BIOLOGY | NOTES

Human Reproduction
Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System.

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Testes: (Note: When the question is pointing to 1

testis, make sure you write it as singular)
Structure: Mass of sperm producing tubes

Function: To produce sperm and testosterone.

Scrotal Sac:
Structure: Literally an abdominal cavity in a sac

Function: To keep the testes at temperature slightly lower than that

of the body, which is suitable temperature for sperm production.

Epididymis:
Structure: Ducts that originate from the sperm producing tubes of
the testes, form the coiled epididymis which is about 6m long.

Function: Sperm pass to the base of this tube for a short period of
storage.

Vas Deferens/Sperm Duct:

Structure: Straight, muscular tube about 40 cm long.

Function: Transports sperm from Epididymis to Urethra. It is also the

site of sperm storage before ejaculation.

Urethra:
Structure: 2 sperm ducts, one from each testis will lead to the
urethra. It is a tube which passes through the center of the penis to
the exterior. A circular band of muscles called the sphincter muscles
exist at the base of the urinary bladder to prevent urine from coming
out of the bladder during ejaculation or release of semen.

Function: Passage in which urine and semen are discharged at

different times.

Accessory Glands (Seminal Vesicle, Prostate Gland,

Cowper's Gland:
Structure:

0 Seminal vesicle is a gland that opens into the sperm duct. We

have 2 of these vesicles.

1 At the base of the urinary bladder, where the 2 sperm ducts

join into the urethra is the prostate gland. We have 1 of this
gland.

2 Cowper's Gland exists below the prostate gland. We have 2 of

these glands.

Function: All the glands secretes seminal fluids that forms a part of
semen. The seminal fluid contains fructose, mucus, and
prostaglandins to facilitate fertilisation.
Penis:
Structure: Contains erectile tissue with numerous blood spaces that
will fill with bood when sexually excited.

Function: Deposits sperm into the female vagina when inserted.

Ureter:
Function: Transports urine from kidney to urinary bladder.

(Note that the accessory gland in the diagram is actually the cowper's
gland.)

Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System.

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Ovaries:
Structure: Two ovoid bodies 3-5cm.
Function: To produce the female gametes, the eggs or the ova, to
produce the female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone.

Oviducts:
Structure: Narrow muscular tubes that leads from ovary to uterus.
They have a funnel like opening and have feathery processes called
fimbriae. Cilia lining the fimbriae beat and cause a current that draws
in the egg/secondary oocyte after it has been released from ovary.
Cilia lining the oviduct beat and smooth muscle contractions, causing
peristaltic movements, moving secondary oocyte down the oviduct to
the uterus.

Function: To allow the egg/secondary oocyte to be released from the

ovary and provide a location for it to undergo fertilisation.

Uterus/Womb:
Structure: Shape of an inverted pear. It has smooth muscles lining its
outer wall (myometrium), contracting strongly during birth. The inner
walls, (endometrium), contains glands and blood vessels.

Function: To allow the embryo to implant on the endometrium of the

uterus and grow.

Cervix:
Structure: Narrow entrance from uterus leading to vagina, made up
of strong muscles.

Function: To direct sperms into the uterus during intercourse, and to

provide a passage for the birth of a baby from the uterus out through
the vagina during labour

Vagina:
Structure: Muscular tube, walls contain elastic tissue.
Function: Stretches during childbirth to allow passage of the baby
and during sexual intercourse to allow the penetration of the penis.

Comparison of Male and Female Gametes.

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Male:

3 Small Elongated and Streamlined.

4 Large numbers mature at the same time and all the

time.

5 Presence of a tail (flagellum) for motility to swim to the

egg/secondary oocyte.

6 Very little cytoplasm to reduce its mass so it can swim

rapidly.
 7 Possesses a lot of mitochondria so that more energy in
the form of ATP can be released for motility.

Female:

8 Large, spherical and fat because its literally a round

egg
9 One normally matures once every month/once in a
menstrual cycle.

10 Absence of a tail, non-motile.

11 Abundant cytoplasm that contain stored nutrients.

12 Few mitochondria as movement is not necessary.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

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An average menstrual cycle is 28 days.

Note: Ovulation occur 14 days prior to the end of the cycle,

hence it does not always occur on the 14th day. If a
menstrual cycle lasts for 31 days, ovulation will usually occur
on the 17th day.

Green represents the Uterine Cycle.

Blue represents the Ovarian Cycle.

Day 1-5:
 13 Cyclebegins with the onset of menstruation AKA the
monthly discharge of blood from the uterus via the
vagina. This is due to the endometrial lining of the
uterus being sloughed off during menstruation, and the
endometrial lining contains blood vessels.

14 Endometrium is broken down.

15 Thehypothalamus secretes Gonadotrophin

Releasing Hormone, GnRH

16 Thisstimulates the anterior pitiutary gland to secrete

the FSH hormone into the bloodstream, traveling to
the ovaries. FSH stimulates the development of a small
number of follicles in the ovaries, one of which will
become the Graafian follicle.

17 The cells of the growing follicles to secrete Oestrogen.

18 Overall: Endometrium starts to break down. GnRH

hormone is released. FSH is secreted. Follicles are
starting to be developed. Growing follicles start to
secrete oestrogen, oestrogen levels increase. NOTE:
Do not state: FSH causes oestrogen to be
secreted.

Day 6-10:

19 Oestrogensecreted by the growing follicles cause the

growth and repair of the endometrium.

20 Oestrogen also inhibits the secretion of FSH from the

anterior pituitary gland, preventing development of
 more follicles.

21 Overall: Endometrium starts to grow and repair.

Follicle development stops.

Day 11-17:

22 Oestrogen levels increase. As it increases to a high

level, it triggers the secretion of LH hormone from the
anterior pitiutary glands, traveling via the blood stream
to the ovaries.

23 LH hormone causes the follicular wall of the Graafian

follicle to rupture, releasing the secondary oocyte into
the oviduct funnel. This is ovulation.

24 After
ovulation, LH causes the formation of an active
corpus luteum from the ruptured follicle.

25 Thecorpus luteum secretes progesterone and some

oestrogen.

26 Overall: Oestrogen levels still increase. LH levels

increase, the Graafian follicle ruptures, and secondary
oocyte is released (ovulation). Corpus Luteum forms,
progesterone levels increase.

Day 18-28:

27 Progesterone secreted by corpus luteum keeps

endometrium thick, well-supplied with blood and
stimulates formation of glands that secrete nutrients to
prepare endometrium for the implantation of the
embryo if fertilization occurs.
28 FSH and LH production is inhibited by progesterone.

29 If
fertilization does not occur, the drop in LH levels will
cause the corpus luteum to degenerate, as it cannot
form an active corpus luteum without LH.

30 As a a result, the lack of an active corpus luteum

causes progesterone levels to drop. When this
happens, the uterine lining cannot be maintained in a
thickened state, thus it breaks down.

31 Menstruation occurs and endometrial lining is sloughed

off and discharged through vagina. This marks the
beginning of the next cycle.

32 Iffertilization occurs, the zygote develops into an

embryo that implants itself into the uterine lining. The
embryo then produces a hormone, hCG (human
chorionic gonadotrophin) that prevents the corpus
luteum from degenerating so that the corpus luteum
continues to secret progesterone and oestrogen (until
placenta takes over).

33 Overall: Progesterone levels increase, endometrium

thickens. FSH and LH levels decrease.

34 If
fertilization fails to occur: Corpus Luteum
degenerates. Progesterone levels decrease.
Endometrial walls are sloughed off and discharged.
Next cycle occurs.

35 If
fertilization occurs: Zygote develops into embryo,
implantation into uterine lining occurs. hCG is
 produced, corpus luteum remains active. Progesterone
and Oestrogen levels continue to remain high.

Note: Estradiol refers to Oestrogen.

Effects of Hormones involved in Menstruation.

36 GnRH: (Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone) Causes

secretion of FSH hormones.

37 FSH: Stimulates development of small number of

follicles in ovaries. Stimulates secretion of Oestrogen.

38 Oestrogen: Causes growth and repair of uterine lining.

Inhibits FSH secretion. Prevents development of
follicles. Releases secretion of LH at high levels.

39 LH: Causes Graafian Follicle to rupture, releasing

secondary oocyte, allowing ovulation to occur. Causes
formation of active Corpus Luteum from ruptured
follicle. Allows Corpus Luteum to secret progesterone
and oestrogen.

40 Progesterone: Keeps uterine lining thick, well

supplied with blood and stimulates formation of gland
secreting nutrients. LH and FSH are inhibited.

41 hCG:(Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin) Maintains

corpus luteum and keeps it from degenerating.

Timeline of Hormone activity in a menstrual cycle.

Day 1-5: GnRH , FSH , Oestrogen

Day 6-10: FSH , Oestrogen

Day 11-17: Oestrogen , LH , Progesterone

Day 18-28: Progesterone , FSH , LH , hCG (if fertilization
occurs)

FERTILIZATION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO

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1. Fertilization occurs when the haploid sperm nucleus

fuses with the haploid egg nucleus to produce a diploid
zygote.

2. As the zygote passes down the oviduct, it divides

successively into a small ball of cells called the embryo
(blastocyst).

3. It embeds itself onto the endometrium (implantation).

Amniotic Fluid and the Placenta

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42 Amniotic Fluid:

43 Structure: Incompressible, absorbs shocks.

44 Function: Absorbs shocks to protect the embryo/foetus

against mechanical injury.

45 Placenta:

46 Function

47 Allows glucose, amino acids, mineral salts to pass

 from the mother's blood to the foetus's blood via
diffusion and active transport.

48 Allowsmetabolic waste products such as CO2 and

Urea to diffuse from the foetal blood capillaries into
the mother's blood stream.

49 Actsas a barrier to the passage of certain chemicals

or pathogens in the mother's blood to the foetal
blood.

50 Produces progesterone that maintains uterine lining

during pregnancy.

How is the placenta adapted for its functions?

51 Structure: It has projections called chorionic villi

Function: This increases total surface area for
exchange of materials between foetal blood and
maternal blood/endometrium.

52 Structure: Within the chorionic villi are blood

capillaries of the foetus
Function: This allows for a constant circulation of
blood in both maternal and foetal systemic
circulations. This allows nutrients or waste materials
that have diffused across the placenta to be moved
away, maintaining a steep diffusion gradient.

53 Structure: Maternal part contain maternal blood

spaces which are supplied with arterial blood from
arterioles in uterus wall.
Function: The blood pressure in the maternal blood
 spaces are low so as to create a steep diffusion
gradient, allowing increased rate of diffusion of
dissolved nutrients and waste products in and out of
the foetus.

54 Structure: Blood capillaries of foetus separated

from mother's blood system by a thin layer of tissue.
Function: Thin barrier decreases the diffusion
distance, hence diffusion of nutrients or waste
materials occurs at a faster, efficient rate. / To
ensure that the 2 blood systems do not mix as
agglutination might occur due to the difference of
the foetus's and the mother's blood group.

55 Note:
The foetus has 2 umbilical arteries and 1
umbilical vein.

Note: Intervillous space refers to maternal blood

spaces.

Benefits of Breast Milk

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56 Containsfat, lactose and proteins that are easily

digested by the baby.

57 Containsvitamins A and C and antibodies to any

diseases from which the mother has recovered. This
helps defend the baby against infection when the
immune system has not been fully developed.

58 Breast Milk is free of bacteria.

How are twins formed?

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59 Identical twins arise when a zygote forms 2 separate

embryos.

60 Fraternaltwins occur when two ova released during

ovulation are fertilised by 2 separate sperm to form 2
zygotes that develop into 2 separate embyros.

Methods of Contraception

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61 Rhythm method (Having sexual intercourse based on

mmomomnm mcym mcmlmemsm menstrual cycles.)

62 Withdrawal

63 Male Condom (prevents sperm from entering vagina)

 64 Diaphragm/Cap (inserted top of vagina over cervix)

65 Female Condom

66 Intra
Uterine Device (inserted into uterus to pevent
implantation)

67 Spermicide

68 Contraceptive Pills (contains oestrogen and

progesterone to limit FSH and LH and therefore prevent
follicle development and ovulation).

69 Morning After Pill

70 Vasectomy (Sperm Duct is cut or tied)

71 Tubal Ligation (Tying oviducts)

Plant Reproduction
Fertilization of Plants

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72 Afterpollination, the pollen grain germinates in

response to fructose secreted by stigma. causing a
pollen tube to grow out of the grain.

73 The cytoplasm of the pollen grain, the pollen tube

(vegetative) nucleus and the generative nucleus pass
into the pollen tube. (The growth of the pollen tube is
controlled by the pollen tube nucleus).

74 The pollen tube secretes enzymes to digest the tissue

 of the stigma and the style as the tube grows.

75 The generative nucleus divides via mitosis to form two

non-motile male gametes. The vegetative nucleus
disintegrates. The pollen tube enters the ovule at the
micropyle (a small hole at the bottom of the ovule).

76 In
the ovule, the tip of the pollen tube absorbs sap and
bursts, releasing the 2 male gametes.

77 1haploid male gamete nucleus fuses with the haploid

egg cell nucleus to form the diploid zygote.

78 The other haploid male gamete will fuse with the

diploid definitive nucleus to form the triploid endosperm
nucleus. (Double fertilisation occurs, which ensures that
the endosperm will only develop in ovules where the
egg has been fertilised, preventing wastage of
nutrients).

79 Eachegg cell in the ovule in an ovary is fertilised by

separate male gametes from separate pollen grains.
Note: The central cell refers to the definitive nucleus.

Post fertilisation/Fruits

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80 Zygote -> Embryo. The zygote divides repeatedly to

form the embryo of the seed.

81 The embryo consists of the contyledons (seed leaves),

plumule (developing shoot), and radicle (developing
root).

82 Endosperm Nucleus -> Endosperm. In monocot

plants, endosperm remains as a food store. In dicot
plants, the cotyledons already act as a food store, hece
the endosperm disappears.
 83 Ovary -> Fruit, Ovary Wall -> Fruit Wall/Pericarp

84 Ovule -> Seed.

85 Integuments(layer of cells around the ovule) ->

Seed Coat/Testa.

86 Stamen, Petals, Style and Stigma shrivel and fall

off.

Molecular Genetics
DNA

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A DNA molecule consists of 2 polynucleotide chains twisted

in the shape of a double helix.

Each DNA molecule has a sugar phosphate backbone. The

adjacent nucleotides within a strand are held together by
strong covalent phosphodiester bonds.

Genetic information is read from the 5' end to the 3' end.

The two strands of polynucleotide chains are held together

by hydrogen bonds in between the nitrogenous bases of
opposite strands.

Complimentary base pairing occurs between Adenine to

Thymine (2H bonds), Guanine to Cytosine (3H bonds).

Differences between DNA and RNA.

DNA:

87 Basic Unit: Deoxyribunucleotide.

88 Pentose Sugar: Deoxyribose

89 Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine,

Cytosine.

90 Ratio of Bases: A:T = 1:1, C:G = 1:1

91 Strands: Double Stranded

92 No of Types: 1

93 Size: Relatively larger

94 Location: Mostly in nucleus, small amount in

Mitochondria and chloroplasts.

95 Amount: Constant in all cells (except for in dividing

cells and gametes).

RNA:

96 Basic Unit: Ribunucleotide.

97 Pentose Sugar: Ribose

98 Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Uracil, Guanine,

Cytosine.

99 Ratio of Bases: A:U =/ 1:1, C:G =/ 1:1

100 Strands: Single Stranded

 101 No of Types: 3 (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA)

102 Size: Relatively smaller

103 Location: Mostly in cytoplasm, synthesized in

nucleus

104 Amount: Varies from cell to cell according to level

of protein synthesis.

Genetic Engineering

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4. Isolate the gene with the help of restriction

enzymes.
-Restriction enzymes cut the DNA at specific
palindromic sequences of areas flanking the gene, or
restriction sites.
- They remove the gene coding for a specific product
away from the rest of the genome.

5. Use the same restriction enzyme on plasmids.

-Plasmids are circular double stranded RNA that occurs
naturally in bacteria. It replicates independently of the
rest of the bacteria genome and carries useful genes.
-The same restriction enzyme should be used, as it
generates the same sticky ends as those flanking the
target gene. This allows for complementary base
pairing and facilitates insertion of the gene into the
plasmid.
 6. Mix the DNA strand containing the gene and the
cut up plasmids together with DNA ligase.
-The DNA ligase catalyses the formation of
phosphodiester bonds in the DNA backbone. This
allows the formation of recombinant plasmids.

7. A host cell is induced to take up the recombinant

DNA molecule.

Transcription and Translation.

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Transcription: The transfer of genetic information

from DNA to RNA.

105 DNA uncoils and its double helix structure

unwinds.

106 1 strand of DNA acts as the template

107 This allows free ribonucleotides to bind via

complementary base pairings between deoxyribose and
ribose sugars.

108 This also allows for transcription to occur between

the template DNA strand and the pre-mRNA. Enzymes
in the nucleus modify the pre-mRNA in various ways
before it leaves the nucleus through pores in the
nuclear envelope.
Translation: The use of genetic information to make
proteins.

109 mRNA binds to the small ribosomal subunit in a

ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum. tRNA
carries specific amino acids.

110 The Anticodon of the initiator tRNA binds to the

codon of the mRNA.

111 The large ribosomal subunit serves as a scaffold

for translation.

112 The Anticodon of the 2nd tRNA binds to the 2nd

codon of the mRNA.

113 This allows the amino acids attached to the tRNA

to form peptide bonds.

114 The bond between the first amino acid and the
initiator tRNA breaks, allowing the peptide bond to be
now carried by the second tRNA.

115 The Ribosome shifts towards the 3' end of the

mRNA. This allows the next tRNA to bind to the
subsequent codon.

116 The peptide bond formation continues until the

stop codon is read. The translation complex dissociates
and the polypeptide chain folds to form proteins.