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Geotextiles in Transportation Applications
Geotextiles in Transportation Applications
Summary:
Geotextiles play a significant part in modern pavement design and maintenance techniques. The
growth in their use worldwide for transportation applications in particular, has been nothing short of
phenomenal. The focus of this paper is on better understanding of this relatively new tool available
to the transportation engineer. The paper provides an overview of the current geotextile technologies
and highlights the functions geotextiles perform in enhancing the performance and extending the
service life of paved roads. Three key application areas of geotextiles, construction of pavements, in
asphalt concrete overlays and for drainage systems along with impetus on the current design
methodologies available in geotextile design and selection are addressed.
1. Introduction
Geotextiles have proven to be among the most versatile and cost-effective ground modification
materials. Their use has expanded rapidly into nearly all areas of civil, geotechnical, environmental,
coastal, and hydraulic engineering. They form the major component of the field of geosynthetics, the
others being geogrids, geomembranes and geocomposites. The ASTM (1994)[1] defines geotextiles
as permeable textile materials used in contact with soil, rock, earth or any other geotechnical related
material as an integral part of civil engineering project, structure, or system.
Based on their structure and the manufacturing technique, geotextiles may be broadly classified into
woven and nonwoven. Woven geotextiles are manufactured by the interlacement of warp and weft
yarns, which may be of spun, multifilament, fibrillated or of slit film. Nonwoven geotextiles are
manufactured through a process of mechanical interlocking or thermal bonding of fibers/filaments.
Mechanical interlocking of the fibers/filaments is achieved through a process called needle
punching. Needle-punched nonwoven geotextiles are best suited for a wide variety of civil
engineering applications and are the most widely used type of geotextile in the world. Interlocking of
the fibers/filaments could also be achieved through thermal bonding. Heat-bonded geotextiles
should be used with caution, as they are not suitable for filtration applications or road stabilization
applications over soft soils [2].
2. Geotextile Functions:
The mode of operation of a geotextile in any application is defined by six discrete functions:
separation, filtration, drainage, reinforcement, sealing and protection. Depending on the application
2.1. Separation:
Separation is defined as, The introduction of a flexible porous textile placed between dissimilar
materials so that the integrity and the functioning of both the materials can remain intact or be
improved (Koerner, 1993) [3]. In transportation applications separation refers to the geotextiles role
in preventing the intermixing of two adjacent soils. For example, by separating fine subgrade soil from
the aggregates of the base course, the geotextile preserves the drainage and the strength characteristics
of the aggregate material. The effect of separation is illustrated in figure 1.
2.2. Filtration:
It is defined as the equilibrium geotextile-to-soil system that allows for adequate liquid flow with
limited soil loss across the plane of the geotextile over a service lifetime compatible with the
application under consideration (Koerner, 1993) [3]. To perform this function the geotextile needs to
satisfy two conflicting requirements: the filters pore size must be small enough to retain fine soil
particles while the geotextile should permit relatively unimpeded flow of water into the drainage
media. A common application illustrating the filtration function is the use of a geotextile in a
pavement edge drain, as shown in figure 2.
2.4. Reinforcement:
This is the synergistic improvement in the total system strength created by the introduction of a
geotextile into a soil and developed primarily through the following three mechanisms: One,
lateral restraint through interfacial friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate. Two, forcing the
potential bearing surface failure plane to develop at alternate higher shear strength surface. And
three, membrane type of support of the wheel loads.
3.5. Permeability:
This test is intended to measure the rate at which liquids can pass through the geotextile. The test
method ASTM D 4491 measures the permittivity, which is related to permeability, by the
following equation.
=k/t - (1)
Where:
= geotextile permittivity (sec-1)
k = geotextile permeability (cm/sec)
t = geotextile thickness (cm)
4. Areas of Application:
This paper addresses the following major application areas of geotextiles in transportation
engineering: Flexible paved road construction, Drainage Applications and Pavement overlays.
Other transportation related geotextile applications like erosion control of slopes both in
waterways and dry areas have not been covered in this paper.
The design of pavement sections incorporating geotextiles can be performed using many of the
current design methodologies. The AASHTO (1986)[8] design method is modified to account
for the contribution of geotextile and can be found in the FHWA publication Geosynthetic
Design and Construction Guidelines (Holtz et al, 1995)[9].
Geotextiles also play a major role in construction of paved roads over areas having high ground
water table. Drainage of water from pavements has always been an important consideration in
road design; however current methods of pavement design have resulted in base courses that do
not drain well. The problem has been compounded with the rise in the water table. Water rises
up into the base course through pore water pressures and through capillary function leading to
saturation of the base courses. Saturation of the base course changes the dynamics of vertical
stress distribution, and may allow transfer of traffic loads directly to subgrade soil, eliminating
the benefits of the structural layers leading to rapid pavement distress. A pavement layer, which
is saturated 10% of its time, will have its service life reduced by as much as 50% (Cedergreen
1974) [10]. Thus eliminating saturation of the base course is a prudent design objective.
AASHTO also recognizes the harmful effects of water in the pavement structure. In the
AASHTO design method, the effective structural number (SNeff) of pavement base and sub-
base materials, which drain well, is increased, whereas if materials drain poorly, the effective
structural number is decreased (AASHTO, 1993)[11]. While drainage factor for excellent
drainage can be 1.20, Drainage factor for poor drainage can be as low as 0.60. This means by
providing proper drainage the design strength of pavement base and sub-base materials can be
doubled.
To adequately address the ground water drainage the designer needs to consider providing
subsoil drainage systems as illustrated in figure 2 that not only lead the ground water away from
the pavement structural layers but also prevent the capillary rise of the ground water into the
structural layers. It is recommended that the structural drains be connected to shoulder edge
drains that lead the water away. The location of the trench drain can vary depending on actual
site conditions. Design of these subsurface drains is detailed subsequently in this paper.
Selecting a geotextile for paved road depends upon the geotextile survivability. If a roadway
system is designed correctly, then the stress at the top of the subgrade due to the weight of the
aggregate and the traffic load is less than the bearing capacity of the subgrade plus a safety
factor. However the stresses applied to the subgrade and the geotextile during the construction
is much greater than that applied during service. Therefore, selection of the geotextile in
roadway applications is usually governed by the anticipated construction stresses. The
geotextile must survive the construction operations if it is to perform the intended function of
separation and filtration.
The geotextile requirements under moderate and severe conditions are provided in Table 1.
These survivability requirements are based on properties of geotextiles, which have performed
satisfactorily. Judgment and experience our required to select final specification values. For
large projects geotextile survivability should be verified by conducting field tests under site-
specific conditions. The selected geotextile must also retain underlying soil fines, while
allowing a relatively unimpeded flow of water. Hence the geotextile Opening size and
Permeability should be ascertained to match the site requirements.
TEST REQUIREMENTS
PROPERTY UNIT
METHOD MODERATE HIGH
Puncture Strength ASTM D4833 N 400 700
Dynamic Puncture ENISO
mm 18 12
(Minimum hole diameter) 918
Ultimate Elongation ASTM D4632 % >50 >50
Burst Strength ASTM D3786 kPa 2000 3000
Grab Strength ASTM D4632 N 700 800
Permeability ASTM D 4491 cm/sec > than the soil permeability
Apparent Opening Size ASTM D4751 mm < 0.15
The inclusion of a nonwoven paving fabric interlayer system significantly improves the
performance of asphalt concrete overlays. This performance improvement is a result of both the
waterproofing capabilities and the stress absorption capabilities of the paving fabric system.
(Maxim Technologies Report)[12].
Synthetic fabrics and stress-absorbing interlayer (SAMI) have been effective in controlling
low to medium severity alligator cracking. They may be also useful for controlling reflection of
temperature cracks when used in combination with crack filling. They generally do little,
however, to retard reflection of cracks subject to significant horizontal or vertical movement.
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures 1993[11].
Figure 5 Paving Fabric Installation
Both laboratory and field pavement cores indicate that the presence of a properly installed
paving fabric interlayer reduces the permeability of a pavement by one to three orders of
magnitude. By reducing the infiltration of moisture the paving fabric maintains the strength of
the subgrade, subbase and base course, limiting damage due to saturated condition pore
pressures (Mark and Thomas, TRB circular 1999) [13].
Paving fabrics are nonwoven fabrics from grades ranging from 135 gm/m2 to 200 gm/m2. The
lighter fabrics when impregnated with asphalt primarily function as moisture barrier. Use of
heavier, nonwoven geotextiles provides cushioning or stress-relieving membrane benefits in
addition to moisture-barrier functions. Minimum properties required for paving fabrics as per
AASHTO M 288-96, Standard specifications for geotextiles [14] are provided in Table 2.
The surface on which the paving fabric is to be placed should be free from dirt, water,
vegetation or other debris. Cracks are filled or repaired and tack coat typically ranging from 1 to
1.35 l/m2 of residual asphalt is applied evenly on the surface. The paving fabric is then laid on
4.3. Drainage:
The removal of water is important to the success of many civil engineering problems. In
transportation applications, if the base course does not drain rapidly enough, stress from the
traffic loadings is transferred to the subgrade with little or no reduction, resulting in accelerated
road failure. The removal of water must be performed in a controlled fashion. Otherwise, severe
erosion, piping, or settlement of soils may result in undermining adjacent structures. To
accomplish this task the drainage system should fulfill two criteria:
Have maintained permeability by providing relatively unimpeded flow of water.
Filtration of base soil by preventing the migration of soil fines into the drain.
These criteria can be met by using several layers of specially graded aggregates. This often
proves to be extremely expensive requirement to meet. The same result can be achieved at a
fraction of the cost by using selected geotextiles, which act as filters around the aggregate
drainage system. The introduction of geotextile lined drainage systems has enhanced the
technical benefits and economical application of blanket and trench drains under and adjacent to
pavement structures. The excellent filtration and separation characteristics associated with
geotextiles permits the use of a single layer of open graded aggregate base or trench aggregate
enveloped in a geotextile.
The geotextile must retain the soil fines (retention criterion), while
Allowing a relatively unimpeded flow of water (permeability criterion), throughout the life
of the structure (clogging resistance criterion).
To perform effectively, the geotextile must survive the installation process (survivability
criterion).
The design procedure proposed is based on the above stated parameters and the design
procedure developed by Christopher and Holtz (1985) [9].
The retention criterion is governed by the Apparent Opening Size (AOS) of the geotextile.
AOS or O95 (geotextile) < B D85 (soil) - (2)
Where:
AOS or O95 = apparent opening size (mm);
O95 = opening size in the geotextile for which 95% are smaller (mm);
B = a coefficient (dimensionless) ranging from 0.5 to 2 depending on the type of soil; and
D85 = soil particle size for which 85% are smaller (mm).
The criterion for clogging resistance is: Geotextile porosity, n > 70%. For severe / critical
conditions where soils potential to clog are addressed it is recommended that soil-geotextile
clogging tests like the gradient ratio test [ASTM D 5102] [1] are conducted.
Permeability requirements:
For less critical applications:
kgeotextile > ksoil - (3)
For critical applications:
kgeotextile > 10 ksoil - (4)
Where:
ksoil is the Darcys coefficient of permeability (m / sec.) of the soil to be filtered.
kgeotextile is the permeability coefficient of the geotextile.
Survivability refers to the geotextiles ability to withstand the installation stresses and perform
as intended in the project design. Table 3 gives the minimum physical property requirements for
drainage applications. These minimum survivability requirements are based on the experience
on the properties of geotextiles, which have known to perform satisfactorily in these
applications.
5. Conclusion:
Geotextiles are effective tools in the hands of the civil engineer that have proved to solve a
myriad of geotechnical problems. With the availability of variety of products with differing
characteristics, the design engineer needs to be aware of not only the application possibilities
but also more specifically the reason why he is using the geotextile and the governing geotextile
functional properties to satisfy these functions. Design and selection of geotextiles based on
sound engineering principles will serve the long-term interest of both the user and the industry.
6. References:
[1] ASTM (1994), Annual Books of ASTM Standards, American Society Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Volume 4.08 (1), Soil and Rock. Volume 4.08 (2),
Soil and Rock, Geosynthetics, Volume 7.01, Textiles.
[2] GREGORY RICHARDSON N., BARRY CHRISTOPHER R., Geotextiles in
Transportation Applications, Featured Short Course, 1998.
[3] KOERNER, R. M., Designing with Geosynthetics, Third edition, Prentice Hall, 1993.