MIDTERM COVERAGE
But in the case of inferential stats, it is used to explain the descriptive one. Both these types
C. Basic Statistics
a. Measures of Central Tendency
b. Measures of Dispersion
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
 has a good grasp of introductory concepts on Statistics
 Find the mean, median, and mode of a given frequency distribution
 familiarizes with the different measures of dispersion
 finds the mean, standard deviation, and variance of a set of data
 interprets the result of standard deviation
Introduction
Statistics is the study of the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and
organization of data. In other words, it is a mathematical discipline to collect, summarize
data. Also, we can say that statistics is a branch of applied mathematics. However, there are
two important and basic ideas involved in statistics; they are uncertainty and variation. The
uncertainty and variation in different fields can be determined only through statistical
analysis. These uncertainties are basically determined by the probability that plays an
important role in statistics.
Basics of Statistics
The basics of statistics include the measure of central tendency and the measure of
dispersion. The central tendencies are mean, median and mode and dispersions comprise
variance and standard deviation.
Mean is the average of the observations. Median is the central value when observations
are arranged in order. The mode determines the most frequent observations in a data set.
Variation is the measure of spread out of the collection of data. Standard deviation is the
measure of the dispersion of data from the mean. The square of standard deviation is equal to
the variance.
Types of Statistics
Basically, there are two types of statistics.
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
1
In the case of descriptive statistics, the data or collection of data is described in summary.
have been used on large scale.
Descriptive Statistics
The data is summarized and explained in descriptive statistics. The summarization is
done from a population sample utilizing several factors such as mean and standard deviation.
Descriptive statistics is a way of organizing, representing, and explaining a set of data using
charts, graphs, and summary measures. Histograms, pie charts, bars, and scatter plots are
common ways to summarize data and present it in tables or graphs.
Inferential Statistics
We attempt to interpret the meaning of descriptive statistics using inferential statistics.
We utilize inferential statistics to convey the meaning of the collected data after it has been
collected, evaluated, and summarized. Inferential statistics are used to test hypotheses and
study correlations between variables, and they can also be used to predict population sizes.
Inferential statistics are used to derive conclusions and inferences from samples, i.e. to create
accurate generalizations.
A. Organization of Data
When conducting a statistical research, investigation or study, the research must gather data
for the particular variable under investigation. To describe situations, make conclusions, and
draw inferences about events, the researcher must organize the data gathered in some
meaningful way. The easiest way and widely used of organizing data is to construct a
frequency distribution. A frequency distribution is a grouping of the data into categories
showing the number of observations in each of the non-overlapping classes.
After organizing data, the next move of the researcher is to present the data so they can be
understood easily by those who will benefit from reading the study. The most useful method of
presenting data is by constructing graphs and charts. There are number of ways to plot graphs
and charts, and each one has a specific purpose.
 Raw data is the data collected in original form.
 Range is the difference of the highest value and the lowest value in a distribution.
 Frequency distribution is the organization of data in a tabular form, using mutually
exclusive classes showing the number of observations in each.
 Class Limits (or Apparent Limits) is the highest and lowest values describing a class.
 Class Boundaries (or Real Limits) is the upper and lower values of a class for group
frequency distribution whose values has additional decimal place more than the class
limits and end with the digit 5.
 Interval (or width) is the distance between the class lower boundary and the class upper High IIII-II
boundary and it is denoted by the symbol i. Average IIII-III
 Frequency (f) is the number of values in a specific class of a frequency distribution. Low IIII
 Percentage is obtained by multiplying the relative frequency by 100%
 Cumulative Frequency (c) is the sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper Step3: Convert the tallied data into numerical frequencies.
boundary of a class in a frequency distribution. Class Tally Frequency Percentage
 Midpoint is the point halfway between the class limits of each class and is representative High IIII-II 7
of the data within that class Average IIII-III 8
 A grouped frequency distribution is used when the range of the data set is large; the data Low IIII 5
must be grouped into classes whether it is categorical data or interval data. For interval Step4: Determine the percentage. The percentage is computed using the formula:
data the class is more than one unit in width. The procedure for constructing the f
frequency distribution is discussed in the succeeding sections. Percentage ¿ x 100 %
n
where f= frequency of the class and n= total number of values.
Categorical Frequency Distribution
Class Tally Frequency Percentage
The categorical frequency distribution is used to organize nominal-level or ordinal-level
type of data. Some examples where we can apply this distribution are gender, business type,
High IIII-II 7 35
political affiliation, and others. Average IIII-III 8 40
Example: twenty applicants were given a performance evaluation appraisal. The data Low IIII 5 25
set is Total 20 100
High High High Low Average For the sample, more applicants received an average performance rating.
Average Low Average Average Average
Representation of Data
Low Average Average High High
Low Low Average High High There are different ways to represent data such as through graphs, charts or tables.
The general representation of statistical data are:
Solution: Bar Graph
Step1: Construct a table as shown below A Bar Graph represents grouped data with rectangular
Class Tally Frequency Percentage bars with lengths proportional to the values that they
High represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or
Average horizontally.
Low
Step2: Tally the raw data. Pie Chart
Class Tally Frequency Percentage A type of graph in which a circle is divided into Sectors.
Each of these sectors represents a proportion of the
whole.

2
 Line graph
The line chart is represented by a series of data points
connected with a straight line.
The series of data points are called ‘markers.’
Histogram
A diagram is consisting of rectangles. Whose area is
proportional to the frequency of a variable and whose
width is equal to the class interval.
Pictograph
A pictorial symbol for a word or phrase, i.e. showing
data with the help of pictures. Such as Apple, Banana &
Cherry can have different numbers, and it is just a
representation of data.
Frequency Distribution
The frequency of a data value is often represented by
“f.” A frequency table is constructed by arranging
collected data values in ascending order of magnitude
with their corresponding frequencies.
Line graph
The line graph represents the data in a form of series
that is connected with a straight line. These series are
called markers.
Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Curve is a curve of a
data set obtained by an individual through the
representation of cumulative frequency distribution on a
graph.
3
Pareto Chart
Used to represent a frequency distribution for a
categorical data (or nominal-level)and frequencies are
displayed by the heights of vertical bars which are
arrange in order from highest to lowest.
Time Series Graph
Represent data that occurs over specific period of time
under observation. In addition, it shows a trend or
pattern on the increased or decreased over the period of
time.
Scatter Plot
used to examine possible relationship between two
numerical variables. the two variables are plot in x-axis
and y-axis.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Any data set can be characterized by measuring its central tendency. A
measure of central tendency, commonly referred to as an average, is a single value
that represents a data set. Its purpose is to locate the center of a data set. This chapter
discusses three different measures of central tendency: the mean, median, and the
mode. We will illustrate how to calculate each of these measures for ungrouped and
grouped data. Measure of central tendency both for sample grouped and population
grouped is also included in the discussion.
A. Mean
The arithmetic mean, often called as the mean, is the most frequently used measure of central
tendency. The mean is the only common measure in which all values play an equal role.
meaning, to determine its values you would need to consider all the values of any given data
set. The mean is appropriate to determine the central tendency of an interval or ratio data.
The symbol x , called “x bar”, is used to represent the mean of a sample and the symbol μ
called “mu”, is used to denote the mean of population.
Properties of Mean
1. A set of data has only one mean.
2. Mean can be applied for interval and ratio data. The median is the midpoint of the data array. When the data set is ordered, whether
3. All values in the data set are included in computing the mean. ascending or descending, it is called a data array. Median is an appropriate measure
4. The mean is very useful in comparing two or more data sets. of central tendency for data that are ordinal or above, but is more valuable in an
5. Mean is affected by the extreme small or large values on a data set. ordinal type of data.
6. Mean is most appropriate in symmetrical data. Properties of Median
Mean¿
∑ of all values 1. The median is unique, there is only one median for a set of data.
number of values 2. The median is found by arranging the set of data from lowest or highest (or
highest to lowest) and getting the value of the middle observation.
Sample Mean x =
∑x Population Mean: μ=
∑x 3. Median is not affected by the extreme small or large values.
n N 4. Median can be applied for ordinal, interval and ratio data.
Where: x – sample mean 5. Median is most appropriate in a skewed data.
μ – population mean
x- the value of any particular observation or measurements To determine the value of median for ungrouped, we need to consider two rules:
∑ x – sum of all x’s 1. If n is odd, the median is the middle ranked.
n - total number of values in sample 2. If n is even, then the median is the average of the two middle ranked values.
N - total number of values in population
The entire group under consideration is known as the population. Example:
Any subset of the population is called the sample. 1. Find the median of the data in the following lists.
a. 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12 b. 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108
Solution:
Example:
a. 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12
Section CRIM1A consists of 44 students, 15 of them were found to be children of Arrange the data from smallest to largest or largest to smallest first and rank them.
fishermen. What is 44? What is 15?
Example: Ranked
1. Six friends in a management class of 20 students received test scores of 92, 84, 65, 21 1
14 2 Take note, we have 7 values, 7 is an odd
76, 88, and 90.
12 3 number; to get the median find the middle
Find the mean of these test scores. 4
9 most data.
Solution: ∑ x = 92 + 84 + 65 + 76 + 88 + 90 8 5 Median
∑ x = 495 4 6
n=6 1 7 Median = 9 answer
x=
∑ x = 495 =82.5 b. 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108
n 6
Ranked Take note, we have 6 values, 6 is an
B. Median 23 1 even number; to get the median find
46 2 the two middle most data and divide
4 3 by 2.
77
89 4
92 5
108 6
 a) 64, 69, 72, 54, 89, 92, 54, 32
Median
b) 12, 0, 8, 4, 6, 3, 7, 3, 2, 9, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8
77+89 166 Median = 83 answer c) 81, 79, 83, 76, 89, 75, 67, 83, 65, 74, 78
Median = = =83
2 2
Assignment:
C. Mode
The mode is the value in a data set that appears most frequently. Like the median and 1. Construct a frequency distribution for the data and find the mean, median and
unlike the mean, extreme values in a data set do not affect the mode. A data may not mode.
contain any mode if none of the values are "most typical". A data set that has only a. 59, 65, 61, 62, 53, 55, 60, 70, 64, 56, 58, 58, 62, 62, 68, 65, 56, 59, 68,
one value that occurs the greatest frequency is said to be unimodal. If the data has 61, 67
two values with the same greatest frequency, both values are considered the mode and b. 16, 29, 44, 36, 40, 24, 28, 47, 34, 46, 35, 26, 50, 33, 38, 19, 22, 53, 44,
the data set is bimodal. If a data set has more than two modes, then the data set is 55, 32, 21, 44, 41, 19, 40, 30, 47, 47, 27, 50, 33, 46, 48, 29, 27, 32, 31,
said to be multimodal. There are some cases when a data set values have the same 42, 28.
number frequency. When this occurs, the data set is said to be no mode.
Properties of Mode Basic Statistics (Measures of Dispersion)
Learning Objectives:
1. The mode is found by locating the most frequently occurring value.
2. The mode is the easiest average to compute. At the end of the module, the students should be able to:
3. There can be more than one mode or even no mode in any given data set.  familiarize with the different measures of dispersion
4. Mode is not affected by extreme small or large values  find the mean, standard deviation, and variance of a set of data
5. Mode can be applied for nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data.  interpret the result of standard deviation
Introduction:
Examples: Find the mode of the following list of numbers. Another important characteristic of a data set is how it is distributed, or how far each element
is from some measure of central tendency (average). There are several ways to measure the
a. 1, 6, 8, 10, 32, 15, 49 variability of the data. Although the most common and most important is the standard
deviation. which provides an average distance for each element from the mean, several others
b. 4, 2, 6, 2, 7, 9, 2, 4, 9, 8, 9, 7 are also important, and are hence discussed here. Standard deviation is a statistical term that
c. 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21 provides a good indication of volatility. It measures how widely values are dispersed from the
average. Dispersion is the difference between the actual value and the average value.
d. 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23, 11, 9, 4
Measures of Dispersion
e. 19, 15, 22, 35, 16, 22, 25, 35, 19
While measures of central tendency are used to estimate "normal" values of a
Let’s Practice! dataset, measures of dispersion are important for describing the spread of the data, or
1. Find the mean, median and mode for each set of data.
5
its variation around a central value. Two distinct samples may have the same mean or Standard deviation is also known as historical volatility and is used by investors as a
median, but completely different levels of variability, or vice versa. gauge for the amount of expected volatility.
3 Measures of Dispersion A measure of the dispersion of a set of data points around their mean value.
1. Range 2. Standard Deviation 3. Variance Variance is a mathematical expectation of the average squared deviations from the
Range mean. Volatility is a measure of risk, so this statistic can help determine the risk an
The range of a set of data values is the difference between the greatest data investor might take on when purchasing a specific security.
value and the least data value. Sample Variance and Sample Standard Deviation for Ungrouped Data
Range indicates statistical dispersion around the central tendency or the degree of
spread in the data.
There are two advantages of the range: (i) it is easy to compute and (ii) it is easy to
understand. On the other hand, it also has two disadvantages, it can be distorted by a single
extreme value (or outlier) and only two values are used in the calculation.

Range is sensitive to extreme values.

Notations for Standard Deviation and Variance
Formula: R=Highest Value-Lowest value σ is the standard deviation of a population .
R=HV-LV 2
σ is the variance of the population
Example 1: The daily rates of a sample of eight employees at GMS Inc. are P550, s isthe standard deviationof a sample
P420, P560, P500, P700, P670, P860, P480. Find the range. 2
s isthe variance of a sample
Solution:
Where: Most statistical applications involve a sample
Step 1: Determine the highest value and lowest value in the data set. x = individual values rather than a population.
Highest Value (HV)-P860) Lowest Value (LV)-P420 x = mean
n = total number of values
Step 2: Solve for the range.
s = standard deviation
Range Highest Value (HV)-Lowest Value (LV)-P860-P420-1440 Example 1. The following numbers were obtained by sampling a population.
The range in daily rate salary is P440. 2, 4, 7, 12, 15
Find the variance and standard deviation of the sample.
B. Variance and Standard Deviation Solution: It is easy if you present your computation in a table.
One of the most widely used measures of dispersion is the standard deviation. x x-x x-x (x – x )2 (x – x )2 Solve for mean ( x )
The more spread apart the data, the higher the deviation. Standard deviation is ∑ x 2+ 4+7+ 12+ 15
x= =
calculated as the square root of variance. In finance, standard deviation is applied to 2 2-8 -6 (-6)2 36 n 5
the annual rate of return of an investment to measure the investment's volatility. 40
¿
5
6
x=8
 4 4-8 -4 (-4)2 16 Dependable 6.8, 6.2, 7.2, 5.9, 7.0, 7.4, 7.3, 8.2
7 7-8 -1 (-1)2 1 Beacon 6.1, 6.6, 7.3, 5.7, 7.1, 7.6, 7.1, 8.5
12 12-8 4 42 16 A survey of 10 fast-food restaurants noted that the number of calories in a mid-sized
15 15-8 7 72 49 hamburger. The results are given in the table below.
Calories in a mid-sized hamburger 514, 507, 502, 498, 496, 506, 458, 478, 463, 514
∑x= ∑(x – x )2 Find the mean, standard deviation, and variance of these data.
40 = 118

∑(x– x )2 = 36+16 +1+ 16+49=¿118 D. GEOMETRICAL DESIGNS

a. Recognize and Analyzing Geometric Shapes
Solve for variance and standard deviation
b. Transformation
2
∑( x−x) 118 118 c. Patterns and Diagrams
2
s= = = =29.5 d. Design, arts, and culture
n−1 5−1 4
a. RECOGNIZING AND ANALYZING GEOMETRIC SHAPES

√ √ √
2
∑(x −x) 118 = 118 = 29.5 ¿ 5.43 Geometric shapes have fascinated, many people throughout history in the
s= = √ fields of art, science, engineering, interior designing, and many other professions.
n−1 5−1 4
Mathematicians have constructed ideal representations of these shapes and developed
Hence, the variance is 29.5 and the standard deviation is 5.43 methods in obtaining the measurement of lengths (one- dimension), areas (two-
dimension), and volumes (three-dimension).
Let’s practice!
A polygon is a two-dimensional shape with straight sides. It can be classified
Example: The fuel efficiency, in miles per gallon, of 10 small utility trucks was
according to the number of its sides, such as a three-sided shape called triangle and
measured. The results are recorded in the table below. four-sided shape called quadrilateral. Others are pentagon, heptagon, hexagon, and
Fuel Efficiency (mpg) so on.
22 25 23 27 15 24 24 32 23 22 25 22 Polygons are either simple or complex. A simple polygon has only one boundary and
never crosses over itself while a complex polygon intersects itself.
Find the mean, sample standard deviation, and variance of these data.

Assignment
1. A consumer group has tested a sample of 8 Size-D batteries from each of the three
companies. The result of the tests is shown in the following table. According to these
tests, which company produces batteries for which the values representing hours
of constant use have the smallest standard deviation? A B C D E
Company Hours of constant use per battery
EverSoBright 6.2, 6.4, 7.1, 5.9, 8.3, 5.3, 7.5, 9.3

7
Polygons are either concave or convex. A convex polygon has no angles pointing
inward. More precisely, no internal angles can be more than 180° . If any internal
angles are greater than 180° , it is a concave. The interior angles of a
polygon are the angles
A B C D inside the shape. In general,
Polygons are either regular for a polygon with n sides,
or irregular. If all angles are the sum of the internal
equal and all sides angles is equal to ( −
are equal, it is regular; 2) × 180° and if the polygon
otherwise, it is irregular. is regular, the measurement
Polygons are either regular or irregular. If all angles are equal and all sides are
equal, it is regular; otherwise, it is irregular. of each angle is equal
The interior angles of a polygon are the angles inside the shape. In general, for a
polygon with n sides, the sum of the internal angles is equal to ( n− 2) × 180°
(n−2)×180 °
and if the polygon is regular, the measurement of each angle is equal to
n

8
 surfaces, or a mix of curved and flat surfaces, such as spheres, cylinders, cones, and
Activity 1. Complete the torus.
POLYHEDRA

table below by supplying

the appropriate information. NON-POLYHEDRA
Let’s practice!
Complete the table below by supplying the appropriate information.
SHAPE NUMBER OF SIDES SUM OF INTERNAL MEASUREMENT OF
ANGLES EACH ANGLE FOR
REGULAR POLYGON

Triangle 3 180° 60° Platonic solid is a convex polyhedron whose faces are all congruent convex regular
Quadrilateral 4 360° 90° polygons. None of its faces intersect except at their edges, and it has the same number
Pentagon 5 540° 108° of faces that meet at each of its vertices. There are five platonic solids.
Hexagon
Heptagon
Octagon
Nonagon
Decagon
n-gon n (n−2)×180 ° (n−2)×180 °
n

A solid is the geometry of a three-dimensional space, the kind of space we live in. It
is called three-dimensional or 3D because there are three dimensions: width, depth,
and height. Solids have properties, such as volume (think of how much water it could
hold) and surface area (think of the area you would have to paint).
There are two main types of solids, namely: polyhedra and non-polyhedra. A
polyhedron is a solid made of flat surfaces; each surface is a polygon, like the
platonic solids, prisms, and pyramids. Non-polyhedra are solids with curved Prism is a polyhedron whose sides are all flat. It has the same cross section all along
its length, and its shape is polygon. All the prisms are classified as either regular

9
prism because the cross section of each is a regular polygon or irregular prism
because its cross section is an irregular polygon.
b. GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS
Introduction
Geometric transformation of shapes is a change of its size, orientation, or position
following certain techniques in mathematics. The original shape is called object, and
the new shape is called its image. Many objects around us are said to be symmetrical,
and this symmetry resulted from geometric transformation. Some of the basic
geometric transformations are as follows: Translation, Rotation, Reflection, and

Pyramid is a polyhedron
Dilation.

made by connecting a base

to an apex. There are
many types of pyramids,
and they are named after the
shape of their base. Reflection is a transformation of an object where every point of it and its image are
Pyramid is a polyhedron made by connecting a base to an apex. There are many
types of pyramids, and they are named after the shape of their base. of the same distance from the line of the symmetry. Glide Reflection is a composition
of translation and reflection in a line parallel to the direction of translation.
Rotation is a transformation of an object by rotating about a given through a given
angle.
Translation is a transformation of an object where every point of it moves a fixed
distance and a given direction.
Dilation is a transformation of an object by resizing to either reduce it or enlarge it
about a point with a given factor. The value of factor (r) determines whether the
dilation is enlargement or reduction.
10
 figure can be reflected over a line in such a way that the resulting image coincides
C. PATTERNS AND DIAGRAMS
with the original, the figure has reflection symmetry. Reflection symmetry is also
Patterns are one aspect in geometry, which are usually found and utilized.
called bilateral symmetry. The reflection line is called the line of symmetry.
There are patterns around us; at home, we see patterns on wallpapers, floor mats, bed
sheets, window panes and pieces of furniture. Patterns are also profuse in nature: on
flowers, in leaves, on animals, and all on other places. Patterns can be simple or
complex, and they sometimes use the same object or color more than once.
Symmetries are an integral part of nature and the arts of cultures worldwide. They can
be found in architecture, crafts, poetry, music, dance, chemistry, painting, physics,
sculpture, biology, and mathematics. Because symmetric designs are so natural
pleasing, symmetric symbols are very popular.
Rosette Pattern
Symmetry When a figure undergoes an isometry and the resulting image coincides
A symmetry group is the collection of all symmetries of a plane figure. The symmetry
with the original, the figure is symmetrical. Different isometries yield different types
groups have all been one of two types:
of symmetry.
1. Cyclic symmetry group has rotation symmetry only around a center point. If the
rotation has on order, the group is called Cn.
2. Dihedral symmetry group has rotation symmetry around the center point with
reflection lines through the center point. If the rotation has on order, there will be n
If
reflection lines and the group is called Dn.
a

The cyclic and dihedral symmetry groups are known as rosette symmetry groups, and
a pattern with rosette symmetry is known as a rosette pattern. Rosette patterns have
been used as architectural and sculptural decoration of the new century.

11
Frieze Pattern an infinite strip with a repeating pattern is called a frieze pattern, or
sometimes a border pattern or an infinite strip pattern. The term “frieze” is from
architecture, where a frieze refers to a decorative carving or pattern that runs
horizontally just below a roofline or ceiling. Here are some examples of frieze
patterns: A frieze group is the set of symmetries of a frieze pattern; that is, geometric
transformations built from rigid motions and reflections that preserve the pattern. This
group contains translations and may contain glide reflections, reflections along the
long axis of the strip, reflections along the narrow axis of the strip, and 180
rotations. Many authors present the frieze groups in a different order.

Using the International Union of Crystallography (IUC) notation, the names of

symmetry groups are named that begins with “p” followed by three characters. The
first is “m” if there is a vertical reflection, and “1” if it has none. The second is “m”
if there is a horizontal reflection; or “g” if there is a glide reflection,
otherwise, use “1”. The third is “2” if there is a 180 rotation, and “1” if there is
none.

12
13