MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
- differences between the data does make
Lesson 8
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Frequency Distribution
A frequency (distribution) table shows the
different measurement categories and the
number of observations in each category.
Constructing a frequency
Construct the table using the lowest score as
the lowest limit. Add the class interval to get
the next class’ lower limit.
Step 1. Find the range.
Step 2. Determine the number of classes.
Step 3. Decide on the number of intervals in the
frequency distribution.
Step 4. Determine the intervals.
Step 5. Tally and count the observations under
each interval.
Lesson 9
A BRIEF REVIEW OF BASIC STATISTICS
Four Levels of Measurement
• Nominal Level of Measurement - Data at this
level can't be ordered in a meaningful way, and
it makes no sense to calculate things.
- names, categories, labels
- qualitative
• Ordinal Level of Measurement - Data at this
level can be ordered, but no differences
between the data can be taken that are
meaningful.
- data at the ordinal level should not be used in
calculations
• Interval Level of Measurement - Data at the
interval level can be used in calculations.
- data can be ordered
sense
- no true zero point
• Ratio Level of Measurement - Data at the
ratio level possess all of the features of the
interval level, in addition to a zero value.
- data can be ordered
- differences between the data does make
sense
- zero value exists
Lesson 10
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY FOR
UNGROUPED DATA
A measure of central tendency is a single value
that attempts to describe a set of data by
identifying the central position within that set
of data.
Central tendency is a descriptive summary of a
dataset through a single value that reflects the
center of the data distribution.
Measures of central tendency are numbers that
tend to cluster around the “middle” of a set of
values. Three such middle numbers are the
mean, the median, and the mode.
Mean - mostly used to mean the average; find
the sum, then divide by the number of values in
the data set.
Median - the middle value when the data are
arranged in increasing or decreasing order
(from lowest to highest, or highest to lowest).
Mode - the most frequently occurring value.
Weighted Mean (or Weighted Average) - some
observed values have more weight than the
other. In the arithmetic mean, each of the
observed value is given equal weights.

Lesson 11
Correlation and Regression
Correlation
Quantifies the strength of the linear relationship
between a pair of variables, whereas regression
expresses the relationship in the form of an
equation.
Correlation is a statistical method that
determines the degree of relationship between
two different variables.
The Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient (Pearson’s correlation, for short) is a
measure of the strength and direction of
association that exists between two variables
measured on at least an interval scale.
The correlation coefficient is defined by Pearson
correlation coefficient should be used when
• The two variables are in the interval or ratio
level
• There is a linear relationship between the two
variables.
• There should be no significant outliers.
• The variables should be approximately
normally distributed.
The relationship can be represented by a simple
equation called the regression equation.
Lesson 12
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION (Part 1)
Data can be "distributed" (spread out) in
different ways. It can be spread out.
What is Normal Distribution?
Normal Distribution
- Gaussian Distribution made popular by Carl
Friedrich Gauss
- Bell Curve Normal Distribution is originally
introduced by Abraham de Moivre
Normal distribution, also known as the Gaussian
distribution, is a probability distribution that is
symmetric about the mean, showing that data
near the mean are more frequent in occurrence
than data far from the mean.
A normal distribution has a bell-shaped density
curve described by its mean, µ, and standard
deviation, σ. The density curve is symmetrical,
centered about its mean, with its spread
determined by its standard deviation.
The Normal Distribution has:
• mean = median = mode
• symmetry about the center
• 50% of values less than the mean
• 50% of values greater than the mean
Features of Normal Distributions
1. Normal distributions are symmetric around
their mean.
2. The mean, median, and mode (all of the
measures of central tendency) of a normal
distribution are equal.
3. The area under the normal curve is equal to
1.0.
4. Normal distributions are less dense in the
tails and denser in the center.
5. Normal distributions are characterized by
two parameters, the mean (μ) and the standard
deviation (σ).
6. Within one standard deviation of the mean
composed of 68% of the area of a normal
distribution.
7. Within two standard deviations of the mean
composed of approximately 95% of the area of
a normal distribution.
Standard Normal Distribution
The standard normal distribution has a value
known as a standard score or a Z-score. A
standard score (Z-score) represents the number
of standard deviations above or below the
mean that a specific observation falls.
A z-score is a measure of position that
illustrates the number of standard deviations a
data value lies from the mean which is the
horizontal scale of a standard normal
distribution.
Lesson 13
Normal Distribution (Part 2)
The standard normal distribution curve can be
used to solve a wide variety of practical
problems. The only requirement is that the
variable be normally or approximately normally
distributed.
Conversion of Raw Score to Standard Score
Given a normally distributed variable with µ =
120 and σ = 15, convert the following raw
scores to standard scores.
Lesson 14
GRAPH THEORY BASICS
Graph is a data structure which is used
extensively in our real-life.
1. Google Maps: Various locations are
represented as vertices or nodes and the roads
are represented as edges and graph theory is
used to find shortest path between two nodes.
2. Social Network: Each user is represented as a
node and all their activities, suggestion and
friend list are represented as an edge between
the nodes.
3. Recommendations on e-commerce
websites: The “Recommendations for you”
section on various e-commerce websites uses
graph theory to recommend items of similar
type to user’s choice.
4. Graph theory is also used to study molecules
in chemistry and physics.
Some basic terminologies:
Graph – a data structure that is characterized
by vertices (V) or nodes and edges (E) that
connect vertices. It is consist of a finite set of
vertices (V) and a finite set of edges, composed
of two-element subsets of vertices.
Adjacent node – A node ‘v’ is said to be
adjacent node of node ‘u’ if and only if there
exists an edge between ‘u’ and ‘v’.
The original graph and the new graph are said
to be isomorphic.
Loop
In a graph, if an edge is drawn from vertex to
itself, it is called a loop.
Parallel Edges
If a pair of vertices is connected by more than
one edge, then those edges are called parallel
edges.
Circuit
In this graph (circuit), you can go from V1 and
return to V1 without backtracking the same
route: V1 to V2 to V3 to V4 then back to V1.
Path
A sequence of vertices connected by edges.
Path length
The number of edges in a path.
Cycle
A path that starts and ends at the same vertex
Types of graph distinguished on the basis of
edges and direction.
Simple graph
• each edge connects two different vertices
• no two edges connect the same pair of
vertices
Multigraph
Multiple edges may connect the same pair of
vertices.
Some special Simple Graphs :
1. Complete Graphs - a simple graph of n
vertices having exactly one edge between two
vertices.
2. Cycle Graphs - a simple circular graph with
only one cycle.
3. Wheels - just like a cycle, with one additional
vertex which is connected to every other vertex.
4. Hypercube
5. Bipartite Graphs
repeating the edges, then such a graph is called
as a Hamiltonian graph.
If there exists a Path in the connected graph
that contains all the vertices of the graph, then
such a path is called as a Hamiltonian path.
Hamiltonian Circuit (Hamiltonian Cycle)
If there exists a walk in the connected graph
that visits every vertex of the graph exactly
once (except starting vertex) without repeating
the edges and returns to the starting vertex,
then such a walk is called as a Hamiltonian
circuit.
Euler Graph
Any connected graph is called as an Euler Graph
if and only if all its vertices are of even degree.
Euler Path
If there exists a Trail in the connected graph
that contains all the edges of the graph, then
that trail is called as an Euler trail.
Euler Circuit
If there exists a Circuit in the connected graph
that contains all the edges of the graph, then
that circuit is called as an Euler circuit.

Hamiltonian Graph
If there exists a closed walk in the connected
graph that visits every vertex of the graph
exactly once (except starting vertex) without