect.
The three intersection points thus gained mark the strategic points of
the virtual image of the letter used as an object. Draw in this virtual
image using dotted lines.

IT2: Show your diagram to the lab instructor.

Part 3: Refraction through Parallel Surfaces

1. Draw a line down the centre of a piece of paper as before. With paper
on the pin board, place the glass prism standing on one of its long
edges, against the line, centred on the page.
2. Draw a line along the back edge of the parallel-sided glass block on the
page.
3. Place a pin in the paper behind the prism off to one side. Observe from
a position which will give a large angle of incidence. Use another pin
on the same side of the paper so that you can map the incident ray.
4. With 2 more pins, map out the emergent ray. Remove the pins and
label the 4 points.
5. Repeat the previous two steps for another object point.
6. Remove the prism.
7. Draw the incident and emergent rays for both cases, and then draw in
the rays refracted through the glass as well. Measure the angles i, r,
i0 and r0 for both rays and record them in Table 3.2. Remember that
youll have to draw in normal lines to measure the angles, or else use
(90 angle) if you measure from the glass surface. You may have to
extend the rays inside the glass block in order to measure them.
Note that the emergent ray should be exactly parallel to the incident
ray for each case.

IT3: Show your diagram and Table 3.2 to the lab instructor.
3.4 Procedure 15

Part 4: Refraction Through a Prism

1. Place the prism flat on one of its broad faces on a sheet of paper and
draw in its outline carefully.
2. Place 2 pins along a path to the prism with an incident angle i about
45 .
3. Look through the side of the prism where the refracted ray emerges,
and place 2 pins along the line of the emergent ray.
4. Remove the prism. Draw lines connecting both sets of pins with the
faces of the prism, and then draw the line though the prism which joins
them and thus trace the ray path through the prism experimentally.
5. Measure the incident, refracted, and emergent angles and put them in
Table 3.4.

IT4: Show your diagram and Table 3.4 to the lab instructor.

3.4.4 Analysis
Post-lab Questions

Q1: Calculate ng and ng from the data in Part 3, placing the results in
Table 3.3.
1. Measure the prism angle from your diagram of Part 4, and use it along
with the average n from Part 3 to calculate each of the angles in Ta-
ble 3.5. Show your calculations.
2. Draw in the ray based on your calculations as it passes through the
prism to the other face. Higlight this line to distinguish it from the
experimental one.
3. Draw in the ray as it leaves the second surface, based on your calcula-
tions. Higlight this line to distinguish it from the experimental one.
4. Put all the calculations on the sheet with the prism outline and the
calculated ray path.
16 Exercise on Reflection and Refraction of Light

Post-lab Tasks

T1: Photocopy your diagram and your calculations and hand them in.

3.5 Bonus
Include uncertainties in the last part. Note that in each step, the uncertainty
in an angle makes an uncertainty in the position of the next refraction.

3.6 Recap
By the end of this exercise, you should know how to :

Draw ray diagrams for

reflection at a plane surface

refraction at a plane interface

3.7 Summary
Item Number Received weight (%)
Pre-lab Questions 0 0
In-lab Questions 0 0
Post-lab Questions 1 20

Pre-lab Tasks 0 0
In-lab Tasks 4 60
Post-lab Tasks 1 20
3.8 Template 17

3.8 Template
My name:
My student number:
My partners name:
My other partners name:
Todays date:

ray Angle (degrees)

i r
1

Table 3.1: Light reflecting from a mirror

ray Angle (degrees)

i r i0 r0
1

Table 3.2: Light refracting through a slab

18 Exercise on Reflection and Refraction of Light

ray From incident From emergent

n n n n
1

average
(n)
uncertainty
(n)

Table 3.3: Calculated index of refraction

ray Angle (degrees)

i r i0 r0
1

Table 3.4: Light refracting through a prism

ray Angle (degrees)

r r i0 i0 r0 r0
1

Table 3.5: Calculated refraction angles

Chapter 4

Exercise on The Brewster

Angle

4.1 Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to investigate polarization by reflection and the
Brewster angle.

4.2 Theory
The vibrations of a light wave are transverse, i.e., light is an electromag-
netic wave whose electric and magnetic field vectors are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. This can be seen from the solutions to Maxwells
equations for the electromagnetic field. The transverse nature of light waves
is illustrated diagrammatically Figure 4.1a , in which the radial arrows rep-
resent vibrations taking place in all directions in a plane perpendicular to
the line of sight. For the purposes of analysis, it is convenient to describe the
transverse vibrations in terms of components resolved along two mutually
perpendicular directions, XX and YY in Figure 4.1a .
In the case of ordinary, unpolarized light, energy is distributed uniformly
among transverse vibrations in all possible directions, and the perpendicular
components are equal, regardless of the chosen directions of resolution.
In the case of completely polarized light, only one plane of vibration exists.
This situation is illustrated in Figure 4.1b , where a polarizing device has
been used to select only the vertical components of all transverse vibrations
20 Exercise on The Brewster Angle

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.1: The Polarization of Light

in the incident light. It can be shown that the intensity of the polarized light
in Figure 4.1b is one-half of the original, unpolarized intensity.
Since the human eye is cannot distinguish between polarized and unpo-
larized light, we require a polarizing device; an instrument that will transmit
vibrations that take place only along one axis, known as the transmission
axis. If the observed intensity remains the same for all orientations of the
axis, the light is unpolarized. If (virtually) no light is transmitted for a
particular orientation of the polarizer, the incident light is completely plane
polarized, as shown in Figure 4.1c . Because the second polarizer in Fig-
ure 4.1c is used to analyze the polarization of light incident upon it, it is
referred to as an analyzer. The plane of polarization of the light can then
readily be determined by noting that the transmission axis of the analyzer is
perpendicular to it when no light is transmitted.

4.2.1 Production of Polarized Light

Polarizing Screens
The simplest method of producing polarized light makes use of a polariz-
ing screen, composed of either natural or artificially prepared crystals that
4.2 Theory 21

Figure 4.2: Brewsters Law

possess the property of being able to transmit only the components of the
transverse vibrations parallel to a specific direction in the crystal. Tourma-
line is an example of a natural crystal which does this, but it is obtainable
only small and imperfect specimens. A commercial product marketed under
the trade name of Polaroid R is well suited to the construction of polarizing
screens of any size. It consists of a layer of iodo-quinine sulfate (herapathite)
crystals suitably oriented and imbedded in a thin sheet of transparent cellu-
loid. While the polarization produced by these screens is practically complete
throughout most of the visible spectrum, the shortest violet and longest red
ends are only partially polarized. Since the eye (and most optical detec-
tors designed to work in the visible) are not particularly sensitive to these
wavelengths, this limitation is not serious for most practical applications.

Polarization by Reflection
When a ray of light is incident on a smooth surface, the reflected component
is partially polarized, with the direction of maximum intensity parallel to
the surface (i.e., perpendicular to the plane of incidence). If the surface is
that of a transparent medium, the transmitted component is also partially
polarized, but with the direction of maximum intensity parallel to the plane
of incidence. This is illustrated in Figure 4.2 .
22 Exercise on The Brewster Angle

Of course, the reflected and transmitted rays are described by:

i = i0

and
sin i = n sin r (4.1)
where i is the angle of incidence, i0 is the angle of reflection, r is the angle of
refraction, and n is the index of refraction of the medium.
It was discovered by Malus in 1808 that, in the case of non-metallic sur-
faces, when the angle of incidence is such that the angle between the reflected
and transmitted rays is 90 , the reflected ray is completely polarized parallel
to the surface. The particular angle of incidence for which this occurs is
called the polarizing angle, and it depends on the index of refraction n.
For glass, the polarizing angle is about 57 .
The required angle of incidence can be derived from the geometry of
Figure 4.2 . According to Malus Law, complete polarization of the reflected
ray occurs when i is such that the angle between the reflected ray and the
transmitted ray is 90 . Then it follows from the geometry that

i + r = 90

or
r = 90 i
Using this in Equation 4.1

sin i = n sin r = n sin (90 i) = n cos i

or
n = tan i
and
i = arctan n (4.2)
Equation 4.2 is known as Brewsters Law, and the required angle of inci-
dence is also known as the Brewster angle. At angles of incidence other
than Brewsters angle, the reflected light is partially polarized.
As mentioned previously, the transmitted component is also partially po-
larized. By means of transmission through a number of parallel plates, the
repeated reflection progressively increases the degree of polarization of the
4.2 Theory 23

Figure 4.3: Polarization by Successive Reflection

transmitted ray, until, (after 10 or twelve reflections), the transmitted ray

is, for all practical purposes, completely polarized. From what has been
said, it should be clear that the plane of polarization of the transmitted ray
is perpendicular to that of the reflected ray. This process is illustrated in
Figure 4.3 .

Thus, a stack of glass plates inclined at the Brewster angle with respect
to the incident ray can be used as a polarizer in either of two ways, as shown
in Figure 4.4 .

Polarizing screens are extensively used in photography for the elimination

of unwanted reflections and for lighting control. Antiglare glasses are made
with Polaroid to reduce the glare produced by specular reflections from water,
hard-surface roads, etc.

How would you orient the transmission axis of the glasses to accomplish
this?

Polarization by reflection can be used to construct analyzers to operate

in spectral regions (such as the extreme ultraviolet) where the light would
be completely absorbed by any transmission through a medium. These are
usually made of a series of front surface mirrors, (gold or aluminum plated),
and produce polarizations of up to 99% , with about 10 to 20% of the incident
light intensity emerging.
24 Exercise on The Brewster Angle

Figure 4.4: Polarization by Reflection and by Transmission

4.3 Procedure
4.3.1 Experimentation
Apparatus
The following equipment is required for this experiment:

Polaroid
R filter

spectrometer

glass slides

holder for slides

light source

Method
Measuring the Brewster Angle
1. Place the holder with the glass plates on the prism table of the spec-
trometer.
4.3 Procedure 25

2. Place a light source to send light through the collimator slit.

3. Hold a polarizing filter close to your eye and observe the reflected image
of the source, as shown in Figure 4.4a. Rotate the filter to find the
minimum transimission (i.e. the dimmest image of the slit).
4. Rotate the prism table, and repeat the previous instruction until you
find the angle at which the slit becomes invisible as the filter is rotated.
5. Move the telescope into position so that the slit image is lined up with
the crosshairs.
6. Measure the angle of the telecope from the spectrometer scale and
record it in Table 4.2.
7. Rotate the prism table 10 or twenty degrees, and then repeat the last
three steps to determine the angle again. The difference between these
angles can be used to determine an uncertainty in the Brewster angle.
8. The Brewster angle should be 1/2 of the recorded angle.
9. Look at the other side of the glass plates to see the image transmitted
through the plates.
10. Move the telescope into position so that the slit image is lined up with
the crosshairs, as before.
11. Measure the angle of the telecope from the spectrometer scale and
record it.

Inlab Questions

IQ1: Why should the Brewster angle be half of the measured angle?
IQ2: Is the transmitted image of the slit at 90 to the reflected image?
Explain. (Hint: Look carefully at Figures 4.2 and 4.3.)
IQ3: If you turned the plates so that the reflected image was on the other
side of where it is now, how would your calculation of the Brewster angle
change?
IQ4: Write out one sample conversion from degrees, minutes, and seconds
(DMS) to decimal degrees (DD).
IQ5: Write out your calculation of the Brewster angle and its uncertainty.
26 Exercise on The Brewster Angle

Inlab Tasks

IT1: Sketch the experimental layout in your lab book.

IT2: Sketch the spectrometer scale for one measurement in Table 4.1 and
show the corresponding measurement to show that you can use the Vernier
scale correctly. (Be sure to show both the main and Vernier scales.)

IT3: Demonstrate the Brewster angle and summarize your findings to the
lab instructor.

4.3.2 Analysis
Postlab Questions

Q1: Calculate the index of refraction of the glass from Brewsters Law. Show
your calculations.

Postlab Tasks

T1: Hand in the question answers, along with a copy of your sketch of the
setup.

4.4 Recap
By the end of this exercise, you should know how to :

find and measure the Brewster angle, and

use it to calculate the index of refraction

To do this, you will have to learn how to read the spectrometer.

4.5 Summary 27

4.5 Summary
Item Number Received weight (%)
Pre-lab Questions 0 0
In-lab Questions 5 40
Post-lab Questions 1 10

Pre-lab Tasks 0 0
In-lab Tasks 3 40
Post-lab Tasks 1 10
28 Exercise on The Brewster Angle

4.6 Template
My name:
My student number:
My partners name:
My other partners name:
Todays date:

Table 4.1: Sketch of spectrometer scales

Trial Angle (degrees)

1

Table 4.2: Angle where maximum polarization is observed

Chapter 5

Exercise on the Michelson

Interferometer

5.1 Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to use the Micheleson interferometer to detect
small differences in index of refraction.

5.2 Theory
In the Michelson interferometer, a beam of light is split in two and later
recombined. An interference pattern is produced when the two beams re-
combine. The pattern will be affected if there is a difference in the optical
path length of the two arms of the interferometer. If an air cell is placed
in one of the arms, then the path length in that arm will be different than
if there were a vacuum in place of the air cell, since the index of refraction
for air is not the same as for a vacuum. If we observe the interference pat-
tern while air is removed from the air cell, then the change can be used to
determine the difference between the indices of refraction of air and vacuum.
Due to the air being withdrawn, the total change in optical path length is

L = 2(n 1)t (5.1)

where n is the index of refraction of air at the wavelength used, and t is the
thickness of the air cell. This change in optical path length may also be given
30 Exercise on the Michelson Interferometer

by
L = m (5.2)
since when the total optical path difference is an odd multiple of /2, con-
structive interference occurs and when the optical path difference is an even
multiple of /2, destructive interference occurs.
Thus, when t, m, and are known, n 1 is easily calculated.

5.3 Procedure
5.3.1 Apparatus
The following equipment is required for this experiment:

vacuum pump, Michelson Interferometer with air cell

Na lamp, Hg lamp, laser with beam spreader

5.3.2 Preparation
Pre-lab Tasks

PT1: Read the section on the Michelson interferometer on pages 408 and
409 of your text.

Pre-Lab Questions

PQ1: Combine and rearrange Equations 5.1 and 5.2 to determine how a
linear graph of m vs. 1 may be produced, and show how n 1 may be
derived from the graph.

5.3.3 Experimentation
1. Using green light from the Hg lamp ( = 5461A), produce circular
interference fringes by adjusting the planes of the fixed mirrors. The
air cell should be in place in one of the arms. Use a vacuum pump to
withdraw the air from the cell.
5.3 Procedure 31

2. Count the number of fringes, m that appear or disappear. It may be

easier to determine m while air is admitted into the cell.

3. Repeat this several times and average the results for consistency.

4. Repeat the above procedure using the Na lamp, and any other source
possible. Some possibilities are the Mercury light (with the approriate
filter) for the yellow lines at 5770 Aand 5790 A, the Mercury light (with
the approriate filter) for the blue line at 4358 A.

5. Measure the inside thickness of the air cell.

Inlab Questions

IQ1: Did the number of fringes change monotonically with the wavelength
of light? Did it change in the direction expected?

Inlab Tasks

IT1: Summarize your results to the lab instructor.

5.3.4 Analysis
1. Plot the linearized graph, and do a least squares fit.

Postlab Discussion Questions

Q1: Calculate the index of refraction of air from the results of the least
squares fit, and compare this with the expected value. Does the y-intercept
of your graph match your expectations? Explain.

Postlab Tasks

T1: Hand in the question answers, along with the graph and your calcula-
tions.
32 Exercise on the Michelson Interferometer

5.4 Recap
By the end of this exercise, you should know how to use a Michelson inter-
ferometer.

5.5 Summary
Item Number Received weight (%)
Pre-lab Questions 1 10
In-lab Questions 1 20
Post-lab Questions 1 10

Pre-lab Tasks 1 10
In-lab Tasks 1 40
Post-lab Tasks 1 10
5.6 Template 33

5.6 Template
My name:
My student number:
My partners name:
My other partners name:
Todays date:

wavelength number of fringes

(A)

Table 5.1: Mercury lamp data

34 Exercise on the Michelson Interferometer
Chapter 6

Exercise on Newtons Rings

6.1 Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to investigate interference in thin films.

6.2 Theory
Various methods of producing interference fringes can be classified into two
types:

1. division of a wavefront into two or more beams (double slit, Lloyd

mirror, Fresnel biprism) which are later recombined, and

2. division of the amplitude of an extended portion of the wavefront into

beams which are later recombined

Unlike the division of the wavefront, thin film interference does not require
a narrow line source or meticulous alignment of auxiliary equipment. The
familiar colours in soap films and oil slicks are excellent examples of thin film
interference.
When light is incident on a thin film, part of it is reflected from the first
surface, and part is reflected from the second surface. These recombine at
the first surface to form the reflected beam, and the rest combine to form
the transmitted beam at the second surface. Because of the optical path dif-
ference between the two reflected beams, a phase difference exists between
36 Exercise on Newtons Rings

these beams, leading to interference effects. In addition, there are phase dif-
ferences introduced because of reflections. Whenever reflection occurs from
an optically denser medium, a phase change of is introduced. Thus, when
the total optical path difference is an odd multiple of /2, constructive in-
terference occurs. When the optical path difference is an even multiple of
/2, destructive interference occurs. These effects result in the formation of
interference fringes as observed with the reflected light. Fringes also occur in
the transmitted beam, except that these are the complement of the reflected
fringes, and are much harder to observe.
The fringes are essentially constant thickness contours of the film. They
can be used to map the irregularities in the film thickness and/or deter-
mine the film thickness. The Michelson Interferometer and the Fabry-Perot
Interferometer are good examples of devices operating on this principle.

6.2.1 Newtons Rings

Newtons Rings form a circular interference pattern due to the reflections
occurring in an air wedge, formed around the point of contact between a
spherical surface and a plane surface, as shown in Figure 6.1.
Let rm be the radius of the mth dark ring. A is the center of curvature,
B is the point of contact, and R is the radius of the spherical surface of
the plano-convex lens. Note that m is an integer, and h is the height of the
surface of the lens above the plane surface at radius rm .
From the geometry, it can be shown that

2
rm = 2Rh h2 (6.1)

for this setup.

Then m = 2h, and a dark fringe is produced at the center (because of
the phase change due to reflection). Since h  R, this means

2
rm 2Rh = Rm

If rm is measured as a function of m for different values of , and a graph of

2
rm vs m is plotted, a straight line with slope R should be obtained.
6.2 Theory 37

R R

h
yXX
X 
:
B rm

Figure 6.1: PlanoConvex Lens

38 Exercise on Newtons Rings

Observer

Travelling Microscope

Thin Glass Plate Parallel Light

Plano-Convex Lens

Optical Flat

Figure 6.2: Newtons Rings Setup

6.3 Procedure 39

6.3 Procedure
6.3.1 Preparation
Pre-lab Tasks

PT1: Read the section on the Newtons rings on pages 406 and 407 of your
text.

Pre-Lab Questions

PQ1: Derive Equation 6.1.

6.3.2 Apparatus
The following equipment is required for this experiment:

planoconvex lens, glass plates, lens holders

Na lamp

6.3.3 Experimentation
Measurement of Fringe Diameters
Figure 6.2 shows the experimental arrangement to be used. Light from the
Na arc lamp ( = 5893A) is reflected to the flat surface of the plano-convex
lens by a thin glass plate inclined at 45 to the vertical. Light is reflected at
the boundaries of the air film between the lens and the optical flat. These two
reflections pass through the glass plate into the travelling telescope, which
magnifies the rings and can be used to measure their diameters.

1. Carefully adjust the telescope so that the center of the cross-hairs pass
through the center of the fringe pattern (travelling at right angles to
the fringes).

2. Set the cross-hairs tangentially on each dark ring, beginning at the

10th ring on one side, and moving over to the 10th ring on the other
side. Record the positions of each dark ring as a function of m. The
diameters of each ring can be found from these measurements.
40 Exercise on Newtons Rings

2
3. If the order of the central dark spot is m = 0, make a table of rm vs m.

4. After measuring the fringes, replace the lens with a reticule and mea-
sure a wide spacing on it so that you can determine the calibration for
the microscope.

Inlab Questions

IQ1: Using the calibration of the reticule, determine the diameter of the
biggest ring which you measured. Does the value fit with what you can
observe by eye?

Inlab Tasks

IT1: Summarize your results to the lab instructor.

6.3.4 Analysis
1. Determine the slope and y-intercept of the line passing through your
data points.

Postlab Discussion Questions

Q1: Calculate the value of R. Does it seem reasonable?

Q2:Does the y-intercept of your graph make sense? Explain.

Postlab Tasks

T1: Hand in the question answers, along with the graph and your calcula-
tions.

6.4 Recap
By the end of this exercise, you should know how to use and calibrate a
micrometer scale.
6.5 Summary 41

6.5 Summary
Item Number Received weight (%)
Pre-lab Questions 1 10
In-lab Questions 1 20
Post-lab Questions 2 20

Pre-lab Tasks 1 10
In-lab Tasks 1 20
Post-lab Tasks 1 20
42 Exercise on Newtons Rings

6.6 Template
My name:
My student number:
My partners name:
My other partners name:
Todays date:

fringe number reading reading

(left) (right)
1

10

Table 6.1: ?
Chapter 7

Exercise on Generalized Least

Squares Fitting

7.1 Purpose
The purpose of this exercise is to show you how to do least sqaures fits to
polynomial functions in Excel TM .

7.2 Introduction
Previously you have done curve fitting in two dimensions. Now you will learn
how to extend that to multiple dimensions.

7.3 Theory
7.3.1 Non-linear
Linearizable
Some equations, such as
y = Ae(Bx)
can be treated fairly simply. Linearize and do a linear least squares fit, as
you have done in the past. (Note: Least Squares applies to transformed
quantities, not original ones so gives a different answer than you would get
from a least squares fit in the untransformed quantities; remember in general
44 Exercise on Generalized Least Squares Fitting

the idea of a line of best fit is not unique. For example, for the equation
shown, ln y vs. x is linear, so you can do a least squares fit in ln y, but this
will not give the same result as a least squares fit in y, since the sum of
squares of ln y will depend on the data in a different way than the sum of
squares in y.)

7.3.2 Linear
General
Some equations, such as this
y = b0 + b1 x 1 + b 2 x 2 + bk x k
are linear, although in multiple variables. We can create a matrix of inde-
pendent data

x11 x12 . . . x1k
x21 x22 . . . x2k
X = ..

.. . . ..
. . . .
xn1 xn2 . . . xnk
from the x values, where xij means variable xj for data point i and form a
vector of dependent data

y1
Y = ...

yn

where yi is the y data for data point i.

This creates a system which can be solved using functions in a spread-
sheet.

Polynomial
Consider an equation such as this:
y = b0 + b1 x + b2 x 2 + bk x k
This is just a special case of the previous situation above, eg. x1 = x, x2 = x2 ,
x3 = x3 , etc. (or x1 = 1/x, x2 = 1/x2 , etc.)
7.3 Theory 45

What about fit with skipped orders?

eg. y = a + b/x2 + c/x5
In this case, x1 = 1/x2 , x2 = 1/x5 .
A linear or polynomial least squares fit does not need starting values for
parameters like the solver function would need.

7.3.3 Goodness of fit

Often you must choose between different fits because you do not know what
type of equation to use. In this case you want to be able to answer the
question Which fit is better?

1. If both fits have the same number of parameters, then the better fit is
the one with the smaller SSE in the same quantity. (In other words,
if youre comparing a fit in y vs. x to one in ln y vs. x, you will first
have to calculate the SSE of both in y vs. x. If you have linearized
an equation to calculate a fit, you can still use that fit to calculate the
SSE in the original quantity afterward.)

2. One or both of the fits may have some parameters which are not sta-
tistically significant; (i.e. lots of parameters close to 0 are probably
meaningless.) How close to 0 is close enough?

RULE: Adding more parameters smaller SSE, (however a small

change in SSE may not be significant.) Whether or not the added
parameters are significant can be determined statistically if the fit
is a linear one or one which can be linearized.

To actually determine whether the change is big enough, proceed as

follows:

(a) Do fit with g + 1 parameters (as above); calculate the sum of

squares error and call it SSE1 . If you use regression from a
spreadsheet, you can determine SSE from the results. Remember
SSE1 = s1 2 1 ; in this case 1 = n (g + 1).
(b) Do fit with k+1 parameters (as above); calculate SSE2 . As above,
SSE2 = s2 2 2 and in this case 2 = n (k + 1).
46 Exercise on Generalized Least Squares Fitting

(c) Calculate s3 as follows:

s
SSE1 SSE2
s3 =
kg

and let 3 = k g.
(d) Calculate F as follows:
s3 2
F =
s2 2
If F is big, then include the extra parameters. (In this case, it
means the SSE changed a lot by adding the extra parameters,
which is what would happen if they were really important.) How
big is big?
(e) Look up F,3 ,2 from a table of the F distribution in a statis-
tics text1 , where determines the confidence interval; typically
= 0.05 for a 95% confidence interval. If the F you calculated
is greater than the table value, then keep the extra parameters.
Note: In the table, you are given quantities 1 and 2 ; you should
use your calculated value of 3 in place of 1 in the table. Doing
it this way keeps the table in the same form you will find it in a
statistics text.

The following example illustrates how to do this for a linear fit. Usually we
want to compare two fits; in this example, we will compare 3 fits to illustrate
the process more clearly. We will compare 2 fits at a time, and in each case
we will use g + 1 to denote the number of parameters in the smaller fit 2
, and k + 1 to denote the number of parameters in the bigger fit, so k is
always bigger than g.

7.4 Example
Consider the data shown in Table 7.1 and plotted in Figure 7.1. (Error bars
have been omitted for simplicity.)
1
You can also use the FINV function of a spreadsheet like Excel or OpenOffice.
2
Why not just g? Because g is the degree of the polynomial, which has g+1 parameters.
For example a polynomial of degree 2, such as Ax2 + Bx + C has 3 parameters, namely
A, B, and C.
7.4 Example 47

x y
100 1
85 2
70 4
50 8
36 15
20 25
10 45

Table 7.1: Sample Data

Figure 7.1: Plot of Sample Data

It should be obvious that some possible equations for a fit to this data
may be polynomials in 1/x.
A fit to y = A + B/x gives us Table 7.2.

Notice that the curve cannot bend enough, and so we will see what
happens if we add another parameter. To do this we simply add another
column to the data, and change LINEST so that it now points to the new
block of x data, which includes two columns.
48 Exercise on Generalized Least Squares Fitting

1/x y
0.0100 1
0.0118 2
0.0143 4
0.0200 8
0.0278 15
0.0500 25
0.1000 45

Table 7.2: Data for Fit to A + B/x

B 488.15 -2.02 A
B 30.56 1.37 A
R2 0.98 2.43 s
255.18 5
1502 29.43 SSE

Table 7.3: LINEST 2 parameter output

Figure 7.2: Graph of Fit to A + B/x

7.4 Example 49

1/x 1/x2 y
0.01000 0.000100 1
0.01176 0.000138 2
0.01429 0.000204 4
0.02000 0.000400 8
0.02778 0.000772 15
0.05000 0.002500 25
0.10000 0.010000 45

Table 7.4: Data for Fit to A + B/x + C/x2

C -2713.14 784.5 -6.45 A

C 562.24 62.79 1.09 A
R2 1 1.04 #N/A
707.95 4 #N/A
1527.11 4.31 #N/A

Table 7.5: LINEST 3 parameter output

Note how the parameters are rearranged when there are more of them.
(The parameters are actually arranged on the top row of the output in reverse
order of the data columns.)
Its now possible to compare the two fits to see if the third parameter
makes a big enough change to keep. To do that, we do the following:

1. Get s for the fit with more parameters. (Well refer to this as the big
fit.) Call this s2 . In our example, that would be s2 = 1.04.

2. Calculate s3 due to the difference of the fits. Since were only checking
for the effect of one parameter,
s
29.43 4.31
r
SSE small SSE big
s3 = = = 25.12 = 5.01
small big 1

s3 2 5.012
3. Calculate F = s2 2
= 1.042
= 23.2
50 Exercise on Generalized Least Squares Fitting

4. Look up the value of F0.05,small big ,big = F0.05,1,4 or calculate it using

the FINV function of a spreadsheet. (The values go in the order given.)
From Table 7.9, F0.05,1,4 = 7.71 is the value to compare.

5. Since our calculated value for F is bigger than the value from the table,
that means our extra parameter made a big difference, so we should
keep it.
7.4 Example 51

Figure 7.3: Graph of Fit to A + B/x + C/x2

This process can be repeated as many times as we wish.

52 Exercise on Generalized Least Squares Fitting

1/x 1/x2 1/x3 y

0.01000 0.000100 0.00000100 1
0.01176 0.000138 0.00000163 2
0.01429 0.000204 0.00000292 4
0.02000 0.000400 0.00000800 8
0.02778 0.000772 0.00002143 15
0.05000 0.002500 0.00012500 25
0.10000 0.010000 0.00100000 45

Table 7.6: Data for Fit to A + B/x + C/x2 + D/x3

D 60476.14 -12121.37 1156.6 -9.93 A

D 29909.81 4672.18 189.98 1.91 A
R2 1 0.78 #N/A #N/A
837.72 3 #N/A #N/A
1529.6 1.83 #N/A #N/A

Table 7.7: LINEST 4 parameter output

It is not immediately obvious which of the above curves fits the data
best. We could even go on adding higher and higher powers of 1/x until
we had no more degrees of freedom 3 left, but once we get no significant
change, its time to stop.
Table 7.8 summarizes the results of the various fits.
3
The number of degrees of freedom in a fit is the number of data points beyond the
bare minimum for that fit. So, for an average it is n 1, since only one value is needed;
for a straight line it is n 2, since two points are needed, etc. In general,

=nm

where m is the number of parameters in the fit to be determined. Note that when you
have no degrees of freedom, you have no idea of the goodness of your data, and thus
cannot determine the standard deviation. Once you have even one degree of freedom, you
can do so.
7.4 Example 53

Quantity Fit
A + B/x A + B/x + C/x2 A + B/x + C/x2 + D/x3
s 2.43 1.04 0.78
5 4 3
SSE 29.43 4.31 1.83
A -2.02 -6.45 -9.93
A 1.37 1.09 1.91
B 488.15 784.5 1156.6
B 30.56 62.79 189.98
C -2713.14 -12121.37
C 562.24 4672.18
D 60476.14
D 29909.81

Table 7.8: Comparisson of Fit Parameters

Note that the SSE gets smaller as the number of parameters increases,
but the change gets smaller.

Note also that when a parameter is added, all of the previous parame-
ters change as well.

Even though it is considered insignificant, the D parameter is bigger

than all of the rest! (However, note the size of its standard error.
Remember also that it gets divided by x3 , which will range in size from
1000 1000000.)
54 Exercise on Generalized Least Squares Fitting

Figure 7.4: Graph of Fit to A + B/x + C/x2 + D/x3

7.5 Procedure
7.5.1 Investigation
The following functions are polynomials in 1 or something similar. Set up
the appropriate tables for each and use LINEST to do a least squares fit for
each.
Then use the goodness of fit criteria to determine the best.

B
n=A+ (7.1)

B
n=A+ (7.2)
2

B C
n=A+ + 2 (7.3)

B C
n=A+ 2
+ 4 (7.4)

7.5 Procedure 55

2 \ 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 161.4 199.5 215.7 224.6 230.2 234 254.3
2 18.51 19 19.16 19.25 19.3 19.33 19.5
3 10.13 9.55 9.28 9.12 9.01 8.94 8.53
4 7.71 6.94 6.59 6.39 6.26 6.16 5.63
5 6.61 5.79 5.41 5.19 5.05 4.95 4.36
6 5.99 5.14 4.76 4.53 4.39 4.28 3.67
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ..
. . . . . . . .
3.84 3 2.6 2.37 2.21 2.1 1

Table 7.9: FDistribution Table ( = 0.05)

Using LINEST for the first two parameter fit

Put the function in C20, with constant=1 and stats=1.

Highlight C20 to D24.

Press hF2i followed by hCTRLihSHIFTihENTERi.

Some of the important parameter names have been indicated.

For the second two parameter fit, you can just copy and paste as needed
(or adapt the steps above for the new location.)

Using LINEST for the three parameter fits

It works in a similar way, but instead of C20 to D24, highlight C20 to E24.
(There is one more parameter so another column is needed.) Note the way
the parameters are arranged in this case.

Inlab Tasks

IT1: Do each of the fits above and fill in Table 7.10.

IT2: Use the F test to determine whether fit 7.3 is better than fit 7.1 or
fit 7.2.
56 Exercise on Generalized Least Squares Fitting

Inlab Questions

IQ1: Based on the SSE values, which was better; fit 7.1 or fit 7.2?
IQ2: Based on the SSE values, which was better; fit 7.3 or fit 7.4?

7.6 Summary
Item Number Received weight (%)
Pre-lab Questions 0 0
In-lab Questions 2 50
Post-lab Questions 0 0

Pre-lab Tasks 0 0
In-lab Tasks 2 50
Post-lab Tasks 0 0
7.7 Template 57

7.7 Template
My name:
My student number:
My partners name:
My other partners name:
Todays date:

Fit A A B B C C SSE
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Table 7.10: Fit comparison

58 Exercise on Generalized Least Squares Fitting
Chapter 8

Thin Lenses

8.1 Purpose
In this experiment we measure the focal lengths of two thin converging lenses,
observe real and virtual images in lenses, build a simple telescope, and make
use of the simple lens formula.

8.2 Introduction

8.3 Theory
Lenses work by virtue of the refraction of light at their spherically shaped sur-
faces. Any spherically shaped interface between media with different indices
of refraction, both of which are transparent, will have focusing or defocusing
effects on light passing through it.
A simple thin lens has two spherical surfaces, one on each side of a piece
of glass. The centres of curvature of the lens surfaces define a straight line
called the optic axis of the lens, as shown in Figure 8.1. (A and B are the
centres of curvature of the two spherical lens surfaces.)
The focal point of a lens, or back focus F 0 is defined as that point on the
optic axis at which parallel rays incident on the lens are brought to a focus
behind the lens. See Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2 also defines-f , the focal length of the lens as the distance
from the lens centre to the back focal point.
60 Thin Lenses

lens

r1

A B
optic axis

r2

Figure 8.1: Light Passing Through a Thin Lens

F0
optic axis

 f -

Figure 8.2: Location of Back Focus

8.3 Theory 61

focal plane

Figure 8.3: Focal Plane of a Lens

An imaginary plane perpendicular to the optic axis through the back

focus is called the focal plane of the lens. This focal plane has the property
that all sets of parallel rays incident on the lens are focused on it, as in
Figure 8.3.
The properties of a thin lens are symmetric about its central plane allow-
ing us to define a second focal point called the front focal point F , also
at distance f from the lens centre. Rays emanating from this front focal
point toward the lens emerge from the lens parallel to the optic axis as in
Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.5 shows a thin converging lens with an object (an arrow) located
a distance S from the lens centre. S is the object distance. The location
of the real image of the object is determined graphically by drawing three
principal rays from the tip of the object arrow:

1. parallel to the optic axis before reaching the lens, then through F 0
2. straight through the lens centre (undeviated by the lens)
3. through F to lens, emerging parallel to the optic axis

The point where these principal rays intersect is the image of the tip of
the object arrow. The image is located at image distance S 0 from the lens
centre. Note that the image thus formed is a real image because rays from
the object actually form the image. This means the image can be displayed
on a screen.
62 Thin Lenses

 f -

Figure 8.4: Front Focal Point

object F0
optic
axis
F image


S - 
S0 -

Figure 8.5: Important Points in the Object and Image Planes

8.4 Procedure 63

This geometrical construction with the principal rays can be replaced

with algebra; the lens formula is
1 1 1
+ 0 =
S S f
with all quantities as defined in the diagram.

8.4 Procedure
8.4.1 Apparatus
A meter-stick optical bench on stands

Two lenses of different focal length

Lighted object & screen

Holders for lenses, screens, and a mirror

8.4.2 Preparation
Pre-lab Questions

PQ1:

Pre-lab Tasks

PT1:

8.4.3 Experimentation
Inlab Questions

IQ1:

In-lab Tasks

IT1:
64 Thin Lenses

Part 1: Focal Length of Converging Lenses

Please dont get the lens surfaces dirty, and set them down only in their
holders or on a sheet of paper.

1. Place one of the lenses in its holder, and mount it and the screen on
the optical bench. Find the image of a distant object on the screen
(the lights on the ceiling, for example) and measure the lenstoimage
distance carefully. This will give a quite good measurement of f . Re-
peat using the other lens. Note, f measured this way is accurate only
if the object is far enough away that light from it can be considered to
be parallel.

Part 2: Autocollimation Method for Focal Length

1. Another bench method can be used to measure f , called autocollima-

tion. Mount the illuminated object at one end of the optical bench.
Mount one of the lenses in its holder on the bench, and also the flat mir-
ror in the screen holder. These pieces should be in order; object, lens,
mirror. Slide the lens and mirror together until their mounts touch on
the bench, then, slide mirror and lens together until a clear image of
the object can be seen on the card holding the object. Slightly turning
the mirror will facilitate this, such that the image is on the object card
beside the object. In this case the focal length is the distance from the
lens centre to the object-image card. Measure this distance with care,
and find the focal length with this method for the other lens as well.

2. Draw a ray diagram in your lab book (practise on a rough-work sheet

first!) to illustrate the distant-object method of determining f .

3. Draw a ray diagram in your lab book to illustrate the autocollimation

method of finding f (Hint: recall how the focal plane was defined and
assume the object and its image coincide at the focal plane of the lens.

Part 3: Lens Formula Method for Focal Length

8.4 Procedure 65

Yet another method of determining f is through use of the lens formula.

1. Set up the illuminated object at one end of the bench, and mount one
lens and the screen on the bench. For 5 wellseparated object distances,
(each larger than f ), measure the object distance and determine the
image distance for each case. Repeat for the other lens.
2. For each lens, plot 1/S 0 against 1/S and draw a straight line through the
points thus determining the intercepts on both axes. Either intercept
(by the lens formula) is equal to the reciprocal of the focal length.

Part 4: The Refracting Telescope

1. Set up the small lens in its holder on the optical bench near one end.
Place the large lens in its holder on-the bench a distance from the small
one equal to the sum of the focal lengths of both lenses. Use this as a
telescope using the small lens as the eyepiece to view distant objects.
Draw a ray diagram for the refracting telescope assuming the object
distance is very large (i.e. off the page).
Would the telescope produce an image of a distant object on a screen
held where the eye was in using the telescope?

Part 5: Simple Magnifier

1. Using the small lens, view any object with the object distance less than
the focal length of the lens. Draw a ray diagram for this case in your
lab book.
Is the image
real or virtual?
erect or inverted?
magnified?
This device is called a simple magnifier.
66 Thin Lenses

8.4.4 Analysis
Post-lab Questions

Q1: Calculate ng and ng .

Post-lab Tasks

T1:

8.5 Bonus
8.6 Summary
Item Number Received weight (%)
Pre-lab Questions 1 50
In-lab Questions 1 0
Post-lab Questions 1 50

Pre-lab Tasks 1 0
In-lab Tasks 1 0
Post-lab Tasks 1 0
Appendix A

Aligning the Spectrometer

A.1 Introduction
To align the spectrometer you will need the following pieces of equipment:

Spectrometer,

Bubble Level,

60 Prism,

Front Surface Mirror,

small Allen wrench, screwdriver,

Variable Intensity WhiteLight Source.

A.1.1 Levelling the Spectrometer

1. Place the spectrometer on the laboratory table so that it will be con-
venient to rotate the telescope when making observations.

2. Place the bubble level on the base of the spectrometer and use shims
(at 3 points separated by 120 ) to level it.

3. Adjust the height of the prism table so that the prism face is centered
on the telescope and collimator lenses.
68 Aligning the Spectrometer

Figure A.1: Telescope Adjustment

4. Place the bubble level on the prism table and rotate the table so that
the adjusting screws are opposite the corresponding shims on the spec-
trometer base. Level the prism table using the adjusting screws.

5. Rotate the prism table through 60 and adjust the shims on the table
so that the prism table is once again level.

6. Rotate the prism table in the same direction through another 60 and
adjust the screws so that the table is level.

7. Repeat the previous two steps until the prism table is level in all posi-
tions.

A.1.2 Telescope Adjustment

1. Figure A.1 shows a schematic view of the telescope used in this part
of the experiment. Do not poke anything down the crosshair tube,
since the crosshairs may be damaged or moved out of their pre-aligned
position.

2. Make sure that the opening in the eyepiece coincides with the opening
in the crosshair tube. Adjust the eyepiece until the crosshairs are in
sharp focus.
A.1 Introduction 69

Figure A.2: Collimator Adjustment

3. Place the front surface mirror across the objective lens and shine light
(from the whitelight source) into the opening. Look into the eyepiece
and observe the crosshairs and their reflected image. Loosen the fo-
cusing screw and adjust the crosshair tube until the reflected image of
the crosshairs is in sharp focus and there is no parallax with respect to
the real cross-hairs. Lock the tube into this position with the focusing
screw.
4. Remove the front surface mirror and place the prism on its table with
the polished face perpendicular to the table surface. Shine white light
into the opening and rotate the table until the crosshairs and their
reflected image can be seen through the eyepiece. Adjust the leveling
screw on the telescope until the crosshairs coincide with their image.
The telescope has now been aligned to accept parallel light rays.

A.1.3 Collimator Alignment

1. Figure A.2 shows a schematic view of the collimator. Remove the prism
from the table. Open the adjustable slit of the collimator and place
the whitelight source in front of it.
2. Rotate the telescope until its crosshairs are aligned with the adjustable
slit. Adjust the leveling screw of the collimator until the slit is in the
center of the eyepieces field of view.
70 Aligning the Spectrometer

3. Loosen the focusing screw of the collimator, and adjust the collimator
tube until the slit is in sharp focus. Now reduce the slit width (do not
close the slit completely!) until the slit image is slightly larger than
the crosshairs, and remove any parallax between the slit image and
crosshairs. Lock the collimator into this position with the focusing
screw. The collimator has now been aligned to produce parallel light
rays.