Aquaculture

ELSEVIER Aquaculture 146 (1996) 205-21.5

Influence of Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus)

stocking density in cages on their growth and yield
in cages and in ponds containing the cages
Yang Yi a, C. Kwei Lin a3*,James S. Diana b
a School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, G.P.O. Box 2754,
Bangkok 10501, Thailand
b School of Nuturul Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
Accepted 29 May 1996

Abstract

An experiment was conducted for 90 days at the Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand to
investigate the appropriate stocking density of large Nile tilapia placed in cages in earthen ponds
where small Nile tilapia were stocked in open water to utilize the wastes derived from the cages.
Large male tilapia (141 f 11 .l-152 k 2.1 g) were stocked at 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 fish me3 in
4-m net cages. One cage was suspended in each of 15 earthen ponds, and three replicates were
used for each density. Small male tilapia (54 + 2.3-57 k I .2 g) were stocked at 2 fish me3 in
open water of all ponds. Caged tilapia were fed twice daily at 3%, 2.5%, and 2% body weight
day- during the first, second, and third month, respectively, with commercial floating pellets
containing 30% crude protein. Water quality was analyzed biweekly.
Stocking densities of caged tilapia had significant (P < 0.05) effects on the survival, growth,
and food conversion ratio of caged tilapia, and on the growth of open-pond tilapia. The survival of
caged tilapia decreased from 91.4% + 5.0 to 57.2% + 8.1 with increased stocking densities from
30 to 70 fish mm3, while survival of pond tilapia was higher than 90.0% in all treatments. The
average treatment mean weights of tilapia harvested from cages ranged from 509 + 26.0 to
565 + 13.9 g. The growth of pond tilapia was quite slow, with daily weight gain increasing from
0.30 f 0.02 to 0.47 k 0.08 g per fish day -I, in response to increased feed inputs to caged tilapia.
The combined net yield of both caged and open-pond tilapia was highest in the treatment with 50
fish m-. Water quality analyses indicated that the wastes from caged tilapia were insufficient to
generate abundant natural food for the growth of open-pond tilapia.

Keyword.c: Nile tilapia; 0reochromi.s niloticus; Integrated culture; Cage; Pond

- Corresponding author.

0044~8486/96/$15.00 Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII SOO44-8486(96)0 1377-4
206 Y. Yi et al./Aquaculrure 146 (1996) 205-21.5

1. Introduction

There is a growing consensus that tilapias can become the worlds most important
warmwater cultured fishes (FAO, 1980). Among all cultured tilapia species, Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) has emerged as the single most important species. The at-
tributes which make Nile tilapia so suitable for fish farming are its general hardiness,
ease of breeding, rapid growth rate, ability to efficiently convert organic and domestic
wastes into high quality protein, and good taste (Stickney et al., 1979; Balarin and
Haller, 1982; Pullin and Lowe-McConnell, 1982).
Cage fish culture originated in the Yangtze River delta in China about 750 years ago
(Hu, 1994) and has long been practiced in Southeast Asia (Ling, 1977). Many versions
of modem cage fish culture have been developed for intensive culture of commercially
important species in various parts of the world (Cache, 1978). However, tilapia cage
culture has a relatively short history (Cache, 19821, beginning around 1970 in the United
States with Oreochromis auras (Pagan, 1969; Armbrester, 1972; Suwanasart, 1972)
and in the Ivory Coast with Oreochromis niloticus (Cache, 1974). Since then, the
technique has spread progressively to several other regions of the world (Cache, 1982).
Most cage culture is in rivers, lakes, and the sea (Beveridge, 1984). In many cases,
caged fish are fed with high protein diets; wastes derived from the feed are either
directly or indirectly released to the surrounding environment, causing accelerated
eutrophication in those waters (Beveridge, 1984; Ackefors, 1986). Based on the concept
and practice of integrated farming of fish and livestock, the integration of intensive and
semi-intensive aquaculture in ponds has been developed by Lin et al. (1990) and
practiced for catfish-tilapia (Lin et al., 1990; Lin, 1990) and for tilapia-tilapia (Mc-
Ginty, 1991). This system reuses wastes derived from caged fish as a valuable resource
to generate natural food for culture of filter-feeding species such as Nile tilapia. In some
countries such as Thailand, Nile tilapia at a size greater than 500 g fetch a much higher
price than fish at 250-300 g, the size commonly produced in fertilized pond systems.
Intensive culture of Nile tilapia in cages within ponds can efficiently produce large fish
while growing smaller ones in a semi-intensive fashion in the open pond (McGinty,
1991). Such a system could allow small-scale farmers with one pond to maximize fish
production and profitability.
The purpose of this study was to develop a tilapia-tilapia cage-cum-pond integrated
rotation system in which large Nile tilapia are stocked in cages suspended in ponds
while small Nile tilapia are stocked outside the cages in the open pond to utilize the cage
wastes and to restock cages upon harvest. The first step in developing an efficient
tilapia-tilapia cage-cum-pond integrated rotation system is to determine the appropriate
stocking density of caged Nile tilapia.

2. Materials and methods

The experiment was conducted at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) in

Thailand for 90 days during August-November 1994. Large tilapia with a mean weight
 Y. Yi et ul./Aquacubure I46 (1996) 205-215 207

of 141 k 11.l- 152 $- 2.1 g were stocked at 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 fish me3 in cages
(Table 1). The open ponds were stocked with smaller tilapia weighing 54 f 2.3-57 f 1.2
g at 2 fish m-3 4 days after the cages were stocked. Both caged and open-pond Nile
tilapia were sex-reversed males produced by methyl-testosterone treatment in the fry
stage and raised on natural food produced in fertilized earthen ponds prior to the
experiment.
The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design in 15 ponds,
of which ten ponds were 335 m* in surface area with 1.2 m water depth. Five of those
ten ponds were designated as Block I and the remaining five Block II. To provide a third
replicate at each stocking density, five ponds of 394 m* with 1.0 m water depth were
designated as Block III. The water volume of each was approximately 330 m3. Each
treatment replication was assigned randomly to one pond in each block. Cages were
2 X 2 X 1.2 m with metal frames covered with 2-cm mesh nylon net. Each cage was
suspended 20 cm off the bottom in the center of Block I and II ponds, or placed on the
bottom in the center of Block III ponds to maintain l-m water depth in the cages. To
contain floating pellets within the cages a fine mesh polyethylene net was fixed 5 cm
above and 15 cm under the water surface on the outside of each cage. A wooden
walkway CoMeCted the cage to the pond bank. The cages were covered with nylon nets
to prevent bird predation. Water was added to the ponds weekly to replace water loss
due to seepage and evaporation.
No fertilizer was added to any experimental pond, and the growth of tilapia loose in
ponds was dependent solely on natural foods derived from caged tilapia wastes. Caged
tilapia were fed commercial floating pellets (30% crude protein, Charoen Pokphand Co.,
Ltd.) at 08.00 and 16.00 h 6 days for the weeks without fish sampling and 5 days for the
weeks with fish sampling. Feeding rates were 3%, 2.5%, and 2% body weight per day
(%BWD) during the first, second, and third month, respectively. The feeding rate was
adjusted biweekly based on sample weight and mortality of caged tilapia. Fish stocked
in open ponds were not given artificial feed.
Average weights of tilapia were determined biweekly by bulk weighing 10% of the
caged tilapia and 40 open-pond tilapia per pond. Caged tilapia were sampled by dip net
and open-pond tilapia by seine. Tilapia were harvested, counted and bulk weighed at the
end of the 90-day experiment. The loading of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous
(TP) contained in waste materials from the caged tilapia to pond water during the course
of the experiment was estimated by deducting nitrogen and phosphorous contents in
carcasses of harvested and dead caged tilapia from those in feed input.
Water samples integrated from the entire water column were taken biweekly near the
center of each pond at about 09.00 h for analysis of pH, total ammonia-nitrogen and
chlorophyll a (American Public Health Association, APHA, 1985). Un-ionized ammo-
nia-nitrogen was calculated by a conversion table for respective pH and temperature
(Boyd, 1990). Temperature and dissolved oxygen were measured at 06.00-07.00 and
15.(X- 16.00 h with an oxygen meter (YSI model 54).
Data were analyzed statistically by analysis of variance and regression analysis
(Steele and Torrie, 1980) using the Statgraphics 7 statistical software package. Differ-
ences were considered significant at an alpha of 0.05. All means were given with + 1
standard error (SE).
208 Y. Yi et al./Aquaculture 146 (1996) 205-215

3. Results

Gross yield of caged tilapia ranged from 60.3 L- 3.1 to 94.2 + 5.6 kg per cage with an
individual mean weight of 509 f 26.0 to 565 + 13.9 g (Table 1). Survival of caged
tilapia decreased significantly (P < 0.05) from 91.4 f 5.0% to 57.2 + 8.1% with in-
creased stocking density from 30 to 70 fish rne3. During the grow-out period, tilapia
weight increased steadily with a mean daily weight gain of 4.01 f 0.42 to 4.59 AI 0.20 g
per fish (Fig. 1 and Table 1). The highest net yield (64.5 * 5.6 kg per cage per crop)
was achieved in the treatment with cage stocking density of 50 fish mV3, which was
significantly (P < 0.05) higher than yields for other treatments. Feed conversion ratio
(FCR) at densities of 30-50 fish me3 averaged 1.45 and were significantly (P < 0.05)
lower than those at 60 and 70 fish rne3.
The stocking densities of caged tilapia also had significant (P < 0.05) effects on the
growth and yield of open-pond tilapia (Table 2). The growth of open-pond tilapia in all
treatments was relatively slow, with daily weight gain ranging from 0.30 f 0.02 to
0.47 + 0.08 g per fish. These gains were significantly (P < 0.05) different among
treatments, with higher gains in the higher density treatments (Table 2). Mean weight
and net yield differed significantly (P < 0.05) among treatments, with highest values
from ponds with cages at 60 and 70 fish rne3, and lowest at 30 and 40 fish rnm3.
Total weight gain (kg per pond) of open-pond tilapia was positively correlated
(r = 0.95, P < 0.01) with total feed input (kg per cage) to cages (Fig. 2). The loading of
total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP) contained in waste materials from caged

Table 1
Growth performance of male Nile tilapia stocked in 4-m3 cages at 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 mm3 during the
90-day grow-out period
Performance measures Treatments (tilapia mm3 in cage)
30 40 50 60 70
Stocking
Total wt. (kg per cage) 18.2 f 0.6 24.4 * 0.4 29.7 f 0.5 35.6 + 2.8 39.5 f 3.1
Mean wt. (g per fish) 151 f4.7 152+2.1 148 f 2.5 148f 11.6 141fll.l
Harvest
Total wt. (kg per cage) 60.3rt3.1 * 76.8 * 5.6 94.2 f 5.6 a 88.8 f 5.6 ab 82.6 + 8.0 bc
Mean wt. (g per fish) 550f11.0ab 565f13.9a 561+ 16.0 a 509f26.0 519f29.0 bc
Weight gain
Mean wt. gain (g per fish) 399 f 7.7 ab 412+ 13.3 a 413+ 18.2 a 361 f 37.4 b 378 f 38.4 ab
Mean wt. gain 4.43 * 0.09 ab 4.58 + 0.15 a 4.59 f 0.20 = 4.01 & 0.42 b 4.20 f 0.43 ab
(g per fish day-)
Net yield (g m 3 day- ) 117.1 *9.6 d 145.6+14.5 bC 179.3f15.6a 147.8+8.4b 119.9f21.9C
Net yield (kg per cage 42.1 f3.5 d 52.4 If- 5.2 64.5 f 5.6 a 53.2 f 3.0 b 43.2 f 7.9 Cd
per crop)
Survival (%) 91.4k5.0 = 85.1 k6.7 a 83.9+4.1 ab 72.9k8.1 b 57.2*8.1
FCR 1.45kO.12 a 1.43 f 0.07 a 1.46*0.11 a 1.92kO.06 b 2.40*0.51
Gross yield (kg m - 3 15.1 f0.8 d 19.2* 1.4 23.6* 1.4 = 22.2 5 1.4 ab 20.7 f 2.0 bc
ocr crop)

Mean values with different superscript letters in the same row were significantly different (P < 0.05).
 Y. Yi et nl./Aquaculrure 146 (1996) 205-215 209

o 30 Tilapio/m3 of Cage
0 40 Tilapia/m3 of Cage
A 50 Tilopia/m3 of Cage
0 60 Tilapio/m3 of Cage
v 70 Tilopia / m3 of Cage

d IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90
Experimental Period (duysl

Fig. 1. Growth of male Nile tilapia cultured intensively in cages stocked with either 30, 40, 50, 60, or 70 mm3
and semi-intensively in open-ponds stocked with 2 mm3 over a 3-month period.

tilapia to pond water during the course of the experiment ranged from 1.84 f 0.07 to
3.23 f 0.24 kg N and 0.37 k 0.02 to 0.65 f 0.06 kg P per pond (Table 3). Accordingly,
the ponds were fertilized at daily rates of 0.62 f 0.02 to 1.09 f 0.08 kg N ha- and
0.12 k 0.01 to 0.22 f 0.02 kg P ha-, giving N:P ratios of 4.95 f 0.07-5.11 k 0.03 in
the treatments (Table 3).
Highest net yields of combined caged and open-pond tilapia in the entire system were
in treatments with 50 and 60 fish mm3 (81.4 + 6.7 and 74.3 Ifr 5.9 kg per pond per crop,
respectively). These yields were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those of treatments
with 30, 40, and 70 fish mm3 (54.4 + 2.9, 65.2 + 5.3, and 62.5 k 7.8 kg per pond per
210 Y. Yi et al./Ayuaculture 146 (1996) 205-215

Table 2
Growth performance of male Nile tilapia stocked at 2 m - in ponds containing a cage stocked with either 30,
40, 50, 60, or 70 tilapia mm3 and raised for 86 days
Performance measures Treatments (tilapia mm3 in cage)
30 40 50 60 70
Water volume (m3) 330 330 330 330 330
Stocking
Total wt. (kg per pond) 35.4* 1.5 36.5 f 0.4 36.7 + 1.4 37.4 * 0.8 36.7 k 1.4
Mean wt. (g per fish) 54 + 2.3 55 t 0.6 56+2.1 57+ 1.2 56k2.1
Harvest
Total wt. (kg per pond) 47.7 + 2.1 49.3 + 1.2 53.6 + 2.6 58.5 + 4.2 56.1 + 2.6
Mean wt. (g per fish) 79+ 1.5 b 82 k 3.0 b 89 + 5.0 ab 97 + 8.0 a 92+ 1.5 a
Weight gain
Total wt. gain (kg per pond) 12.2 + 0.6 12.7t 1.3 16.9k 1.2 21.1*3.5 19.4, 1.8
Mean wt. gain (g per fish) 24k 1.5 27 f 2.5 33*3.1 bc 4Ok7.0 a 36k 1.2 a
Mean wt. gain 0.30*0.02 0.31 L-O.03 0.39kO.04 bC 0.47kO.08 a 0.43 * 0.01 ab
(g per fish day- )
Net yield (kg ha- per crop) 392.9 + 17.6 cd 408.7 k 42.8 d 541.7 + 39.7 bc 676.6 k 1 11.9 a 622.1 f 58.8 ab
Survival (%) 91.01 +2.71 91.09zk3.50 91.32k 1.03 9 1.43 * 2.24 92.08 f 2.8
Gross yield (t ha- per crop) 1.5 1 * 0.06 1.56kO.04 bC 169kOO8 . ab 1.85iO.13 a 1.77 f 0.08 a

Mean values with different superscript letters in the same row were significantly different (P < 0.05).

Y =0.2078X- 1.48915
(r = 0.88,df = 13,,b < 0.01 1

I I I I I
60 70 60 90 loo 110
Total Feed Input (kg/cage)

Fig. 2. Relationship between total feed fed to Nile tilapia in cages and total weight gain of male Nile tilapia
raised in open ponds.
 Y. Yi et al./Aquaculture 146 (1996) 205-215 211

Table 3
Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous contents (TP) in feed, tilapia carcasses and wastes, and equivalent
fertilization rates from tilapia wastes based on the compositions of 4.62% N, I .10% P and 2.40% N, 0.68% P
in feed and tilapia carcasses, respectively (wet weight basis)
Treatments (tilapia mm3 in cage) 30 40 50 60 70
In feed
TN (kg per pond) 2.9 I 5 0.06 3.58*0.18 4.49 f 0.22 4.90*0.19 4.85 f 0.09
TP (kg per pond) 0.67 + 0.0 1 0.82 k 0.04 I .03 f 0.05 1.12kO.04 1.11 f0.02
In tilapia carcasses
TN (kg per pond) 1.07 i- 0.05 1.40 + 0.07 1.74*o.l0 1.67 * 0.05 1.76t0.12
TP (kg per pond) 0.30 f 0.01 0.39 * 0.02 0.49 f 0.03 0.47 + 0.0 1 0.49 f 0.03
In wastes
TN (kg per pond) 1.845 0.07 2.18kO.12 2.75kO.16 3.23 f 0.24 3.09kO.16
TP (kg per pond) 0.37 + 0.02 0.43 + 0.03 0.545 0.04 0.65 f 0.06 0.62 f 0.04
Fertilization rates from wastes
N (kg ha- day- ) 0.62 + 0.02 0.73 + 0.04 0.93 + 0.06 1.09 f 0.08 1.04 f 0.06
P(kg haa day-) 0.12*0.01 0.14+0.01 0.18+0.01 0.22 + 0.02 0.21*0.01
N:P ratios 5.03 + 0.06 5.1 I +0.03 5.10+0.05 4.95 * 0.07 5.0 1 f 0.09

crop, respectively). The overall feed conversion ratios in treatments with 30, 40, and 50
fish mm3 were not significantly (P > 0.05) different but were significantly (P < 0.05)
better than those in treatments with 60 and 70 fish mm3 (Table 4). There were no
significant (P > 0.05) differences for measured water quality parameters among treat-
ments at the end of the experiment. Water temperature and pH throughout the experi-
mental period in all ponds ranged from 26.7 to 31.3C and 6.6 to 8.4, respectively.
Measured dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations at early morning decreased steadily
over the first 34 days from initial levels of 3.43-4.27 mg 1-l to near 1 mg I- for all
treatments, then remained at that level throughout the rest of the culture period (Fig. 3).
The un-ionized NH,-nitrogen concentrations in all treatments were lower than 0.03 ppm.

Table 4
Growth performance of male Nile tilapia cultured for 90 days in ponds stocked with 2 mm3 and containing a
4m3 cage stocked with either 30, 40, 50, 60, or 70 tilapia m-3
Performance measures Treatments (tilapia rn- in cage)
30 40 50 60 70
Initial fish biomass (kg) 53.6 + 2.1 60.9 k 0.8 66.4* 1.5 73.0 f 3.4 76.2 + 2.5
Final fish biomass (kg) 108.0*2.1 126.1 L-5.8 147.8 rl: 8.0 147.3 f 9.2 138.8 * 8.3
Fish biomass gain (kg) 54.4 52.9 65.2 * 5.3 81.4k6.7 = 74.3i5.9 ab 62.5k7.8
Net fish yield (g me3 day- I 1.83f0.10 2.19+0.18 bc 2.74+0.22 a 2.50*0.20 ab 2.11 +0.26
Net fish yieid (t ha- per crop) I .62 C 0.09 1.95+0.16 2.43+0.20 = 2.22i0.17 ab 1.87&0.23
Gross fish yield (t ha- 3.22*0.06 3.76kO.17 b 4.41 f0.24a 4.40+0.28 a 4.14+0.25 ab
per crop)
Overall FCR 1.12*0.06 a 1.15+0.04a 1.15*0.09 a 1.38*0.06 b I .63 * 0.23

Mean values with different superscript letters in the same row were significantly different (P < 0.05).
212 Y. Yi et al./Aquaculture 146 (1996) 205-215

50

E
\ 40
F
;; 30
=ZI
E 20
E
5 IO

f 0.04
E
-; 0.03
b
g 0.02
z

> 0.01
z
73 0
a,
.N
E
7 -0.01
5
-0.02
5- o 30 Tilopio/m3 of Cage
q 40 Tilapia/m3 of Cage
4- A 50 Tilapia/m3 of Cage
0 60 Tilopia/m3 of Cage
T 3- v 70 Tilapia / m3 of Cage

!
:: 2-

I-
O-
d IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90
Experimental Period (days)

Fig. 3. Fluctuation of dissolved oxygen (06.00 h), w-ionized ammonia concentrations (09.00 h) and
chlorophyll a (09.00 h) measured bi-weekly within ponds containing a cage stocked either with 30, 40.50, 60,
or 70 tilapia mm3 throughout the experimental period.

Concentrations tended to be higher in treatments with 60 and 70 fish mm3 than those in
treatments with 30, 40, and 50 fish m -3 (Fig. 3). The phytoplankton standing crop as
expressed in chlorophyll a concentration was low but stable throughout the experimental
period in all treatments except in the treatment with 50 fish rne3. Chlorophyll a
concentrations in the treatment with 50 fish mW3 increased dramatically early in the
cycle, then decreased quickly to a level similar to other treatments (Fig. 3).
 Y. Yi et al./Aquaculture I46 (1996) 205-215 213

4. Discussion

The caged tilapia in the cage-cum-pond integrated rotation system reached the
desirable market size (> 500 g) rapidly with mean weight gains of 4.01 k 0.42-4.59 k
0.20 g per fish. Weight gains of caged tilapia were greater than those reported
previously (0.56 to 2.49 g per fish day- ) for intensive cage culture of Nile tilapia in
ponds (Guerrero, 1979, 1980; McGinty, 19911, in lakes (Cache, 1977 and Campbell,
1978 cited by Cache, 1982) or in thermal effluent (Philippart et al., 1979 cited by
Cache, 1982). The higher FCR in treatments with 60 and 70 fish mm3 were caused by
significantly (P < 0.05) higher mortality and lower growth rates during grow-out
compared with treatments at lower densities. Lower density treatments (30, 40, and 50
fish mm31 resulted in FCR values similar to those reported by Can-o-Anzalotta and
McGinty (1986) from intensive cage culture in ponds, but much lower than those (1.9 to
3.6) reported by Guerrero (1979, 1980) and McGinty (1991) from cages in ponds and by
Cache (1977) (cited by Cache, 1982) and Campbell (1978) (cited by Cache, 1982) from
cages in lakes.
This experiment demonstrated much lower stocking densities and survivals of caged
tilapia than the results in intensive cage culture of Nile tilapia reported by many other
authors (Cache, 1977 and Campbell, 1978 cited by Cache, 1982; Philippart et al., 1979
cited by Cache, 1982; Guerrero, 1980; McGinty, 1991). The possible reason for lower
survival at higher stocking densities was lower early morning DO and prolonged
duration of low DO levels compared with treatments with lower stocking density.
The growth of open-pond tilapia in all treatments was relatively slow, with daily
weight gain ranging from 0.30 f 0.02 to 0.47 + 0.08 g per fish day-, compared with
the 2.4 to 2.7 g per fish day- in a catfish-tilapia cage-cum-pond integrated culture
system (Lin, 1990) and 2.31 g per fish day- in a tilapia-tilapia cage-cum-pond
integrated culture system (McGinty, 1991). The poor growth of open-pond tilapia likely
resulted from limited nutrient inputs because the fertilization rates by the wastes of
caged tilapia were less than the optimal rates (around 4 kg N ha- day- 1 of pond
fertilization recommended for semi-intensive pond culture of tilapia in the tropics
(Knud-Hansen et al., 1991). Therefore net yields of open-pond tilapia from the present
experiment were lower than those of a catfish-tilapia cage-cum-pond integrated culture
system (Lin, 19901, conventional integrated fish-livestock systems (AIT, 19861, a
system optimally fertilized with chicken manure (Diana et al., 19881, or chemical
fertilizers (Diana et al., 1991).
Results suggest that the maximum carrying capacity of large tilapia in cages could
have been reached in the present system. To maximize the production of caged tilapia, it
needs to consider not only the number of cages that the pond can sustain with 50 fish
rnp3 in cages, but also the biomass of small tilapia with 2 fish mm3 in open pond. Under
the present experimental setting, increasing the number of cages in the pond is likely to
reduce the growth rate of caged tilapia. It was shown that lowering the stocking density
of open-pond tilapia can increase the growth rate of both caged and open-pond tilapia
(McGinty, 1991). Therefore, the integrated culture system with the appropriate number
of cages per pond can be optimized by lowering the stocking density of open-pond
tilapia. As chlorophyll a and dawn DO levels of pond water in the present experiment
214 Y. Yi et al./Aquaculture 146 (1996) 205-215

were quite low, enhancement of the phytoplankton standing crop may improve DO
regime by increasing nutrient loading. Concomitant fertilization with inorganic fertilizers
is required to augment phytoplankton production and improve water quality (Diana et
al., 1994). The fertilization rate should be based on the amount of nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorous) needed to make up the nutrient deficiency derived from fish wastes alone.

5. Conclusions

This experiment determined that the growth and yield of 50 Nile tilapia mm3 stocked
in cages located in ponds with stagnant water was the best stocking density tested. The
study also demonstrated that the amount of waste nutrients generated by large tilapia
from one cage per pond was insufficient to fertilize the pond for rearing small tilapia in
open pond. This tilapia-tilapia cage-cum-pond integrated culture system is particularly
appropriate for small-scale farmers in countries such as Thailand, where large tilapia
(> 500 g) fetch higher market price than 250-300 g tilapia. This approach is beneficial
not only to augment total pond carrying capacity but also to recycle the wastes from
cage culture. Further experiments should be conducted to determine appropriate biomass
in cages required to support maximum fish production and to maintain acceptable water
quality in open ponds.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank MS B. Chintana, Mr. Y. Manoj and Mr. P. Supat for their
field and lab. assistance. This research is a component of the Pond Dynamics/Aquacul-
ture Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) supported by the US Agency for
International Development, Grant No. DAN-4023-G-00-003 l-00, and by contributions
from the University of Hawaii, the University of Michigan, Michigan State University,
the Royal Thai Department of Fisheries, and the Asian Institute of Technology. This is
PD/A CRSP Accession No. 1127. This is also a part of Mr. Yang Yis dissertation for
the degree of Doctor of Technical Science supported by a research associateship from
the project.

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