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Control Valve Sourcebook - Oil and GAS
Control Valve Sourcebook - Oil and GAS
SOURCEBOOK
Fisher, Cavitrol, ControlDisk, easye, easyDrive, ENVIROSEAL, FIELDVUE, HighSeal, NotchFlo, WhisperFlo, Whisper Trim, and
VeeBall are marks owned by one of the companies in the Emerson Process Management business unit of Emerson Electric Co.
Emerson Process Management, Emerson, and the Emerson logo are trademarks and service marks of Emerson Electric Co. All other
marks are the property of their respective owners. The contents of this publication are presented for informational purposes only, and
while every effort has been made to ensure their accuracy they are not to be construed as warranties or guarantees, express or
implied, regarding the products or services described herein or their use or applicability. All sales are governed by our terms and
conditions, which are available upon request. We reserve the right to modify or improve the designs or specifications of such products
at any time without notice. Neither Emerson, Emerson Process Management, nor any of their affiliated entities assumes responsibility
for the selection, use, or maintenance of any product. Responsibility for proper selection, use, and maintenance of any product remains
solely with the purchaser and end user.
This publication may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in whole or in part, in any form or by any means,
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Printed in U.S.A.
Table of Contents
This Oil and Gas Control Valve Sourcebook is in- and selection basics. If not familiar with control
tended to be a resource to aid in the understand- valve terminology it is recommended that this sec-
ing of control valve applications for the oil and gas tion be reviewed before moving on to Section II.
industry. Under no circumstances should this in- Section II covers the basics of oil and gas produc-
formation alone be used to select a control valve. tion and transportation processes with a focus on
All valve considerations should be reviewed with common control valve applications. Below is a
your Fisher sales office or representative as part general flow diagram of the major topics covered
of any valve selection or specification activity. within this section in this edition, and where they fit
within the oil and gas value chain:
Section I of this book covers control valve sizing
www.Fisher.com
Section II starts where all oil and gas starts, the After separation, dehydration, and sulfur removal
wellhead. For any given well a combination of oil, (if needed) natural gas is usually sold as is to an
water, and natural gas is produced among other end user. Often, however, higher value natural gas
minor constituents. After production the fluid needs liquids such as ethane, propane, and butane can
to be processed in order to meet customer spe- be separated out of the natural gas and sold indi-
cifications. The first process is the separation of vidually. Chapter 11 covers the natural gas frac-
the components. Descriptions of separation pro- tionation process.
cesses in onshore and offshore production facilit-
ies can be found in Chapters 7 and 8. Not covered
in this edition are secondary and tertiary produc- After treatment the oil and gas is ready for trans-
tion processes, including heavy oil and bitumen portation. Chapter 10 covers traditional onshore
production. Look for this information in a future transportation of both oil and gas. Because there
edition. are seasonal fluctuations in demand for natural
gas, natural gas storage is required (Chapter 12).
After separation, the oil, gas, and water streams Liquefying natural gas (Chapter 13) is performed
need further processing before they are ready for to reduce its volume (1/600th) in order to easily
sale, disposal, or reinjection into a reservoir. transport it around the globe. Once at its end des-
Chapter 9 is dedicated to gas treatment pro- tination the LNG needs to be re-gasified before
cesses, including dehydration and sulfur removal. sale to an end user (Chapter 14).
Brief oil treatment process descriptions can be
found in Chapters 7 and 8. After the oil is treated it
is transported to a refinery. For details on control The content in this sourcebook is continually a
valves for refining applications please refer to the work in progress, with future editions intended to
Fisher Refining Control Valve Sourcebook. Not expand upon, amend, and add to existing content.
covered in this edition are water treatment pro- For further information, or to answer any ques-
cesses. Look for this and more information on oil tions, please contact your local Fisher sales office
treatment in a future edition. or representative.
Section 1:
www.Fisher.com
TFE V-RING
BONNET GASKET
GROOVE
PIN
SEAT RING
GASKET
Figure 1-2. Standard globe sliding-stem valve design is typified by the ET. A broad range of sizes, materials and end
connections is available. The balanced plug reduces plug force and allows use of smaller actuators. These valves are
the first choice for applications less than NPS 3 size.
X0215-1
Figure 1-3. Severe service capability in globe valves demonstrated by this Large ET. The drilled hole cage provides
attenuation of flow noise by splitting the flow into multiple passages. Spacing of the holes is carefully controlled to
eliminate jet interaction and higher resultant noise levels.
12
Sliding-Stem Valves
The most versatile of control valves are the sliding-
stem designs. Globe, angle, and Y-pattern valves
can be purchased in sizes ranging from NPS 1/2 -
36. More choices of materials, end connections
and control characteristics are included here than
in any other product family.
general purpose valves. End connections usually Figure 1-5. NPS 1 Baumann 24000 Little Scotty
are flangeless (for mounting between piping valve with a size 32 actuator and
flanges) or screwed. a FIELDVUE DVC6200
The main advantage of the barstock valve is that The third subcategory, which involves the lowest
far more materials are readily available in bar form cost products among sliding-stem valves, utilizes
than in cast form. Consequently, these valves are economy bodies (Figure 1-5). These valves are
often used where there are special corrosion con- used for low-pressure steam, air and water ap-
siderations. plications that are not demanding. Sizes available
range from NPS 1/2 - 4. Body materials include
Also, the compactness and general high-quality bronze, cast iron, steel and SST. Pressure classes
construction of barstock valves make them attrac- generally stop at ASME CL300. Compared to reg-
tive for low flow rate applications. Overall, they are ular sliding-stem valves, these units are very sim-
an economical choice when they can be used. ple; their actuators are smaller, and their construc-
13
THRUST
BODY OUTLET WASHER
VALVE BALL
OUTLET
MAIN SHAFT
VALVE BODY BEARING
SEAL
CARRIER
DRIVE SHAFT
VALVE BALL
SEAL PROTECTOR INLET SEAL
SHIM SEALS
W7169 RING OR FLOW RING
Figure 1-6. High-pressure ball valves feature heavy shafts and full ball designs. This V250 is suitable for
pressure drops to 2220 psig. ASME CL600 and CL900 bodies are availablesizes range to NPS 24.
W7435
Figure 1-7. Applications to ASME CL600 can be handled by the V150/V200/V300 Vee-Ballt.
This product incorporates many features to improve throttling performance and rangeability. Tight shutoff is
achieved by using either heavy-duty metal seals or composition seals.
tion is economical. Severe service trims for noise Another popular kind of ball valve is the seg-
and cavitation service are not available in these mented-ball style (Figure 1-7). This subcategory
products. utilizes a reduced bore, and the edge of the ball
segment has a contoured notch shape for better
throttling control and higher rangeability. Intended
primarily for modulating service, segmented-ball
valves are generally higher in overall control per-
formance than full-ball products.
Ball Valves
There are two subcategories of ball valves. The Segmented-ball valves with their splined shaft con-
through-bore or full-ball type illustrated in Figure nections are engineered to eliminate lost motion,
1-6 is used typically for high pressure drop throt- which is detrimental to performance. The use of
tling and on-off applications in sizes to NPS 24. heavy-duty metal and fluoroplastic sealing ele-
Full port designs exhibit high flow capacity and low ments allows wide temperature and fluid applica-
susceptibility to wear by erosive streams. Howev- bility. Their straight-through flow design achieves
er, sluggish flow response in the first 20% of ball high capacity with sizes ranging through NPS 24
travel may make full-bore ball valves unsuitable for and pressure ratings to ASME CL600. Price is
some throttling applications. generally lower than that of globe valves.
14
VALVE PLUG
RETAINER
FACE SEALS
SEAT RING
PACKING
BEARING
VALVE SHAFT
BEARING STOP
Figure 1-8. The V500 eccentric plug valve is specially designed for severe rotary applications. Since the valve plug
cams into the seat ring upon closure, it features tight shutoff with globe valve style seating. It also offers excellent
resistance to abrasive wear and flashing induced erosion.
The requirement for zero or low leakage gave rise Heavy shafts and discs, full-rated bodies and so-
to new designs such as the lined and high perfor- phisticated seals that allow tight shutoff against
mance butterfly valves (BFVs). high pressures characterize high performance but-
15
TAPER PINS
SEAL AND HOLLOW
SPRING PINS PACKING FOLLOWER
RING
Figure 1-9. High performance butterfly valves provide excellent performance and value. High-pressure capability, tight
shutoff and excellent control are featured as standard. This 8560 design is made for ASME CL150 applications.
terfly valves such as the one in Figure 1-9. These Classes 150, 300 and 600. (Source documents
valves provide an excellent combination of perfor- are ASME/ANSI Standards B16.34, Steel Valves,
mance features, lightweight and very reasonable and ANSI/ASME B16.1, Cast Iron Pipe Flanges
pricing. and Flanged Fittings.) For a given body material,
each ASME Class corresponds to a prescribed
In offset disc designs, eccentric shaft mounting profile of maximum pressures that decrease with
allows the valve disc to swing clear of its seal to temperature according to the strength of the mate-
minimize wear and torque. The offset disc allows rial. Each material also has a minimum and maxi-
uninterrupted sealing and a seal ring that can be mum service temperature based on loss of ductility
replaced without removing the disc. High perfor- or loss of strength. For most applications, the re-
mance butterfly valves come in sizes from NPS 2 quired pressure rating is dictated by the applica-
through NPS 72, with flangeless, lugged, double tion. However, since all products are not available
flanged connections, carbon steel or stainless for all ASME Classes, it is an important consider-
steel bodies, and pressure ratings to ASME ation for selection.
CL2500. Tight metal-to-metal seals, made pos-
sible with advanced eccentric design, provide tight Table 1-1. Suggested General Criteria for Selecting Type
shutoff in applications that are too hot for elasto- and Brand of Control Valve
mer lined valves. Considering this tight shutoff Body pressure rating
capability and heavy-duty construction, high per- High and low temperature limits
formance butterfly valves can be a suitable option Material compatibility and durability
to many applications where sliding-stem valves Inherent flow characteristic and rangeability
are normally specified. Maximum pressure drop (shutoff and flowing)
Noise and cavitation
End connections
Shutoff leakage
General Selection Criteria Capacity versus cost
Most of the considerations that guide the selection Nature of flowing media
of valve type and brand are rather basic. However, Dynamic performance
there are some matters that may be overlooked by
users whose familiarity is mainly limited to just one
or a few valve types. Table 1-1 below provides a Temperature Considerations
checklist of important criteria; each is discussed at
length following the table. Required temperature capabilities are also a fore-
gone conclusion, but one that is likely to narrow
valve selection possibilities. The considerations
include the strength or ductility of the body materi-
Pressure Ratings al as well as relative thermal expansion of various
parts.
Body pressure ratings ordinarily are considered
according to ASME pressure classesthe most Temperature limits also may be imposed due to
common ones for steel and stainless steel being disintegration of soft parts at high temperatures or
16
loss of resiliency at low temperatures. The soft 100
PTFE bearings, so that the shaft cannot withstand E1541 PERCENT OF RATED TRAVEL
as high a pressure-drop load at shutoff. Selection Figure 1-10. Many control valves offer a choice
of valve packing is also based largely on service of characteristic. Selection to match process
temperature. requirements is guided by simple rules.
Adherence to these guidelines will help assure
stable operation.
Flow Characteristic The linear flow characteristic curve shows that the
flow rate is directly proportional to the valve travel.
The next selection criterion, inherent flow charac- This proportional relationship produces a charac-
teristic, refers to the pattern in which the flow at teristic with a constant slope so that, with constant
constant pressure drop changes according to pressure drop, the valve gain will be the same at
valve position. all flows. The linear valve plug is commonly speci-
fied for liquid level control and for certain flow con-
Typical characteristics are quick-opening, linear trol applications requiring constant gain.
and equal-percentage. The choice of characteristic
may have a strong influence on the stability or In the equal percentage flow characteristic, equal
controllability of the process (see Table 1-3), since increments of valve travel produce equal percent-
it represents the change of valve gain relative to age changes in the existing flow. The change in
travel. flow rate is always proportional to the flow rate just
before the change in valve plug, disc, or ball posi-
Most control valves are carefully characterized tion is made. When the valve plug, disc, or ball is
by means of contours on a plug, cage, or ball ele- near its seat and the flow is small, the change in
17
flow rate will be small; with a large flow, the rugged nature of their moving parts. Many rotary
change in flow rate will be large. valves are limited to pressure drops well below the
body pressure rating, especially under flowing con-
An equal percentage flow characteristic is used ditions, due to dynamic stresses that high velocity
generally on pressure control applications and on flow imposes on the disk or ball segment.
other applications where a large percentage of the
pressure drop is normally absorbed by the system
itself with only a relatively small percentage avail-
able at the control valve. Valves with an equal per-
centage characteristic should also be considered
Noise and Cavitation
where highly varying pressure drop conditions Noise and cavitation are two considerations that
could be expected. often are grouped together because both may res-
ult from high pressure drops and large flow rates.
They are treated by special modifications to stan-
dard valves. Chapter 5 discusses noise genera-
Rangeability tion and abatement, while Chapter 6 discusses the
Another aspect of a valves flow characteristic is its cavitation phenomenon and its impact and treat-
rangeability, which is the ratio of its maximum and ment.
minimum controllable flow rates. Exceptionally
wide rangeability may be required for certain ap-
plications to handle wide load swings or a com-
bination of start-up, normal and maximum working End Connections
conditions. Generally speaking, rotary valveses-
The three common methods of installing control
pecially partial ball valveshave greater range-
valves in pipelines are by means of screwed pipe
ability than sliding-stem varieties.
threads, bolted flanges, and welded end connec-
tions. At some point in the selection process, the
valves end connections must be considered with
Use of Positioners the question simply being whether the desired
connection style is available in the valve being
A positioner is an instrument that helps improve considered. Maintenance, weight, size, and ser-
control by accurately positioning a control valve vice conditions all contribute to what end connec-
actuator in response to a control signal. They are tion is used.
useful in many applications and are required with
certain actuator styles in order to match actuator In some situations, this matter can limit the selec-
and instrument pressure signals or to provide op- tion rather narrowly. For instance, if a piping speci-
erating stability. To a certain extent, a valve with fication calls for welded connections only, the
one inherent flow characteristic can also be made choice usually is limited to sliding-stem valves.
to perform as though it had a different characteris-
tic by using a nonlinear (i.e., characterized) posi- Screwed end connections, popular in small control
tioner-actuator combination. The limitation of this valves, offer more economy than flanged ends.
approach lies in the positioners frequency re- The threads usually specified are tapered female
sponse and phase lag compared to the character- NPT (National Pipe Thread) on the valve body.
istic frequency of the process. They form a metal-to-metal seal by wedging over
the mating male threads on the pipeline ends.
Although it is common practice to use a positioner This connection style is usually limited to valves
on every valve application, each application should not larger than NPS 2, and is not recommended
be reviewed carefully. for elevated temperature service.
18
ends come in two styles, socket weld and butt-
weld.
Shutoff Capability
Some consideration must be given to a valves
shutoff capability, which usually is rated in terms of
Classes specified in ANSI/FCI70-2 (Table 1-4). In
FLATFACE RAISEDFACE
service, shutoff leakage depends on many factors,
including but not limited to, pressure drop, temper-
ature, the condition of the sealing surfaces, and
actuator force.
Since shutoff ratings are based on standard test
conditions that can be very different from service
conditions, service leakage cannot be predicted
accurately. However, the shutoff Class provides a
good basis for comparison among valves of similar
configuration. It is not uncommon for valve users
A7098 RINGTYPE JOINT
to overestimate the shutoff class required.
Figure 1-11. Popular varieties of bolted flange
end connections. Since tight shutoff valves generally cost more both
in initial cost as well as in later maintenance ex-
pense, serious consideration is warranted. Tight
shutoff is particularly important in high-pressure
valves, considering that leakage in these applica-
tions can lead to the ultimate destruction of the
trim. Special precautions in seat material selection,
seat preparation and seat load are necessary to
ensure success.
SOCKET WELDING ENDS
Flow Capacity
Finally, the criterion of capacity or size can be an
overriding constraint on selection. For very large
lines, sliding-stem valves are more expensive than
rotary types. On the other hand, for very small
A7099 BUTT WELDING ENDS flows, a suitable rotary valve may not be available.
Figure 1-12. Common welded end connections. If future plans call for significantly larger flow, then
a sliding-stem valve with replaceable restricted
trim may be the answer. The trim can be changed
to full size trim to accommodate higher flow rates
of working pressures that most control valves are
at less cost than replacing the entire valve body
manufactured (Figure 1-11).
assembly.
Flanged end connections can be used in a temper- Rotary style products generally have much higher
ature range from absolute zero (273_F) to maximum capacity than sliding-stem valves for a
approximately 1500_F (815_C). They are used on given body size. This fact makes rotary products
all valve sizes. The most common flanged end attractive in applications where the pressure drop
connections include flat face, raised face, and ring available is rather small. However, it is of little or
type joint. no advantage in high-pressure drop applications
such as pressure regulation or letdown.
Welded ends on control valves are leak tight at all
pressures and temperatures and are economical
in initial cost (Figure 1-12). Welded end valves are
Conclusion
more difficult to remove from the line and are ob- We may simplify the process of selection as fol-
viously limited to weldable materials. Welded lows:
19
For most general applications, it makes sense In sizes NPS 8 and larger, applications tend to
both economically as well as technically to use have lower pressures and pressure drops than in
sliding-stem valves for lower flow ranges, ball smaller valve sizes. This gives rise to the possibil-
valves for intermediate capacities, and high perfor- ity of using high-performance butterfly valves.
mance butterfly valves for the very largest required These valves are economical, can offer tight shut-
flows. off as well as provide good control capability, not
to mention capacity benefits well beyond those of
globe and high-performance rotary valves.
For sizes less than NPS 3, general-purpose slid-
ing-stem valves provide an exceptional value. For
Special considerations may require out of the ordi-
a minimal price premium over rotary products, they
nary valve solutions. There are valve designs and
offer unparalleled performance, flexibility and ser-
special trims available to handle high noise ap-
vice life. In NPS 3 size and larger, the premium for
plications, cavitation, high pressure, high tempera-
these devices over rotary products is warranted.
ture and combinations of these conditions.
For severe service applications the most frequent-
ly used and often the only available product is the
After going through all the criteria for a given ap-
sliding-stem valve.
plication, the selection process may point to sever-
al types of valves. From there on, selection be-
Applications ranging from NPS 4 to NPS 6 are comes a matter of price versus capability as
best served by such transitional valve styles as the discussed here, coupled with the inevitable per-
eccentric plug valve or the ball valve. These prod- sonal and institutional preferences. Since no single
ucts have minimal body material and therefore control valve package is cost-effective over the full
lower cost. They also offer higher capacity levels range of applications, it is important to keep an
than globe designs. open mind to alternative choices.
Table 1-2. Major Categories and Subcategories of Control Valves, with Typical General Characteristics
Typical Typical Relative Relative
Main Typical Size Typical Standard
Valve Style Standard Body Pressure Flow Shutoff
Characteristics Range, NPS End Connection
Materials Ratings Capacity Capability
Carbon Steel ASME Flanged
Regular Heavy Duty To ASME
1 to 24 Cast Iron Welded Moderate Excellent
Sliding-stem Versatile CL2500
Stainless Screwed
Machined from Bar Flangeless To ASME
Bar Stock to 3 Variety of Alloys Low Excellent
Stock Screwed CL600
Bronze
Economy Light Duty To ASME
to 2 Cast Iron Screwed Moderate Good
Sliding-stem Inexpensive CL125
Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel To ASME
Thru-Bore Ball On-Off Service 1 to 24 Flangeless High Excellent
Stainless CL900
Segmented Characterized for Carbon Steel Flangeless To ASME
1 to 24 High Excellent
Ball Throttling Stainless Flanged CL600
Carbon Steel To ASME
Eccentric Plug Erosion Resistance 1 to 8 Flanged Moderate Excellent
Stainless CL600
Carbon Steel Flangeless
Swing-Thru To ASME
No Seal 2 to 96 Cast Iron Lugged High Poor
Butterfly CL2500
Stainless Welded
Carbon Steel
Elastomer or Flangeless To ASME
Lined Butterfly 2 to 96 Cast Iron High Good
TFE Liner Lugged CL300
Stainless
High
Offset Disk Carbon Steel Flangeless To ASME
Performance 2 to 72 High Excellent
General Service Stainless Lugged CL600
Butterfly
110
Table 1-3. Control Valve Characteristic Recommendations
Liquid Level Systems
Best Inherent
Control Valve Pressure Drop
Characteristic
Constant P Linear
Decreasing P with increasing load, P at maximum load > 20% of minimum load P Linear
Decreasing P with increasing load, P at maximum load < 20% of minimum load P Equal-percentage
Increasing P with increasing load, P at maximum load < 200% of minimum load P Linear
Increasing P with increasing load, P at maximum load > 200% of minimum load P Quick Opening
Best Inherent
Application
Characteristic
Liquid Process Equal-Percentage
Gas Process, Large Volume (Process has a receiver, Distribution System or Transmission Line Exceeding 100 ft. of
Nominal Pipe Volume), Decreasing P with Increasing Load, P at Maximum Load > 20% of Minimum Load P Linear
Gas Process, Large Volume, Decreasing P with Increasing Load, P at Maximum Load < 20% of Minimum Load P Equal-Percentage
Gas Process, Small Volume, Less than 10 ft. of Pipe between Control Valve and Load Valve Equal-Percentage
111
Packing Materials and Systems typically thought of as an emission-reducing pack-
ing system; however, as shown in the following
This section provides information and insight to chart and graphs, it is highly useful in non-environ-
help in selection of packing systems. Application mental applications as well.
guidelines for each packing selection have been
developed to aid in the packing selection process. Although other packing materials and combina-
These guidelines were developed based on test tions of packing materials are available, the rec-
results of various packing systems conducted in ommendations for nearly all applications are listed
Fishers technical center. Exceeding these guide- in Table 1-5. Simply select the appropriate packing
lines may result in reduced service life. based on pressure, temperature, leakage require-
ments, service life required, etc. Use the charts for
The ratings for these systems do not affect the additional guidance.
valve pressure/temperature class rating. Tradition-
al valve selection entails selecting a valve design The packing selection guidelines in Table 1-5
based on pressure and temperature capabilities, present two categories of service conditions. The
flow characteristics, and material compatibility. An first category defines those packing systems de-
additional factorpacking selectionis now a crit- signed for environmental or fugitive emission ap-
ical factor in the valve selection process. plications where 500 parts per million volume
(ppmv) seal performance is required.
Proper packing selection is being driven in the
United States by the Clean Air Act Amendments,
subsequent Environmental Protection Agency The second category defines application guide-
(EPA) regulations, and our customers increasing lines for non-environmental services. Depending
concern for improved packing performance (less on category requirements, different pressure/tem-
maintenance and longer service life.) perature guidelines have been established for the
packing systems.
In recent years, packing selection has been pri-
marily based on process temperature; that is, In addition, a given packing design has certain
PTFE was selected for temperatures below 450F characteristics concerning seal performance, ser-
(232C), and graphite was selected for tempera- vice life, and friction. The pressure and tempera-
tures above 450F (232C). Considerations now ture guidelines and the relative comparison of
include the effect of packing friction on process these characteristics are defined in Table 1-5 and
control, hysteresis, seal quality, and cycle life. the supporting charts.
Given the variety of process applications and Keep in mind that for non-environmental applica-
installation conditions, these variables are difficult tions these are guidelines and are not intended as
to quantify. A relative packing performance com- the ultimate limit. Exceeding the pressure guide-
parison can be made that provides an engineered lines for packing may be required; however, de-
approach to the packing selection process. pending on how much the guidelines are exceed-
ed, a reduction in total life span can be expected.
Clarification of trade names is required for proper
understanding of the Table 1-5 shown in this publi- With flexible graphite packing this same logic ap-
cation. From the perspective of Fisher, ENVIRO- plies to temperature. The recommended pressure
SEALt packing is defined as an advanced system / temperature limits for environmental applications
using a compact, live-load spring design. From a using Fisher ENVIRO-SEAL packing cannot be
user perspective, ENVIRO-SEAL packing is most exceeded without compromising sealing integrity.
112
Table 1-5. Packing Selection Guidelines for Sliding-Stem Valves
Maximum Pressure & Application Guideline for
Temperature Limits for Nonenvironmental Seal Service
Packing
Packing System 500 PPM Service(1) Service(1) Performance Life
Friction(2)
Index Index
Customary U.S. Metric Customary U.S. Metric
300 psig 20.7 bar See figure 1-16 See figure 1-16
Single PTFE V-Ring Better Long Very low
0 to 200_F 18 to 93_C 50 to 450_F 46 to 232_C
See figure 1-15 See figure 2 See figure 1-16 See figure 1-16
ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE Superior Very long Low
50 to 450_F 46 to 232_C 50 to 450_F 46 to 232_C
750 psig 51.7 bar See figure 1-16 See figure 1-16
ENVIRO-SEAL Duplex Superior Very long Low
50 to 450_F 46 to 232_C 50 to 450_F 46 to 232_C
KALREZR with PTFE 350 psig 24.1 bar See figure 1-16 See figure 1-16
Superior Long Low
(KVSP 400)(3) 40 to 400_F 4 to 204 40 to 400_F 40 to 204_C
1500 psig 103 bar 3000 psig 207 bar
ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite ULF Superior Very long High
20 to 600_F 7 to 315_C 325 to 700_F 198 to 371_C
HIGH-SEAL Graphite with 1500 psig 103 bar 4200 psig(4) 290 bar(4)
Superior Very long High
PTFE 20 to 600_F 7 to 315_C 325 to 700_F 198 to 317_C
4200 psig(4) 290 bar(4)
HIGH-SEAL Graphite Better Very long Very high
325 to 1200_F(5) 198 to 649_C(5)
1500 psig 103 bar
Braided Graphite Filament Acceptable Acceptable High
325 to 1000_F(5) 198 to 538_C(5)
1. The values shown are only guidelines. These guidelines can be exceeded, but shortened packing life or increased leakage might result. The temperature ratings apply to the
actual packing temperature, not to the process temperature.
2. See Catalog 14 for actual friction values.
3. The KALREZ pressure/temperature limits referenced in this bulletin are for Fisher Controls valve applications only. DuPont may claim higher limits.
4. Except for the 3/8-inch (9.5 mm) stem, 1600 psig (110 bar).
5. Except for oxidizing service, 325 to 700_F (198 to 371_C).
113
ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite ULF The HIGH-SEAL graphite packing system provides
(Sliding-Stem and Rotary Valves) a service life that is very long compared to other
graphite packing arrangements.
ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite ULF packing is designed
for environmental applications from 300 to 600F
(149 to 316C), or for those applications where fire
safety is a concern and graphite packing is de-
sired. The ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite ULF arrange-
ment can also be used with higher pressures up to Non-Environmental Services
1500 psig (103 bar) and still maintain the 500 For the non-environmental pressure/temperature
ppmv EPA leakage criteria. guidelines, using ENVIRO-SEAL and HIGH-SEAL
packing systems can extend service life.
114
Single Packing Arrangements Process Fluid Compatibility and
Used in most applications for a durable, yet eco- Temperature Ranges
nomical package.
Fishers published literature lists packing types
that are used with various process fluids. Howev-
er, some process fluids may not be compatible
Double Packing Arrangements with the packing throughout the entire temperature
range. If in doubt about the compatibility of Fish-
Where an especially tight seal is required, double ers packing material with a process fluid of a spe-
packing is available. Consisting of two stacks of cific concentration and temperature, consult your
packing and a spacer, double packing arrange- Fisher Representative sales office.
ments have more packing on the actuator side if a
lubricating connection is used. Published temperature ranges refer to tempera-
tures in the packing box. When using any packing
at low temperatures, frost allowed to form on the
shaft can damage the packing. For a given pro-
Leak-Off Packing Arrangements cess temperature, the packing box temperature
Certain rotary valve applications require that any depends on several factors. Contact the Fisher
leakage from the inner set of packing be detected sales representative for information on packing
and channeled away before it can leak through the box temperatures.
outer set to the atmosphere. Leak-off packing ar-
rangements are designed for this purpose.
115
ENVIROSEAL Graphite ULF
HIGH-SEAL Graphite with PTFE
ENVIROSEAL DUPLEX
KALREZ
WITH
ZYMAXX
(KVSP 500)
(KVSP 400)
A61582 / IL
Figure 1-13. Application Guidelines Chart for 500 PPM Service
and DUPLEX
ENVIROSEAL
Graphite ULF
KALREZ
WITH
ZYMAXX
(KVSP
500)
KALREZ
with PTFE (KVSP400)
A61592 / IL
116
A6161
A6163
SPRING
PACK
PTFECAR- ASSEMBLY
BON/PTFE
PACKING
SET
LANTERN
RING BUSHING
(CARBON)
PACKING RING
(COMPOSITE) BUSHING
(CARBON)
PACKING
PACKING
WASH-
BOX RING
ERS
(PTFE)
117
PACKING STUD LUBRICANT
PACKING NUT
BUSHING
PACKING RING
PACKING
WASHER
BUSHING
PACKING BOX
RING
E0818
A6167
ENVIRO-SEAL GRAPHITE ULF
HIGH-SEAL GRAPHITE
A6166
HIGH-SEAL GRAPHITE WITH PTFE
A6168
118
PACKING SPRINGS
BOX STUD
VALVE PACKING
FLANGE PACKING
BODY
ACTUATOR VALVE BOX
MOUNTING SHAFT RING
YOKE ANTI
EXTRUSION
RINGS
VALVE
SHAFT
YOKE
BEARING
PACKING PACKING
FLANGE BOX RING SPRINGS GRAPHIT
PACKING
SET
PACKING
PTFE FOLLOWER
PACKING
VRINGS W61251 / IL
PACKING
FOLLOWER SHOWN
W58061 / IL
SINGLE PTFE PACKING GRAPHITE PACKING
119
120
Chapter 2
Actuator Selection
The actuator is the distinguishing element that dif- D Torque or Thrust Requirements
ferentiates control valves from other types of
valves. The first actuated valves were designed in D Control Functions
the late 19th Century. However, today they would
be better described as regulators since they oper-
ated directly from the process fluid. These auto-
matic valves were the mainstay of industry
through the early 1930s. 2- Power Source Availability
It was at this time also that the first pneumatic The power source available at the location of a
controllers were used. Development of valve con- valve often can point directly to what type of ac-
trollers and the adaptation of standardized control tuator to choose. Typically, valve actuators are
signals stimulated design of the first, true, control powered either by compressed air or by electricity.
valve actuators. However, pipeline pressure is often used in the
natural gas transmission industry.
The control valve industry has evolved to fill a vari-
ety of needs and desires. Actuators are available
with an array of designs, power sources and capa-
bilities. Proper selection involves process knowl-
edge, valve knowledge and actuator knowledge. Fail-safe Requirements
The overall reliability of power sources is quite
A control valve can perform its function only as high. However, many loops demand specific valve
well as the actuator can handle the static and dy- action should the power source ever fail. Desired
namic loads placed on it by the valve. Therefore, action upon a signal failure may be required for
proper selection and sizing are very important. safety reasons or for protection of equipment.
Since the actuator can represent a significant por-
tion of the total control valve price, careful selec- Fail-safe systems store energy, either mechanical-
tion of actuator and accessory options can lead to ly in springs, pneumatically in volume tanks, or in
significant dollar savings. hydraulic accumulators. When power fails, the fail-
safe systems are triggered to drive the valves to
The range of actuator types and sizes on the mar- the required position and to then maintain this
ket today is so great that it seems the selection position until returned to normal operation. In
process might be highly complex. It is not! With a many cases the process pressure is used to en-
few rules in mind and knowledge of fundamental sure or enhance this action.
needs, the selection process can be very simple.
Actuator designs are available which allow a
The following parameters are key as they quickly choice of failure mode between failing open, failing
narrow the actuator choices: closed, or holding in the last position. Many actua-
tor systems incorporate failure modes at no extra
D Power Source Availability cost. For example, spring-and-diaphragm types
are inherently fail open or closed, while electric
D Fail-safe Requirements operators typically hold their last position.
www.Fisher.com
Torque or Thrust Requirements D Compatibility with instrument signal
An actuator must have sufficient thrust or torque D Better static and dynamic performance to
for the prescribed application. In some cases this ensure loop stability.
requirement can dictate actuator type as well as
power supply requirements. Compatibility with instrument signals is inherent in
many actuator types, or it can be obtained with
For instance, large valves requiring a high thrust add-on equipment. But, the high-performance
may be limited to only electric or electro-hydraulic characteristics required of a good throttling actua-
actuators due to a lack of pneumatic actuators tor cannot be bolted on; instead, low hysteresis
with sufficient thrust capability. Conversely, and minimal deadband must be designed into ac-
electro-hydraulic actuators would be a poor choice tuators.
for valves with very low thrust requirements.
Stroking speed, vibration, and temperature resist-
The matching of actuator capability with valve ance must also be considered if critical to the ap-
body requirements is best left to the control valve plication. For example, on liquid loops fast-stroking
manufacturer as there are considerable differ- speeds can be detrimental due to the possibility of
ences in frictional and fluid forces from valve to water hammer.
valve.
Vibration or mounting position can be a potential
problem. The actuator weight, combined with the
weight of the valve, may necessitate bracing.
22
Actuator Designs connections are rigid, they exhibit no lost motion
and have excellent inherent control characteristics.
There are many types of actuators on the market,
most of which fall into four general categories:
D Spring-and-diaphragm
D Pneumatic piston
Spring-and-Diaphragm Actuators
The most popular and widely used control valve
D Electric motor actuator is the pneumatic spring-and-diaphragm
style. These actuators are extremely simple and
D Electro-hydraulic. offer low cost and high reliability. They normally
operate over the standard signal ranges of 3 to 15
Each actuator design has weaknesses, strong psig (0.2 to 1 bar) or 6 to 30 psig (0.4 to 2.1 bar),
points and optimum uses. Most actuator designs and therefore, they are often suitable for throttling
are available for either sliding stem or rotary valve service using instrument signals directly.
bodies. They differ only by linkages or motion
translators; the basic power sources are identical. Many spring-and-diaphragm designs offer either
adjustable springs and/or wide spring selections to
Most rotary actuators employ linkages, gears, or allow the actuator to be tailored to the particular
crank arms to convert direct linear motion of a dia- application. Since they have few moving parts that
phragm or piston into the 90-degree output rota- may contribute to failure, they are extremely reli-
tion required by rotary valves. The most important able. Should they ever fail, maintenance is ex-
consideration for control valve actuators is the re- tremely simple. Improved designs now include
quirement for a design that limits the amount of mechanisms to control the release of spring com-
lost motion between internal linkage and valve pression, eliminating possible personnel injury dur-
coupling. ing actuator disassembly.
Rotary actuators are now available that employ Use of a positioner or booster with a spring-and-di-
tilting pistons or diaphragms. These designs elimi- aphragm actuator can improve control, but when
nate most linkage points (and resultant lost mo- improperly applied, can result in very poor control.
tion) and provide a safe, accurate and enclosed Follow the simple guidelines available for position-
package. er applications, and look for:
23
DIAPHRAGM CASING
DIAPHRAGM
DIAPHRAGM
PLATE
ACTUATOR SPRING
ACTUATOR STEM
SPRING SEAT
SPRING ADJUSTOR
STEM CONNECTOR
YOKE
INDICATOR SCALE
W0364-1
W0363-1
Figure 2-1. Spring-and-diaphragm actuators offer an excellent first choice for most control valves.
They are inexpensive, simple and have built-in, fail-safe action. Pictured above are cutaways of the popular
667 (left) and 657 (right) actuators.
Piston Actuators
Piston actuators are generally more compact and
W0368-2
provide higher torque or force outputs than spring-
and-diaphragm actuators. Fisher piston styles nor-
Figure 2-2. Spring-and-diaphragm actuators can mally work with supply pressures between 50 and
be supplied with a top-mounted handwheel. The 150 psig (3.4 and 10.3 bar) and can be equipped
handwheel allows manual operation and also acts
with spring returns (however, this construction has
as a travel stop or means of emergency operation.
limited application).
24
W9421-1
25
W3827
so does the deadband. As the number of sliding Figure 2-7. Since the requirements for accuracy
parts increases, so does the hysteresis. An actua- and minimal lost motion are unnecessary for on-off
tor with high hysteresis and deadband can be service, cost savings can be achieved by
quite suitable for on-off service; however, caution simplifying the actuator design. The 1066SR
is necessary when attempting to adapt this actua- incorporates spring-return capability.
tor to throttling service by merely bolting on a posi-
tioner. other power source is available, for use where
there are specialized thrust or stiffness require-
The cost of a spring-and-diaphragm actuator is ments or when highly precise control is required.
generally less than a comparable piston actuator.
The inherent provision for fail-safe action in the Electric operators are economical versus pneu-
spring-and-diaphragm actuator is also a consider- matic actuators for applications in small size
ation. ranges only. Larger units operate slowly and
weigh considerably more than pneumatic equiva-
lents. Available fail action is typically lock in last
position.
26
includes its own motor, pump, fluid reservoir, etc.
(this type of unit can be available with spring-re-
turn fail mode.) The external power supply unit
requires a separate motor, pump, reservoir, hy-
draulic hoses and other accessories. This type
requires an accumulator to achieve a fail mode.
Actuator Sizing
The last step in the selection process is to deter-
mine the required actuator size. Fundamentally,
the process of sizing is to match as closely as
possible the actuator capabilities to the valve re-
quirements.
W9933-2
In practice, the mating of actuator and valve re-
quires the consideration of many factors. Valve
Figure 2-8. Fisher D4 Control Valve with forces must be evaluated at the critical positions of
easy-Drive Electric Actuator valve travel (usually open and closed) and
compared to actuator output. Valve force calcula-
vices are capable of precise control and 100% tion varies considerably between valve styles and
duty cycles. manufacturers. In most cases it is necessary to
consider a complex summation of forces including:
Compared to other actuator designs, the electric
actuator generally provides the highest output D Static fluid forces
available within a given package size. Additionally,
electric actuators are very stiff, that is, resistant to D Dynamic fluid forces and force gradients
valve forces. This makes them an excellent choice
for good throttling control of large, high-pressure D Friction of seals, bearings and packing
valves.
D Seat loading
27
valves flow up and unbalanced valves in a flow Table 2-1. Typical Unbalance Areas of Control Valves
down configuration are listed in Table 2-1. Unbalance Area
Unbalance Area
Port Diameter, Single-Seated
Balanced Valves,
Inches Unbalanced
In2
Valves, In2
D. Additional Forces
Actuator Force Calculations
Pneumatic spring-and-diaphragm actuators pro-
vide a net force with the additional air pressure
after compressing the spring in air-to-close, or with
Additional forces to consider may include bellows the net pre-compression of the spring in air-to-
stiffness, unusual frictional forces resulting from open. This may be calculated in pounds per
seals or special seating forces for soft metal seals. square inch of pressure differential.
28
Table 2-3. Typical Packing Friction Values (Lb)
PTFE Packing Graphite
Stem Size ASME
Ribbon/
(Inches) Class Single Double Filament
5/16 All 20 30
3/8 125 38 56
150 125
250
300 190
600 250
900 320
1500 380
1/2 125 50 75
150 180
250
300 230
600 320
900 410
1500 500
2500 590
5/8 125 63 95
150 218
250
300 290
600 400
3/4 125 75 112.5
150 350
A2222-4
250
300 440
600 660
Figure 2-9. Recommended seat load. 900 880
1500 1100
2500 1320
For example: Suppose 275 lbf. is required to close 1 300 100 150 610
the valve as calculated per the process described 600 850
earlier. An air-to-open actuator with 100 square 900 1060
inches of diaphragm area and a bench set of 6 to 1500 1300
2500 1540
15 psig (0.4 to 1 bar) is one available option. The
11/4 300 120 180 800
expected operating range is 3 to 15 psig (0.2 to 1 600 1100
bar). The pre-compression can be calculated as 900 1400
the difference between the lower end of the bench 1500 1700
set, 6 psig (0.4 bar) and the beginning of the oper- 2500 2040
ating range, 3 psig (0.2 bar). This 3 psig is used to 2 300 200 300 1225
600 1725
overcome the pre-compression so the net pre-
900 2250
compression force must be: 1500 2750
2500 3245
3 psig X 100 sq. in. = 300 lbf. Values shown are frictional forces typically encountered when using standard
packing flange bolt-torquing procedures.
29
Table 2-4. Typical Rotary Shaft Valve Torque Factors V-Notch Ball Valve with Composition Seal
Valve Shaft A B C
Valve Size, Maximum TD,
Diameter, Composition
NPS 60 Degrees 70 Degrees LbfIn.
Inches Bearings
2 1/2 8 0.11 0.60 515
3 3/4 0.15 280 0.15 3.80 2120
4 3/4 0.10 380 1.10 18.0 2120
6 1 0.10 500 1.10 36.0 4140
8 11/4 750 3.80 60.0 9820
10 11/4 1250 3.80 125 9820
12 11/2 1.80 3000 11.0 143 12,000
14 13/4 4.00 2400 75 413 23,525
16 2 42 2800 105 578 23,525
18 21/8 60 2800 105 578 55,762
20 21/2 5200 190 1044 55,762
Tabel 2-5. Typical High Performance Butterfly Torque Factors for Valve with Composition Seal
Valve Shaft
Maximum Torque,
Size, Diameter A B C
InchPounds
NPS Inches
60_ 75_ 90_ Breakout TB Dynamic TD
3 1/2 0.50 136 0.8 1.8 8 280 515
4 5/8 0.91 217 3.1 4.7 25 476 225
6 3/4 1.97 403 30 24 70 965 2120
8 1 4.2 665 65 47 165 1860 4140
10 11/4 7.3 1012 125 90 310 3095 9820
12 11/2 11.4 1422 216 140 580 4670 12,000
This method assumes the valve has been properly Maximum Rotation
sized for the application and the application does
not exceed pressure limitations for the valve. Maximum rotation is defined as the angle of valve
disk or ball in the fully open position.
210
The Selection Process Safety is another consideration that must never be
overlooked. Enclosed linkages and controlled
In choosing an actuator type, the fundamental re- compression springs available in some designs
quirement is to know your application. Control sig- are very important for safety reasons. Table 2-6
nal, operating mode, power source available, below lists the pros and cons of the various actua-
thrust/torque required, and fail-safe position can tor styles.
make many decisions for you. Keep in mind sim-
plicity, maintainability and lifetime costs.
211
BYPASS
LEVER
ADJUSTING
NOZZLE SCREW BELLOWS
ROTARY
SHAFT
ARM
OPERATING
CAM
W4920
Figure 2-11. The standard pneumatic positioner
for spring-and-diaphragm actuators is Fisher 3582.
This time-proven design features ease for reversal
Figure 2-10. The 3620JP is an electro-pneumatic
and calibration as well as availability of character-
positioner that combines the functions of transduc-
izing cams to alter its input/output relationship.
er and positioner into one unit. The combustion
unit generally is more economical but may not be
as flexible as separate units.
212
W9262-1
X0214-1
X0206
213
W9954-1
214
Chapter 3
www.Fisher.com
3. Determine Fp , the piping geometry factor. be sized. If such fittings are attached to the valve,
the Fp factor must be considered in the sizing pro-
Fp is a correction factor that accounts for pressure
cedure. If, however, no fittings are attached to the
losses due to piping fittings such as reducers, el-
valve, Fp has a value of 1.0 and simply drops out
bows, or tees that might be attached directly to the
of the sizing equation.
inlet and outlet connections of the control valve to
32
Table 3-2. Equation Constants(1)
N w q p(2) g T d, D
0.0865 --- m3/h kPa --- --- ---
N1 0.865 --- m3/h bar --- --- ---
1.00 --- gpm psia --- --- ---
0.00214 --- --- --- --- --- mm
N2
890 --- --- --- --- --- inch
0.00241 --- --- --- --- --- mm
N5
1000 --- --- --- --- --- inch
2.73 kg/h --- kPa kg/m3 --- ---
N6 27.3 kg/h --- bar kg/m3 --- ---
63.3 lb/h --- psia lb/ft3 --- ---
Normal Conditions 3.94 --- m3/h kPa --- deg K ---
TN = 0_C 394 --- m3/h bar --- deg K ---
Standard Conditions 4.17 --- m3/h kPa --- deg K ---
N7(3)
Ts = 15.5_C 417 --- m3/h bar --- deg K ---
Standard Conditions
1360 --- scfh psia --- deg R ---
Ts = 60_F
0.948 kg/h --- kPa --- deg K ---
N8 94.8 kg/h --- bar --- deg K ---
19.3 lb/h --- psia --- deg R ---
Normal Conditions 21.2 --- m3/h kPa --- deg K ---
TN = 0_C 2120 --- m3/h bar --- deg K ---
Standard Conditions 22.4 --- m3/h kPa --- deg K ---
N9(3)
Ts = 15.5_C 2240 --- m3/h bar --- deg K ---
Standard Conditions
7320 --- scfh psia --- deg R ---
TS = 60_F
1. Many of the equations used in these sizing procedures contain a numerical constant, N, along with a numerical
subscript. These numerical constants provide a means for using different units in the equations. Values for the
various constants and the applicable units are given in the above table. For example, if the flow rate is given in U.S.
gpm and the pressures are psia, N1 has a value of 1.00. If the flow rate is m3/hr and the pressures are kPa, the N1
constant becomes 0.0865.
2. All pressures are absolute.
3. Pressure base is 101.3 kPa (1.013 bar)(14.7 psia).
For rotary valves with reducers (swaged installa- of choked flow conditions, it can be calculated us-
tions), and other valve designs and fitting styles, ing the procedure for determining qmax, the Maxi-
determine the Fp factors by using the procedure mum Flow Rate, or Pmax, the Allowable Sizing
for Determining Fp, the Piping Geometry Factor, Pressure Drop. If it can be recognized that choked
page 3-4. flow conditions will not develop within the valve,
Pmax need not be calculated.
4. Determine qmax (the maximum flow rate at
given upstream conditions) or DPmax (the allow- 5. Solve for required Cv , using the appropriate
able sizing pressure drop). equation:
33
6. Select the valve size using the appropriate flow where,
coefficient table and the calculated Cv value.
d = Nominal valve size
Determining Piping Geometry
D = Internal diameter of piping
Factor (Fp)
Determine an Fp factor if any fittings such as re- If the inlet and outlet piping are of equal size, then
ducers, elbows, or tees will be directly attached to the Bernoulli coefficients are also equal, KB1 =
the inlet and outlet connections of the control KB2, and therefore they are dropped from the
valve that is to be sized. When possible, it is rec- equation.
ommended that Fp factors be determined experi-
mentally by using the specified valve in actual The most commonly used fitting in control valve
tests. installations is the short-length concentric reducer.
The equations for this fitting are as follows:
Calculate the Fp factor using the following equa-
tion. D For an inlet reducer
*12
2 2
2
1 ) SK 2v K1 + 0.5 1 * d 2
C
Fp +
N2 d D
2
N2 = Numerical constant found in the Equation 2
K2 + 1.0 1 * d 2
Constants table D
d = Assumed nominal valve size D For a valve installed between identical reduc-
ers
Cv = Valve sizing coefficient at 100-percent
travel for the assumed valve size
2
2
K1 ) K 2 + 1.5 1 * d 2
In the above equation, the SK term is the algebra- D
ic sum of the velocity head loss coefficients of all
of the fittings that are attached to the control
valve.
SK = K1 + K2 + KB1 KB2
Determining Maximum
where, Flow Rate (qmax)
K1 = Resistance coefficient of upstream fittings Determine either qmax or DPmax if it is possible for
choked flow to develop within the control valve
K2 = Resistance coefficient of downstream fit- that is to be sized. The values can be determined
tings by using the following procedures.
The Bernoulli coefficients, KB1 and KB2, are used Values for FF, the liquid critical pressure ratio fac-
only when the diameter of the piping approaching tor, can be obtained from figure 3-1, or from the
the valve is different from the diameter of the pip- following equation:
ing leaving the valve, whereby:
KB1 or KB2 = 1 d D
4
FF + 0.96 * 0.28 PP v
c
34
Figure 3-1. Liquid critical pressure ratio factor for water.
Values of FL, the recovery factor for rotary valves Determining Allowable Sizing
installed without fittings attached, can be found in
published coefficient tables. If the given valve is to Pressure Drop (DPmax )
be installed with fittings such as reducer attached
to it, FL in the equation must be replaced by the DPmax (the allowable sizing pressure drop) can be
quotient FLP/Fp, where: determined from the following relationships:
) F1
*12
2
K 1 Cv
FLP +
N2 d2 L
2
DPmax(L) + F L 2P 1 * F F Pv
K1 = K1 + KB1
FF P * F
2
DPmax(LP) + LP
1 F P V
P
where,
where,
K1 = Resistance coefficient of upstream fittings
(See the procedure for Determining Fp, the Piping P2= Downstream absolute static pressure
Geometry Factor, for definitions of the other
constants and coefficients used in the above Pv = Absolute vapor pressure at inlet tempera-
equations.) ture
35
Figure 3-2. Liquid critical pressure ratio factor for liquids other than water.
Values of FF, the liquid critical pressure ratio fac- mine whether the choked flow is
tor, can be obtained from figure 3-1 or from the caused by cavitation or flashing.
following equation: The choked flow conditions are
caused by flashing if the outlet pres-
FF + 0.96 * 0.28 PP v
c
sure of the given valve is less than
the vapor pressure of the flowing
liquid. The choked flow conditions
An explanation of how to calculate values of FLP, are caused by cavitation if the outlet
the recovery factor for valves installed with fittings pressure of the valve is greater than
attached, is presented in the preceding procedure the vapor pressure of the flowing
Determining qmax (the Maximum Flow Rate). liquid.
36
D Process fluidliquid propane where,
*12
2
DP = 25 psi (1.7 bar)
Fp + 1 ) 1.11 121
890 3 2
T1 = 70_F (21_C
Gf = 0.50
+ 0.90
Pv = 124.3 psia
4. Determine DPmax (the Allowable Sizing Pres-
Pc = 616.3 psia
sure Drop.)
2. Use an N1 value of 1.0 from the Equation
Constants table.
Based on the small required pressure drop, the
flow will not be choked (DPmax > DP).
3. Determine Fp , the piping geometry factor.
*12
2 N 1F P
1 ) SK 2v
C Gf
Fp +
N2 d
where, + 800
(1.0)(0.90) 0.5
25
2
(3)2 Assuming a NPS 4 valve, Cv = 203. This value
+ 1.5 1 *
(8)2 was determined from the flow coefficient table for
an ASME CL300, NPS 4 globe valve with an equal
+ 1.11 percentage cage.
37
Recalculate the required Cv using an assumed Cv This solution indicates only that the NPS 4 valve is
value of 203 in the Fp calculation. large enough to satisfy the service conditions giv-
en. There may be cases, however, where a more
where, accurate prediction of the Cv is required. In such
cases, the required Cv should be redetermined
SK + K1 ) K2 using a new Fp value based on the Cv value ob-
tained above. In this example, Cv is 121.7, which
leads to the following result:
2
2
+ 1.5 1 * d 2
D
*12
2
1.0 ) SK 2v
C
2
Fp +
+ 1.5 1 * 16 N2 d
64
+ 0.84
*12
*12
2
+ 0.97
1.0 ) SK 2v
C
Fp +
N2 d
The required Cv then becomes:
*12
2 q
+ 1.0 ) 0.84 203 Cv +
890 4 2
N 1F p P *P
1
Gf
2
+ 0.93
+ 800
and (1.0)(0.97) 0.5
25
q
Cv + + 116.2
N 1F p P *P
1
Gf
2
38
Chapter 4
Sizing Valves for Compressible constants and their applicable units are given in
the Equation Constants Table 3-2 in Chapter 3.
Fluids
Following is a six-step procedure for the sizing of
Use either N7 or N9 if sizing the valve for a flow
control valves for compressible flow using the ISA
rate in volumetric units (scfh or m3/h). Which of
standardized procedure. Each of these steps is
the two constants to use depends upon the speci-
important and must be considered during any
fied service conditions. N7 can be used only if the
valve sizing procedure. Steps 3 and 4 concern the
specific gravity, Gg, of the following gas has been
determination of certain sizing factors that may or
specified along with the other required service
may not be required in the sizing equation de-
conditions. N9 can be used only if the molecular
pending on the service conditions of the sizing
weight, M, of the gas has been specified.
problem. If it is necessary for one or both of these
sizing factors to be included in the sizing equation
for a particular sizing problem, refer to the ap- Use either N6 or N8 if sizing the valve for a flow
propriate factor determination section(s), which is rate in mass units (lb/h or kg/h). Which of the two
referenced and located in the following text.4- constants to use depends upon the specified ser-
vice conditions. N6 can be used only if the specific
1. Specify the necessary variables required to weight, g1, of the flowing gas has been specified
size the valve as follows: along with the other required service conditions.
N8 can be used only if the molecular weight, M, of
D Desired valve design (e.g. balanced globe the gas has been specified.
with linear cage)
D Process fluid (air, natural gas, steam, etc.) 3. Determine Fp , the piping geometry factor.
and
2. Determine the equation constant, N. Also, for rotary valves with reducers and other
valve designs and fitting styles, determine the Fp
N is a numerical constant contained in each of the factors by using the procedure for Determining Fp
flow equations to provide a means for using differ- the Piping Geometry Factor, which is located on
ent systems of units. Values for these various page 3-4 in Chapter 3.
www.Fisher.com
4. Determine Y, the expansion factor, as follows: q
Cv +
x
N 7 Fp P 1 Y x
Gg T 1 Z
Y+1*
3F k x T
where,
D If the molecular weight, M, of the gas has
Fk = k/1.4, the ratio of specific heats factor been specified:
k = Ratio of specific heats
y+1* x + 1 * 13 + 0.667
3F k x T Cv + w
D If the specific gravity, Gg, of the gas has 6. Select the valve size using the appropriate flow
been specified: coefficient table and the calculated Cv value.
42
Determining xTP, the Pressure 1. Specify the necessary variables required to
size the valve:
Drop Ratio Factor
D Desired valve designFisher V250 valve
If the control valve is to be installed with attached
fittings such as reducers or elbows, then their ef- D Process fluidNatural gas
fect is accounted for in the expansion factor equa-
tion by replacing the xT term with a new factor, D Service conditions
xTP.
P1 = 200 psig (14 bar) = 214.7 psia
*1
2
xT x T Ki C v P2 = 50 psig (3.4 bar) = 64.7 psia
x TP + 1)
Fp 2 N5 d 2
DP = 150 psig (10.3 bar)
Determine the size and percent opening for a x = 0.70 (This was calculated in step 1.)
Fisher V250 ball valve operating with the following
service conditions. Assume that the valve and line Since conditions of critical pressure drop are real-
size are equal. ized when the calculated value of x becomes
43
equal to or exceeds the appropriate value of FkxT, 6.0 x 106
+
these values should be compared. 13601.0214.70.667 0.237
(0.6)(520)(1.0)
44
1. Specify the necessary variables required to and
size the valve:
SK + K1 ) K2
a. Desired valve designASME CL300 De-
2
sign ED valve with a linear cage. Assume valve 2
size is NPS 4. + 1.5 1 * d 2
D
b. Process fluidsuperheated steam 2
2
+ 1.5 1 * 4 2
6
c. Service conditions
+ 0.463
w = 125,000 lb/h
Finally:
P1 = 500 psig (34 bar) = 514.7 psia
*12
+1 ) 0.463
P2 = 250 psig (17 bar) = 264.7 psia
Fp
(1.0)(236)
2
+ 0.95
x = DP/P1 = 250/514.7 = 0.49
Y+1* x
g1 = 1.0434 lb/ft3 (from Properties of Satu- 3F k x TP
rated Steam table)
where,
k= 1.28 (from Properties of Saturated Steam
table)
Fk + k
1.40
2. Determine the appropriate equation constant,
N, from the Equation Constants Table 3-2 in +
1, 28
Chapter 3. 1.40
*1
2
x x K C
3. Determine Fp , the piping geometry factor. x TP + T2 1 ) T i 2v
Fp N5 d
*12
2
where,
1 ) SK 2v
C
Fp +
N2 d
N5 = 1000, from the Equation Constants table
where, d = 4 inches
Cv = 236, which is the value listed in the flow Cv = 236, from step 3
coefficient Table 4-2 for a NPS 4 ED valve at
100-percent total travel. and
45
Ki + K 1 ) K B1 + 0.73
+ 0.5 1 * d2
D2
2
) 1* d
D
4
5. Solve for required Cv using the appropriate
equation.
w
Cv +
2 4
N 6 FP Y x P 1 g1
2
+ 0.5 1 * 4 2 ) 1* 4
6 6
125, 000
Cv +
+ 0.96 (63.3)(0.95)(0.73) (0.49)(514.7)(1.0434)
*1
0.690.96 236 2 Refer to the flow coefficient Table 4-2 for ED
XTP + 0.692 1 + 0.67 valves with linear cage. Because the assumed
0.95 1000 42
NPS 4 valve has a Cv of 236 at 100-percent travel
and the next smaller size (NPS 3) has a Cv of only
Finally: 148, it can be surmised that the assumed size is
correct. In the event that the calculated required
Y+1* x Cv had been small enough to have been handled
3 F k x TP by the next smaller size, or if it had been larger
than the rated Cv for the assumed size, it would
0.49 have been necessary to rework the problem again
+1*
(3) (0.91) (0.67) using values for the new assumed size.
46
Table 4-1. Representative Sizing Coefficients for Rotary Shaft Valves
Valve Degrees of
Size Valve Style Valve Cv FL XT FD
(NPS) Opening
1 VNotch Ball Valve 60 . 15.6 0.86 0.53
90 34.0 0.86 0.42
1 1/2 VNotch Ball Valve 60 28.5 0.85 0.50
90 77.3 0.74 0.27
2 VNotch Ball Valve 60 59.2 0.81 0.53
90 132 0.77 0.41
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 58.9 0.76 0.50 0.49
90 80.2 0.71 0.44 0.70
3 VNotch Ball Valve 60 120 0.80 0.50 0.92
90 321 0.74 0.30 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 115 0.81 0.46 0.49
90 237 0.64 0.28 0.70
4 VNotch Ball Valve 60 195 0.80 0.52 0.92
90 596 0.62 0.22 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 270 0.69 0.32 0.49
90 499 0.53 0.19 0.70
6 VNotch Ball Valve 60 340 0.80 0.52 0.91
90 1100 0.58 0.20 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 664 0.66 0.33 0.49
90 1260 0.55 0.20 0.70
8 VNotch Ball Valve 60 518 0.82 0.54 0.91
90 1820 0.54 0.18 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 1160 0.66 0.31 0.49
90 2180 0.48 0.19 0.70
10 VNotch Ball Valve 60 1000 0.80 0.47 0.91
90 3000 0.56 0.19 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 1670 0.66 0.38 0.49
90 3600 0.48 0.17 0.70
12 VNotch Ball Valve 60 1530 0.78 0.49 0.92
90 3980 0.63 0.25 0.99
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 2500 0.49
90 5400 0.70
16 VNotch Ball Valve 60 2380 0.80 0.45 0.92
90 8270 0.37 0.13 1.00
High Performance Butterfly Valve 60 3870 0.69 0.40
90 8600 0.52 0.23
47
Table 4-2. Representative Sizing Coefficients for Design ED SinglePorted Globe Style Valve Bodies
Rated
Valve Size Port Dia.
Valve Plug Style Flow Characteristic Travel CV FL XT FD
(NPS) (in.)
(in.)
1/2 Post Guided Equal Percentage 0.38 0.50 2.41 0.90 0.54 0.61
3/4 Post Guided Equal Percentage 0.56 0.50 5.92 0.84 0.61 0.61
Micro Formt Equal Percentage 3/8 3/4 3.07 0.89 0.66 0.72
1/2 3/4 4.91 0.93 0.80 0.67
1 3/4 3/4 8.84 0.97 0.92 0.62
Cage Guided Linear 1 5/16 3/4 20.6 0.84 0.64 0.34
Equal Percentage 1 5/16 3/4 17.2 0.88 0.67 0.38
MicroFormt Equal Percentage 3/8 3/4 3.20 0.84 0.65 0.72
1/2 3/4 5.18 0.91 0.71 0.67
1 1/2 3/4 3/4 10.2 0.92 0.80 0.62
Cage Guided Linear 1 7/8 3/4 39.2 0.82 0.66 0.34
Equal Percentage 1 7/8 3/4 35.8 0.84 0.68 0.38
Cage Guided Linear 2 5/16 1 1/8 72.9 0.77 0.64 0.33
2
Equal Percentage 2 5/16 1 1/8 59.7 0.85 0.69 0.31
Cage Guided Linear 3 7/16 1 1/2 148 0.82 0.62 0.30
3
Equal Percentage 136 0.82 0.68 0.32
Cage Guided Linear 4 3/8 2 236 0.82 0.69 0.28
4
Equal Percentage 224 0.82 0.72 0.28
Cage Guided Linear 7 2 433 0.84 0.74 0.28
6
Equal Percentage 394 0.85 0.78 0.26
Cage Guided Linear 8 3 846 0.87 0.81 0.31
8
Equal Percentage 818 0.86 0.81 0.26
48
Chapter 5
Noise Control
In closed systems (not vented to atmosphere),
any noise produced in the process becomes air-
borne only by transmission through the valves and
adjacent piping that contain the flowstream. The
sound field in the flowstream forces these solid
boundaries to vibrate. The vibrations cause distur-
bances in the ambient atmosphere that propagate
as sound waves.5-
This trim design can reduce the valve noise as D Exit jet independence that avoids noise re-
much as 40 dBA by utilizing a combination of sev- generation due to jet coalescence.
eral noise reduction strategies: D Velocity management is accomplished with
expanding areas to accommodate the expanding
D Unique passage shape that reduces the con- gas.
version of total stream power generated by the
valve into noise power. D Complementary body designs that avoid flow
impingement on the body wall and secondary
noise sources.
D Multistage pressure reduction that divides the
stream power between stages and further reduces For control valve applications operating at high
the acoustic conversion efficiency. pressure ratios (nP/P1 > 0.8) the series restriction
www.Fisher.com
W2618
52
based only on the measurable geometry of the
valve and the service conditions applied to the
valve.
53
The pipe wall has physical characteristics, due to
its material, size, and shape, that define how well
the noise will transmit through the pipe. The fluid-
borne noise inside the pipe must interact with the
inside pipe wall to cause the pipe wall to vibrate,
then the vibration must transmit through the pipe
wall to the outside pipe wall, and there the outside
pipe wall must interact with the atmosphere to
generate sound waves. These three steps of noise
transmission are dependent on the noise frequen-
cy. The method determines the pipe transmission
loss as a function of frequency. The method then
compares the internal noise spectrum and the
transmission-loss spectrum to determine how
much the external sound pressure will be atte-
nuated by the pipe wall. W6851
W6343
Hydrodynamic Figure 5-7. Ball-Style Valve with Attenuator to
Reduce Hydrodynamic Noise
Noticeable hydrodynamic noise is usually associ-
ated with cavitation. The traditional description of
the sound is as if rocks were flowing inside the
pipe. This association of hydrodynamic noise with
cavitation is reflected in the various prediction
methods available today. The methods account for Noise Summary
one noise characteristic for liquids in non-choked
flow situations and another characteristic in The amount of noise that will be generated by a
choked, cavitating flow situations. proposed control valve installation can be quickly
and reasonably predicted by use of industry stan-
dard methods. These methods are available in
There are a variety of situations where the fluid is computer software for ease of use. Such sizing
a two-phase mixture. These include liquid-gas and noise prediction tools help in the proper selec-
two-phase fluids at the inlet of the valve, flashing tion of noise reduction equipment such as shown
fluids, and fluids that demonstrate out-gassing due in Figures 5-6 and 5-7. Process facility require-
to throttling. Noise prediction methods for these ments for low environmental impact will continue
cases are not yet well established. Test results to drive the need for quieter control valves. The
and field surveys of installed multi-phase systems prediction technologies and valve designs that de-
indicate these noise levels do not contribute to liver this are always being improved. For the latest
overall plant noise levels or exceed worker expo- in either equipment or prediction technology, con-
sure levels. tact the valve manufacturers representative.
54
Chapter 6
Cavitation and a related issue, flashing, are hydro- To understand the conditions in a control valve
dynamic flow phenomena that began to receive that can cause cavitation or flashing, consider the
recognition as technical engineering problems in simple restriction shown in Figure 6-1. In this fig-
the early 1900s. At that time, observations led to ure the pressure of the liquid, P, is plotted as a
the conclusion that vaporization of water in the function of the distance, x, through the simple re-
vicinity of high-speed propellers was responsible striction shown at the top of the figure. Figure 6-2
for a decrease in their effectiveness. This liquid is a plot of the velocity, V, of the liquid versus the
vaporization was defined later as cavitation. 6- distance, x, as it relates to the pressure profile.
www.Fisher.com
the pressure profile (Figure 6-1) of flow through a
FLOW
fixed restriction in relationship to the vapor pres-
sure of the liquid. Figure 6-3 shows this relation-
P2
P1 ship and graphically defines the difference be-
tween cavitation and flashing.
62
E0110
Figure 6-3. Pressure recovery above the vapor
pressure of the liquid results in cavitation. Figure 6-4. The Pallowable equation will predict
Remaining below the vapor pressure the occurrence of fully choked flow
incures flashing.
In order for a liquid to cavitate at or near the vapor This relationship suggests that increasing the
pressure of the liquid, it is necessary to have a pressure differential across the restriction can con-
place for the cavity to form. Often this is a small tinually increase the flow rate. However, in prac-
bubble of an entrained noncondensible gas in the tice the relationship begins to break down when a
liquid. These nuclei must be of a certain minimum sufficient amount of the vapor phase (produced in
size in order to explosively grow or cavitate. This the cavitation process) is formed. Less of a flow
process of initiating bubble formation is known as increase is realized for the same pressure differ-
nucleation. ential increase (at a given P1), until finally the flow
remains constant despite an increase in the pres-
sure drop. Figure 6-4 portrays this choking phe-
Once the bubble is formed, it proceeds across the nomenon graphically.
reduced pressure region and grows in response to
the continually decreasing pressure and increasing
The exact mechanisms of liquid choking are not
liquid vaporization. This portion of the bubble cycle
fully confirmed, although there are parallels be-
is known as the growth portion. Eventually, the
tween it and critical flow in gas applications. In
pressure recovery halts the growth of the bubble
gas flows, the flow chokes when the flow velocity
and forces it to collapse which is the third event in
is equal to the acoustic wave speed (sonic veloc-
the bubble cycle.
ity).
Under certain circumstances, several growth and For pure liquids (incompressible fluids) the acous-
collapse cycles can occur in a series of rebounds. tic wave speed is very high. In liquids that partially
vaporize, however, the fluid is actually a two-
There are four primary negative side effects of phase mixture and typically has a very low acous-
cavitation: excessive noise, excessive vibration, tic wave speed (actually lower than that of a pure
material damage, and deterioration of flow effec- gas). Therefore, it is possible for the mixture ve-
63
locity to become equal to the sonic velocity and
choke the flow.
Material Damage
Cavitation damage is usually the most trouble-
some negative side effect plaguing the control
valve industry. It does not take many examples of
such damage to fully demonstrate the destructive
capabilities of cavitation.
64
E0111
Figure 6-7. The implosion of cavitation vapor cavities is rapid, asymmetric and very energetic. The mechanics of
collapse give rise to high velocity liquid jets, which impinge on metallic surfaces. Ultimately, the metal fatigues
and breaks away in small pieces.
liquid drop impingement comparisons, and various tack component and effectively reduce the total
analytical studies support its presence. damage.
The second type of mechanical attackshock Pressure effects also exhibit two opposing trends.
wave impingementdoes not appear to be as Given a fixed inlet pressure P1, decreasing the
dominant. Analytical estimations of vapor bubble backpressure P2 tends to increase the number of
collapse pressures do not suggest that the shock cavities formed, which creates a worse situation.
waves are on a damaging order of magnitudeat However, a lower backpressure also creates a
least during the initial collapse. Experimental stud- lower collapse pressure differential (P2 - Pv), re-
ies bear this out. They also reveal that resulting sulting in a decrease in the intensity of the cavita-
collapse pressures increase in magnitude with tion.
subsequent rebound collapses and become poten-
tially damaging. An additional pressure effect unrelated to the
above concerns the location of damage. As the
The other primary component of attack, chemical backpressure is changed, the pressure required to
attack, is perhaps more significant since it inter- collapse the cavities moves upstream or down-
acts with the mechanical component, rather than stream, depending on whether the pressure is in-
acting by itself. After a period of mechanical attack creased or decreased, respectively. In addition to
many of the protective coatings of a material, a change in the severity of the total damage, there
(films, oxides, etc.) are physically removed, mak- may be an accompanying change in the physical
ing the base material more vulnerable to chemical location of the damage when pressure conditions
attack. are altered.
Just as a number of variables have an effect on It should now be apparent that the cavitation and
the behavior of individual cavities, so too there are flashing damage process is a complex function of:
influences affecting the degree and extent of ma-
terial damage. The principal influences include 1. Intensity and degree of cavitation (cavitation
such variables as air content, pressure, velocity, attack)
and temperature.
2. Material of construction (material response)
Air content impacts cavitation damage primarily
through its effect on cavity mechanics, as pre-
viously discussed. Again, two opposing trends are 3. Time of exposure
evident on increasing the amount of air. Adding air
supplies more entrained air nuclei, which in turn While the above-mentioned influences have been
produce more cavities that can increase the total observed, they remain to be quantified. Often, ex-
damage. After a point, however, continued in- perience is the best teacher when it comes to try-
creases in air content disrupt the mechanical at- ing to quantify cavitation damage.
65
Noise
Although the noise associated with a cavitating
liquid can be quite high, it is usually of secondary RESTRICTED-TRIM
concern when compared to the material damage ADAPTOR
that can exist. Therefore, high intensity cavitation
should be prevented to decrease the chance of
material damage. If cavitation is prevented, the
noise associated with the liquid flow will be less
than 90 dBA.
66
W8359
Figure 6-9. Rotary plug valves, such as the Design V500 (reverse flow trim direction, trim level 3) have excellent
erosion resistance and perform well in flashing service.
they all exhibit roughly the same hardness. In popular alternative. Experience indicates that WC9
fact, Alloy 6 equals or exceeds the performance performs on par with C5 in cavitation and flashing
of many materials with hardnesses of 60 HRC and services despite its lower chromium content
higher. The superior performance of Alloy 6 is (2-1/4% vs. 5%). This is apparently because its
attributed to a built-in energy-absorbing mecha- higher molybdenum content (1% vs 1/2%) makes
nism shared by a number of cobalt-base alloys. up for the lower chromium content.
However, Alloy 6 is not without its weaknesses; in
many amine-treated feedwater applications, Alloy While angle bodies are a better choice for flashing
6 suffers accelerated attack by an erosion-corro- applications than globe bodies, they are also a
sion mechanism (see Alloy 6 Corrosion in Chap- more economical choice in most cases. The rea-
ter 10 for more information). son is that carbon steel bodies can be used in an
angle valve with an optional hardened downstream
Materials commonly used for flashing and cavitat- liner, (17-4PH SST, Alloy 6,etc.) since only the
ing services are Alloy 6 (solid and overlays), nick- downstream portion of the valve will experience
el-chromium-boron alloys (solid and overlays), the flashing liquid. See Figure 6-8. If a globe valve
hardened 440C stainless steel, hardened 17-4 is used, it is better to use a chromium-molyb-
stainless steel, and hardened 410/416 stainless denum alloy steel body since the flashing will oc-
steel. cur within the body itself.
67
D Expanding flow area
D Characterized cage
68
be passed and to control cavitation up to pressure
drops of 4000 psig (275 bar).
Characterized Cages
The characterized cage design theory has evolved
from the fact that capacity is inversely related to a
designs ability to prevent cavitation. In those ap-
plications where the pressure drop decreases as
the flow rate increases, characterized cages can
be used to optimize cavitation prevention and ca-
pacity.
The Cavitrol trim hole design is a balance between Separate Seating and Throttling
the thick plate and the thin plate hole designs. It
provides a relatively high flow efficiency while still Locations
maintaining a high FL2, which results in a low pres-
Most cavitating applications require a control valve
sure recovery. This design represents the optimal
to not only provide cavitation control, but also pro-
choice between capacity and cavitation control.
vide tight shutoff. The best way to accomplish this
is to separate the throttling location from the seat-
Other benefits of this type of drilled hole design is ing location as shown in Figure 6-12. The seating
that the vena contracta point is further from the surface of the plug is upstream of the throttling
exit of the hole when compared to a straight location, and the upper cage is designed such that
through drilled hole. Therefore, if pressure recov- it takes very little pressure drop. The seating sur-
ery above the vapor pressure occurs (cavitation), face experiences relatively low flow velocities
it will do so further away from the external wall of since velocity is inversely related to pressure. A
the cage, and the amount of damage will be recent technological advancement has been to
smaller. implement the use of a softer seating material rel-
ative to the material of the plug. This allows for a
One disadvantage of cavitation control trims is the slight deformation of the seating material, which
potential for flow passages to become plugged. provides much better plug/seat contact and hence
The flowing media often times contains small par- greatly enhanced shutoff capability. Valves utiliz-
ticulate such as sand that can plug the passages, ing this soft seating material are capable of provid-
restricting or totally stopping flow through the ing Class VI shutoff.
valve. If this potential exists, the particles must be
removed from the flow stream, usually by filtration,
or an alternative approach to cavitation should be
taken.
Cavitation Control Hardware
An alternative is to use a trim that is designed to Alternatives
allow the particulate to pass, but still control cavi-
tation. The Fisher Dirty Service Trim (DST) has The previous section dealt with the theories be-
been designed to allow particles up to 3/4inch to hind modern types of cavitation control hardware.
69
drops must occur is to use a standard trim control
valve with a downstream backpressure device.
Although these devices come in various sizes,
shapes, and designs, they all perform the same
function of lowering the pressure drop across the
control valve by raising its downstream pressure.
610
D Cavitation must be controlled because it po- D Either system changes or valve hardware
tentially damages valves and piping and creates changes can solve cavitation. Prevention and con-
noise and vibration in piping systems. trol by use of specialized valve designs is most
effective. Material substitutions are helpful, but
D Flashing is a related liquid phenomenon aris- limited in long term effectiveness.
ing from similar circumstances. With flashing,
however, vapor bubbles remain in the fluid stream
rather than collapsing.
D Valve recovery coefficients are used along
D Flashing is a system situation that cannot be with system and fluid parameters to predict the
prevented by valve selection. Use of designs and presence of cavitation and choked flow. Experi-
materials that resist erosion will generally solve ence gives guidance on sizing and how to avoid
problems related to flashing. problems.
611
612
Section 2:
Crude oil and natural gas are naturally occurring techniques for the production of oil and gas. This
hydrocarbons found in rock formations below the chapter, however, will solely discuss the methods
earths surface, called reservoirs. Crude oil is a used for conventional onshore production; includ-
liquid fossil fuel that is a mixture of many different ing well head production, initial separation, gather-
hydrocarbon liquids. Natural gas is also a fossil ing, and gas compression.
fuel that is a mixture of compressible hydrocarbon
gases. Also discussed are the control valve selections in
conventional onshore production. Onshore pro-
Conventional onshore production simply consists duction scale and scope varies widely between
of bringing trapped oil and gas located in reser- sites, however, the methods and equipment used
voirs that can be accessed on land to the surface at each site are very similar, so control valve se-
in order to be further processed. The natural gas lection is largely independent of site scale and
produced leads to further processing in a natural scope.
gas plant (discussed in Chapter nine), and the oil
produced leads to additional downstream pro-
cessing in a refinery (refinery processes and ap-
plication reviews can be found in the refinery
sourcebook). Onshore Production Process
There are numerous production geographies, mul- Figure 7-1 shows the general process flow typical
tiple recovery methods, and many processing of onshore production.
www.Fisher.com
Firstly, oil and gas is removed from a reservoir via 2. Crude oil treatment and preparation for distri-
a well site. The fluid produced, called raw fluid, is bution
comprised of oil, gas, water, and varying amounts
of undesired products. The produced mixture is 3. Gas dehydration and compression
then gathered through a manifold system and
transported to a separation site. The mixture 4. Water treatment and injection
enters the separation facility through separator
vessels that use simple gravity driven technology
to separate the gas, oil, and water mixture. The Oil, Gas, and Water Separation
separated gas is commonly compressed and Separation of the fluid produced from the produc-
transported to a nearby gas plant and the crude oil tion wells and gathered can be accomplished by a
is transported to a refinery. Oil and gas transporta- combination of slug catchers, KO drums, scrub-
tion is discussed in Chapter ten. Specific details of bers, and gravity separators. The majority of sep-
the entire well to pipeline process will be examined aration, however, is performed by standard gravity
in the following sections. assisted equipment. For the purposes of this
chapter, we will discuss only this type of
separator.
Well Site and Gathering System
Commonly there are two or more separators in
Production at a well site involves a pressurized
wells release of fluid. A varying number of produ- series that allow for optimal separation of natural
gas, oil, and water. The separator pressure classi-
cing wells, when lumped together, form a well pad
fication for a given vessel is defined by the pres-
and many well pads feed the gathering and separ-
sure rating capabilities of the separator. High pres-
ation systems. Also known as a trunk and lateral
sure vessels are typically rated to ASME CL600,
system, this system is located relatively close to
intermediate pressure vessels are typically rated
the individual well sites and is more or less used to
to ASME CL300 and low pressure vessels are typ-
collect the raw production into one pipeline system
ically rated to ASME CL150. The first separator in
for advancement to the separation site.
the series will always be rated the highest, with
each one thereafter typically reducing to a lower
pressure rating until the fluids reach ambient pres-
Separation Site sures. The number of stages depends on the
The main purpose of the separation site is for the pressure of the production field, however, most
separation of the constituents in the fluid produced will have a high, intermediate, and low pressure
at the well sites. A separation site may be used for separator.
a single well or serve multiple wells. It may also be
referred to as a gas oil separation plant (GOSP), The inlet separator provides a significant cut in the
among other broad terms such as gathering cen- plants inlet pressure. This separator is ideal for
ter, flow station, and central processing facility. smoothing out surging liquid flows. In virtually all
instances, unprocessed raw production media,
including its multiple unwanted components, will
A separation site can utilize varying amounts of
enter the first stage separator. The process equip-
process equipment (type and quantity) depending
ment, including inlet and outlet valves must be
on production scale, fluid behavior, fluid character-
suited for handling production that contains sand
istics, and/or selection preference. Equipment can
and other sediment. First stage outlet oil flow will
include gravity separators, emulsion heater treat-
then enter the second stage separation area.
ers, storage tanks, and test separator units to
name a few. Depending on total well recovery,
The second stage separation will follow a similar
customer preference, etc., a single well site may
process flow to that of the first stage separation,
include all of the before mentioned equipment.
but will simply work from a reduced inlet pressure.
Most second stage flow is via the outlet of the first
Despite the differences in separation sites, the stage separation process, but may also have in-
final goal of each facility is very similar; to separ- corporated low pressure manifold flow that has
ate oil and natural gases from the raw fluid and bypassed initial stage separation. The second
prepare it for the distribution to oil refineries and stage process will follow similar control valve se-
gas processing plants respectively. This typically lection criteria to that of the first stage.
involves four main processes:
The final, low pressure separation stage is com-
1. Oil, gas, and water separation monly a two phase (oil and gas) separator.
72
Note, test separators, in terms of conditions and screw compressors that use natural gas engines
valve selection, are similar to that of standard or turbines, or electric motor drives. The com-
gravity separation equipment. Please reference pressors capacity and Hp is largely determined
the below separation application review for associ- from the following three factors:
ated valve selection.
1. Suction pressure and temperature
73
Well Site & Gathering System choke valve needs to be reliable, while providing
varying flow restriction. Production pressures can
be upwards of 3000 psig (207 bar) in some produ
cing fields. The production choke reduces the well
pressure to the manifold gathering system and
first stage separator pressures, which are typically
450750 psig (3152 bar). Angle valve selection is
the primary choice in order to handle erosive, high
pressure flows. A common large scale well in
cludes sour gases and particulates, presenting
possible corrosion or erosion damage. Thus, ma
terial selection is important in well site applica
tions.
74
Figure 7-4. Process Fluid Separation System
This valve is the first control valve in the high and Table 7-3. High Pressure Separator Inlet Control Valve
intermediate pressure systems. This control valve Parameter Typical Value
provides the final pressure cut before the fluid 600 - 1800 psig
Inlet Pressure
enters the separator vessel. Many times this is a (41 - 124 bar)
pressure control valve that can utilize the pressure Pressure Drop 10 - 300 psi (1 - 21 bar)
drop across it to jump start the separation of the Inlet Temp. 100 - 190_ F (38 - 88_ C)
water, oil, and gas. In some systems this valve is V260C/Vee-Ball, ASME
Valve Type and Pressure Class
a level control valve used to help control the fluid CL600/900
level in the tank. In these situations the control Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard (NACE)
valve is linked to a level controller in the tank. In Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
gas streams, where the feed gas has not received Trim Type Standard
initial separation, this valve may be presented as a
slug catcher. Slug catchers handle the Gas Outlet Back Pressure Control
gathered fluid, which may consist of a gas, oil and
water (could form a liquid slug) and solids, coming This back pressure control valve is located on the
out of the pipeline. Full bore ball valves with throt- top most area of the separator. Its primary func-
tling capability are standard selections for this ap- tion is to control the pressure of the separator ves-
plication. The full bore, high recovery valve will sel by controlling the amount of gas flow out of the
75
3. Intermediate Pressure Separator Gas
Outlet Pressure Control:
Figure 7-5. V260 Valve Exterior. 4. Low Pressure Separator Gas Outlet Pres-
sure Control:
76
6. High Pressure Separator Oil Level Control:
77
9. Low Pressure Separator Water Level 12. Intermediate Pressure Separator Vent to
Control: Flare:
Table 7-12. Low Pressure Separator 13. Low Pressure Separator Vent to Flare:
Oil Level Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 20 - 100 psig (1 - 7 bar)
Table 7-15. Low Pressure Separator
Pressure Drop 0 - 80 psi (0 - 6 bar)
Vent to Flare Control Valve
Inlet Temp. 100 - 190_F (38 - 88_C) Parameter Typical Value
D2/D3/D4/easy-Drive/e-body,
Valve Type and Pressure Class Inlet Pressure 20 - 100 psig (1 - 7 bar)
ASME CL150
Pressure Drop 0 - 80 psi (0 - 6 bar)
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard (NACE)
Inlet Temp. 150 - 190_ F (66 - 88_C)
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
D4/easy-Drive/e-body,
Trim Type Standard Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard (NACE)
Separator Vent to Flare Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Standard, Whisper Trim I,
This valve is a high pressure vent to flare header Trim Type
Whisper Trim III
valve that is operated under emergency condi-
tions. If the pressure in the separator increases
above the set point, its relieved to safeguard the
separator. These valves are subjected to very high
pressure drops, resulting in high levels of aerody- Gas Compression
namic noise. Globe style valves with attenuating
trims are commonly required to mitigate noise and Compressor applications in the oil and gas in-
potential vibration. dustry can vary substantially depending on pro-
cess location, wellhead pressures, gas properties
11. High Pressure Separator Vent to Flare: (specific gravity), gas quality (wet or dry), temper-
ature and vibration. Please consider that depend-
Table 7-13. High Pressure Separator ing on the inlet and discharge pressures, a single
Vent to Flare Control Valve compressor station can contain anywhere from
Parameter Typical Value one to three stages of compression. We will focus
300 - 1,350 psig solely on single stage systems for the purposes of
Inlet Pressure this review.
(21 - 93 bar)
150 - 1,100 psi
Pressure Drop
(10 - 76 bar)
Inlet Temp. 140 - 190_F (60 - 88_C) Proper sizing and selection of these four control
Valve Type and Pressure Class E-body, ASME CL300/600 valves is essential for allowing the compressor
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard (NACE) skid to operate as efficiently as possible. The next
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V section will contain a review of the typical process
Trim Type
Standard, Whisper Trim I, conditions and valves used in the above applica-
Whisper Trim III tions.
78
Figure 7-7. Compressor System
79
2. Compression Suction Scrubber Level
Control: The compressor scrubber system is
used to remove the unwanted particulates from
the gas. The pure, dry gas leaves the top of the
scrubber toward the compressor, protecting the
compressor from damage caused by condensate
impurities present in the separated gas stream.
The purpose of the scrubber level control valve is
to regulate the level of the hydrocarbon / water
mixture. The level control valve is typically a dump
valve that empties the water at the bottom of the
scrubber. This valve is tied to a level controller
that senses the water level in the vessel.
710
3
2
4
DRY OIL
TANK BULK TREATER
MAIN
E1485 PUMP
Table 7-19. Compressor Export Control Valve Table 7-20. Bulk Treater Produced Water Valve
Parameter Typical Value Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 900 - 1700 psig (62 - 117 bar) Inlet Pressure 50 - 350 psig (3 - 24 bar)
Pressure Drop Up to 400 psi (28 bar) Outlet Pressure 25 - 300 psig (2 - 21 bar)
Inlet Temp. 70 - 150_F (21 - 66_C) 8,000 - 70,000 bpd
Flow Rate
Valve Type and Pressure Class V250/EH, ASME CL600/900 (50 - 465 m3/h)
WCC/316SST with Inlet Temp. 120 - 200_F (49 - 93_C)
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316SST NPS 6 - 10 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV ASME CL150
Trim Type Standard Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
1. Bulk Treater Produced Water: This valve 3. Dry Oil Pump Recirculation Valve: This
controls the produced water level in the bulk treat- valve recycles flow around the main discharge
er and will experience relatively low pressure drop pump to prevent the pump from cavitating. It will
ratios, which can be handled by a globe valve. A experience high pressure drops and the potential
ball valve may be used depending upon pressure for damaging cavitation. A globe valve with
recovery characteristics of the valve. anti-cavitation trim is typically used.
711
Table 7-22. Dry Oil Pump Recirculation Valve 1. Electrostatic Treater Oil Out: Here, the
Parameter Typical Value flow of oil out of the electrostatic coalescer is con-
2,500 - 3,700 psig trolled. This valve may be located before or after
Inlet Pressure
(172 - 255 bar) the crude pumps to storage. The conditions noted
Outlet Pressure 125 - 200 psig (9 - 14 bar) below are those with the valve placed after the
5,000 60,000 bpd crude pump. In situations where there is a valve
Flow Rate
(30 400 m3/h) located upstream of the pump, the conditions will
Inlet Temp. 120 - 180_ F (49 - 82_C) be similar to those noted in the produced water
NPS 2 - 4 HPT, ASME level control valve. A globe valve is the most com-
Valve Type and Pressure Class
CL1500 mon solution for this application.
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Cavitrol III Trim 3 or 4 stage
Table 7-24. Electrostatic Treater Oil Out Valve
4. Crude Oil Discharge Valve: Here, the flow Parameter Typical Value
form the platform to the pipeline network is con- Inlet Pressure 100 - 125 psig (7 - 9 bar)
trolled. It will be delivered to the onshore pipeline Outlet Pressure 30 - 35 psig (2 - 3 bar)
and processing network. 5,000 35,000 ft3/hr
Flow Rate
(140 995 m3/h)
Table 7-23. Crude Oil Discharge Valve Inlet Temp. 120 - 160_F (49 - 93_C)
Parameter Typical Value NPS 6 - 8 ET, ASME
Valve Type and Pressure Class
CL150/300
2,500 - 3,700 psig
Inlet Pressure Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
(172 - 255 bar)
125 - 3,200 psig Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Outlet Pressure
(9 - 221 bar) Cavitrol III Trim 1 stage or
Trim Type
30,000 150,000 bpd Equal Percentage
Flow Rate
(195 995 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 120 - 180_F (49 - 82_C)
NPS 4 - 14 HPT/EHT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL1500 2. Electrostatic Treater Produced Water:
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard This valve controls the produced water level in the
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
electrostatic coalescer, and will experience relat-
ively low pressure drop ratios which can be
Trim Type Equal Percentage
handled by a globe valve. A ball valve may be
used depending upon the pressure recovery char-
Electrostatic Coalescer acteristics of the valve.
712
Chapter 8
Offshore oil and gas production, as defined in this with gas production being dependent on available
chapter, is the production of oil and gas from distribution pipelines to shore. Fixed platforms are
reservoirs located off land. There are several off- economically feasible for installation in water
shore technologies used including: depths up to about 1,700 feet.
www.Fisher.com
Spar Offshore Topsides
Spars are cylindrical, vertical hulls supporting a Each of the four technologies listed has an oil and/
deck structure. In addition to production equip- or gas production unit commonly called the top-
ment and living quarters, spars can also feature sides. Upstream of the oil and gas processing
drilling and/or workover facilities. Spars are equipment, each type of production unit types
moored to the seabed by means of a semi-taut uses similar processing technologies, mainly for
mooring system. Spars are classified by their the initial separation of the oil, gas, and water in
design and production capability. the fluid produced from the reservoir. Downstream
equipment will depend on if both oil and gas are
produced or just oil, and if water and/or gas injec-
There are three types of commonly used spar tion methods are used to increase production from
technologies. These include: the reservoir. All major units that can be found in
the four most common production unit types will
1. Conventional be discussed in detail in the following sections.
2. Truss
3. Cell spars
82
slugging problems are anticipated, a dedicated or solid particles. Gas bubbles then help to lift the
slug catcher may be installed. oil to the water surface for collection.
83
pipeline network for additional processing onshore. Water Treatment and Water Injection
At a minimum, the high pressure compression
system will consist of two 50% capacity three or Water Treatment
four-stage compression trains. Units operating in
more shallow waters will likely utilize a three-stage The level of produced water treatment depends
compressor train while units operating in deeper upon whether it is to be disposed overboard or
water will utilize additional staging. On larger pro- re-injected into the reservoir. Water disposed
duction units, there may be up to three high pres- overboard is subjected to additional cleaning
sure compression trains. versus water injected back into the formation. It
must be cleaned to an acceptable oil-in-water spe-
cification, typically below 40 ppm. This is done
Midway through high pressure gas compression, with hydrocyclones or floatation cells. Hydrocyc-
the gas is routed to dehydration to remove any lones utilize centrifugal technology while floatation
remaining water in the stream. The gas is dehyd- cells utilize microscopic bubbles of compressed air
rated using conventional methods employing that are forced through the contaminate water. As
tri-ethylene glycol (TEG) as an absorption medi- the bubbles rise through the liquid, they carry oil
um. This unit is typically located upstream of the and other contaminants with them to the surface
final compression stages with a separate contact- for collection and removal. The valves used in this
or for each compression train. Some gas will be process will not be discussed in this chapter, but
removed at the outlet of the dehydrator, com- can range from NPS 1-14 globe, ball, or butterfly
pressed, and used for fuel gas to power the ves- valves. The size and type of valves vary dramatic-
sel. ally depending upon pressure and flow con-
straints.
Water Injection
Gas Injection and Gas Lift Water injection is often used to ensure continued
reservoir productivity. In typical applications, pro-
Similar to water injection, produced gas from the
duced water is separated and cleaned on the top-
well may be reinjected to raise the reservoir pres-
sides of the vessel and then injected into the low-
sure. This is done through low and high pressure
est portion of the reservoir via separate injection
compression onboard the vessel. Even without the
wells. This raises the level of the oil, moving it to-
need to maintain well pressure, the overwhelming
ward the producing areas. The need for water in-
majority of areas in the world now limit the amount
jection increases over time as the reservoir be-
of gas flaring that can occur. It is often less costly
comes depleted. This method of oil recovery,
to reinject the gas rather than to install a pipeline
known as secondary recovery, helps improve yield
to transport the gas from the vessel. Nearly every
rates.
FPSO will have gas compression systems spe-
cifically used for gas injection. Those that do not
utilize gas injection will still have compression sys-
tems for transporting gas off the vessel. Most ex-
Other Systems and Applications
isting fixed and tension leg platforms, semi-sub- There are a number of other systems on board
mersibles, and spars are used for both oil and gas these floating technologies that have similar char-
production, with both components being sent on- acteristics to the applications previously noted, or
shore for further processing. may or may not be present on the vessel. Some of
the systems noted below may be present based
upon the infrastructure and the reservoir charac-
The produced gas can be used to improve product teristics. Valve application details are not covered
flow up the well bore to the surface. This is re- under the scope of this sourcebook at this time.
ferred to as gas lift. In these applications, the pro-
duced gas is compressed and routed into the out-
er annulus of the well bore. It enters the
Fuel Gas System
wellstream through a series of gas inlets in the After dehydration, some of the gas is removed
inner production conduit. This reduces the density from the outlet stream to be compressed and used
and the hydrostatic head of the wellstream fluids, for fuel gas on the vessel. Fuel gas is used to
increasing recovery. Gas lift is used where reser- power the vessel and for other utility purposes in-
voir pressure is relatively low and in deepwater cluding firing of boilers used to generate steam for
developments where reservoir drive pressure is the aforementioned processes. Main applications
countered by high hydrostatic head. associated with the fuel gas system are tied to the
84
FLARE
fuel gas compression system. The fuel gas is typ-
ically compressed using a multi-train, two-stage
compression system. 1
Chemical Injection
Chemical treatment is the traditional method of
preventing the build up of hydrates and waxes as 3
well as other deposits such as scale in the risers.
Deploying chemical treatments is costly and with it
comes certain environmental issues. Methanol
and glycol systems are the most common chemic-
als used for injection cleaning.
SLUG CATCHER
2
Acid Gas Removal Unit
4
If there is a pipeline network to transport the gas
onshore for additional processing and fractiona-
tion, there may be an acid gas removal unit on
board the vessel. The acid removal units are typic-
ally amine treatment units that utilize a lean amine
in a contactor to absorb the acid gases present in
the flow stream. The rich amine is then removed TURRET
from the bottom of the tower and the acid gases
are flashed off to flare or for additional sulfur re-
covery. After regeneration of the amine, it is then
passed through the contactor again and the cycle GAS/WATER FROM
Slug Catcher
In most cases slug catchers are found only in
Application Review FPSO units. Figure 8-2 shows the common valves
around the slug catcher.
An application review of the control valve applica-
tions, process data, and recommended valve se- 1. Slug Catcher Gas to Flare: This valve con-
lection for the floating production units we dis- trols the pressure in the slug catcher vessel by
cussed are broken out below. These processes directing gas to the flare knockout drum. Depend-
include separation, oil treatment, gas treatment, ing upon the design of the unit, this valve may
water injection, gas injection, and gas lift. feed into the low pressure gas compression sec-
85
tion versus going to the flare knockout drum. As
with most flare valves, noise generation is a con-
cern. A globe valve with low noise trim is the most
common solution.
X0187
86
the final oil product being cooled before going to Table 8-4. Spar Slug Catcher to Test Separator Heating
storage. A butterfly valve is most commonly ap- Medium Control Valve
plied. Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 120 - 150 psig (8 - 10 bar)
Outlet Pressure 100 - 120 psig (7 - 8 bar)
8,000 - 12,000 ft3/hr
Flow Rate
(225 - 340 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 225 - 275_F (107 - 135_C)
NPS 6 - 10 8580 rotary valve,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
Separation
High Pressure Separation
W9498
TO
5
COMPRESSION
TO GAS SCRUBBERS
AND COMPRESSION
8
1 FROM HP SEPARATOR
WELL
7
TEST SEPARATOR
E1492
87
separator and directs the gas to the high pressure 3. Test Separator Produced Water Interface
compression section. Depending upon the design Level Control Valve: This valve controls the pro-
of the compression system, this valve may see duced water interface level in the test separator.
relatively high pressure drops or minimal pressure Appropriate level control is necessary for proper
drops. In applications with high pressure drops, separation of the gas, oil and water. This valve will
this may be due to a lack of a low pressure com- experience moderately high pressure drops creat-
pression system. When present, the low pressure ing the potential for cavitation damage. Depending
gas compression system will boost the gas pres- upon the pressure drop, Cavitrol III trim may be
sure eliminating the need for low pressures at the necessary.
inlet to the high pressure compression system. In
applications with low pressure drops, it is likely
that there is a low pressure compression system.
88
Table 8-8. HP Flare Scrubber Valve Table 8-9. HP Separator Vent to Flare Valve
Parameter Typical Value Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 10 - 25 psig (1 - 2 bar) Inlet Pressure 300 - 1,350 psig (21 - 93 bar)
Outlet Pressure 2 - 5 psig (1 bar) Outlet Pressure 150 - 250 psig (10 - 17 bar)
6,000 - 15,000 bpd Flow Rate 10 - 20 MSCFD (10 - 25 m3/h)
Flow Rate
(40 - 100 m3/h) Inlet Temp. 140 - 190_F (60 - 88_C)
Inlet Temp. 100 - 200_F (38 - 93_C) NPS 2 - 4 ET,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
NPS 2 - 4 ET/Vee-Ball ASME CL150/300/600
Valve Type and Pressure Class V150/V300, ASME WCC/316 SST/Duplex SST
CL150/300 Valve Material and Trim
with Standard/316 SST/Duplex
Material
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard SST (depending on gas quality)
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Equal Percentage Whisper Trim I, Whisper Trim
Trim Type
III, or WhisperFlo trim
89
TO LP
Table 8-11. HP Separator Produced Water Interface COMPRESSION
Level Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value FLARE
810
ferentials, eliminating the need for severe service Table 8-16. LP Flare Scrubber Valve
trim, although valves may be used because of the Parameter Typical Value
low pressure recovery factor. Inlet Pressure 40 - 50 psig (3 - 4 bar)
Outlet Pressure 2 - 3 psig (1 bar)
1,000 - 4,500 bpd
Flow Rate
(5 - 300 m3/h)
Table 8-14. LP Separator Oil Interface Level Control Valve Inlet Temp. 100 - 200_F (38 - 93_C)
Parameter Typical Value
NPS 1 - 3 ET/Vee-Ball
Inlet Pressure 40 - 250 psig (3 - 17 bar) Valve Type and Pressure Class V150/V300, ASME
Outlet Pressure 5 - 20 psig (1 bar) CL150/300
50,000 - 180,000 bpd Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Flow Rate
(330 - 1,200 m3/h) Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Inlet Temp. 150 - 250_F (66 - 121_C) Trim Type Equal Percentage
NPS 8 - 12 ET/EWT/Vee-Ball
Valve Type and Pressure Class
V150, ASME CL150 5. LP Separator Produced Water Interface
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard Level Control Valve: This valve controls the pro-
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV duced water interface level in the LP Separator.
Trim Type Equal Percentage Appropriate level control is necessary for proper
separation of the gas, oil and water. This valve
may experience moderate pressure drops, which
may lead to a globe valve selection. In applica-
3. LP Separator Gas Outlet Pressure Control: tions with low pressure drops, a butterfly valve is
This valve controls the pressure in the low pres- an acceptable solution.
sure separator and directs the gas to the low pres-
sure compression section, if present or the high Table 8-17. LP Separator Produced Water Interface
pressure compression system if no low pressure Level Control Valve
compression is present. High pressure drops are Parameter Typical Value
not common in this application and butterfly valves Inlet Pressure 40 - 1,350 psig (3 - 93 bar)
may be selected. Outlet Pressure 150 - 250 psig (10 - 17 bar)
10 - 20 MSCFD
Flow Rate
(10 - 25 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 140 - 190_F (60 - 88_C)
Table 8-15. LP Separator Gas Outlet
Valve Type and Pressure Class NPS 3 - 6 ET, ASME CL150
Pressure Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
811
3
2
4
DRY OIL
TANK BULK TREATER
MAIN
E1485 PUMP
ratios, which can be handled by a globe valve. A Table 8-20. Dry Oil Pump Recirculation Valve
ball valve may be used depending upon pressure Parameter Typical Value
recovery characteristics of the valve. 2,500 - 3,700 psig
Inlet Pressure
(172 - 255 bar)
Outlet Pressure 125 - 200 psig (9 - 14 bar)
Table 8-18. Bulk Treater Produced Water Valve
5,000 - 60,000 bpd
Parameter Typical Value Flow Rate
(30 - 400 m3/h)
Inlet Pressure 50 - 350 psig (3 - 24 bar)
Inlet Temp. 120 - 180_F (49 - 82_C)
Outlet Pressure 25 - 300 psig (2 - 21 bar)
NPS 2 - 4 HPT,
8,000 - 70,000 bpd Valve Type and Pressure Class
Flow Rate ASME CL1500
(50 - 465 m3/h)
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Inlet Temp. 120 - 200_F (49 - 93_C)
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
NPS 6 - 10 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class Trim Type Cavitrol III 3- or 4-stage trim
ASME CL150
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV 4. Crude Oil Discharge Valve: Here, the flow
Trim Type Equal Percentage
form the platform to the pipeline network is con-
trolled. It will be delivered to the onshore pipeline
and processing network.
2. Bulk Treater Oil Out: This valve controls flow
of oil out of the bulk treater. The oil will then flow
into the dry oil storage tank to be pumped on-
shore. A globe valve is the most common solution
for this application.
for damaging cavitation. A globe valve with Figure 8-11. 667 HP Control Valve
anti-cavitation trim is typically used.
812
Table 8-21. Crude Oil Discharge Valve
Parameter Typical Value 3
Electrostatic Coalescer
1. Electrostatic Treater Oil Out: Here, the flow 1
of oil out of the electrostatic coalescer is con-
trolled. This valve may be located before or after
the crude pumps to storage. The conditions noted E1494
below are those with the valve placed after the
crude pump. In situations where there is a valve Figure 8-13. Low Pressure Compression System
located upstream of the pump, the conditions will
be similar to those noted in the produced water
level control valve. A globe valve is the most com- trostatic coalescer, and will experience relatively
mon solution for this application. low pressure drop ratios, which can be handled by
a globe valve. A ball valve may be used depend-
1 ing upon the pressure recovery characteristics of
the valve.
TO CARGO ELECTROSTATIC
STORAGE COALESCER Table 8-23. Electrostatic Treater Produced Water Valve
Parameter Typical Value
2 Inlet Pressure 65 - 115 psig (4 - 8 bar)
Outlet Pressure 30 - 85 psig (2 - 6 bar)
25,000 - 40,000 ft3/h
Flow Rate
E1486 (700 - 1,135 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 120 - 250_F (49 - 121_C)
Figure 8-12. Electrostatic Coalescer
NPS 3 - 4 ET/EWT,
Oil Treatment System Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Table 8-22. Electrostatic Treater Oil Out Valve Trim Type Equal Percentage
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 105 - 125 psig (7 - 9 bar)
Gas Compression
Outlet Pressure 30 - 35 psig (2 - 3 bar)
5,000 - 35,000 ft3/h
After separation takes place in each of the floating
Flow Rate units, the produced gas streams will be com-
(140 - 1,000 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 120 - 160_F (49 - 71_C) pressed, dried, potentially treated, and sent back
NPS 6 - 8 ET, into the formation or onshore for additional pro-
Valve Type and Pressure Class cessing.
ASME CL150/300
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV Low Pressure Compression
Cavitrol III 1-stage trim or Figure 8-13 shows the typical low pressure com-
Trim Type
Equal Percentage
pression system and its related valves.
2. Electrostatic Treater Produced Water: This 1. Low Pressure Compression Suction Scrub-
valve controls the produced water level in the elec- ber Level Control Valve: Here, the level of the
813
hydrocarbon/water mixture in the upstream scrub- 3. Low Pressure Compressor Anti-surge
ber is controlled. The upstream scrubber is used Valve: This valve recycles discharge flow from the
to separate liquids from the gas and clean the gas compressor to protect it from damage due to
prior to compression. A small globe valve is the surge. Flow is recycled from the compressor dis-
typical solution. charge to the upstream scrubber/knockout drum.
Depending upon the type of compressor and oper-
Table 8-24. Low Pressure Compression Suction Scrubber
ator of the vessel, this may be a one or two valve
Level Control Valve
solution. The typical solution is a one valve solu-
Parameter Typical Value
tion that protects the compressor from the effects
Inlet Pressure 85 - 180 psig (6 - 12 bar)
of surge. When two valves are utilized, one will act
Outlet Pressure 75 - 115 psig (5 - 8 bar) as a control valve and the other will act as an on/
1,500 - 2,000 bpd off recycle valve. The latter approach minimizes
Flow Rate
(10 - 15 m3/h)
the valve size while the former solution combines
Inlet Temp. 150 - 180_F (66 - 82_C) both functions into one valve, but increases the
NPS 1 - 2 EZ/ET, valve size. A globe valve with noise attenuating
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150
trim is the most common solution for the
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
anti-surge/control solution. When a separate re-
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV cycle valve is used, it may or may not have noise
Trim Type Equal Percentage attenuating trim. The solution noted below as-
2. Low Pressure Compression Discharge sumes a single valve is utilized.
Scrubber Level Control Valve: This valve con-
trols the level of the hydrocarbon/water mixture in Table 8-26. Low Pressure Compressor Anti-surge Valve
the upstream scrubber, which is used to separate Parameter Typical Value
liquids from the gas and clean the gas prior to Inlet Pressure 100 - 325 psig (7 - 22 bar)
compression. A small globe valve is the typical Outlet Pressure 60 - 120 psig (4 - 8 bar)
solution. 220,000 - 290,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(100,000 - 130,000 kg/h)
Table 8-25. Low Pressure Compression Discharge
Inlet Temp. 130 - 150_F (54 - 66_C)
Scrubber Level Control Valve
Valve Type and Pressure Class NPS 4 - 6 ET, ASME CL300
Parameter Typical Value
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Inlet Pressure 250 - 325 psig (17 - 22 bar)
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V
Outlet Pressure 150 - 175 psig (10 - 12 bar)
Whisper I Trim, Whisper III
3,000 - 4,000 bpd Trim Type
Flow Rate Trim, or WhisperFlo trim
(20 - 25 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 120 - 140_F (49 - 60_C)
NPS 1 - 2 EZ/ET,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL300
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
814
Figure 8-14. High Pressure Compression Train, Four stages
4. Low Pressure Discharge Cooling Control Table 8-27. Low Pressure Discharge
Valve: This valve controls the flow on cooling wa- Cooling Control Valve
ter to lower the temperature at the discharge of Parameter Typical Value
the compressor. The cooling fluid is typically sea- Inlet Pressure 30 - 100 psig (2 - 7 bar)
water. Depending upon treatment of the seawater Outlet Pressure 20 - 40 psig (1 - 3 bar)
onboard, the materials of selection will vary. The Flow Rate 7,500 - 11,000 bpd (50 - 75 m3/h)
most commonly used material is 316 Stainless Inlet Temp. 110 - 130_F (43 - 54_C)
Steel, but various grades of duplex are also used. Valve Type and Pressure NPS 3 - 4 8580 rotary valve,
A butterfly valve provides adequate control in this Class ASME CL150
application. Valve Material and Trim WCC/316 SST/Duplex SST with
Material Standard/316 SST/Duplex SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
815
Chapters 7 and 13 for additional information on als ranging from carbon steel to 316 SST to alu-
compression systems. minum bronze are the most common. Butterfly
valves typically address the need of this applica-
tion.
1. First Stage Compression Suction Scrubber
Level Control: This valve controls the level of
hydrocarbon/water mixture in first stage scrubber,
which is used to separate liquids from the gas and Table 8-29. First Stage Discharge Cooler
to clean the gas prior to compression. This need is Temperature Control Valve
met by using small globe or ball valves. Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 35 - 65 psig (3 - 4 bar)
Outlet Pressure 25 - 50 psig (2 - 3 bar)
12,000 - 25,000 ft3/h
Flow Rate
(335 - 710 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 115 - 120_F (46 - 49_C)
NPS 6 - 8 8560 rotary valve,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150
WCC, 316 SST, or Aluminum
Valve Material and Trim Material
Bronze Body and Trim
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
816
Table 8-31. First Stage Compressor Recycle Valve Table 8-33. Second Stage Discharge Cooler
Parameter Typical Value Temperature Control Valve
Inlet Pressure 350 - 950 psig (24 - 66 bar) Parameter Typical Value
Outlet Pressure 120 - 350 psig (8 - 24 bar) Inlet Pressure 35 - 65 psig (3 - 4 bar)
165,000 - 300,000 lb/h Outlet Pressure 25 - 50 psig (2 - 3 bar)
Flow Rate
(75,000 - 135,000 kg/h) 10,000 - 14,000 ft3/h
Flow Rate
Inlet Temp. 100 - 150_F (38 - 66_C) (280 - 400 m3/h)
NPS 6 - 10 ET/EWT or 8560 Inlet Temp. 115 - 120_F (46 - 49_C)
Valve Type and Pressure Class
rotary valve, ASME CL300 NPS 4 - 6 8560 rotary valve,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
WCC or 316SST Body and ASME CL150
Valve Material and Trim Material
Trim WCC, 316 SST or Aluminum
Valve Material and Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V Bronze Body and Trim
Whisper Trim I, Whisper Trim Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type
III, or WhisperFlo trim Trim Type Equal Percentage
817
Table 8-35. Second Stage Compressor Recycle Valve Table 8-37. Third Stage Discharge Cooler Temperature
Parameter Typical Value Control Valve
Inlet Pressure 950 - 2000 psig (66 - 138 bar) Parameter Typical Value
Outlet Pressure 350 - 1100 psig (24 - 76 bar) Inlet Pressure 35 - 65 psig (3 - 4 bar)
110,000 - 220,000 lb/h Outlet Pressure 25 - 50 psig (2 - 3 bar)
Flow Rate
(50,000 - 100,000 kg/h) 10,000 - 14,000 ft3/h
Flow Rate
Inlet Temp. 100 - 150_F (38 - 66_C) (280 - 400 m3/h)
NPS 4 - 6 ET/EWT/HPS Inlet Temp. 115 - 120_F (46 - 49_C)
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL600/900/1500 NPS 4 - 6 8560 rotary valve,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
Valve Material and Trim WCC or 316 SST Body and ASME CL150
Material Trim WCC, 316SST or Aluminum
Valve Material and Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V Bronze Body and Trim
Whisper Trim I, Whisper Trim Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type
III, or WhisperFlo trim Trim Type Equal Percentage
818
Table 8-39. Third Stage Compressor Recycle Valve Table 8-41. Fourth Stage Discharge Cooler
Parameter Typical Value Temperature Control Valve
Inlet Pressure 3,200 - 4,300 psig (221 - 296 bar) Parameter Typical Value
Outlet Pressure 950 - 2,000 psig (66 - 138 bar) Inlet Pressure 35 - 65 psig (3 - 4 bar)
95,000 - 200,000 lb/h Outlet Pressure 25 - 50 psig (2 - 3 bar)
Flow Rate
(45,000 - 90,000 kg/h) 10,000 - 14,000 ft3/h
Flow Rate
Inlet Temp. 100 - 150_F (38 - 66_C) (280 - 400 m3/h)
Valve Type and Pressure NPS 3 - 4 HPT/EHT, Inlet Temp. 115 - 120_F (46 - 49_C)
Class ASME CL1500/2500 NPS 4 - 6 8580 rotary valve,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
Valve Material and Trim ASME CL150
WCC or 316 SST Body and Trim
Material WCC, 316 SST or Aluminum
Valve Material and Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V Bronze Body and Trim
Trim Type Whisper Trim III Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
10. Fourth Stage Compression Suction Scrub- 12. Fourth Stage Compressor Antisurge and/
ber Level Control: This valve controls the level of or Recycle: This valve recycles discharge flow
hydrocarbon/water mixture in the fourth stage from the fourth stage compressor to protect it from
scrubber, which is used to separate liquids from damage due to surge. Flow is recycled from the
the gas and to clean the gas prior to compression. compressor discharge to the upstream scrubber/
This need is met by using small globe or ball knockout drum. Depending on the type of com-
valves. pressor and operator of the vessel, this may be a
one- or two-valve solution. The most common
solution is a one-valve solution that protects the
Table 8-40. Fourth Stage Compression Suction Scrubber compressor from the effects of surge. When two
Level Control Valve valves are utilized, one will act as a control valve
Parameter Typical Value and the other will act as an on/off recycle valve.
Inlet Pressure 3,800 - 4,200 psig (262 - 290 bar) The latter approach minimizes the valve size while
Outlet Pressure 3,700 - 3,900 psig (255 - 269 bar)
the former solution combines both functions into
Flow Rate 50 - 80 gpm (10 - 20 m3/h)
one valve, but increases the valve size. A globe
valve with noise attenuating trim is the most com-
Inlet Temp. 100 - 125_F (38 - 52_C)
mon solution for the antisurge/control solution.
Valve Type and Pressure
Class
NPS 1 - 2 HPS, ASME CL2500 When a separate recycle valve is used, it may or
Valve Material and Trim
may not have noise attenuating trim. The
WCC or 316 SST Body and Trim two-valve arrangement is noted below. .
Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage Table 8-42. Fourth Stage Compressor Antisurge Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 5500 - 7000 psig (379 - 483 bar)
11. Fourth Stage Discharge Cooler Temperat- Outlet Pressure 3800 - 4500 psig (262 - 310 bar)
ure Control: This valve controls the cooling medi- 220,000 - 450,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
um used to lower the discharge temperature of the (100,000 - 200,000 kg/h)
gas exiting the compressor. The cooling medium Inlet Temp. 100 - 150_F (38 - 66_C)
is typically seawater, which will require varying Valve Type and Pressure NPS 2 - 3 EHT,
materials depending on the chloride levels. Materi- Class ASME CL2500 or API 10000
als ranging from carbon steel to 316 SST to alu- Valve Material and Trim
WCC or 316 SST Body and Trim
minum bronze are the most common. Butterfly Material
valves typically address the need of this applica- Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
tion. Trim Type Whisper Trim III
819
Table 8-43. Fourth Stage Compressor Recycle Valve 1. Lean Glycol to Glycol Contactor Control
Parameter Typical Value Valve: The flow of lean glycol from the glycol re-
Inlet Pressure 5500 - 7000 psig (379 - 483 bar) generation unit to the contactor is controlled by the
Outlet Pressure 3800 - 4500 psig (262 - 310 bar) lean glycol to glycol contactor valve. The glycol will
220,000 - 450,000 lb/h
enter the top of the contactor and as it moves
Flow Rate down the column will strip the water from the gas
(100,000 - 200,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 100 - 150_F (38 - 66_C) stream that is flowing up through the bottom of the
Valve Type and Pressure NPS 2 - 3 EHT, column. This valve may not be present if a vari-
Class ASME CL2500 or API 10000 able speed pump is used. A globe valve is the typ-
Valve Material and Trim ical solution for this application.
WCC or 316 SST Body and Trim
Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V Table 8-44. Lean Glycol to Glycol Contactor Control Valve
Trim Type Whisper Trim III Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 1,100 - 2,300 psig (76 - 159 bar)
Outlet Pressure 900 - 1,900 psig (62 - 131 bar)
Gas Treatment Flow Rate 100 - 500 bpd (0 - 4 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 100 - 125_F (38 - 52_C)
Gas Dehydration Valve Type and Pressure
Class
NPS 1 EZ/HPS, ASME CL600/900
Midway through high pressure gas compression, Valve Material and Trim
WCC with Standard
the gas is routed to dehydration to remove any Material
remaining water in the stream. The gas is dehyd- Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
rated using conventional methods employing Trim Type Equal Percentage
tri-ethylene glycol (TEG). Please refer to Chapter
9 for additional details regarding gas treatment. 2. Gas Dehydration Inlet Separator Level Con-
Figure 8-16 shows the common valves associated trol Valve: This valve controls the glycol-water
with a TEG dehydration unit. interface level in the glycol contactor. This valve
1
will experience a relatively high pressure drop re-
quiring anti-cavitation trim. A globe valve with
Cavitrol III 2-stage trim is typically used.
820
Table 8-46. Glycol Contactor Level Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 1,100 - 1,600 psig (76 - 110 bar)
Outlet Pressure 30 - 200 psig (2 - 14 bar)
Flow Rate 100 - 500 gpm (20 - 115 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 100 - 125_F (38 - 52_C)
Valve Type and Pressure NPS 1 - 2 ET/HPS,
Class ASME CL300/600/900
Valve Material and Trim
WCC with Standard
Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Cavitrol III 2 stage trim or
Trim Type
NotchFlo 4-stage trim
Gas Treatment
The first step in treatment of the natural gas is to
remove the sour gas components. Amine ab-
sorbers are most commonly used for this process.
W8538-1
Figure 8-18 below shows the layout of an amine
treatment unit and the common control valves in
Figure 8-17. Notchflo DST Trim the process.
11
12
TO
FLARE
10 6
TO FLARE
5 TO ACID GAS
TREATMENT
9
FLASH GAS
CONTACTOR
REGENERATION
RICH/LEAN AMINE
EXCHANGER
2 3
8 7
1 4
FLASH TANK
821
perience severe outgassing effects. Therefore, the Table 8-49. Flash Drum Water Control Valve
trim selection will vary depending upon the pres- Parameter Typical Value
sure drop and the amount of gas entrained in the Inlet Pressure 40 - 165 psig (3 - 11 bar)
solution. While the recommendation in the guide Outlet Pressure 30 - 135 psig (2 - 9 bar)
summary below is commonly seen, it is important 500 - 12,000 lb/h
that each application be reviewed in detail to en- Flow Rate
(225 - 5,500 kg/h)
sure proper valve selection. Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
NPS 1 - 2 EZ,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300/600
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC-HT with Standard
Table 8-47. Rich Amine Letdown Control Valve Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Parameter Typical Value Trim Type Equal Percentage
Inlet Pressure 300 - 1020 psig (21 - 70 bar)
Outlet Pressure 20 - 120 psig (1 - 8 bar) 4. Flash Drum Level Control Valve: The liquid
20,000 - 4,200,000 lb/h level in the flash drum is controlled here. Similar to
Flow Rate
(9,000 - 1,905,000 kg/h) the rich amine letdown valve, this valve may ex-
Inlet Temp. 100 - 160_F (38 - 71_C) perience varying degrees of outgassing. There-
Valve Type and Pressure Class
NPS 1 - 20 ET/EWT, fore, it is necessary that each application is appro-
ASME CL150/300/600 priately reviewed to determine the proper body
Valve Material and Trim Material
WCC-HT/316 SST with and trim selection.
Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Table 8-50. Flash Drum Level Control Valve
Whisper Trim I, Whisper Trim
Trim Type Parameter Typical Value
III, or NotchFlo DST trim
Inlet Pressure 40 - 165 psig (3 - 11 bar)
Outlet Pressure 30 - 135 psig (2 - 9 bar)
500 - 12,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
2. Flash Drum Lean Solvent Control Valve: (225 - 5,500 kg/h)
This valve controls the flow of lean solvent into the Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
flash drum. The introduction of lean solvent is util- Valve Type and Pressure Class
NPS 1 - 2 EZ,
ized to facilitate the removal of the acid gases en- ASME CL150/300/600
trained in the rich amine. A small globe valve is Valve Material and Trim Material WCC-HT with Standard
generally used. Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
822
6. Flash Gas to Flare Control Valve: Flash gas Table 8-54. Lean Amine Main Pump
to the flare header is controlled here in the event Recirculation Control Valve
of an upset in the process. This valve will normally Parameter Typical Value
remain closed during operation and can experi- Inlet Pressure 400 - 1,600 psig (28 - 110 bar)
ence relatively high pressure drops that may lead Outlet Pressure 150 - 225 psig (10 - 16 bar)
to high noise and vibration if not properly attenu- 20,000 - 650,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
ated. A globe valve with Whisper Trim may be (9,000 - 300,000 kg/h)
used in this application. Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
NPS 2 - 8 ET/EWT/HPT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL300/600/900
Table 8-52. Flash Gas to Flare Control Valve Valve Material and Trim WCC-HT/316 SST with
Material Standard/316 SST
Parameter Typical Value
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Inlet Pressure 30 - 105 psig (2 - 7 bar)
Trim Type Cavitrol III trim
Outlet Pressure 5 - 15 psig (1 bar)
500 - 11,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(225 - 5,000 kg/h)
9. Lean Amine to Contactor Control Valve:
Inlet Temp.
Here, flow of lean amine to the top of the contact-
90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
or is controlled. Proper flow control is critical to
NPS 1 - 2 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300/600 ensure the proper ratio of amine to gas arriving in
WCC-HT/316 SST with
the contactor. A globe valve is typically utilized in
Valve Material and Trim Material this application.
Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Whisper Trim I or Whisper Table 8-55. Lean Amine to Contractor Control Valve
Trim Type
Trim III Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 400 - 1,600 psig (28 - 110 bar)
Outlet Pressure 350- 1,080 psig (24 - 74 bar)
7. Lean Amine Booster Pump Recirculation 20,000 - 4,200,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
Control Valve: This valve bypasses flow around (9,000 - 1,900,000 kg/h)
the lean amine booster pump to protect the pump Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
from cavitation damage. Because of the high pres- NPS 2 - 20 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
sure drop across the valve, cavitation protection is ASME CL300/600/900
required. A globe valve with Cavitrol III anti-cavita- Valve Material and Trim WCC-HT/316 SST with
tion trim can typically be found in this application. Material Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Linear
Table 8-53. Lean Amine Booster Pump
Recirculation Control Valve 10. Lean Gas to Flare Control Valve: This valve
Parameter Typical Value controls the flow of lean gas to the flare header in
Inlet Pressure 150 - 225 psig (10 - 16 bar)
the event of an upset in the process. It will remain
Outlet Pressure 40 - 60 psig (3 - 4 bar)
closed during normal operation and may experi-
ence relatively high pressure drops that can lead
20,000 - 650,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(9,000 - 300,000 kg/h) to high noise and vibration if not properly attenu-
Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
ated. A globe valve with Whisper trim may be
NPS 2 - 8 ET/EWT,
used.
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL300/600
WCC-HT/316 SST with Table 8-56. Lean Gas to Flare Control Valve
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST Parameter Typical Value
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V Inlet Pressure 300 - 1,020 psig (21 - 70 bar)
Trim Type Cavitrol III trim Outlet Pressure 30 - 45 psig (2 - 3 bar)
30,000 - 1,300,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(13,000 - 590,000 kg/h)
8. Lean Amine Main Pump Recirculation Con- Inlet Temp. 110 - 155_F (43 - 68_C)
trol Valve: This valve bypasses flow around the Valve Type and Pressure NPS 3 - 24 ET/EWT/FBT,
main lean amine pump to protect the pump from Class ASME CL300/600
cavitation damage. Because of the high pressure Valve Material and Trim WCC-HT/316 SST with
drop across the valve, cavitation protection is re- Material Standard/316 SST
quired. A globe valve with Cavitrol III anti-cavita- Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
tion trim is commonly used. Trim Type Whisper Trim I or Whisper Trim III
823
11. Lean Gas Separator Level Control Valve: As previously noted, this process is extremely
Because the gas leaving the contactors is gener- scalable and can be found in many gas treatment
ally saturated, a downstream separator is used to units of varying sizes.
capture any carry over liquids (hydrocarbons and
water) prior to dehydration. This valve is used to The tail gas driven from the amine during regener-
control the liquid level in the separator. A small ation must be further treated prior to sulfur recov-
globe valve is generally used. ery. The process is very similar to that previously
discussed, but typically utilizes a different set of
Table 8-57. Lean Gas Separator Level Control Valve
amine derivatives such as MDEA. Figure 8-19
Parameter Typical Value shows the tail gas treatment process and the as-
Inlet Pressure 300 - 1,200 psig (21 - 83 bar) sociated control valves.
Outlet Pressure 45 - 405 psig (3 - 28 bar)
Flow Rate
500 - 5,500 lb/h 1. Rich Amine Recirculation to Acid Gas En-
(225 - 2,500 kg/h) richment Control Valve: This valve is used to
Inlet Temp. 110 - 155_F (43 - 68_C) bypass flow around the rich amine pump to pre-
Valve Type and Pressure Class
NPS 1 - 2 ET/ES, vent the pump from the potential for cavitation. It
ASME CL300/600 may experience relatively high pressure drops,
Valve Material and Trim WCC-HT/316 SST with increasing the potential for the formation of dam-
Material Standard/316 SST
aging cavitation. To eliminate this potential, a
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
globe valve with Cavitrol III trim may be used.
Trim Type Linear or Cavitrol III trim
12. Lean Gas Separator Sour Water Letdown Table 8-59. Rich Amine Recirculation to Acid Gas
Control Valve: Because the gas leaving the con- Enrichment Control Valve
tactors is generally saturated, a downstream sep- Parameter Typical Value
arator is used to capture any carry over liquids Inlet Pressure 75 - 135 psig (5 - 9 bar)
(hydrocarbons and water) prior to dehydration. Outlet Pressure 20 - 30 psig (1 - 2 bar)
This valve is used to control the liquid level in the 20,000 - 1,000,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
separator. A small globe valve is typically used. (9,000 - 455,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 100 - 140_F (38 - 60_C)
Table 8-58. Lean Gas Separator Sour Water
NPS 2 - 8 ET/EWT,
Letdown Control Valve Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300
Parameter Typical Value
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Inlet Pressure 300 - 1020 psig (21 - 70 bar) Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST
Outlet Pressure 45 - 150 psig (3 - 10 bar) Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
500 - 5,500 lb/h Trim Type Equal Percentage
Flow Rate
(225 - 2,500 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 110 - 155_F (43 - 68_C)
NPS 1 - 2 ET/ES,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL300/600
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Linear or Cavitrol III trim
824
TO INCINERATOR
TAIL GAS
KO DRUM
8
LEAN
AMINE
5
ABSORBER
ACID GAS ENRISHMENT
1 TO SULFUR
REACTOR
REGENERATION
FREE ACID
GAS DRUM
2
RICH AMINE
FLASH DRUM
3
4
E1498
2. Regeneration Lean Amine Pump Recircula- Table 8-60. Regeneration Lean Amine Pump Recirculation
tion Control Valve: This valve is bypasses the Control Valve
lean amine from the bottom of the regeneration Parameter Typical Value
tower. Bypassing the flow around the pump pre- Inlet Pressure 150 - 240 psig (10 - 17 bar)
vents the pump from cavitating. This requires the Outlet Pressure 30 - 45 psig (2 - 3 bar)
valve to take a relatively high pressure drop, which 20,000 - 1,320,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
can lead to the formation of damaging cavitation. (9,000 - 600,000 kg/h)
This valve must be able to eliminate the formation Inlet Temp. 125 - 175_F (52 - 79_C)
of cavitation. A globe valve with anti-cavitation trim NPS 2 - 12 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
is generally used. ASME CL150/300
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Cavitrol III trim
825
3. Rich Amine Pump Discharge to Regenera- 5. Lean Amine Flow Control Valve: This valve
tion Control Valve: Here, the flow of amine back controls the flow of lean amine to the acid gas en-
to the regeneration tower is controlled here. Given richment absorber. Similar to other applications,
the lower pressure drop, a globe valve with equal this valve experiences relatively low pressure
percentage trim may be utilized. drops, but with the potential of relatively high flow
rates. A globe valve is generally used in this ap-
plication.
Table 8-61. Rich Amine Pump Discharge to Regeneration
Control Valve Table 8-63. Lean Amine Flow Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 75 - 105 psig (5 - 7 bar) Inlet Pressure 150 - 240 psig (10 - 17 bar)
Outlet Pressure 60 - 75 psig (4 - 5 bar) Outlet Pressure 30 - 60 psig (2 - 4 bar)
5,000 - 135,000 lb/h 20,000 - 3,500,000 lb/h
Flow Rate Flow Rate
(2,000 - 65,000 kg/h) (9,000 - 1,600,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 95 - 125_F (35 - 52_C) Inlet Temp. 125 - 175_F (52 - 79_C)
NPS 1 - 4 ET/EWT, NPS 2 - 16 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300 ASME CL150/300
WCC-HT/316 SST with WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Equal Percentage Equal Percentage or
Trim Type
Characterized Cavitrol III trim
Table 8-62. Free Acid Gas Drum Level Control Valve Table 8-64. Tail Gas Quench Water Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 90 - 105 psig (6 - 7 bar) Inlet Pressure 50 - 140 psig (3 - 10 bar)
Outlet Pressure 75 - 85 psig (5 - 6 bar) Outlet Pressure 30 - 45 psig (2 - 3 bar )
5,000 - 50,000 lb/h 50,000 - 1,750,000 lb/h
Flow Rate Flow Rate
(2,000 - 25,000 kg/h) (20,000 - 800,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 95 - 125_F (35 - 52_C) Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
NPS 1 - 2 ET/EWT, NPS 2 - 12 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300 ASME CL150/300
WCC-HT/316 SST with WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Equal Percentage Trim Type Linear or Cavitrol III trim
826
7. Lean Amine to Tail Gas Absorber Control Table 8-66. Tail Gas Treater Semi-lean Amine Letdown
Valve: This valve controls the flow of lean amine Control Valve
to the tail gas absorber in order to scrub the gas Parameter Typical Value
one last time prior to use as fuel or incineration. Inlet Pressure 75 - 195 psig (5 - 14 bar)
The valve and trim combination will depend upon Outlet Pressure 65 - 160 psig (4 - 11 bar)
the pressure drop, but a globe valve with linear or 30,000 - 1,550,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
anti-cavitation trim is typically used. (13,000 - 705,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 65 - 160 psig (18 - 71 bar)
Table 8-65. Lean Amine to Tail Gas Absorber NPS 2 - 16 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
Control Valve ASME CL150/300
Parameter Typical Value WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Inlet Pressure 75 - 195 psig (5 - 14 bar) Standard/316 SST
Water Injection
Figure 8-20 below shows the most common
valves associated with the water injection system.
Each will be discussed in further detail below.
3 2
4 1
VESSEL
TO WI OR
OVERBOARD
MAIN BOOSTER
E1499 PUMP PUMP
827
These will be high pressure valves, some of which 3. Water Injection Pump Recirculation Valve:
will require anti-cavitation trim due to high pres- Some units will use produced water for injection
sure drops. purposes while others will use seawater. Regard-
less of the media, this valve will be exposed to
extremely high pressure differentials, which will
depend upon the reservoir characteristics. The
1. Water Injection Surge Vessel Level Control flow will also vary depending upon the character-
Valve: This valve controls the level of produced istic of the reservoir. Globe or angle valves with
water in the water injection surge vessel. Cavitrol III trim, Cavitrol IV trim, or DST trim are
typically required. It should be noted that the pres-
sures below are based upon past experience.
Higher pressures can be expected with deeper
Table 8-68. Water Injection Surge Vessel operating water depths.
Level Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 85 - 100 psig (6 - 7 bar)
Outlet Pressure 75 - 85 psig (5 - 6 bar)
20,000 - 35,000 ft3/hr
Flow Rate
(550 - 1,000 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 80 - 100_F (27 - 38_C)
NPS 6 - 8 ET,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300
316 SST/Duplex SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
316 SST/Duplex SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V
Cavitrol III 1 stage trim or
Trim Type
Equal Percentage
828
4. Water Injection Discharge Pressure Control Table 8-71. Water Injection Discharge
Valve: Not all units will incorporate the use of a Pressure Control Valve
pressure discharge control valve. It is intended to Parameter Typical Value
control the pressure of the water injected into the Inlet Pressure 2,000 - 8,000 psig (138 - 552 bar)
reservoir. Depending upon the need, the pres- Minimal (dependant on reservoir
Outlet Pressure
sures may vary to enhance oil recovery. NPS 4 - requirements)
12 high pressure globe or angle valve with Cavitrol Flow Rate
10,000 - 30,000 ft3/hr
trim or DST trim is the typical solution. (280 - 850 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 80 - 120_F (27 - 49_C)
Valve Type and Pressure NPS 4 - 12 EHT/EHAT,
Class ASME CL2500 or API 10000
Valve Material and Trim 316 SST/Duplex SST with 316
Material SST/Duplex SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Cavitrol III trim, Cavitrol IV trim,
Trim Type
NotchFlo DST or DST trim
W9983-2
829
830
Chapter 9
Most natural gas contains contaminants that must Natural Gas Treatment Process
be removed before it can be safely delivered to its
intended source. Its pressures, BTU content, or Figure 9-1 is a process flow diagram of a common
water content can also cause operational prob- natural gas treatment plant:
lems with downstream units or pipeline deteriora-
tion and potential failure. Natural gas treatment Inlet Separation
plants are used to remove the contaminants and Depending upon plant design, an initial separator
water and ensure proper pressures and BTU con- or slug catcher will be present at the inlet of the
tent. plant. The separator is designed to allow any con-
densate to fall out prior to further treatment. No
matter the type, the upstream separator is critical
to operation of the plant as it prevents the intro-
Natural gas treatment facilities consist of a num- duction of liquids in the downstream treatment
ber of different units, but all will typically contain a process. A compressor may be utilized after initial
receiving area, a treatment area, a unit to remove separation to boost the gas pressure to the appro-
water from the treated natural gas, a sulfur recov- priate level for treatment. In most cases, however,
ery unit, and a discharge compression unit. the gas is compressed before arriving at the plant.
Though not discussed further in this chapter, nat-
ural gas treatment units may also be combined
with gas fractionation units used to separate natur- Gas Treatment
al gas liquids. Gas treatment involves the reduction or elimina-
tion of acid gases in the flowstream, the most
common of which are hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and
carbon dioxide (CO2). Others include Nitrogen and
The capacity of a natural gas treatment facility Helium. It is necessary to remove these compon-
varies in North America between 50 MMSCFD ents as they can damage downstream piping and
and 500 MMSCFD. Where large reserves of natur- equipment, especially in the presence of water. If
al gas are located, like the Middle East, it is com- water is introduced into the system, weak acids
mon to find facilities that can handle between 800 can form and may corrode piping systems and
MMSCFD and 1 BSCFD. treatment equipment.
RAW
NATURAL INLET SEPARATION GAS TREATMENT DEHYDRATION TREATED
GAS NATURAL
GAS
E1511
www.Fisher.com
There are a number of different means of remov- Dehydration
ing acid gases from the flow stream. Solvent ab-
sorption is typically utilized and involves a combin- The treated gas stream leaving the contactor must
ation of both chemical and physical absorption be dried to meet either pipeline or other production
methods. Other viable techniques include solid specifications. There are a number of approaches
absorption, membrane, direct conversion, and to removing any water from the gas, which will
cryogenic fractionation. Because it is more com- vary depending upon the downstream uses of the
monly used, this chapter will place focus on treated natural gas. The two methods of removal
solvent absorption techniques utilizing amines. involve absorption or adsorption techniques.
92
1
recovery of elemental sulfur, as this method is
more commonly used in many large treatment
units. INLET
SEPARATOR
Discharge Compression
After treatment, the natural gas will be com-
pressed and injected into a high pressure gas dis-
tribution network at pressures ranging from 1,200
to 1,700 psig. The gas will then be used for indus-
trial or residential purposes.
Application Review
W9571
Depending upon the treatment capacity of the
plant, the number of control valves will vary Figure 9-3. A11 with 2052 Actuator and
between 50 for a smaller plant (100 MMCFD) and FIELDVUE DVC6000
up to 300 for larger units (1000 MMCFD). The
majority of the valves utilized will be CL600 and
less, but the sizes will vary from small to large
constructions based upon the throughput capacity 1. Feed Gas Inlet Pressure Control Valve: Inlet
of the unit. The materials noted below are found pressure of the gas into the inlet separator is con-
in many plants, but given the greater emphasis on trolled here. Pressure drop across the valve will be
the development of sour gas fields globally, there minimal, but the flow may be high depending on
is a shift to high nickel alloy materials. Below is a the capacity of the plant. A high performance but-
summary of each of the key areas of the plant and terfly valve may be used in this application.
the critical valves associated with each area. The
typical service conditions and valve selections will Table 9-1. Feed Gas Inlet Pressure Control Valve
be outlined. Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 300 - 1,050 psig (21 - 72 bar)
Outlet Pressure 285 - 1,035 psig (20 - 71 bar)
Inlet Separation Flow Rate
500,000 - 4,000,000 lb/h
(225,000 - 1,900,000 kg/h)
From the wellhead and gathering systems, the raw Inlet Temp. 20 - 100_F (7 - 38_C)
natural gas will flow into the natural gas treatment NPS 10 30 8532/8580
plant. Prior to treatment of the natural gas, any Valve Type and Pressure Class rotary valve/A31A/A11 HPBV,
liquids and solids in the flow stream must be re- ASME CL150/300/600
moved. This is accomplished via a large inlet sep- Valve Material and Trim Material
WCC-HT/316 SST with
arator or slug catcher. Figure 9-2 shows the key Standard/316 SST
valves associated with the inlet separation system Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V
and will be discussed in the following text. Trim Type Equal Percentage
93
2. Inlet Separator Level Control Valve: Here, Table 9-3. Heat Exchanger Temperature Control Valve
the liquid level in the inlet separator is controlled. Parameter Typical Value
Depending upon the inlet pressure to the facility, Inlet Pressure 100 - 225 psig (7 - 16 bar)
this valve may experience high pressure drops. It Outlet Pressure 90 - 215 psig (6 - 15 bar)
is common to find multiple level valves on a given 2,000 - 25,000 lb/h
separator. A globe or angle valve with anti-cavita- Flow Rate
(900 12,000 kg/h)
tion trim is typically used in this application. Inlet Temp. 250 - 350_F (121 - 177_C)
NPS 2 - 6 ET,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
Table 9-2. Inlet Separator Level Control Valve AMSE CL150/300
Parameter Typical Value Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Inlet Pressure 300 - 1,050 psig (21 - 72 bar) Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V
Outlet Pressure 50 - 400 psig (3 - 28 bar) Trim Type Linear
Flow Rate 50 - 2,000 lb/h (20 - 910 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 20 - 100_F (7 - 38_C)
NPS 1 2 ET,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300/600 Gas Treatment
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material The first step in treatment of the natural gas is to
Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V remove the sour gas components. Amine ab-
Trim Type Cavitrol III trim sorbers are most commonly used for this process.
Figure 9-5 shows the layout of an amine treatment
3. Heat Exchanger Temperature Control Valve: unit and the common control valves in the pro-
This valve controls the flow of steam to the inlet cess.
heat exchanger, thus controlling outlet temperat-
ure of the feed gas. There is not a tremendous 1. Rich Amine Letdown Control Valve: Liquid
amount of heat added to the system, thus valve level in the bottom of the contactor is controlled by
sizes are not typically large. A globe valve is a this valve. Given the low downstream pressure
suitable solution for this application. needed to drive off the gases, this valve may ex-
perience severe outgassing effects. Therefore, the
trim selection will vary depending upon the pres-
sure drop and the amount of gas entrained in the
solution. While the recommendation in the guide
summary below is commonly seen, it is important
that each application be reviewed in detail to en-
sure proper valve selection.
94
TO DEHYDRATION
11
12
TO
FLARE
10 6
9
FLASH GAS
CONTACTOR
REGENERATION
RICH/LEAN AMINE
EXCHANGER
2 3
8 7
1 4
FLASH TANK
Table 9-5. Flash Drum Lean Solvent Control Valve Table 9-6. Flash Drum Water Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 40 - 165 psig (3 - 11 bar) Inlet Pressure 40 - 165 psig (3 - 11 bar)
Outlet Pressure 30 - 135 psig (2- 9 bar) Outlet Pressure 30 - 135 psig (2 - 9 bar)
3,000 - 55,000 lb/h 500 - 12,000 lb/h
Flow Rate Flow Rate
(1,000 - 25,000 kg/h) (225 - 5,500 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 100 - 120_F (38 - 49_C) Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
NPS 1 - 3 ET/EZ, NPS 1 - 2 EZ,
Valve Type and Pressure Class Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300/600 ASME CL150/300/600
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC-HT with Standard Valve Material and Trim Material WCC-HT with Standard
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Linear Trim Type Equal Percentage
95
Table 9-8. Flash Drum Pressure Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 30 - 105 psig (2 - 7 bar)
Outlet Pressure 20 - 90 psig (1 - 6 bar)
500 - 11,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(225 - 5,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
NPS 2 - 6 ET,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
AMSE CL150/300/600
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Linear
96
Table 9-9. Flash Gas to Flare Control Valve Table 9-11. Lean Amine Main Pump Recirculation Control
Parameter Typical Value Valve
Inlet Pressure 30 - 105 psig (2 - 7 bar) Parameter Typical Value
Outlet Pressure 5 - 15 psig (1 bar) 400 - 1,600 psig
Inlet Pressure
(28 - 110 bar)
500 - 11,000 lb/h
Flow Rate Outlet Pressure 150 - 225 psig (10 - 16 bar)
(225 - 5,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C) 20,000 - 650,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(9,000 - 300,000 kg/h)
NPS 1 - 2 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
ASME CL150/300/600
WCC-HT/316 SST with NPS 2 - 8 ET/EWT/HPT,
Valve Material and Trim Material Valve Type and Pressure Class
Standard/316SST ASME CL300/600/900
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316SST
Whisper Trim I or Whisper
Trim Type Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim III
Trim Type Cavitrol III trim
97
Table 9-13. Lean Gas to Flare Control Valve Table 9-15. Lean Gas Separator Sour Water Letdown
Parameter Typical Value Control Valve
Inlet Pressure 300 - 1020 psig (21 - 70 bar) Parameter Typical Value
Outlet Pressure 30 - 45 psig (2 - 3 bar) Inlet Pressure 300 - 1020 psig (21 - 70 bar)
30,000 - 1,300,000 lb/h Outlet Pressure 45 - 150 psig (3 - 10 bar)
Flow Rate
(13,000 - 590,000 kg/h) 500 - 5,500 lb/h
Flow Rate
Inlet Temp. 110 - 155_F (43 - 68_C) (225 - 2,500 kg/h)
NPS 3 - 24 ET/EWT/FBT, Inlet Temp. 110 - 155_F (43 - 68_C)
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL300/600 NPS 1 - 2 ET/ES,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
WCC-HT/316 SST with ASME CL300/600
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316SST WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V Standard/316SST
Whisper Trim I or Whisper Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type
Trim III Trim Type Linear or Cavitrol III trim
98
TO INCINERATOR
TAIL GAS
KO DRUM
8
LEAN
AMINE
5
ABSORBER
ACID GAS ENRISHMENT
TO SULFUR
1 REACTOR
REGENERATION
FREE ACID
GAS DRUM
2
RICH AMINE
FLASH DRUM
3
4
E1498
2. Regeneration Lean Amine Pump Recircula- Table 9-17. Regeneration Lean Amine Pump Recirculation
tion Control Valve: This valve bypasses the lean Control Valve
amine from the bottom of the regeneration tower. Parameter Typical Value
Bypassing the flow around the pump prevents the Inlet Pressure 150 - 240 psig (10 - 17 bar)
pump from cavitating. This requires the valve to Outlet Pressure 30 - 45 psig (2 - 3 bar)
take a relatively high pressure drop, which can 20,000 - 1,320,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
lead to the formation of damaging cavitation. This (9,000 - 600,000 kg/h)
valve must be able to eliminate the formation of Inlet Temp. 125 - 175_F (52 - 79_C)
cavitation. A globe valve with anti-cavitation trim is NPS 2 - 12 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
generally used. ASME CL150/300
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Cavitrol III trim
99
3. Rich Amine Pump Discharge to Regenera- Table 9-20. Lean Amine Flow Control Valve
tion Control Valve: Here, the flow of amine back Parameter Typical Value
to the regeneration tower is controlled here. Given Inlet Pressure 150 - 240 psig (10 - 17 bar)
the lower pressure drop, a globe valve with equal Outlet Pressure 30 - 60 psig (2 - 4 bar)
percentage trim may be utilized. 20,000 - 3,500,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(9,000 - 1,600,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 125 - 175_F (52 - 79_C)
NPS 2 - 16 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
Table 9-18. Rich Amine Pump Discharge to Regeneration ASME CL150/300
Control Valve Valve Material and Trim Material
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Parameter Typical Value Standard/316 SST
Inlet Pressure 75 - 105 psig (5 - 7 bar) Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Outlet Pressure 60 - 75 psig (4 - 5 bar) Equal Percentage or
Trim Type
Characterized Cavitrol III trim
5,000 - 135,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(2,000 - 62,000 kg/h) 6. Tail Gas Quench Water Control Valve: The
Inlet Temp. 95 - 125_F (35 - 52_C) gas leaving the acid gas enrichment absorber is
Valve Type and Pressure Class
NPS 1 - 4 ET/EWT, subjected to a water quench prior to additional
ASME CL150/300 treatment. This valve controls the quench water
WCC-HT/316 SST with flow to the quench tank. A globe valve is com-
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST
monly used with the potential for anti-cavitation
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV trim dependent upon the pressure drop.
Trim Type Equal Percentage
Table 9-21. Tail Gas Quench Water Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 50 - 140 psig (3 - 10 bar)
4. Free Acid Gas Drum Level Control Valve: Outlet Pressure 30 - 45 psig (2 - 3 bar )
The level of liquid in the free acid gas drum is con- 50,000 - 1,750,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
trolled by this valve. It will experience relatively low (20,000 - 800,000 kg/h)
pressure drops and a globe valve is a commonly Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
used solution. NPS 2 - 12 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Table 9-19. Free Acid Gas Drum Level Control Valve
Trim Type Linear or Cavitrol III trim
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 90 - 105 psig (6 - 7 bar) 7. Lean Amine to Tail Gas Absorber Control
Outlet Pressure 75 - 85 psig (5 - 6 bar) Valve: This valve controls the flow of lean amine
5,000 - 50,000 lb/h to the tail gas absorber in order to scrub the gas
Flow Rate
(2,000 - 25,000 kg/h) one last time prior to use as fuel or incineration.
Inlet Temp. 95 - 125_F (35 - 52_C) The valve and trim combination will depend upon
NPS 1 - 2 ET/EWT, the pressure drop, but a globe valve with linear or
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300 anti-cavitation trim is typically used.
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material Table 9-22. Lean Amine to Tail Gas Absorber
Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV Control Valve
Trim Type Equal Percentage Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 75 - 195 psig (5 - 13 bar)
Outlet Pressure 60 - 75 psig (4 - 5 bar)
30,000 - 1,550,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
5. Lean Amine Flow Control Valve: This valve (13,000 - 705,000 kg/h)
controls the flow of lean amine to the acid gas en- Inlet Temp. 90 - 120_F (32 - 49_C)
richment absorber. Similar to other applications, Valve Type and Pressure Class
NPS 3 - 16 ET/EWT,
ASME CL150/300
this valve experiences relatively low pressure
drops, but with the potential of relatively high flow WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST
rates. A globe valve is generally used in this ap-
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
plication.
Trim Type Linear or Cavitrol III trim
910
1
8. Tail Gas Treater Semi-lean Amine Letdown DRY GAS
CONTACTOR
GLYYCOL
pending upon the amount of gas entrained in the 3
DRUM
KO
Inlet Pressure 75 - 195 psig (5 - 13 bar)
Outlet Pressure 65 - 160 psig (4 - 11 bar)
30,000 - 1,550,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(13,000 - 705,000 kg/h)
2
Inlet Temp. 100 - 130_F (38 - 54_C)
NPS 2 - 16 ET/EWT,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL150/300
FROM
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material CONTACTOR
Standard/316 SST
E1496
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Linear
Figure 9-9. TEG Gas Dehydration Unit
911
Table 9-26. Gas Dehydration Inlet Separator Level Control Table 9-27. Glycol Contactor Level Control Valve
Valve Parameter Typical Value
Parameter Typical Value Inlet Pressure 30 - 1050 psig (2 - 72 bar)
Inlet Pressure 600 - 1100 psig (41 - 76 bar) Outlet Pressure 30 - 200 psig (2 - 14 bar)
Outlet Pressure 150 - 350 psig (10 - 24 bar) 100 - 750 lb/h
Flow Rate
100 - 750 lb/h (45 - 340 kg/h)
Flow Rate
(45 - 340 kg/h) Inlet Temp. 100 - 125_F (38 - 52_C)
Inlet Temp. 100 - 125_F (38 - 52_C) NPS 1 - 3 ET,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
NPS 1 - 3 EZ/ET, ASME CL300/600
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL300 Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV Trim Type Cavitrol III trim
Trim Type Equal Percentage
7 9
TO
INCINERATOR
2
1
REACTION
#1 SULFUR 8
FURNACE / WHB
AIR CONDENSER
PREHEATER
AIR
3 4 SULFUR
6 DEGASSER /
SUMP
E1514 SULFUR
1. Acid Gas Knockout Drum Level Control Table 9-28. Acid Gas Knockout Drum Level Control Valve
Valve: Here, the liquid level in the upstream Parameter Typical Value
knockout drum is controlled. A globe valve with Inlet Pressure 20 - 30 psig (1 - 2 bar)
standard trim is typically used in this application. Outlet Pressure 15 - 18 psig (1 bar)
5,000 - 55,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(2,000 - 25,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 100 - 125_F (38 - 52_C)
Valve Type and Pressure Class NPS 2 EZ, ASME CL150/300
WCC-HT/316 SST with
Valve Material and Trim Material
Standard/316 SST
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Equal Percentage
912
2. Acid Gas Preheater Temperature Control Table 9-31. Waste Heat Boiler (WHB) Feedwater Level
Valve: This valve controls the flow of steam to in Control Valve
turn control the discharge temperature of the acid Parameter Typical Value
gas leaving the preheater. Flow rates are com- 550 - 1,000 psig
Inlet Pressure
monly low, but inlet pressures may be high de- (38 - 69 bar)
pending upon the source of steam in the plant. A Outlet Pressure 475 - 675 psig (33 - 47 bar)
small globe valve is generally used. Flow Rate
20,000 - 200,000 lb/h
(9,000 - 91,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 225 - 275_F (107 - 135_C)
Valve Type and Pressure Class NPS 2 - 4 ET, ASME CL600
Table 9-29. Acid Gas Preheater Temperature Control Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Valve Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Parameter Typical Value Equal Percentage or
Trim Type
Inlet Pressure 450 - 675 psig (31 - 47 bar) Cavitrol III trim
Outlet Pressure 50 - 125 psig (3 - 9 bar)
1,000 - 16,500 lb/h
5. Reaction Furnace Waste Heat Boiler Steam
Flow Rate Pressure Control Valve: Here, the steam pres-
(450 - 7,500 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 400 - 500_F (204 - 260_C) sure in the WHB is controlled. The valve selection
Valve Type and Pressure Class NPS 1 - 2 EZ, ASME CL600 will depend upon the intended use of the steam,
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard but a globe valve is typically used.
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage Table 9-32. Reaction Furnace Waste Heat Boiler Steam
Pressure Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 475 - 675 psig (33 - 47 bar)
3. Air Preheater Temperature Control Valve: Outlet Pressure 150- 240 psig (10 - 17 bar)
This valve controls the flow of steam, which in turn Flow Rate
20,000 - 200,000 lb/h
controls the discharge temperature of the combus- (9,000 - 91,000 kg/h)
tion air leaving the preheater. Flow rates are typic- Inlet Temp. 400 - 500_F (204 - 260_C)
ally low, but inlet pressures may be high depend- Valve Type and Pressure Class NPS 2 - 8 ET, ASME CL600
ing upon the source of steam in the plant. A small Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
globe valve is commonly used. Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Linear or Whisper III Trim
913
7. Reactor/Reheater Steam Temperature Con-
trol Valve #1: Because the gas leaving the #1
sulfur condenser is at its dew point, it must be re-
heated for further sulfur separation. This valve
controls the flow of steam to control discharge
temperature from the reheater. A globe valve is
commonly used in this application.
Table 9-34. Reactor/Reheater Steam Temperature Control
Valve #1
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 475 - 675 psig (33 - 47 bar)
Outlet Pressure 400 - 650 psig (28 - 45 bar)
1,000 - 15,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(450 - 7,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 400 - 500_F (204 - 260_C)
Valve Type and Pressure Class NPS 2 - 6 ET, ASME CL600
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC with Standard
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Linear
914
Chapter 10
To move a fluid through a pipe, whether it is a gas GAS FROM GAS TO NEXT
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR
or liquid, one needs simply to increase the fluids PRODUCTION STATION STATION METERING
FIELD STATION
pressure above that of the final destination of
where it is going to. For gases, a compressor is
used to perform this task; for liquids, a pump. In METERING
GAS TO
LOCAL
the upstream oil and gas industry, pumps and STATION DISTRIBUTION
OR END USER
compressors are used to move oil and natural E1515
www.Fisher.com
compression ratios, but can move large volumes CRUDE OIL CRUDE OIL
PUMP PUMP
of gas. As such they are typically used on large FROM
STATION STATION TO NEXT
PRODUCTION TERMINAL
capacity mainline compression. Reciprocating FIELD
compressors have a limited compression ratio,
typically 2:1 or 3:1 per stage, but can use as many OIL CRUDE OIL TO
as four stages on a single engine. They are TERMINAL STORAGE OR
REFINERY
typically used on production lines from the E1516
102
1 2
GAS TO
GAS FROM
FLOW METER LOCAL
PIPELINE
DISTRIBUTION
E1517
1 4
E1484
Table 10-2. Monitor Valve pressures equalize because it takes more power
Parameter Typical Value to draw gas through a restrictive valve opening
Inlet Pressure 200 - 1500 psig (17 - 103 bar) which is an inefficient use of the available
Outlet Pressure 1 - 150 psi (1 - 10 bar) compressor Hp. The less energy that is required
Inlet Temp. 60_F (16_C)
to move the gas through the compressor, the
more likely the compressor will be running at the
Valve Type and Pressure Class Globe, ASME CL600
maximum Hp with best compression and fuel
Valve Material and Trim Material WCC/416 SST
efficiency. Regardless of the number of stages of
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
compression required, there is always only one
Trim Type Equal Percentage suction control valve located at the inlet of the first
stage scrubber.
103
is tied to a level controller that senses the water
level in the vessel.
104
2
FLOW METER
1 3
FLOW METER
OIL
OIL FROM
TO
PIPELINE
TERMINAL
FLOW METER
FLOW METER
E1519
the cavitation and the resultant noise and Figure 10-8. V260B with Hydrodome Attenuator
vibration.
Table 10-7. Pump Discharge Valve this valve will often cause cavitation that is not
Parameter Typical Value damaging to the valve, but may cause excessive
Inlet Pressure
720 - 1480 psig noise and vibration. A full port ball valve with
(50 - 102 bar)
hydrodynamic noise attenuating hydrodome trim is
Outlet Pressure 10 - 150 psig (1 - 10 bar) typically required.
Inlet Temp. 40 - 100_F (4 - 38_C)
NPS 12 - 24 V250 or V260,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL600 Table 10-8. Delivery Valve
Valve Material and Trim Material LCC Parameter Typical Value
Shutoff Requirement None 150 - 400 psig
Inlet Pressure
Standard Flow Ring/Full Bore (10 - 28 bar)
Trim Type
or Hydrodome Outlet Pressure 80 psig (6 bar)
Inlet Temp. 40 - 100_F (4 - 38_C)
NPS 8 - 20 V260,
Valve Type and Pressure Class
ASME CL600
Oil Terminal: Valve Material and Trim Material LCC or WCC
1. Delivery: This valve takes the initial pressure Shutoff Requirement Class IV
cut from the pipeline. The pressure drops seen for Trim Type Hydrodome
105
2. Flow Balancing: These valves are used to
ensure each flow meter has approximately the
same flow rate.
106
Chapter 11
Fractionation
Natural gas at the wellhead is primarily composed the economics of recovering NGLs at the gas
of four hydrocarbon constituents; Methane (C1), treatment facility have improved significantly in
Ethane (2), Propane (C3), and Butane (C4). recent years, and production has increased.
Though composition will vary by reservoir, meth-
ane commonly accounts for 80% or more of the While the composition of mixed NGL streams can
raw stream that is produced from a gas-producing vary significantly depending on the reservoir, a
well. Fields that produce gas that are high in typical breakdown of hydrocarbon fractions has
C2+(1) constituents are described as high BTU or been established for marketing purposes. This
liquids-rich fields. typical NGL stream consists of 45% ethane, 30%
propane, 10% butane, and 15% C5+ hydrocar-
(1) For a list of the makeup of hydrocarbons, bons.
please refer to the chart below:
www.Fisher.com
ETHANE (C2) PROPANE (C3) BUTANE (C4)
MIXED STABILIZED
DEETHANIZER DEPROPANIZER DEBUTANIZER
NGL CONDENSATE
(C5+)
E1520
112
4 5
REFLUX ETHANE
ACCUMULATOR PRODUCT TO
METERING
3
1
2
MIXED
NGL
DEETHANIZER
HOT OIL
E1521 RETURN
Though the process outlined here is typical for a 100,000 bbl/d, which encompasses the vast ma-
plant recovering ethane, propane, and butane, the jority of units in operation today.
design of each plant will vary depending on nu-
merous factors. In certain cases, an ethane and
propane mix is the primary product, so only one
tower is required. Some plants will require sulfur Deethanizer
removal from the propane product. Others will re-
quire an additional butane splitter to produce sep- A typical deethanizer is featured in Figure 11-2. As
arate streams of isobutane and normal butane. the lightest component in the mixed NGL stream,
ethane is the first hydrocarbon to be boiled off.
Ethane vapor boiled off into the deethanizer over-
head is cooled, condensed, and captured in the
reflux accumulator. The remaining liquid hydrocar-
bons in the deethanizer tower are heated through
the bottom reboiler to boil off any residual ethane,
and then flow to the depropanizer.
Fractionation Application Review
1. Deethanizer Inlet Control: This valve controls
At some sites, fractionation units will be integrated the flow of mixed NGL into the deethanizer tower.
into a gas treatment plant that is capable of recov- Accurate control is required to maintain the proper
ering NGLs from the natural gas supply. However, volume of mixed NGL feeding into the tower and
most large-scale fractionation units are standalone optimize ethane recovery. CoCr-A hardfacing is
and receive their NGL stream from other gas required on the trim, as this valve may experience
treatment plants that recover NGL from produced mild to moderate flashing depending on the pres-
natural gas and pipe it offsite for fractionating. The sure drop. Use of an angle body with hardened
following application review is based on frac- liner is suggested if flashing is expected to be
tionators with a rated capacity of 50,000 to severe.
113
Table 11-1. Deethanizer Inlet Control Valve Table 11-3. Deethanizer Reflux Pump
Parameter Typical Value Recycle Control Valve
Inlet Pressure 400 - 500 psig (28 - 35 bar) Parameter Typical Value
Outlet Pressure 200 - 300 psig (14 - 21 bar) Inlet Pressure 300 - 320 psig (21 - 22 bar)
Inlet Temp. 80 - 100_F (27 - 38_C) Outlet Pressure 250 psig (17 bar)
20,000 - 100,000 bpd Inlet Temp. 0 - 10_F (18 - 12_C)
Flow Rate
(130 - 665 m3/h) Flow Rate 5,000 - 20,000 bpd (30 - 135 m3/h)
Valve Type and Valve Type and
NPS 4 - 8 ET, ASME CL300 NPS 2 - 6 ET, ASME CL300
Pressure Class Pressure Class
Valve Material and Valve Material and WCC or LCC body,
WCC body, 316 SST / CoCr-A trim
Trim Material Trim Material 316 SST / CoCr-A trim
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Equal Percentage Trim Type Equal Percentage
2. Deethanizer Reflux Pump to Deethanizer 4. Ethane Booster Pump Recycle Control: This
Control: This valve controls discharge flow of li- valve recycles flow through the ethane booster
quid ethane from the deethanizer reflux pump pump when needed to prevent cavitation. It is
back to the deethanizer tower. A segmented ball used most commonly in commissioning and star-
valve is used to provide accurate flow control and tup as the unit is brought up to full capacity. A
rangeability with minimal pressure drop across the globe body with standard or anti-cavitation trim is
valve. Low temperature carbon steel (LCC) body most common in this application.
may be required if excursions below 20_F Table 11-4. Ethane Booster Pump
(29_C) are expected. Recycle Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Table 11-2. Deethanizer Reflux Pump to Deethanizer Inlet Pressure 600 - 700 psig (41 - 48 bar)
Control Valve Outlet Pressure 250 - 300 psig (17 - 21 bar)
Parameter Typical Value Inlet Temp. 10 - 20_F (12 - 7_C)
Inlet Pressure 300 - 320 psig (21 - 22 bar) Flow Rate 4,000 - 30,000 bpd (25 - 200 m3/h)
Outlet Pressure 280 - 300 psig (19 - 21 bar) Valve Type and
NPS 1 - 4 ET, ASME CL600
Pressure Class
Inlet Temp. 0 - 10_F (18 - 12_C)
Valve Material and WCC or LCC body,
Flow Rate 10,000 - 45,000 bpd (65 - 300 m3/h)
Trim Material 316 SST / CoCr-A trim
Valve Type and NPS 4 - 10 Vee-Ball V300,
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Pressure Class ASME CL300
Trim Type Equal Percentage/Cavitrol III trim
Valve Material and
WCC/LCC body, 317 SST / CrPl ball
Trim Material
5. Ethane Pump Recycle Control: This valve
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV recycles flow through the primary ethane pump
Trim Type Equal Percentage when needed to prevent cavitation. It is used most
commonly in commissioning and startup as the
3. Deethanizer Reflux Pump Recycle Control: unit is brought up to full capacity. Anti-cavitation
This valve recycles flow through the deethanizer trim is nearly always required due to the elevated
reflux pump when needed to prevent cavitation. It pressure drop across the primary pump. Mi-
is used most commonly in commissioning and cro-Trim may be required as well to address low
startup as the unit is brought up to full capacity. flow requirements.
Due to the small pressure drop across this valve,
a globe with standard trim is usually sufficient. Table 11-5. Ethane Pump Recycle Control Valve
Low temperature carbon steel (LCC) body may be Parameter Typical Value
required if excursions below 20_F (29_C) are Inlet Pressure 1600 - 1800 psig (110 - 124 bar)
expected. Outlet Pressure 1100 - 1250 psig (76 - 86 bar)
Inlet Temp. 60 - 80_F (16 - 27_C)
Flow Rate 4,000 - 30,000 bpd (25 - 200 m3/h)
Valve Type and
NPS 1 - 3 HPT, ASME CL900
Pressure Class
Valve Material and
WCC body, 17-4 SST trim
Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Trim Type Cavitrol III trim
114
Table 11-7. Deethanizer Reboiler
Hot Oil Return Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 60 psig (4 bar)
Outlet Pressure 25 - 35 psig (2 - 3 bar)
Inlet Temp. 200 - 250_F (93 - 121_C)
Flow Rate 250 - 300 gpm (55 - 70 m3/h)
Valve Type and NPS 2 - 4 Vee-Ball V300,
Pressure Class ASME CL300
Valve Material and
WCC body, 317 SST/CrPl ball
Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
6. Ethane to Product Meter Control: This valve Inlet Temp. 170_F (77_C)
controls the flow of ethane from the pump dis- Flow Rate 20,000 - 75,000 bpd (130 - 500 m3/h)
charge to metering. The pressure drop across this Valve Type and
NPS 3 - 8 ET, ASME CL300
Pressure Class
valve is intended to be minimal. A globe with
standard trim is the most common selection. Valve Material and
WCC body, 316 SST/CoCr-A trim
Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
115
TO DE-ETH FROM DE-ETH
HEAT HEAT
EXCHANGER EXCHANGER
1
2
3
6
ETHANE
REFLUX
PRODUCT TO
ACCUMULATOR
METERING
4
C3+ NGL MIX
FROM DE-
ETHANIZER
DEPROPANIZER
HOT OIL
E1522 RETURN
116
Table 11-11. Depropanizer Heat Pump Compressor
to Reflux Accumulator Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 500 - 600 psig (36 - 41 bar)
Outlet Pressure 480 - 580 psig (33 - 40 bar)
Inlet Temp. 200 - 225_F (93 - 107_C)
12,000 - 24,000 MSCFD
Flow Rate
(13,000 - 25,000 m3/h)
Valve Type and NPS 4 - 12 Vee-Ball V300,
Pressure Class ASME CL300
Valve Material and
WCC body, 317 SST/CrPl ball
Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
W9498-2
4. Depropanizer Heat Pump Compressor to
Figure 11-6. 8580 Valve with Depropanizer Side Reboiler: This valve controls
2052 Actuator and DVC6000 the flow of compressed propane vapor to the side
reboiler heat exchanger. Pressure drop is minimal
and a butterfly valve is typically used. Tight shutoff
ally sufficient. Tight shutoff will be specified in will be required in some cases.
some cases.
Table 11-12. Depropanizer Heat Pump Compressor
to Depropanizer Side Reboiler Valve
Table 11-10. Depropanizer Heat Pump Compressor
to Deethanizer Control Valve Parameter Typical Value
Parameter Typical Value Inlet Pressure 500 - 600 psig (35 - 41 bar)
Inlet Pressure 500 - 600 psig (35 - 41 bar) Outlet Pressure 480 - 580 psig (33 - 40 bar)
Outlet Pressure 480 - 580 psig (33 - 40 bar) Inlet Temp. 200 - 225_F (93 - 107_C)
Inlet Temp. 200 - 225_F (93 - 107_C) 24,000 - 48,000 MSCFD
Flow Rate
(25,000 - 55,000 m3/h)
28,000 - 58,000 MSCFD
Flow Rate Valve Type and
(32,000 - 65,000 m3/h) NPS 6 - 14 8580/8532, ASME CL300
Pressure Class
Valve Type and
NPS 6 - 12 8580, ASME CL300 Valve Material and WCC body, 316 SST/CrPl disc,
Pressure Class
Trim Material PTFE seal
Valve Material and WCC body, 316 SST/CrPl disc,
Trim Material PTFE seal Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class VI
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class VI Trim Type Linear
Trim Type Linear
5. Propane Pump Recycle Control: This valve
recycles flow through the primary propane pump,
3. Depropanizer Heat Pump Compressor to when needed, to prevent cavitation. It is used
Reflux Accumulator Control: This valve controls most commonly in commissioning and startup as
the flow of compressed propane vapor directly into the unit is brought up to full capacity. Anti-cavita-
the reflux accumulator. Pressure drop across this tion trim is nearly always required due to the elev-
valve is minimal, and a segmented ball valve is ated pressure drop across the primary pump. Mi-
typically used to provide rangeability and accurate cro-Trim may be required, as well, to address
control. low-flow requirements.
117
Table 11-13. Propane Pump Recycle Control Valve ing into the debutanizer to ensure optimal recovery
Parameter Typical Value of butanes.
Inlet Pressure 1400 - 1600 psig (97 - 110 bar)
Outlet Pressure 400 - 500 psig (28 - 35 bar) Table 11-16. Depropanizer Bottom Reboiler to
Inlet Temp. 80 - 100_F (27 - 38_C)
Debutanizer Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Flow Rate 5000 - 12,000 bpd (30 - 80 m3/h)
Inlet Pressure 190 psig (13 bar)
Valve Type and
NPS 1 - 3 HPT, ASME CL900 Outlet Pressure 150 - 170 psig (10 - 12 bar)
Pressure Class
Valve Material and Inlet Temp. 230_F (110_C)
WCC body, 17-4 SST trim
Trim Material Flow Rate 15,000 - 50,000 bpd (95 - 335 m3/h)
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V Valve Type and
NPS 3 - 8 ET, ASME CL300
Trim Type Cavitrol III trim Pressure Class
Valve Material and
WCC body, 316 SST/CoCr-A trim
Trim Material
6. Propane to Product Meter Control: This
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
valve controls the flow of propane from the pump
Trim Type Equal Percentage
discharge to metering. The pressure drop across
this valve is intended to be minimal. A globe with
standard trim is the most common selection.
Debutanizer
Table 11-14. Propane to Product Meter Control Valve The debutanizer operates in a similar manner as
Parameter Typical Value the deethanizer and depropanizer, but produces
Inlet Pressure 1400 - 1600 psig (97 - 110 bar) butane product. With the lighter products already
Outlet Pressure 1380 - 1580 psig (95 - 109 bar) removed (ethane and propane), the remaining li-
Inlet Temp. 80 - 100_F (27 - 38_C) quid C4+ mixed NGL stream enters the debutan-
Flow Rate 10,000 - 35,000 bpd (65 - 235 m3/h) izer tower. Butane product boils off to the over-
Valve Type and
head, is condensed, and collected in the reflux
NPS 3 - 6 HPT, ASME CL900 accumulator. The remaining C5+ liquid condens-
Pressure Class
Valve Material and ate at the tower bottom is reboiled to recover any
WCC body, 316 SST/CoCr-A trim
Trim Material residual butane, and then eventually cooled
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV through the condensate cooler and piped to stor-
Trim Type Equal Percentage age.
118
3
REFLUX ETHANE
ACCUMULATOR PRODUCT TO
METERING
DEBUTANIZER
PROPANIZER
STABILIZED C5+
CONDENSATE
TO METERING
HOT OIL
E1523 RETURN
is used most commonly in commissioning and commonly in commissioning and startup as the
startup as the unit is brought up to full capacity. unit is brought up to full capacity. Pressure drop is
Due to the small pressure drop across this valve, relatively low across this valve and standard trim
a globe with standard trim is usually sufficient. is usually sufficient.
119
6. Debutanizer Bottoms Pump Recycle Con-
trol: This valve recycles flow through the bottoms
pump when needed to prevent cavitation. It is
used most commonly in commissioning and star-
tup as the unit is brought up to full capacity. Pres-
sure drop is relatively low across this valve and
standard trim is usually sufficient.
1110
Chapter 12
In regions that utilize natural gas for residential occurring domes within salt formations are not of-
and commercial heating, gas storage facilities are ten large enough to provide sufficient storage ca-
required to accommodate the seasonal surge in pacity. Nearly all caverns used for storage require
demand during the winter months. Excess gas a solution mining process upfront to remove addi-
produced during the summer months is put into tional salt from the formation and create sufficient
storage as demand is relatively low during this storage volume. This process is commonly re-
time. Storage facilities also serve as a buffer to ferred to as leaching.
supply gas during interruptions brought about by
accidents, natural disasters, or other unforeseen Naturally occurring aquifers are the least common
causes. type of storage facility due to the relatively high
base gas requirements and low permeability inher-
The total gas in storage at such a facility is divided ent to these formations.
into two categories; base gas and working gas.
Base gas, also called cushion gas, is the volume
of gas that is required to maintain a minimum well-
head pressure. In order to properly operate the
facility, this volume can never leave the formation. Natural Gas Storage Process
Working gas is the volume of gas that can be ex-
tracted in the normal operation of the reservoir.
Smaller peak load facilities may only have 0.1 Bcf
Underground Storage Process
of working gas volume, with larger base load facil- While the type of formation used for storage may
ities up to 100 Bcf. vary, the basic processes employed at under-
ground storage facilities are common to nearly all
There are three types of formations that are used sites. All facilities will contain two straightforward
for underground gas storage: processes; gas injection, and gas withdrawal and
export. In addition, salt dome formations will com-
1. Depleted reservoirs monly require that a brine plant be employed up-
front to leach out additional storage volume before
2. Aquifers the facility will begin gas storage operations. Fig-
ure 12-1 shows a process flow diagram of this pro-
3. Salt caverns cess.
www.Fisher.com
SALT CAVERNS ONLY
UNDERGROUND
FEEDWATER WATER INJECTION RESERVOIR
BRINE
BRINE DISPOSAL
GAS WITHDRAWAL
EXPORT GAS AND EXPORT
E1524
formation nearby for disposal or sold to a chemical the storage formation, and the injection capacity of
facility for use as a feedstock. the facility. Injection wells are commonly spread
out over a large footprint and operated remotely. It
Depending on the size of the salt cavern required, is common for gas injection wells to be designed
the leaching process will take anywhere from six for bi-directional flow for withdrawal.
months to three years to remove a sufficient
volume of salt from the formation. The leaching
process is not required when other types of forma- Gas Withdrawal and Export
tions are used for storage, as they already have The gas withdrawal and export facilities extract
enough storage volume to be considered econom- gas from the formation and export it back to the
ically feasible. pipeline system for distribution, and ultimate con-
sumption. Due to changes in the gas that can oc-
cur while it resides in storage there is typically a
Gas Injection need for processing to remove contaminants, and
Gas injection facilities are used to fill the storage restore the gas to pipeline specifications before
facility with gas. This gas will be metered at an export.
interconnect exiting the pipeline and piped directly
to the injection sites. The pressure of gas entering Gas that is extracted from the storage formation
this unit will depend on the operating pressure of will first enter a separator vessel where any free
the nearby pipeline from which it is sourced. In liquids or solids that have exited with the gas will
most facilities, additional compression is required fall out. Liquids from this vessel are injected into a
to boost the pressure of the gas before injection. disposal formation or pumped to a nearby holding
Since the gas has already been processed to tank. The gas exiting the withdrawal separator will
pipeline specifications, no further processing is require additional dehydration to remove moisture
required prior to injection into the storage forma- before export to the pipeline. Dehydration pro-
tion. cesses utilizing glycol absorbents to remove the
remaining moisture are most common in storage
The number and capacity of each gas injection facilities. See Chapter nine for more details on this
well will vary depending on the physical footprint of process.
122
1
2 3
FEED
WATER
FEEDWATER LEACHING
TANK 4 WATER TO
CAVERN
E1525
123
3
1
HYDRO BRINE
CYCLONE STORAGE
RAW BRINE TANK BRINE TO
FROM CAVERN DISPOSAL
WELLS
SOLIDS
SLURRY
DISPOSAL
E1526
124
Table 12-7. Brine Disposal Flow Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Fluid Brine
Inlet Pressure 650 - 1550 psig (45 - 107 bar)
Outlet Pressure 10 - 1450 psig (1 - 100 bar)
Flow Rate 900 - 1,200 gpm (200 - 275 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 60 - 100_F (16 - 38_C)
Valve Type and
NPS 4 - 6 ET/HPT, ASME CL600/900
Pressure Class
Valve Material and
WCC with 316 SST
Trim Material
Equal Percentage, Cavitrol III trim or
Trim Type
NotchFlo Trim
W8433
125
6
DRY GAS
TO EXPORT
1
LEAN
GLYCOL
CONTACTOTR
GLYCOL
5
2
RICH GLYCOL
TO REBOILER
SEPARATOR
WITHDRAWAL
RAW GAS
FROM
CAVERN
WATER TO
DISPOSAL
E1528
Table 12-8. Injection Compressor ber of wells and rated injection capacity of the fa-
Anti-surge Control Valve cility. This valve is commonly used for gas with-
Parameter Typical Value drawal, as well. In those cases, bi-directional flow
Fluid Natural Gas capability is required. When bi-directional use is
Inlet Pressure 1000 - 2000 psig (69 - 138 bar) required for withdrawal, turndown requirements
Outlet Pressure 250 - 1000 psig (17 - 69 bar) can be extreme. Low dP drives high Cv require-
50,000 - 300,000 MSCFD ments during injection. High dP drives low Cv re-
Flow Rate quirement during withdrawal. A specially charac-
(56,000 - 335,000 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 60 - 100_F (16 - 38_C) terized cage is commonly required.
Valve Type and
NPS 4 - 6 ET/HPT, ASME CL600/900 Table 12-9. Cavern Injection Control Valve
Pressure Class
Valve Material and Parameter Typical Value
WCC with 316 SST
Trim Material Fluid Natural Gas
Trim Type Whisper III Trim or WhisperFlo Trim Inlet Pressure 1000 - 3000 psig (69 - 207 bar)
Outlet Pressure 700 - 2000 psig (48 - 138 bar)
5,000 - 250,000 MSCFD
Flow Rate
(5,500 - 280,000 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 80 - 150_F (27 - 66_C)
Valve Type and NPS 6 - 20 ET/HPT,
Pressure Class ASME CL600/900/1500
Valve Material and
WCC with 316 SST
Trim Material
Trim Type Whisper III Trim or WhisperFlo Trim
W7065
126
tion as well. In those cases, bi-directional flow Table 12-12. Separator Level Control Valve
capability is required. When bi-directional use is Parameter Typical Value
required for injection or withdrawal, turndown re- Fluid Water
quirements can be extreme. A low dP drives high Inlet Pressure 300 - 1500 psig (21 - 103 bar)
Cv requirements during injection. A high dP drives Outlet Pressure 50 - 75 psig (3 - 5 bar)
low Cv requirements during withdrawal. A specially
Flow Rate 5 - 50 gpm (1 - 12 m3/h)
characterized cage is commonly required. This
Inlet Temp. 40 - 150_F (4 - 66_C)
valve will be specified as a full-bore ball valve in
Valve Type and NPS 1 - 3 ET/ED/EHT,
some instances. Quote a Vee-Ball V250/260 as Pressure Class ASME CL600/900
needed. Sand content in withdrawn gas will vary
Valve Material and
by site. Confirm the presence of sand before Trim Material
WCC with 316 SST
providing drilled-hole trim.
4. Glycol Contactor Pressure Control:
Table 12-10. Cavern Withdrawal Control Valve Table 12-13. Glycol Contactor Pressure Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value Parameter Typical Value
Fluid Natural Gas Fluid Dry Natural Gas
Inlet Pressure 500 - 2500 psig (35 - 172 bar) Inlet Pressure 500 - 1200 psig (35 - 83 bar)
Outlet Pressure 300 - 1500 psig (21 - 103 bar) Outlet Pressure 300 - 500 psig (21 - 35 bar)
5,000 - 250,000 MSCFD 50,000 - 500,000 MSCFD
Flow Rate Flow Rate
(5,500 - 280,000 m3/h) (56,000 - 560,000 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 40 - 150_F (4 - 66_C) Inlet Temp. 40 - 150_F (4 - 66_C)
Valve Type and NPS 6 - 20 ET/EHT, Valve Type and
Pressure Class ASME CL600/900/1500 NPS 2 - 8 ET/HPT, ASME CL600/900
Pressure Class
Valve Material and Valve Material and
WCC with 316 SST WCC with 316 SST
Trim Material Trim Material
Trim Type Whisper III Trim or WhisperFlo Trim Trim Type Equal Percentage or Whisper III Trim
127
Table 12-15. Export Compressor Anti-Surge Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Fluid Natural Gas
Inlet Pressure 1000 - 2000 psig (69 - 138 bar)
Outlet Pressure 300 - 500 psig (21 - 35 bar)
50,000 - 300,000 MSCFD
Flow Rate
(56,000 - 335,000 m3/h)
Inlet Temp. 100 - 200_F (38 - 93_C)
Valve Type and NPS 4 - 12 ET/EHT,
Pressure Class ASME CL600/900/1500
Valve Material and
WCC with 316 SST
Trim Material
Trim Type Whisper III Trim or WhisperFlo Trim
128
Chapter 13
LNG Liquefaction
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is a mixture of light differences in the process are primarily in the refri-
hydrocarbons (86-99% methane) that is in a liquid gerant cycle, or in the type of heat exchangers
state at cryogenic temperatures (258F/161C). used in the cryogenic section. In this chapter, the
LNG occupies approximately 1/600 of the volume APCI-MR will be discussed in detail as it currently
of natural gas at atmospheric pressure. This represents the largest percentage of worldwide
drastic reduction in volume is the primary benefit installed base load LNG production capacity.
of the LNG process. When natural gas reserves
exist in remote locations and pipelines are not
feasible, LNG production becomes an option.
www.Fisher.com
ELEMENTAL
SULFUR RECOVERY
SULFUR
CHAPTER 9
RAW
NATURAL INLET FACILITIES GAS TREATING DEHYDRATION
GAS
REFRIGERANT
LNG CYCLES AND FRACTIONATION
LIQUEFACTION
CHAPTER 11
NGLs
E1529
MIXED REFRIGERANT MR
FROM FRACTIONATION COMPRESSION
MR HP
SEPA
RATOR
PROPANE FROM
FRACTIONATION
PROPANE
COMPRESSION
NATURAL GAS FROM
FRACTIONATION
MAIN
HEAT
EXCHANG
ER
NATURAL GAS PROPANE HEAT
SCRUBBER EXCHANGE
LNG
E1530
When the gas arrives at the plant, it enters the Propane Cycle
slug catchers where condensates are removed. The propane refrigerant cycle is a closed loop sys-
These condensates are sometimes sold as light tem that is periodically fed propane produced from
end crude oil if there is a large enough volume. the fractionation columns. Starting at the outlet of
LNG plants recover around 50,000 bpd of con- the compressor(s) the propane discharge is con-
densates. These oils are light and low in sulfur and densed with cooling water. It then passes through
may have a high market value. As a result, this evaporators throughout the process to provide
can be one of the more profitable by-products of cooling, although it is not used in the MHE. In the
the plant. The gas that comes off the top of the evaporators, heat from the feed natural gas and
slug catcher is reduced in pressure by the main gaseous mixed refrigerant is transferred to the
plant/pipeline pressure letdown valves that supply propane, which is vaporized. Once the propane is
gas to the inlet of each train in the LNG plant. vapor, it returns to flash drums where any liquids
132
are separated and sent back to the evaporators
for further heat transfer. The gaseous portion of
the propane removed from the flash drums is sent PLANT / PIPELINE
PRESSURE LETDOWN
to the propane compressor for recompression. VALVES
133
ADDING CONTROL PROCESS LIMIT
MARGINS
MAXIMUM SPEED
SURGE LIMIT
POWER
LIMIT
Rc
STONEWALL OR
CHOKE LIMIT
STABLE ZONE
OF OPERATION
ACTUAL AVAILABLE MINIMUM SPEED
OPERATING ZONE
Refrigerant Cycles
W9518-1
For both the propane and MR cycles, only the an-
tisurge valves protecting the refrigerant com-
Figure 13-4. EWT with Whisper Trim III Cage
pressors are the most critical applications. The
compressor can be the most expensive and critic-
inlet valve fails, the whole plant must shut down. al component of a process system; capital costs of
This can jeopardize the plants abilities to make a single refrigerant compressor in an LNG facility
their quota of LNG to meet the requirements of can be upwards of $50 million. One of the more
long-term contracts. prevalent concerns of compressor operators are
the damaging effects of the surge cycle. Surge
cycles typically occur very fast and pose serious
Controllability of the inlet valve is also critical. It is
risk of damage to compressor components.
a true throttling control valve that throttles based
upon the pressure downstream of the valve. It is
usually controlled by the DCS with pressure read- Compressor surge occurs when the compressor
ings from transmitters in a triple voting configura- reaches a point where it can no longer produce
tion. If the valve cannot accurately maintain the enough pressure head to overcome the down-
inlet pressure to the plant, the pressure swings stream resistance. This is due to either a lack of
can cause cycling of the whole plant. This process suction flow to the inlet of the compressor or a
instability can reduce the amount of throughput of sudden reduction in process demand, both of
LNG and affect the ability for the plant to meet its which result in greater discharge pressure down-
quota. Additionally, cycling can cause excessive stream of the unit. Once surge conditions have
trips throughout the plant. This can reduce the life been met, process will flow backwards through the
of the mechanical equipment due to frequent start- compressor up until enough pressure head is de-
ing and stopping. Consequently, the sizing and veloped to initiate forward flow. This change in
application of these control valves is critical to the direction puts stress on the thrust bearings and
whole plant. These valves are configured in the other components inside the compressor causing
plant ESD systems. excessive wear and eventually damage. Com-
pressor surge is a cyclic process that will occur as
long as the aforementioned conditions are met.
Table 13-1. Feed Gas Pressure Letdown Valve
Parameter Typical Value Figure 13-5 shows the relationship between dis-
Inlet Pressure 1200 - 1305 psig (83 - 90 bar) charge pressure head and suction flow through a
Pressure Drop 220 - 435 psi (15 - 30 bar) compressor. The surge line is the point where
Inlet Temp. 110_F (43_C) surge occurs and the stonewall, or choke line is
Valve Type and NPS 16 - 20 EWT-2 or EUT-2, the point where there is not enough pressure head
Pressure Class ASME CL600 / 900 to force process through the compressor at a giv-
Valve Material and
WCC with 316 SST / Alloy 6 (NACE) en suction flow. As seen from the figure com-
Trim Material pressors should be operated at conditions repres-
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V entative with operation between the surge and
Trim Type WhisperFlo Trim or Whisper III Trim stonewall lines. Operation as close as possible to
134
the surge line is desired to obtain peak efficiency.
Todays control systems and antisurge valve tech-
nology allow for this operation to take place in a
safe and effective way.
to rigorous factory testing per Factory Acceptance Figure 13-6. ODV Package with FB NPS 16x20,
Test FGS4L11 to ensure the necessary perform- 585CLS Actuator, DVC6200, and SS263 Booster
ance requirements are met before the assembly is
shipped. In retrofit cases where the valve body is Table 13-2. Antisurge Valve Components
not present at the time of testing the Site Accept- Package
Description
ance Test FGS4L12 can be performed at the cus- Component
tomers location in select locations by our highly Regulator: Controls system air pressure.
trained Instrument & Valve Services technicians. Filter:
Ensures air supply is clean and free of debris
These tests are only a starting point though, if ne- that could clog ports or cause other problems.
cessary, additional testing and engineering can Provides a pneumatically controlled fail mode
Trip Valve:
in the event of a loss of plant air pressure.
and has been performed in the past to meet spe-
Amplifies DVC instrument air output and
cific customer specifications. Volume Booster: exhausts air from the actuator providing for
fast stroking.
Dump Valve Quickly exhausts air from the actuator upon
(ASCO valve solenoid trip ensuring fast stroke to the
Every antisurge control valve includes an ODV
model 8290): required fail mode.
package, which provides the necessary compon-
Provides an electronically controlled fail mode
ents to ensure fast, stable operation of the control Solenoid Valve: that can be controlled by the control system or
valve. These packages are only available with be configured to trip on a loss of voltage.
double acting piston actuators, including the Fish- Prevents pressure droop ensuring all
er 585C and 585CLS, which are capable of provid- pneumatic devices have an adequate supply
ing travels of up to 24 inches in bore diameters of Volume Tank: of air. In the event of the loss of plant air, the
volume tank supplies the necessary volume of
up to 18 inches. If more thrust or longer travel is air required to move the valve to the fail mode.
required an ATI actuator can be used.
Includes all of the features with the PD tier
plus several specialized control and tuning
algorithms not available in the other tiers
ODV Tiered
including:
The ODV package provides the following compon- DVC6200:
Endpoint Pressure Control
ents as shown below; depending on the applica- Lead/Lag Filtering
tion some components may not be applicable or Stabilize/Optimize Tuning
required such as dump valves, solenoid valves, or Double Acting Provides thrust required to quickly and
volume tanks. Piston Actuator: accurately stroke the valve.
135
1 2 3
TO EVAPORATORS,
HEAT SINK FOR MR,
FEED GAS, ETC.
Figure 13-7. DVC6200 Instrument for ODV Inlet Temp. 140_F (60_C)
Package Valve Type and
NPS 16 - 36 FB, ASME CL300 / 600
Pressure Class
Valve Material and
WCC with Standard
Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V
Propane Cycle Trim Type Whisper III Trim or WhisperFlo Trim
Actuation Optimized Antisurge System
The propane antisurge valves are located at the
discharge of the compressor or its stages. These
3. 3 rd Stage Propane Compressor Antisurge
valves provide a path for the compressed gas to
Valve: This valve encounters high pressure drops.
be returned back to the suction side of the com-
Noise abatement trim is necessary to reduce
pressor.
noise and associated vibration. The Optimized
Antisurge System is also recommended.
1. 1 st Stage Propane Compressor Antisurge
Valve: This valve encounters high pressure drops. Table 13-5. C3 3rd Stage Compressor Antisurge Valve
Noise abatement trim is necessary to reduce Parameter Typical Value
noise and associated vibration. The Optimized Inlet Pressure 100 - 200 psig (7 - 14 bar)
Antisurge System is also recommended. Pressure Drop Up to 185 psi (13 bar)
Inlet Temp. 140_F (60_C)
Valve Type and
Table 13-3. C3 1st Stage Compressor Antisurge Valve NPS 16 - 24 FB, ASME CL300 / 600
Pressure Class
Parameter Typical Value Valve Material and
WCC with Standard
Inlet Pressure 20 - 200 psig (1 - 14 bar) Trim Material
Pressure Drop Up to 100 psi (7 bar) Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V
Inlet Temp. 140_F (60_C) Trim Type Whisper III Trim or WhisperFlo Trim
Valve Type and Actuation Optimized Antisurge System
NPS 16 - 36 FB, ASME CL300 / 600
Pressure Class
Valve Material and
Trim Material
WCC with Standard Mixed Refrigerant Cycle: Individual
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V Stage Compression
Trim Type Whisper III Trim or WhisperFlo Trim The MR antisurge valves are located at the dis-
Actuation Optimized Antisurge System charge of the compressor or its stages. These
136
3
1 2
KO KO
DRUM DRUM
MR FROM
BOTTOM TO HP MR
1ST 2ND SEPARATOR
OF MHE
STAGE STAGE
MR MR
E1534 COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR
137
valves with respect to quick opening times with valve. If the expander is used in the process, the
minimal to no throttling service being required. The JT valve will be in a bypass/backup role. If the ex-
Optimized Antisurge System is also recommen- pander must shut down, the valve has to take over
ded. and throttle the fluid. It is beneficial to have a CV
with this valve similar to the expander CV for
Table 13-8. Hot Gas Bypass Valve smooth transitions from the expander to the valve.
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 650 psig (45 bar) 1. Warm Joule-Thomson Valve: When the MR
Pressure Drop 600 psi (41 bar) moves up the tubes between the inlet to the MHE
Inlet Temp. 250_F (121_C) and the warm JT valve, it loses its heat to the
Valve Type and
colder MR fluids moving countercurrent through
NPS 20 - 48 FB, ASME CL600 the shell. Therefore, when the MR reaches the
Pressure Class
Valve Material and inlet to the warm JT valve in the lower section of
WCC with Standard
Trim Material the MHE, it is typically at cryogenic temperatures,
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V around 200_F (130_C). The MR fluid that flows
Trim Type Whisper III Trim or WhisperFlo Trim through the valve may turn into a liquid and vapor
Actuation Optimized Antisurge System mix as it exits the valve. The proper trim must be
selected. Balanced cryogenic valves are preferred.
If a large percentage of refrigerant by volume is
Liquefaction converted to a vapor when the valve takes its
pressure drop to spray the bundles, then the
There are three critical valves that will be dis- drilled-hole or slotted trim in a flow up direction is
cussed in this section: used to eliminate flashing related noise, vibration
and erosion.
1. Warm Joule-Thomson valves
Table 13-9. Warm Joule-Thomson Valve
2. Cold Joule-Thomson valves
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 500 psig (35 bar)
3. LNG temperature valve
Pressure Drop 450 psi (31 bar)
The LNG temperature valve controls the temperat- Inlet Temp. 200_F (129_C)
ure of the LNG coming out of the MHE as well as Valve Type and NPS 6 - 12 EW-C and E-C,
Pressure Class ASME CL600
reduces the pressure of the LNG so light end
products bubble out of the solution. The primary Valve Material and
316 SST with 315 SST / Alloy 6
Trim Material
function of the Joule-Thomson valves are to spray
Shutoff Requirement 150 ml/min/NPS at 7 bar
MR coolant onto the heat exchanger bundles that
Trim Type Drilled-hole flow up
carry the feed gas and the MR liquid and vapor
from the MR separator. The drop through the
valves lowers the temperature of the MR via the 2. Cold Joule-Thomson Valve: The inlet tem-
Joule-Thompson effect. This refers to the cooling perature of the MR entering the cold JT valve is
of a fluid by a pressure drop and expansion of that lower than the temperature of the MR entering the
fluid. It is important to have both a reliable and warm JT valve, approximately 240_F (150_C).
accurate throttling control valve to maintain effi- This is due to the longer pass through the heat
cient cooling of the feed gas and MR. exchanger. The MR fluid that flows through the
valve may turn into a liquid/vapor mix as it exits
Note that in some process designs, expanders are the valve. The proper trim must be selected. Bal-
used as the main pressure drop mechanism rather anced cryogenic valves are preferred. If a large
than the JT and LNG temperature valves. In this percentage of refrigerant by volume is converted
design, the energy of the high pressure fluid can to a vapor when the valve takes its pressure drop
be recovered and generate auxiliary power. The to spray the bundles, then the drilled-hole or slot-
expanders are also more efficient at expanding the ted trim in a flow up direction is used to eliminate
fluid and have a greater cooling effect than a flashing related noise, vibration, and erosion.
138
MR TO MR
COMPRESSORS
NITROGEN AND
LIGHT ENDS
TO FUEL GAS
2
TUBE 3
1 KO
DRUM
SHELL
LNG TO
STORAGE
NATURAL GAS
FROM
SCRUBBER
MR FROM MR FROM
BOTTOM OF TOP OF
HP SEPARATOR SEPARATOR
E1535
Table 13-10. Cold Joule-Thomson Valve tion, vibration and noise. If there is a large per-
Parameter Typical Value centage of N2 or other light end gasses in the feed
Inlet Pressure 450 psig (31 bar) gas stream of a particular plant, or if there is a
Pressure Drop 400 psi (28 bar) smaller pressure drop across the valve, then the
Inlet Temp. 230_F (146_C)
majority of the damage and vibration can be attrib-
uted to flashing. A drilled-hole trim or slotted trim
Valve Type and NPS 6 - 12 EW-C and E-C,
Pressure Class ASME CL600 should be used in the flow up direction in this
Valve Material and case.
316 SST, Alloy 6
Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement 150 ml/min/NPS at 7 bar Table 13-11. LNG Temperature Valve
Trim Type Drilled-hole flow up Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 400 - 800 psig (28 - 55 bar)
3. LNG Temperature Valve: Temperatures for Pressure Drop 300 - 770 psi (21 - 53 bar)
this valve are full cryogenic and require 316 SST Inlet Temp. 230_F (146_C)
body and bonnet, extension bonnets, and 316/Al- Valve Type and NPS 6 - 12 EW-C and E-C,
loy 6 trim. When the pressure of the LNG fluid Pressure Class ASME CL600
drops across the valve, the lighter gases, such as Valve Material and 316 SST with 316 SST / Alloy 6
N2 , bubble out of the LNG liquid. With these small Trim Material or 17-4 H1150
amounts of vapor downstream, the majority of the Shutoff Requirement 150 ml/min/NPS at 7 bar
LNG may cavitate but not flash. In these cases, it Trim Type
Cavitrol trim, drilled-hole if large
is best to use a Cavitrol trim to eliminate cavita- quantities of N2 rejection or small dP
139
1310
Chapter 14
A Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) receiving terminal Depending upon the regasification capacity of the
is one link in the LNG chain between the gas field terminal, the number of control valves will vary
and the residential or industrial customer. The sole between 75 for an average size unit (1 BCFD) and
purpose of this unit is to receive LNG from 150 for larger units (two BCFD). The number of
ocean-going cargo vessels, store it, and convert valves can be directly correlated to the number of
its state from the liquid phase back to the gaseous storage tanks and the vaporization technology em-
phase for injection into the local natural gas grid. ployed. As the storage and send out rates in-
crease, additional tanks and vaporizers are re-
An LNG terminal consists of a deepwater port that quired.
is used to berth and unload LNG tanks. The ter-
minal has holding tanks designed to keep the LNG The majority of the valves utilized will be cryogenic
at 256F (124C). These non-pressurized tanks constructions. Nearly half of the control valves util-
use an insulated concrete and steel structure to ized will be medium to large sized butterfly valves.
keep the LNG at the desired temperature. A va- The other half will consist of small to medium
porization system is used to return the LNG to a sized globe valves.
gaseous state prior to distribution in a natural gas
pipeline system.
BOILOFF SYSTEM
EXPORT
VAPORIZER RECONDENSER TANK UNLOADING
GAS
E1536
www.Fisher.com
LNG Ship Unloading boil-off gas blowers, if present, for return to the
ship. Boil-off vapors are compressed and liquefied
Following the berthing of the LNG vessel and cool in a recondenser. This process helps to avoid flar-
down of the unloading arms, LNG is transferred to ing for most operating conditions, and also
the onshore LNG tanks by the ships pumps. It provides fuel gas to the vaporizers if neeeded.
may take up to fourteen hours to unload the ves- The recondenser houses a packed bed that cre-
sel. From the vessel, LNG flows through the un- ates a large surface area for vapor-liquid contact.
loading arms and unloading lines into the storage LNG is also pumped to the recondenser from the
tank(s). The loading lines are typically parallel pipe storage tanks before it is pumped to the vapor-
runs, but may be a single line run in specific situ- izers.
ations.
Usually two above ground tanks are installed for LNG terminals have multiple operating vaporizers
receiving and storing LNG, although some termin- with several spare units. There are several com-
als have been designed using only one tank. To mon vaporizers utilized including:
reduce cost, designers try to minimize the number
of tanks and maximize the amount of storage per D Submerged Combustion Vaporizers (SCV)
tank.
D Open Rack Vaporizers (ORV)
Several low-head pumps are normally installed in
each LNG storage tank. These pumps are fully D Shell and Tube Vaporizers
submerged in LNG and are located within pump
wells or columns. The pump wells also serve as The selection of vaporizer depends heavily on ini-
the discharge piping from the pumps and are con- tial capital cost, operating cost, and environmental
nected to the tank-top piping. impacts.
142
1
VAPOR
RETURN TO
SHIP
LNG
1 3 STORAGE
TANK
LNG
FROM
SHIP
E1537
els are made up of multiple LNG tubes with integ- there are onsite utilities such as boilers or com-
ral fins. Seawater lift pumps raise the seawater to bustion turbines.
the top of the ORV to flow down the outside of the
panels as a falling film. LNG flowing upward
through the tubes is vaporized and warmed to ap-
proximately 40F (4C).
LNG Receiving Application
Seawater flows through intake screens to remove Review
debris and marine life prior to being pumped to the
ORV. Intake screens are designed and operated
with inlet velocities set to minimize impingement LNG Ship Unloading
and entrain marine organisms. The treated Figure 14-2 shows the typical valves associated
seawater is pumped to distribution troughs located with the unloading system.
on top of the ORV panels. The seawater flows
downward next to the vertical panels and is 1. LNG Unloading Control: This valve controls
collected in a concrete basin beneath the ORV. the discharge flow from the LNG tanker into the
The cooled seawater is gravity fed into a trench storage tanks. There are generally three of these
and routed to the seawater outfall. valves per LNG terminal, but there may be more
depending upon the number of storage tanks. This
This type of vaporizer will not be covered in the application is typically handled by a butterfly valve
valve application section. The main valves associ- with cryogenic capabilities.
ated with this process are seawater intake control
valves and bypass valves around each of the main Table 14-1. LNG Unloading Control Valve
seawater pumps. Both of these application needs Parameter Typical Value
are met by using large butterfly valves, mainly Inlet Pressure 4 - 70 psig (1 - 5 bar)
NPS 24 to 36 sizes. Outlet Pressure 3 - 69 psig (1 - 5 bar)
3,000,000 - 7,500,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(1,360,000 - 3,500,000 kg/h)
Shell and Tube Vaporizers Inlet Temp. 260 - 250_F (162 - 157_C)
Valve Type and
Shell and Tube vaporizers are specially designed Pressure Class
NPS 20 - 30 A11-C, ASME CL150
heat exchanges that utilize a variety of heating Valve Material and
mediums as a heat source for vaporization. The 316 SST with 316 SST
Trim Material
heating mediums may be seawater, freshwater or Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V or VI
a glycol and water mixture. A fired heater can be Trim Type Equal Percentage
used to heat the circulating heating medium loop.
This consumes 1.5% to 2.0% of the send out gas 2. Vapor Return Line Control: In order to help
and results in high operating costs. facilitate unloading of the tanker during off-loading,
boil-off vapors generated in the storage tanks dur-
After vaporization, the natural gas is ready for dis- ing filling can be routed to the tanker to maintain
tribution to the pipeline network. Some of the nat- the appropriate pressure differential between the
ural gas at this point is taken off for high pressure tanker and the storage tanks. The inlet pressure
fuel gas, which is common for facilities that utilize will depend on whether there is an upstream vapor
some type of combustion-based vaporization or if blower (common when the distance between the
143
W7449
Figure 14-3. A31A Cryogenic Valve
LNG
STORAGE 1 2
TANK
RECONDENSER
LNG
STORAGE 1 2
TANK
E1538
tanks and the tanker is extensive), but it will not Table 14-3. Tank Fill Control Valve
cause a change in the pressure class. Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 4 - 6 psig (0.3 - 0.4 bar)
Outlet Pressure 2 - 4 psig (0.14 - 0.3 bar)
Table 14-2. Vapor Return Line Valve 50,000 - 80,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(20,000 - 40,000 kg/h)
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Temp. 260 - 250_F (162 - 157_C)
Inlet Pressure 2 - 6 psig (0.14 - 0.4 bar)
Valve Type and
Outlet Pressure 1 - 4 psig (0.07 - 0.3 bar) NPS 3 ET-C, ASME CL150
Pressure Class
40,000 - 60,000 lb/h Valve Material and
Flow Rate 316 SST with 316 SST
(18,000 - 30,000 kg/h) Trim Material
Inlet Temp. 180 - 250_F (118 - 157_C) Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Valve Type and Trim Type Equal Percentage
NPS 12 - 18 A31A-C, ASME CL150
Pressure Class
Valve Material and
316 SST with 316 SST
Trim Material LNG Storage
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V or VI
Trim Type Equal Percentage
Figure 14-4 shows the valves commonly associ-
ated with LNG storage and the low pressure
pumping system.
3. Tank Fill Control: To minimize large temper- 1. First Stage LNG Pump Recirculation: This
ature differences in the tank during filling opera- valve is responsible for recirculating a small
tions, the tank is filled from the top and bottom. amount of flow to the pump intake to prevent the
This valve controls the flow of LNG from the pump from overheating and potentially cavitating.
tanker into the lower portion of the storage tank. As previously noted, there are typically two pumps
This is typically a small, cryogenic globe valve. per tank with a recycle valve around each pump.
144
Table 14-5. First Stage LNG Pump
Discharge Pressure Control Valve
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 60 - 150 psig (4 - 10 bar)
Outlet Pressure 58 - 140 psig (4 - 10 bar)
300,000 - 750,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(135,000 - 340,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 260 - 250_F (162 - 157_C)
Valve Type and
NPS 8 - 10 A31A-C, ASME CL150
Pressure Class
Valve Material and
316 SST with 316 SST
Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
145
1 2
LP FUEL GAS
(TO VAPORIZER)
3
LNG
STORAGE
TANK
TO PIPELINE
LNG
STORAGE
TANK
RECONDENSER
E1539
in combination with another valve with little to no Table 14-8. Low Pressure Fuel Gas Control Valve
noise attenuation capabilities. Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 60 - 150 psig (4 - 10 bar)
Table 14-7. Boil-off Gas Compressor Anti-surge Valve Outlet Pressure 50 - 140 psig (3 - 10 bar)
Parameter Typical Value 20,000 - 80,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
Inlet Pressure 60 - 150 psig (4 - 10 bar) (9,000 - 40,000 kg/h)
Outlet Pressure 10 - 40 psig (1 - 3 bar) Inlet Temp. 150 - 95_F (101 - 71_C)
20,000 - 40,000 lb/h Valve Type and
Flow Rate NPS 2 - 6 ET-C, ASME CL150
(9,000 - 20,000 kg/h) Pressure Class
Inlet Temp. 150 - 95_F (101 - 71_C) Valve Material and
316 SST with 316 SST
Trim Material
Valve Type and
NPS 4 - 6 ET-C, ASME CL150 Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Pressure Class
Valve Material and Trim Type Linear
316 SST with 316 SST
Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV or V
Trim Type Whisper III Trim A1 / A3 3. Pipeline Compressor Anti-surge: A pipeline
compressor may or may not be present in the sys-
2. Low Pressure Fuel Gas Control: Depending tem. They are present when there is not enough
upon the type of vaporizer and the need for low LNG to absorb the boil-off gases generated in the
pressure fuel gas, there may be a pressure control tanks. This compressor compresses the boil-off
valve used to maintain low pressure fuel gas gas to pipeline pressures for transmission pur-
header pressure. Valve selection will depend dir- poses. The anti-surge valve will see higher pres-
ectly upon the type and number of vaporizers, as sures than in the boil-off gas compressors, but will
well as any onsite utilities. A globe valve is used still be satisfied by a globe valve with Whisper
for this application. Trim.
146
1 2
1
GAS
2
2
FUEL EXHAUST
GAS GAS
RECONDENSER VAPORIZER
E1133 LNG
1
Figure 14-8. High Pressure Pump System
147
2
It is found in plants where there is not a separate
low pressure fuel gas take-off line. A globe valve 1
HTF
will be utilized to control downstream pressure.
Because of the high pressure drops, it is likely that 2
FUEL
noise attenuating trim will be required. GAS
3
148
2
Table 14-17. High Pressure Fuel Gas
Pressure Control Valve
VAPORIZER Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 800 - 1600 psig (55 - 110 bar)
Outlet Pressure 350 - 500 psig (24 - 35 bar)
1
20,000 - 80,000 lb/h
Flow Rate
(9,000 - 40,000 kg/h)
Inlet Temp. 80 - 150_F (27 - 66_C)
E1540
Valve Type and
NPS 2 - 4 HPT, ASME CL900 / 1500
Figure 14-10. Plant Discharge Valves Pressure Class
Valve Material and
WCC with Standard
Trim Material
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class V
Table 14-16. Heat Transfer Fluid Inlet to Heater Valve Trim Type Whisper III Trim
Parameter Typical Value
Inlet Pressure 150 - 250 psig (10 - 17 bar)
Outlet Pressure 140 - 240 psig (10 - 17 bar) 2. System Outlet Control: Here, the final dis-
1,000,000 - 4,000,000 lb/h charge pressure to the pipeline network is con-
Flow Rate
(450,000 - 1,815,000 kg/h) trolled. Depending upon the plants designers, this
Inlet Temp. 150 - 210_F (66 - 99_C) valve may be of a cryogenic design in the event
Valve Type and
NPS 16 - 18 A31A, ASME CL300
the upstream vaporizers fail. In this case, the
Pressure Class valve could experience cryogenic conditions. Re-
Valve Material and
WCC with Standard gardless of materials use for construction or
Trim Material design criteria, this will be a butterfly valve.
Shutoff Requirement ANSI Class IV
Trim Type Equal Percentage
149
1410
Emerson Process Management The contents of this publication are presented for informational purposes only, and while every effort has
Marshalltown, Iowa 50158 U.S.A. been made to ensure their accuracy, they are not to be construed as warranties or guarantees, express
Cernay 68700 France or implied, regarding the products or services described herein or their use or applicability. All sales are
Sao Paulo 05424 Brazil governed by our terms and conditions, which are available upon request. We reserve the right to modify
Singapore 128461 or improve the designs or specifications of such products at any time without notice. Fisher does not
www.Fisher.com assume responsibility for the selection, use or maintenance of any product. Responsibility for proper
selection, use and maintenance of any Fisher product remains solely with the purchaser and end-user.