Rural Geography: Processes, Responses and Experiences in Rural Restructuring

Rural Geography
Rural Geography
Processes , Response s
and Experience s in
Rural Restructuring
Michael Woods
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Summary of Contents
PART 1 INTRODUCING RURAL GEOGRAPHY 1
1 Defining the Rural 3
2 Understanding the Rural 17
PART 2 PROCESSES OF RURAL RESTRUCTURING 27
3 Globalization, Modernity and the Rural World 29
4 Agricultural Change 42
5 The Changing Rural Economy 62
6 Social and Demographic Change 72
7 Changing Communities: Restructuring Rural Services 91
8 Environmental Change and Rural Areas 110
PART 3 RESPONSES TO RURAL RESTRUCTURING 127
9 Rural Policy and the Response to Restructuring 129
10 Rural Development and Regeneration 145
11 Rural Governance 160
12 Selling the Countryside 172

Summary of Contents
13 Protecting the Countryside 186
14 Rural Conflicts 210
PART 4 EXPERIENCES OF RURAL RESTRUCTURING 22 1
15 Changing Rural Lifestyles 223
16 Living in the Countryside: Housing, Health and Crime 231
17 Growing Up and Growing Old in the Countryside 244
18 Working in the Countryside 256
19 Hidden Rural Lifestyles: Poverty and Social Exclusion 268
20 Rurality, National Identity and Ethnicity 279
21 Alternative Rural Lifestyles 291
PART 5 CONCLUSIONS 29 7
22 Thinking Again About the Rural 299
vi
Contents
Foreword by Pau l Cloke xi

Acknowledgement s xiii
PART 1 INTRODUCING RURAL GEOGRAPHY 1
1 Defining the Rural 3

Introduction 3
Why bothe r with rural? 4
Descriptive definitions 5
Socio-cultura l definitions 9
The rural as a locality 10
The rural as socia l representatio n 10
Thinking abou t rurality in two English villages : a cas e study 13
Summary 15
2 Understanding the Rural 17

Introduction 17
The geographica l tradition 18
The sociologica l tradition 19
The anthropologica l tradition 21
The political-economi c approac h 22
Rural studie s and the cultural turn 24
Summary 25
PART 2 PROCESSE S OF RURAL RESTRUCTURING 27
3 Globalization, Modernity and the Rural World 29

Introduction 29
Modernity, technolog y and socia l chang e 30
Globalization and the rural 32
Summary 40
4 Agricultural Chang e 42
Introduction 42
California: the laboratory of capitalist agriculture 43
Contents
State intervention in agriculture 45

Productivist agriculture 47
The farm crisis 51
The post-productivis t transition 54
The future of farming? 57
Summary 59
5 The Changing Rural Econom y 62

Introduction 62
Forestry, fishing and mining: the fluctuating fortunes of the primary secto r 63
Manufacturing industry 65
The servic e secto r in rural areas 67
Teleworking in the countryside 70
Summary 70
6 Socia l and Demographic Chang e 72

Introduction 72
From urbanization to counterurbanization 72
The drivers of counterurbanization 76
Re-appraisin g counterurbanization 78
Class recompositio n in rural area s 84
Summary 89
7 Changing Communities : Restructuring Rural Service s 91

Introduction 91
Conceptualizin g community 92
The disappearanc e of rural service s 96
Accessibilit y to service s and rural public transport 10 3
Overcoming isolation : from mail order to the Internet 10 5
Summary 10 8
8 Environmental Chang e and Rural Areas 11 0

Introduction 11 0
Rurality and nature 11 0
Agriculture and the rural environmen t 11 3
Urbanization and the physica l developmen t of the countryside 11 9
Climate chang e 12 1
Summary 12 5
PART 3 RESPONSE S TO RURAL RESTRUCTURING 12 7
9 Rural Polic y and the Respons e to Restructuring 12 9

Introduction 12 9
The enigm a of rural policy 13 0
The policy-making proces s 13 2
The challenge s for rural policy 13 8
Summary 14 3
10 Rural Developmen t and Regeneratio n 14 5

Introduction 14 5
State intervention and top-down developmen t 14 6
viii
Contents
Bottom-up rural regeneratio n 14 9

Smal l town regeneratio n 15 4
The limits to rural development ? 15 8
Summary 15 8
11 Rural Governanc e 16 0
Introduction 16 0
From paternalism to governanc e 16 1
The characteristics of rural governanc e 16 4
Issue s raise d by rural governanc e 16 9
Summary 17 0
12 Sellin g the Countryside 17 2

Introduction 17 2
The commodificatio n of the rural 17 4
Rural production site s as tourist attractions 17 5
The commodificatio n of rural heritage 17 7
Fictional rural landscape s 18 1
Embodied experience s of rural adventure 18 2
The rural as a marketing devic e 18 3
Summary 18 4
13 Protecting the Countryside 18 6

Introduction 18 6
Protecte d areas 18 7
Land use planning and developmen t control 19 7
Agri-environmental scheme s 20 2
Animals and the rural environmen t 20 6
Summary 20 7
14 Rural Conflicts 21 0
Introduction 21 0
Contestin g developmen t in the countryside 21 2
Rural resourc e conflicts 21 5
Hunting and the rural way of life 21 6
Summary 21 8
PART 4 EXPERIENCES OF RURAL RESTRUCTURING 22 1
15 Changing Rural Lifestyles 22 3

Introduction 22 3
Farmers' tales of agricultural restructuring in New Zealan d 22 4
Villagers' tales of community chang e in souther n England 22 5
Neglecte d rural geographie s 22 6
Gende r and the rural 22 8
Summary 22 9
16 Living in the Countryside: Housing , Health and Crime 23 1

Introduction 23 1
Rural housin g 23 1
ix
Contents
Rural health 23 7
Crime and rural communitie s 23 9
Summary 24 2
17 Growing Up and Growing Old in the Countryside 24 4

Introduction 24 4
Rural childhoods 24 4
Young adults in rural communitie s 24 8
Elderly rural resident s 25 2
Summary 25 4
18 Working in the Countryside 25 6

Introduction 25 6
Finding work in rural area s 25 7
Gende r and rural employmen t 25 9
Migrant workers in the rural econom y 26 2
Commuting 26 4
Summary 26 6
19 Hidden Rural Lifestyles : Poverty and Socia l Exclusio n 26 8

Introduction 26 8
Evidence of rural poverty 27 0
Experience s of rural poverty 27 4
Summary 27 7
20 Rurality, Nationa l Identity and Ethnicity 27 9

Introduction 27 9
Rurality and national identity 28 0
Contestin g the rural as a white spac e 28 2
The rural black experienc e in America 28 4
First nation ruralities 28 5
Summary 28 9
21 Alternative Rural Lifestyles 29 1

Introduction 29 1
Travellers and rurality 29 1
Alternative rural communitie s 29 3
Militant reactionary ruralities 29 4
Summary 29 6
PART 5 CONCLUSIONS 29 7
22 Thinking Again About the Rural 29 9

The differentiated countryside 29 9
Processes , response s and experience s 29 9
Re-thinking rurality 30 1
Bibliography 30 5
Index 32 1
X
Foreword
A l t h o u g h t h e h i s t o r y o f G e o g r a p h y is r e p l e t e w i t h r e f e r e n c e s t o a n d e m p h a s e s o n
r e g i o n s , l a n d a n d c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d as ' r u r a l ' , t h e e m e r g e n c e o f
R u r a l G e o g r a p h y as a specific l i n e o f g e o g r a p h i c a l e n q u i r y spans o n l y t h e past
3 0 years o r so a n d m i g h t o n l y b e t h o u g h t t o h a v e ' t a k e n off' d u r i n g t h e 1 9 8 0 s . I n t h i s
relatively s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e t h e r e has b e e n a significant a s s e m b l i n g a n d c o n s i d e r i n g
o f m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g t o t h e c h a n g i n g n a t u r e o f r u r a l i t y a n d r u r a l areas, a n d t h e r e h a v e
also b e e n n o t i c e a b l e a t t e m p t s t o b r i n g w i d e r t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k s a n d i n s i g h t s i n t o
t h e rural d o m a i n . S u c h attempts, s o m e t i m e s confident, s o m e t i m e faltering, have
facilitated e m p h a s e s o n s p a c e , society, p o l i t i c s , e c o n o m i c s , c u l t u r e a n d n a t u r e ( a n d
hybrids o f these) in o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e rural, a n d rather t h a n representing a
series o f e p i s o d i c p a r a d i g m shifts t h e y h a v e d e p o s i t e d a r a t h e r p a l i m p s e s t u a l l a n d s c a p e
of theoretical enquiry.
M a n y o f us w o u l d n o w a r g u e t h a t it is a g o o d t i m e t o t a k e s t o c k o f t h e s e
a p p r o a c h e s a n d t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t s . W h a t h a v e w e l e a r n e d a b o u t r u r a l i t y as a n o b j e c t
o f desire, a f o c u s o f p r o c e s s e s , a social c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d h o w c a p a b l e a r e w e o f
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e different w a y s i n w h i c h r u r a l i t y is r e s t r u c t u r e d a n d r e c o m p o s e d ?
T o w h a t e x t e n t has r u r a l g e o g r a p h y b e e n c o n t e n t t o establish itself a n d its c o n c e r n s as
a legitimate category o f enquiry, and to w h a t degree have rural geographers b e e n
persuasive in a t t r i b u t i n g significance t o rural p h e n o m e n a ? H a s rural g e o g r a p h y b e e n
d u p e d b y t h e r o m a n t i c a n d n o s t a l g i c a p p e a l o f idyllistic rurality, o r h a s it b e e n
successful i n lifting t h e c u l t u r a l c o v e r s o f idyll i n o r d e r t o e x p o s e t h e m o r e
p r o b l e m a t i c u n d e r b e l l y o f social m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , p o v e r t y a n d h o m e l e s s n e s s i n r u r a l
settings?
M i k e W o o d s ' s b o o k is a n e x c e l l e n t a n d t i m e l y c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s e n e c e s s a r y
p r o c e s s e s o f s t o c k t a k i n g . H e p r e s e n t s a clear, lively, i n f o r m a t i v e a n d e n g a g i n g a c c o u n t
o f rural restructuring, in t e r m s o f b o t h t h e processes a n d practices that u n d e r p i n rural
change, a n d of multifaceted political-economic a n d social-cultural responses to that
r u r a l c h a n g e . M i k e is h i m s e l f a l e a d i n g r u r a l s c h o l a r w h o has b e e n e n g a g e d i n
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g r e s e a r c h i n t o r u r a l p o l i t i c s a n d g o v e r n a n c e , so h e is e x c e l l e n t l y p l a c e d
t o offer a s u m m a r y o f t h e state o f t h e a r t o f r u r a l g e o g r a p h y
Foreword
B u t m o r e t h a n t h a t , h e d i r e c t s i m p o r t a n t a t t e n t i o n t o issues t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o m a k e
r u r a l areas i n t o e v e n m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o n t e s t e d areas i n t h e f u t u r e . T r a d i t i o n a l
p r a c t i c e s o f f o o d p r o d u c t i o n w i l l b e c r o s s - c u t b y p o l i t i c a l a n d e t h i c a l issues a r o u n d
f o o d , h e a l t h a n d l a n d s c a p e . T h e r u r a l idyll h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p u n c t u r e d b y t h e d y s t o p i c
imagery of death, destruction and emptiness following the outbreak of foot and
m o u t h disease. N o w u r b a n - b a s e d c o n s u m e r s a r e i n s i s t i n g o n h a v i n g a g r e a t e r say
a b o u t the nature o f food, farming, landscape a n d even a b o u t the ethics o f traditional
r u r a l p r a c t i c e s s u c h as h u n t i n g . S e e m i n g l y u r b a n - b a s e d g o v e r n m e n t is i n s i s t i n g o n
h a v i n g its say a b o u t b o t h t h e l o o k o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d its p l a c e as a r e p o s i t o r y for
housing and e c o n o m i c growth. Brussels-based p o l i c y - m a k i n g continues to C A P the
headless politic o f t h e rural e c o n o m y . B y contrast, rural identity politics are m a k i n g an
i n c r e a s i n g l y n o i s y a n d visible c o n t r i b u t i o n , i n f u s i n g t h e s e d e b a t e s w i t h t h e s u p p o s e d l y
united views of country people.
T h e r e s e e m s little d o u b t t h a t * r u r a l ' a n d ' c o u n t r y s i d e ' w i l l c o n t i n u e as d i s t i n c t
d i s c u r s i v e areas i n e v e r y d a y life, y e t it is e q u a l l y c l e a r t h a t t h e r e are m a n y d i f f e r e n t
c o u n t r y s i d e s a n d m a n y different g e o g r a p h i e s o f t h e r u r a l . M i k e W o o d s ' s b o o k p r o v i d e s
a scholarly f r a m e w o r k from w h i c h to l a u n c h o u t i n t o y o u r o w n understandings o f
h o w r u r a l i t y is b e i n g r e c o n s t r u c t e d . H i s c h a l l e n g e is t h a t s u c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g s s h o u l d
b e p o l i t i c a l l y a w a r e a n d r e l e v a n t , y e t sensitive a n d o p e n t o d i f f e r e n c e . I h o p e t h a t y o u
w i l l a c c e p t t h a t c h a l l e n g e c r i t i c a l l y a n d radically, f o r i n y o u r r e s p o n s e , a n d i n t h o s e
like y o u r s , lies t h e h e a l t h a n d i m p a c t o f f u t u r e r u r a l g e o g r a p h i e s .
Paul Cloke
University of Bristol
xii
Acknowledgements
T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a t e x t b o o k s u c h as this is a p r o c e s s o f d e t e c t i o n , e x p l o r a t i o n ,
e x a m i n a t i o n , s e l e c t i o n , c o l l a t i o n , s y n t h e s i s , e d i t i n g a n d r e - p r e s e n t a t i o n . It b y n e c e s s i t y
d r a w s o n t h e w o r k a n d ideas o f a vast a r r a y o f g e o g r a p h e r s , s o c i o l o g i s t s a n d o t h e r
r u r a l r e s e a r c h e r s , as c r e d i t e d i n t h e t e x t . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s a n d b o o k s
t h a t are r e f e r e n c e d i n t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y , I h a v e b e e n g u i d e d , i n f o r m e d a n d i n s p i r e d b y
a great m a n y c o n f e r e n c e papers, seminar presentations, discussions a n d i n f o r m a l
c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a t h a v e g i v e n m e n e w i n s i g h t s , s u g g e s t e d fresh w a y s o f a p p r o a c h i n g
t o p i c s , l e d m e t o different r e a d i n g s , t h e o r i e s a n d case s t u d i e s , a n d t a u g h t m e a b o u t
rural studies outside o f t h e U K . I a m grateful t o m y friends a n d colleagues in t h e
r u r a l s t u d i e s c o m m u n i t y for t h e s e i n a d v e r t e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s , w h i c h are n o t easy t o
c i t e formally.
I h a v e also d r a w n i n s p i r a t i o n , a n d g a i n e d i n s i g h t s , f r o m m y c o l l e a g u e s a n d s t u d e n t s
i n t h e I n s t i t u t e o f G e o g r a p h y a n d E a r t h S c i e n c e s at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W a l e s ,
A b e r y s t w y t h , t h e lively, d y n a m i c a n d c o n v i v i a l a t m o s p h e r e o f w h i c h b o t h facilitated
a n d , occasionally, d i s t r a c t e d f r o m t h e w r i t i n g o f this b o o k . I n p a r t i c u l a r , I w o u l d like
to a c k n o w l e d g e the support o f those colleagues and research students w i t h w h o m
I h a v e h a d t h e p l e a s u r e o f c o l l a b o r a t i n g o n r u r a l r e s e a r c h : Bill E d w a r d s , M a r k
G o o d w i n , J o n Anderson, Graham Gardner, Rachel Hughes, Simon Pemberton,
C a t h e r i n e Walkley, E l d i n Fahmy, w a i n H a m m o n d s a n d Suzie W a t k i n .
I a m g r a t e f u l , t o o , t o R o b e r t R o j e k a n d D a v i d M a i n w a r i n g at S a g e f o r t h e i r careful
s t e w a r d s h i p o f t h i s p r o j e c t , as w e l l as t o t h e r e v i e w e r s o f e a r l i e r drafts o f t h e
m a n u s c r i p t for t h e i r g e n e r o u s c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s .
M u c h o f t h e a r t w o r k i n t h e b o o k has b e e n p r o d u c e d b y I a n G u l l e y i n t h e
I n s t i t u t e ' s d r a w i n g office at A b e r y s t w y t h , w i t h his c h a r a c t e r i s t i c skill a n d a t t e n t i o n t o
detail.
T h e a u t h o r a n d p u b l i s h e r s w i s h t o t h a n k t h e f o l l o w i n g for p e r m i s s i o n t o r e p r o d u c e
material:
F i g u r e 1.2, r e p r o d u c e d f r o m P. C l o k e ( 1 9 7 7 ) ' A n i n d e x o f r u r a l i t y for E n g l a n d a n d

W a l e s ' , Regional Studies, 1 1 , figure 2 , p . 4 4 , a n d P. C l o k e a n d G. E d w a r d s
(1986) ' R u r a l i t y in E n g l a n d a n d Wales 1 9 8 1 : a replication o f t h e 1971
Acknowledgements
i n d e x ' , Regional Studies, 2 0 , f i g u r e 2 , p . 2 9 3 , b y k i n d p e r m i s s i o n

o f Taylor a n d Francis Ltd. (vvww.tandf.co.uk/journals)
Figure 7.1, r e p r o d u c e d f r o m R . L i e p i n s ( 2 0 0 0 ) ' N e w e n e r g i e s f o r o l d i d e a s ' , Journal
of Rural Studies, 1 6 , p p . 2535, figure 1, w i t h p e r m i s s i o n f r o m E l s e v i e r .
Copyright 2000.
Figure 8.3, reproduced from Tranquil Area maps published by the C a m p a i g n to
Protect R u r a l England, by kind permission of the Campaign to Protect
Rural England. Copyright, Campaign to Protect Rural England and
Countryside Agency, O c t o b e r 1995.
Figure 11.1, r e p r o d u c e d f r o m B . E d w a r d s , M . G o o d w i n , S. P e m b e r t o n a n d
M . W o o d s ( 2 0 0 0 ) Partnership Working in Rural Regeneration, f i g u r e 1,
p. 7, b y k i n d p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e Policy Press.
E v e r y effort h a s b e e n m a d e t o t r a c e all t h e c o p y r i g h t h o l d e r s , b u t if a n y h a v e b e e n
o v e r l o o k e d , o r if a n y a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e g i v e n , t h e p u b l i s h e r s w i l l b e
p l e a s e d t o m a k e t h e n e c e s s a r y a m e n d m e n t s at t h e first o p p o r t u n i t y .
x iv
Parti
INTRODUCING
RURAL GEOGRAPHY
1
Defining the Rural
Introduction
Clear your mind and think of the word 'rural'. What image do you see? Maybe
you see the rolling green downland of southern England, or the wide open spaces
of the American prairie? Perhaps it's the golden woodlands of the N e w England
fall, or the forests of Scandinavia? The R o c k y Mountains or the sun-baked outback
of Australia? Are there any people in your rural picture? If so, what are they doing?
Are they working? O r maybe they are tourists? What age are they? What colour
are they? Are they men or women? R i c h or poor? D o you see any buildings in
your rural scene? Perhaps a quaint thatched cottage, or a white-washed farmstead?
Maybe a ranch, or a simple log cabin? O r do you see a run-down dilapidated
home, barely fit for human habitation; or an estate of modern, identikit, housing?
Is there any evidence of economic activity? Farming, probably, but then do you see
a farmyard of free-range animals, as the children's storybooks would have us
believe, or do you see battery hen sheds, or endless fields of industrially produced
corn? Maybe you see quarrying or mining or forestry. But what about factories, or
hi-tech laboratories or office complexes? Are there any shops, or banks, or schools -
or have they been converted into holiday homes? Are there any roads or traffic in
your image? Is there any crime, or any sign of police on patrol? D o you see any
problems of ill-health, or alcoholism, or drug abuse? W h o owns the land that you
are picturing? W h o has access to it?
D o you still have a clear picture of what 'rural' means to you, or are you
beginning to think that defining the rural is more complicated than you thought?
There is, alas, no simple, standard, definition. Whatever picture of the 'rural' you
have conjured up, it will probably be different from that imagined by the person
sitting nearest to you as you read this book. This is not to say that we all have an
entirely individual understanding of rurality. Our perceptions will be shaped by a
wide range of influences that we will share with other people: where we live,
where we holiday, which films we watch, which books we read. Local and national #
Introducing rural geography
c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s a r e also i m p o r t a n t , as is w h a t w e l e a r n at s c h o o l , w h a t w e r e a d i n
the newspapers a n d t h e political p r o p a g a n d a that w e receive from pressure groups.
I n s o m e c o u n t r i e s , ' r u r a l ' is n o t a w i d e l y u s e d c o n c e p t at all b u t v i s i t o r s t o t h o s e
c o u n t r i e s w i l l r e c o g n i z e s p a c e s t h a t l o o k t o t h e m t o b e ' r u r a l ' . T h u s , if o u r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t ' r u r a l ' m e a n s is n o t i n d i v i d u a l l y s p e c i f i c , it is at least
culturally specific. S o m e o n e living i n t h e c r o w d e d c o u n t r y s i d e o f s o u t h - e a s t
E n g l a n d will p r o b a b l y have a different idea a b o u t rurality f r o m s o m e o n e living in
deepest N o r t h D a k o t a . A f a r m i n g family in rural N e w Z e a l a n d will have a
different idea f r o m a c i t y - d w e l l i n g t o u r i s t f r o m A m s t e r d a m . A n d so o n . . . .
Y e t , i f ' r u r a l ' is s u c h a v a g u e a n d a m b i g u o u s t e r m , i n w h a t s e n s e c a n w e t a l k
a b o u t 'rural studies', or 'rural geography' or 'rural sociology'? This chapter
i n t r o d u c e s t h e different ways i n w h i c h a c a d e m i c s have a t t e m p t e d t o p r o d u c e a
definition of rural, setting o u t the pros and cons of each approach, before
eventually d e s c r i b i n g h o w t h e c o n c e p t o f rurality will b e t r e a t e d i n this b o o k .
Why Bother with Rural? S o d e e p is t h i s c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n t h a t d i f f e r -

S o , i f ' r u r a l ' is s u c h a difficult concept to entiating between town a n d c o u n t r y s i d e is
d e f i n e , w h y b o t h e r w i t h i t a t all? F o r a s t a r t , o n e o f t h e instinctive ways in w h i c h w e place
distinctions b e t w e e n u r b a n a n d rural, city a n d order o n the world around us. In academic
country, have a l o n g historical pedigree a n d usage, however, the term is m o r e recent.
great cultural significance. R a y m o n d Williams, Sociologist M a r c M o r m o n t , for example, has
one of the leading chroniclers of English s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e u s e o f ' r u r a l ' as a n a c a d e m i c
language a n d literature, has observed that, c o n c e p t evolved d u r i n g t h e 1920s a n d 1930s -
a time w h e n the countryside was undergoing
m a j o r social a n d e c o n o m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
' C o u n t r y' a n d 'city' a re v e r y powerful
in a n a t t e m p t t o define t h e essential features
w o r d s , a n d this is n o t s u r p r i s i ng w h e n w e
o f ' r u r a l ' society i n t h e face o f rapid u r b a n i z a -
r e m e m b e r h o w m u c h t h e y s e e m to s t a n d
for in t he e x p e r i e n c e o f h u m a n c o m m u n i - tion a n d industrialization ( M o r m o n t , 1990).
tie s .. . O n t he a c t u a l s e t t l e m e n t s , w h i c h Very often, t h e definitions o f rural society

in t he rea l history h a v e b e e n a s t o n i s h i n g l y p r o d u c e d reflected a particular m o r a l g e o g r a -
varied, powerful feeling s hav e gathere d phy, w i t h t h e 'rural' associated w i t h values
a n d hav e b e e n generalised . O n t he country s u c h as h a r m o n y , s t a b i l i t y a n d m o d e r a t i o n .
h a s g a t h e r e d t he i d e a o f a n a t u r al w a y o f These more judgemental ideas about the
life: o f p e a c e , innocenc e a n d simple
urban-rural d i c h o t o m y have been removed
v i r t u e. O n t he city h a s g a t h e r e d t he i d e a
over time from academic thought, but the
of a n achieve d centre : o f learning , c o m -
d i s t i n c t i o n r e m a i n s a useful o n e for researchers
m u n i c a t i o n , light. P o w e r f u l hostil e a s s o c i -
for at least t w o r e a s o n s .
a t i o n s h a v e a l s o d e v e l o p e d : o n t he city a s
a plac e o f noise , w o r l d l i n e s s a n d a m b i t i o n; F i r s t , m a n y g o v e r n m e n t s officially distin-
o n t he c o u n t ry a s a p l a c e o f b a c k w a r d - guish between urban a n d rural areas and
ness , ignorance , limitation. A contras t g o v e r n t h e m t h r o u g h different institutions w i t h

b e t w e e n c o u n t ry a n d city, a s f u n d a m e n - different policies. F o r E n g l a n d , for e x a m p l e , t h e
tal w a y s o f life, r e a c h e s b a c k into c l a s s i - government published t w o separate policy
ca l t i m e s . ( W i l l i a m s, 1 9 7 3 , p. 1 ) papers in N o v e m b e r 2000, o n e for 'urban
4
Defining the rural
policy' a n d o n e for 'rural policy', a n d m u c h o f d i s t i n c t i o n c a n b e m a d e b e t w e e n r u r a l areas

the latter will be administered by the a n d u r b a n a r e a s o n t h e basis o f t h e i r s o c i o -
Department of the Environment, Food and spatial c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , as m e a s u r e d through
Rural Affairs a n d i m p l e m e n t e d through the v a r i o u s statistical i n d i c a t o r s . T h e s i m p l e s t w a y
g o v e r n m e n t ' s Countryside Agency. o f d o i n g t h i s is b y p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h i s is t h e
S e c o n d l y , m a n y p e o p l e l i v i n g i n r u r a l areas a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d i n m o s t official definitions
i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s as ' r u r a l p e o p l e ' f o l l o w i n g o f r u r a l a r e a s . A f t e r all, it a p p e a r s t o b e fairly
a ' r u r a l w a y o f l i f e ' . S o s t r o n g is t h i s s e n s e o f l o g i c a l - w e all k n o w t h a t t o w n s a n d c i t i e s
identity that w h e n they are faced w i t h p r o b - have larger p o p u l a t i o n s t h a n villages a n d d i s -
l e m s s u c h as u n e m p l o y m e n t , t h e d e c l i n e o f p e r s e d rural c o m m u n i t i e s . B u t , at precisely
s t a p l e i n d u s t r y ( s u c h as a g r i c u l t u r e ) o r t h e loss what population d o e s a rural area become
o f local services, they d o n o t build links o f u r b a n ? A s T a b l e 1.1 s h o w s , t h e r e is c o n s i d e r -
solidarity w i t h p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e same able variation in the m a x i m u m population
p r o b l e m s i n u r b a n a r e a s , b u t r a t h e r assert t h e i r size o f a r u r a l s e t t l e m e n t p e r m i s s i b l e under
r u r a l s o l i d a r i t y as a basis f o r r e s i s t a n c e t o a t h e official d e f i n i t i o n s o f r u r a l a n d u r b a n a r e a s
p e r c e i v e d ' u r b a n threat'. A n e x a m p l e o f this used in different c o u n t r i e s .
can again b e seen in t h e U K , w h e r e over There are o t h e r problems t o o . First, t h e
400,000 people j o i n e d a march in L o n d o n in population recorded depends o n the b o u n d -
September 2002 organized by the C o u n t r y - aries o f t h e area c o n c e r n e d . F o r e x a m p l e , if
side Alliance to protest at the perceived t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e t o w n i n w h i c h I live,
n e g l e c t o f r u r a l areas a n d r u r a l interests b y t h e A b e r y s t w y t h i n W e s t W a l e s , is m e a s u r e d o n its
c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t ( t h e r e is m o r e o n t h i s i n official c o m m u n i t y b o u n d a r i e s , t h e n i t c o m e s
C h a p t e r 14). in at j u s t u n d e r 1 0 , 0 0 0 - sufficient t o qualify
These two factors mean that although as r u r a l o n s o m e d e f i n i t i o n s . Y e t t h e c o m m u -
researchers m a y b e able t o identify t h e same nity b o u n d a r y cuts r i g h t across t h e university
social and economic processes at w o r k in c a m p u s . If t h e total p o p u l a t i o n for t h e actual
r u r a l a r e a s as i n u r b a n a r e a s , t h e y also k n o w b u i l t - u p u r b a n a r e a is c o u n t e d , t h e r e a l tally is
that t h e processes are o p e r a t i n g i n a different n e a r e r 2 0 , 0 0 0 . Similarly, t h e r e are m a n y r u r a l
political e n v i r o n m e n t a n d that t h e reactions c o u n t i e s in t h e U n i t e d States that have larger
of people affected may be different. The populations than many incorporated urban
analysis o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , h o w e v e r , b r i n g s areas, s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y c o v e r a m u c h m o r e
us b a c k t o t h e p r o b l e m o f w h a t w e mean extensive territory.
by 'rural'. Halfacree (1993) identified four Secondly, s i m p l e p o p u l a t i o n figures reveal
broad approaches that had been taken to nothing about the function of a settlement, or
defining t h e rural b y rural researchers. T h e s e about t h e settlement's relation to its sur-
a r e (i) d e s c r i p t i v e d e f i n i t i o n s ; (ii) s o c i o - c u l t u r a l r o u n d i n g local area. A t o w n o f 1,000 p e o p l e
d e f i n i t i o n s ; (iii) t h e r u r a l as l o c a l i t y ; a n d (iv) t h e in Nebraska m a y b e a definite urban centre
r u r a l as s o c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . E a c h o f t h e s e for a dispersed rural p o p u l a t i o n , b u t a village
approaches will now be introduced and of 1,000 p e o p l e in Massachusetts m a y b e p e r -
critiqued in turn. ceived t o b e r u r a l i n its r e g i o n a l context.
Thirdly, distinctions based solely o n p o p u l a -
Descriptive Definitions t i o n a r e a r b i t r a r y a n d artificial. W h y s h o u l d a
Descriptive definitions o f rurality are based s e t t l e m e n t w i t h 9 9 9 r e s i d e n t s b e classified as
o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n that a clear geographical r u r a l , a n d o n e w i t h 1 , 0 0 0 r e s i d e n t s b e classified
5
T a b le 1. 1 Official population-base d d e f i n i t i o ns o f rural settlement s

M a x i m um p o p u l a t i o n o f a
D e f i n i t i on u s e d b y r u r al s e t t l e m e n t Note s
Icelan d 30 0 M i n i m um p o p u l a t i o n o f a n u r b an
administrative u n it
Canad a 1,00 0 (+ p o p u l a t i o n densit y les s t h a n 40 0 pe r
2
k m ) Censu s d e f i n i t i on
France 2,00 0
U n i t e d State s 2,50 0 Censu s d e f i n i t i on
Englan d 10,00 0 Countryside Agenc y d e f i n i t i on
U n i t e d Nation s 20,00 0
Japa n 30,00 0 M i n i m um p o p u l a t i o n o f a n u r b an
administrative u n it
as u r b a n ? W h a t d i f f e r e n c e d o e s t h a t o n e e x t r a W i s c o n s i n ) . E v e r y w h e r e e l s e is classified
person make? as ' r u r a l ' .
Some official definitions o f rurality have T h e U K census uses l a n d u s e t o define
addressed these problems b y developing m o r e u r b a n a r e a s as a n y a r e a w i t h m o r e than
s o p h i s t i c a t e d m o d e l s t h a t also i n c l u d e refer- twenty c o n t i n u o u s hectares o f ' u r b a n land
e n c e t o p o p u l a t i o n density, land u s e a n d p r o x - uses' - including permanent structures,
imity to urban centres. In m a n y countries a transport corridors (roads, railways and
m i x o f different d e f i n i t i o n s is e m p l o y e d b y canals), t r a n s p o r t features (car parks, air-
different g o v e r n m e n t agencies. F o r e x a m p l e , ports, service stations, etc.), quarries a n d
the website of the Rural Policy Research m i n e r a l w o r k s , a n d a n y o p e n area com-
Institute ( w w w . r u p r i . o r g ) discusses n i n e dif- pletely enclosed by built-up sites.
ferent definitions used b y parts o f t h e U n i t e d E v e r y w h e r e else is classified as ' r u r a l ' .
S t a t e s g o v e r n m e n t ; w h i l s t i n t h e U K it h a s The US O f f i ce of B u d g et a nd
b e e n recently estimated that there are over 3 0 M a n a g e m e nt d e f i n e s m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s
different definitions o f rural areas i n u s e b y as a t l e a s t o n e c e n t r a l c o u n t y w i t h a p o p -
different government agencies (ODPM, ulation of more than 50,000, plus any
2002). M a n y o f these are actually 'negative' neighbouring county which has 'close
definitions in that they set o u t t h e character- economic a n d social relationships with
istics o f u r b a n a r e a s a n d d e s i g n a t e anywhere the central county' - defined in terms o f
that d o e s n o t qualify a s ' r u r a l ' . T h r e e e x a m p l e s commuting patterns, population density
o f this a p p r o a c h c a n b e seen i n t h e definitions and population growth. A n y w h e r e outside
used for t h e U S a n d U K censuses a n d b y t h e a m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a is classified as a ' n o n -
U S Office o f B u d g e t a n d M a n a g e m e n t : m e t r o p o l i t a n c o u n t y ' ( F i g u r e 1.1). N o n -
metropolitan counties are the most
T h e U S census uses p o p u l a t i o n t o define c o m m o n l y used definition o f a rural area
urban a r e a s as c o m p r i s i n g all t e r r i t o r y , in research and policy analysis in t h e
p o p u l a t i o n a n d h o u s i n g units in places o f U n i t e d States.
2,500 or more persons incorporated as
cities, villages, b o r o u g h s ( e x c e p t i n Alaska All t h r e e o f t h e a b o v e definitions, h o w e v e r ,
and N e w York), and towns (except in the can b e c r i t i q u e d o n t h e s a m e g r o u n d s . First,
six N e w E n g l a n d s t a t e s , N e w Y o r k a n d t h e y are d i c h o t o m o u s , i n that t h e y set u p rural
6
Defining the rural
Figure 1.1 The US Office of Budge t an d Management' s classificatio n of metropolitan an d

non-metropolitan countries in the United State s
Source: United State s Departmen t of Agriculture, Economi c Researc h Servic e
areas i n o p p o s i t i o n t o u r b a n areas a n d r e c o g - amenities (percentage o f h o u s e h o l d s w i t h hot

nize n o i n - b e t w e e n . Secondly, t h e y are based water, fixed baths a n d inside W C s ) , occupa-
o n a v e r y n a r r o w set o f i n d i c a t o r s t h a t r e v e a l tional structure (percentage of workforce
little a b o u t t h e s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s employed in agriculture), c o m m u t i n g patterns
that shape u r b a n a n d rural localities. Thirdly, and the distance to u r b a n centres.These indica-
b e c a u s e r u r a l areas a r e a r e s i d u a l c a t e g o r y t h e y t o r s w e r e fed i n t o a f o r m u l a t h a t p l a c e d districts
a r e t r e a t e d as h o m o g e n e o u s w i t h n o a c k n o w l - i n t o o n e o f five c a t e g o r i e s e x t r e m e rural,
e d g e m e n t o f t h e diversity o f rural areas. intermediate rural, intermediate non-rural,
e x t r e m e n o n - r u r a l a n d u r b a n ( F i g u r e 1.2).
Indices of rurality A l t h o u g h the indices of rurality did m a r k

I n a n a t t e m p t t o r e c o g n i z e s o m e o f t h e differ- an i m p r o v e m e n t o n simple d i c h o t o m o u s def-
e n c e s b e t w e e n d e g r e e s o f rurality, a n d t o o v e r - i n i t i o n s , it still p r o v o k e s a n u m b e r o f c r i t i c a l
c o m e t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t r e s u l t e d from d e f i n i n g q u e s t i o n s . First, w h y choose the indicators
a r u r a l area u s i n g j u s t o n e o r t w o i n d i c a t o r s , that w e r e used? W h a t , for e x a m p l e , d o e s t h e
C l o k e (1977) a n d C l o k e a n d E d w a r d s (1986) percentage of households with a fixed bath
c o n s t r u c t e d an ' i n d e x o f rurality' for local g o v - tell u s a b o u t r u r a l i t y ? S e c o n d l y , h o w w a s t h e
e r n m e n t districts i n E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s u s i n g w e i g h t i n g b e t w e e n different indicators d e t e r -
a r a n g e o f statistics from the 1971 and 1981 m i n e d ? Is a g r i c u l t u r a l e m p l o y m e n t m o r e or
censuses. Significantly, the indicators used less important than population density in
related n o t just to population (including p o p u - determining rurality? Thirdly, h o w are the
l a t i o n density, c h a n g e , i n - m i g r a t i o n a n d out- boundaries between the five different cat-
m i g r a t i o n a n d t h e a g e profile), b u t also h o u s e h o l d egories decided? At what point on the
7
Figure 1.2 The indices of rurality for England and Wales, as calculated from the
1971 census (a) and the 1981 census (b)
Source: Cloke, 1977; Cloke and Edwards 1986
8
Defining the rural
Table 1. 2 Som e urban/rural dichotomie s e m p l o y e d in

socio-cultura l definitions
A u t h or U r b an N o n - u r b a n o r r u r al
Becke r Secula r Sacre d
D u r k h e im Organic solidarity Mechanica l solidarity
Maine Contac t Statu s
Redfiel d Urban Folk
Spence r Industrial Military
Tonnie s Gesellschaft Gemeinschaft
Webe r Rationa l Traditional
Source: Base d o n Phillips an d Williams, 1984 ; Reissman , 196 4
artificial scale p r o d u c e d b y t h e f o r m u l a does r u r a l societies. I n t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s , d i s t i n c t i o n s

an 'intermediate rural' district become an are m a d e b e t w e e n ' u r b a n ' a n d 'rural' society
' i n t e r m e d i a t e n o n - r u r a l ' district? o n t h e basis o f r e s i d e n t s ' v a l u e s a n d b e h a v -
M o r e p r o b l e m a t i c still is t h e effect o f u s i n g i o u r s a n d o n t h e social a n d cultural c h a r a c t e r -
l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t d i s t r i c t s as t h e basis o f t h e istics o f c o m m u n i t i e s . T w o o f t h e b e s t - k n o w n
classification. L o o k at t h e t w o m a p s i n Figure 1.2. examples are the models developed by
O n t h e 1 9 7 1 m a p there are m a n y isolated dots Ferdinand Tonnies and by Louis Wirth.
o f b l a c k u r b a n areas s c a t t e r e d across E n g l a n d T o n n i e s b a s e d his d i s t i n c t i o n o n t h e social ties
a n d W a l e s . Yet, o n t h e 1 9 8 1 m a p t h e y h a v e d i s - f o u n d w i t h i n r u r a l a n d u r b a n areas b y c o n -
appeared. D i d Britain suddenly b e c o m e more t r a s t i n g t h e Gemeinschaft, or community, of the
r u r a l d u r i n g t h o s e t e n years? N o , l o c a l g o v e r n - r u r a l , w i t h t h e Gesellschaft, o r society, o f t h e
m e n t h a d b e e n reorganized in 1974, amalga- urban (see T o n n i e s , 1963). W i r t h (1938),
m a t i n g t h e m a n y small u r b a n districts with meanwhile, suggested that urban life was
their s u r r o u n d i n g rural districts t o create n e w , dynamic, unstable and impersonal, with an
l a r g e r , d i s t r i c t s - m o s t o f w h i c h c a m e o u t as urban resident having different contacts
'rural' w h e n p u t t h r o u g h t h e f o r m u l a for 1 9 8 1 . t h r o u g h w o r k , h o m e a n d leisure, w h e r e a s rural
A l l t h a t h a d h a p p e n e d w a s t h a t t h e scale a t life w a s s t a b l e , i n t e g r a t e d a n d stratified, w i t h
w h i c h t h e index was calculated h a d changed. the same people coming into contact with
M e t h o d o l o g i c a l flaws c a n b e f o u n d w i t h all each o t h e r in different c o n t e x t s . O t h e r w r i t e r s
t h e descriptive approaches e m p l o y e d t o define p r o d u c e d s i m i l a r d i c h o t o m i e s ( T a b l e 1.2).
rurality, b u t t h e real f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m is D i c h o t o m i e s o f this t y p e over-emphasized
identified by Halfacree (1993): 'Descriptive t h e contrast b e t w e e n u r b a n a n d rural societies.
m e t h o d s only describe t h e rural, they d o n o t In response, t h e concept of a ruralurban
d e f i n e it t h e m s e l v e s ' (p. 2 4 ) . T h e d e s c r i p t i v e def- c o n t i n u u m was devised, suggesting that c o m -
initions simply reflect preconceptions about munities could be identified as displaying
w h a t r u r a l areas s h o u l d b e like, b u t offer n o different d e g r e e s o f u r b a n a n d rural c h a r a c t e r -
e x p l a n a t i o n as t o w h y t h e y a r e like t h a t ( o r n o t ) . istics. H o w e v e r , Pahl (1968) criticized the
rural-urban continuum for continuing to
Socio-cultural Definitions oversimplify t h e d y n a m i c s o f social a n d spatial
J u s t as d e s c r i p t i v e d e f i n i t i o n s h a v e a t t e m p t e d milieux, arguing that ' s o m e p e o p l e are o f t h e
to identify rural territories, so socio-cultural c i t y b u t a r e n o t i n it, w h e r e a s o t h e r s a r e i n t h e
definitions have b e e n used t o try t o identity city b u t are n o t o f it' (Phillips a n d W i l l i a m s ,
9
1984, p. 13). Pahl's own work identified The rural as l o c a l i t y approach faltered,
so-called u r b a n societies in rural Hertfordshire, therefore, because n o n e o f t h e structural fea-
whilst Y o u n g and W i l m o t t (1957) identified tures claimed t o b e rural c o u l d b e proven t o
the supposed characteristics o f rural c o m m u - b e u n i q u e l y o r intrinsically rural. Instead, they
nities in t h e East E n d o f L o n d o n . simply highlighted t h e way in w h i c h the same
social a n d e c o n o m i c processes a p p e a r e d t o b e
The Rural as a Locality at w o r k in both so-called urban a n d rural
T h e t h i r d a p p r o a c h t o d e f i n i n g r u r a l areas dif- areas. T h u s , i n 1 9 9 0 H o g g a r t p r o p o s e d t h a t it
fered from t h e above t w o b y focusing o n t h e was t i m e to ' d o away w i t h rural', arguing that
processes that might create distinctive rural it w a s a c o n f u s i n g ' c h a o t i c c o n c e p t i o n ' that
localities. T h i s a p p r o a c h w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y a lacked explanatory power:
wider debate within geography i n t h e late
1 9 8 0 s t h a t h a d e x p l o r e d h o w far l o c a l s t r u c - T he b r o a d c a t e g o r y ' r u r a l' is o b f u s c a t o r y ,
tures c o u l d s h a p e t h e o u t c o m e s o f social a n d w h e t h e r t h e a i m is d e s c r i p t i o n o r t h e o r e t -
ica l e v a l u a t i o n , sinc e i n t r a - r u r al differ-
e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s . If, as s o m e w r i t e r s c l a i m e d ,
e n c e s c a n b e e n o r m o u s a n d r u r a l - u r b an
a ' l o c a l i t y effect' c o u l d b e i d e n t i f i e d , m i g h t n o t
s i m i l a r i t i es ca n be sharp . (Hoggart,
it also b e p o s s i b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n u r b a n
1 9 9 0 , p. 2 4 5 )
a n d r u r a l localities? T h e c h a l l e n g e w a s t h e r e -
fore t o identify t h e structural features that
S o w h y a r e w e still t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e ' r u r a l '
might allow this t o b e d o n e : as Halfacree
m o r e t h a n a d e c a d e l a t e r ? B e c a u s e , as n o t e d
( 1 9 9 3 ) n o t e d , ' r u r a l localities, i f t h e y a r e t o b e
e a r l i e r , w h a t e v e r a c a d e m i c s m i g h t say a b o u t
r e c o g n i s e d a n d s t u d i e d as c a t e g o r i e s i n t h e i r
t h e difficulty o f d e f i n i n g rural areas, t h e r e are
o w n r i g h t , m u s t b e carefully d e f i n e d accord-
still m i l l i o n s o f p e o p l e w h o c o n s i d e r them-
i n g t o t h a t w h i c h m a k e s t h e m rural' (p. 2 8 ) .
selves t o b e ' r u r a l ' , t o live i n ' r u r a l areas', a n d
Halfacree (1993) records that three main
t o f o l l o w a ' r u r a l w a y o f l i f e ' . It is t h e i n v e s t i -
w a y s o f d o i n g t h i s w e r e a t t e m p t e d . F i r s t , it
gation of these perceptions that provides the
was suggested that rural space h a d to b e asso-
foundation of the fourth approach.
c i a t e d w i t h p r i m a r y p r o d u c t i o n ( s u c h as a g r i -
c u l t u r e ) , o r w i t h ' t h e c o m p e t i t i v e s e c t o r ' . Yet,
as Halfacree notes, 'many urban localities The Rural as Social Representation
c o u l d b e s i m i l a r l y classified' (p. 2 8 ) . S e c o n d l y , ' T h e r e is a n a l t e r n a t i v e w a y o f d e f i n i n g r u r a l -
it w a s p r o p o s e d t h a t l o w p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s ity,' w r i t e s H a l f a c r e e , ' w h i c h , initially, d o e s n o t
created distinctive c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e r e q u i r e us t o abstract causal structures o p e r a t -
r u r a l a n d issues o f c o l l e c t i v e consumption. i n g at t h e r u r a l scale. T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e comes
Y e t , a g a i n , H a l f a c r e e n o t e s t h a t t h e a s s e r t i o n is a b o u t b e c a u s e " t h e r u r a l " a n d its s y n o n y m s
debatable, especially 'given t h e decline i n t h e a r e words and concepts understood and used by
importance o f friction o f d i s t a n c e ' (p. 2 8 ) . people in everyday talk' ( H a l f a c r e e , 1 9 9 3 , p . 2 9 ) .
Thirdly, rural localities w e r e identified w i t h a T h u s , instead o f trying to identify particular
p a r t i c u l a r r o l e i n consumption, including the social characteristics o r e c o n o m i c structures
c o l l e c t i v e c o n s u m p t i o n o f t o u r i s t sites a n d t h e t h a t a r e u n i q u e l y distinctive t o rural areas, t h e
private consumption of in-migrant house- social r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a p p r o a c h b e g i n s b y ask-
b u y e r s . H o w e v e r , it is n o t c l e a r h o w t h i s dif- i n g w h a t s y m b o l s a n d signs a n d i m a g e s p e o p l e
fers f r o m g e n t r i f y i n g u r b a n neighbourhoods conjure u p w h e n they think about t h e rural.
a n d u r b a n h e r i t a g e sites. This actually produces a more robust and
10
Defining the rural
flexible w a y o f d e f i n i n g rurality, w h i c h can, The question of defining rurality hence

for example, accommodate the effects of becomes one o f ' h o w people construct t h e m -
social a n d e c o n o m i c c h a n g e in rural e n v i r o n - selves as b e i n g r u r a l ' , u n d e r s t a n d i n g r u r a l i t y as
m e n t s . As M o r m o n t (1990) has a r g u e d , social 'a s t a t e o f m i n d ' . T o e m p l o y a m o r e t e c h n i c a l
a n d e c o n o m i c c h a n g e m e a n s t h a t t h e r e is n o vocabulary, rurality is ' s o c i a l l y constructed'
l o n g e r a single 'rural space' that can b e f u n c - (see B o x 1.1) a n d ' r u r a l ' ' b e c o m e s a w o r l d o f
tionally defined. R a t h e r there are m a n y i m a - social, m o r a l and cultural values in which
gined social spaces occupying the same rural dwellers participate' (Cloke and
territory. M i l b o u r n e , 1992, p. 360).
Box 1.1 Key term
S o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n : T he w a y in w h i c h p e o p l e g i v e t h e m s e l v e s , a p l a c e , a n o b j e c t o r a n
i d e a a n i d e n t i ty b y a t t r i b u t i ng it w i t h p a r t i c u l ar social , c u l t u r a l, a e s t h e t i c a n d i d e o l o g i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A socia l c o n s t r u c t exist s o n l y in a s m u c h a s p e o p l e i m a g i n e it t o exist .
This approach shifts attention from the b e i n g ' r u r a l ' (see for e x a m p l e B o x 1.2). T h i s i n
statistical features o f r u r a l areas t o t h e p e o p l e t u r n has a causal effect. If p e o p l e t h i n k t h a t t h e y
w h o live t h e r e o r visit it. It s u g g e s t s t h a t a n area live i n a r u r a l area, a n d h a v e p r e c o n c e i v e d ideas
d o e s n o t b e c o m e ' r u r a l ' b e c a u s e o f its e c o n o m y a b o u t w h a t r u r a l life s h o u l d b e like, it c a n i n f l u -
or population density or other structural char- e n c e their attitudes a n d behaviour. Similarly,
acteristics - b u t b e c a u s e t h e p e o p l e w h o live people may b e motivated to protect their image
t h e r e o r u s e it t h i n k o f it as b e i n g ' r u r a l ' . P e o p l e o f w h a t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e s h o u l d b e like if t h e y
have p r e c o n c e i v e d ideas a b o u t w h a t 'rurality' feel it t o b e t h r e a t e n e d - for e x a m p l e b y h o u s -
m e a n s - i n f o r m e d b y t e l e v i s i o n , film, l i t e r a t u r e , i n g d e v e l o p m e n t . T h u s , as t h e r u r a l is socially
h o l i d a y s , life e x p e r i e n c e , e t c . - a n d u s e this c o n s t r u c t e d differendy b y different p e o p l e , c o n -
'knowledge' to identify certain areas, land- flicts c a n arise a b o u t w h a t e x a c d y it m e a n s t o b e
scapes, lifestyles, activities, p e o p l e a n d so o n as r u r a l a n d w h a t r u r a l areas s h o u l d l o o k like.
Box 1.2 What is rural? Views from rural Britain
In e a r l y 2 0 0 2 a B r i t i sh p r e s s u r e g r o u p , t h e C o u n t r y s i d e A l l i a n c e , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t r a-
d i t i o n a l, p r o - h u n t i ng a n d p r o - f a r m i ng r u r al i n t e r e s t s , a s k e d its m e m b e r s w h a t it m e a n t
t o b e ' r u r a l' a n d h o w ' r u r a l' s h o u l d b e d e f i n e d . T h e s e a re s o m e o f t h e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e
q u e s t i o n ' W h a t is r u r a l ? ':
s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a , i.e . v i l l a g e s , h a m l e t s a n d s m a l l t o w n s necessitatin g
t r a v e l f o r a m e n i t i e s n o t s u p p l i e d in l o c a l i t y, i.e . c i n e m a , b a n k , s u p e r m a r k e t . '
' R u r al s h o u l d b e d e f i n e d a s a r e a s in w h i c h t h e p r i m a ry l a n d us e is o f a n a g r i c u l t u r al
n a t u r e . T h is s h o u l d i n c l u d e e q u e s t r i a n a c t i v i t i e s . T o u r i s t a c t i v i t i e s s h o u l d a l s o b e
i n c l u d e d . D o r m i t o ry v i l l a g e s s h o u l d b e e x c l u d e d ( d e f i n i t i o n o f d o r m i t o ry village
(Continued )
11
Box 1.2 (Continued )
s h o u l d b e o n e w h e r e m o r e t h a n h a l f o f t h e w o r k i ng p o p u l a t i o n t r a v e l m o r e than
15 mile s t o w o r k ) /
' " R u r a l" is a s m u c h a s t a t e o f m i n d a s a n a c t u a l p l a c e . It is a n a c c e p t a n c e a n d u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g o f p e o p l e a n d t h i n g s l i v i ng in a m a i n l y a g r i c u l t u r al a r e a , t h e p r a c t i c e s a n d
t r a d i t i o n s/
' R u r al is s e e i n g t h e star s o n a c l e a r n i g h t , b e i n g a b l e t o b r e a t h u n p o l l u t e d air, see -
i n g w i l d l i fe in its n a t u r a l h a b i t a t , b e i n g a b l e t o s l e e p w i t h o u t t h e c o n s t a n t n o i s e o f
t r a f f i c. T h e b e a u t y o f n a t u re in l a n d s c a p e , w o o d l a n d s , h e d g e r o w s , e t c /
' L i v i ng a n d w o r k i ng in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e - w i t h r o o t s in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e f r o m c h i l d -
h o o d . A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d a n u n s e n t i m e n t a l a t t i t u de t o t h e
animals , b o t h w i ld a n d d o m e s t i c a t e d . '
' " R u r a l" is w h e r e s t r a n g e car s a re n o t e d ' .
For more contributions, see www.countryside-alliance.org/policy/whatis/index.html .
The different w a y s i n w h i c h t h e r u r a l is Netherlands. These include the agri-ruralist

s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d c a n b e d e s c r i b e d as dif- discourse, i n w h i c h t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a g r i c u l t u r e
ferent 'discourses of rurality'. 'Discourse' in a r e p r i o r i t i z e d a n d ' f a r m e r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d as
this sense m e a n s a w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e the principal creators and carriers of the rural
w o r l d (see B o x 1.3), a n d t h e r e f o r e d i s c o u r s e s as social, economic and cultural space'
of rurality are ways of understanding the ( F r o u w s , 1 9 9 8 , p . 5 9 ) ; t h e utilitarian discourse, i n
rural. As Halfacree (1993) comments, 'our w h i c h t h e p r o b l e m s o f r u r a l a r e a s a r e s e e n as
a t t e m p t s at d e f i n i n g t h e r u r a l c a n b e termed the product of underdevelopment, and rural
"academic discourses" because t h e y are the d e v e l o p m e n t initiatives are r e q u i r e d t o i n t e g -
constructs of academics attempting to u n d e r - rate rural areas into modern markets and
stand, explain and manipulate the social socio-economic structures; and the hedonist
w o r l d ' (p. 3 1 ) . B u t a c a d e m i c s a r e n o t t h e o n l y discourse, i n w h i c h t h e c o u n t r y s i d e is r e p r e -
people to p r o d u c e discourses. F r o u w s (1998) s e n t e d as a s p a c e o f l e i s u r e a n d r e c r e a t i o n a n d
d e s c r i b e s s o m e o f t h e policy discourses t h a t h a v e t h e ' i d e a l c o u n t r y s i d e ' is p e r c e i v e d i n t e r m s o f
i n f o r m e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f r u r a l areas i n t h e natural b e a u t y a n d attractiveness.
Box 1.3 Key term
D i s c o u r s e : T h e r e a r e m a n y d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n s o f p r e c i s e l y w h a t ' d i s c o u r s e ' is ,
a n d t h e t e r m is o f t e n u s e d q u i t e l o o s e l y . P u t s i m p l y , h o w e v e r , d i s c o u r s e s s t r u c t u re
t h e w a y w e se e t h i n g s . T h e y a re c o l l e c t i o n s o f ideas , b e l i e f s a n d understanding s
that i n f o rm the wa y in w h i c h we act . Often we are influence d by p a r t i c u l ar
discourse s promote d through the media , through education , or through what
we cal l 'commo n sense' . Dere k Gregory, w r i t i ng in The Dictionary of Human
Geography, i d e n t i f i e s t h r e e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f d i s c o u r s e . (1 ) D i s c o u r s e s a re no t
12
Defining the rural
independen t abstract , ideas , b u t a re m a t e r i a l ly e m b e d d e d in e v e r y d a y l i f e. T h e y

i n f o rm w h a t w e d o a n d a re r e p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h o u r a c t i o n s . (2 ) D i s c o u r s e s produce
o u r ' t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d w o r l d '. T h e y n a t u r a l i ze a p a r t i c u l ar v i e w o f t h e w o r l d a n d p o s i -
t i o n o u r s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s in i t. (3 ) D i s c o u r s e s a l w a y s p r o d u c e p a r t i a l, s i t u a t e d , k n o w l -
e d g e , r e f l e c t i n g o u r o w n c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e y a re c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r e l a t i o n s o f p o w e r
a n d k n o w l e d g e a n d a re a l w a y s o p e n t o c o n t e s t a t i o n a n d n e g o t i a t i o n .
Just as i m p o r t a n t a r e t h e lay discourses of W h i l s t t h e ' r u r a l i d y l l ' is a m y t h , it h a s b e e n

rurality p r o d u c e d a n d r e p r o d u c e d b y o r d i n a r y i n f l u e n t i a l i n e n c o u r a g i n g p e o p l e t o visit t h e
p e o p l e i n t h e i r e v e r y d a y lives, a n d t h e popular c o u n t r y s i d e as t o u r i s t s , a n d t o m o v e t h e r e as
discourses of rurality t h a t a r e d i s s e m i n a t e d t h r o u g h in-migrants. For many such people, elements
cultural m e d i a i n c l u d i n g art, literature, television o f t h e rural idyll are e n t a n g l e d with lived
and film. These t w o types o f discourse are e x p e r i e n c e t o p r o d u c e lay d i s c o u r s e s t h a t a r e
closely r e l a t e d as lay d i s c o u r s e s w i l l i n e v i t a b l y b e n e v e r e n t i r e l y m a t c h e d i n reality. O t h e r l a y
influenced b y p o p u l a r discourses, a n d t o s o m e d i s c o u r s e s a r e m o r e g r o u n d e d i n e v e r y d a y life
e x t e n t t h e o p p o s i t e is also t r u e . O n e o f t h e m o s t a n d c a n b e c y n i c a l of, e v e n n e g a t i v e t o w a r d s ,
i m p o r t a n t p o p u l a r d i s c o u r s e s o f r u r a l i t y is t h a t r u r a l life.
o f t h e r u r a l idyll ( B u n c e , 2 0 0 3 ) . T h i s p r e s e n t s a n
a s p i r a t i o n a l p i c t u r e o f a n i d e a l i z e d rurality, o f t e n
emphasizing t h e pastoral landscape and the Thinking about Rurality in Two English
p e r c e i v e d ' p e a c e a n d q u i e t ' , as Little a n d A u s t i n Villages: a Case Study
(1996) a n d S h o r t (1991) b o t h describe: E x a m p l e s o f lay discourses o f rurality c a n b e
found in the reports of t w o ethnographical
R u r al life is a s s o c i a t e d w i th a n u n c o m p l i -
studies of communities in rural southern
c a t e d , i n n o c e n t , m o re g e n u i n e s o c i e t y in
E n g l a n d in t h e early 1990s - o n e b y M i c h a e l
w h i c h t r a d i t i o n al v a l u e s persis t a n d live s
Bell (1994) in t h e village of 'Childerley'
a re m o re real. Pastimes , friendships ,
(a pseudonym) in Hampshire, and the
f a m i ly r e l a t i o ns an d eve n employmen t
a re s e e n a s s o m e h o w m o re h o n e s t a n d other by O w a i n Jones (1995) in an u n n a m e d
a u t h e n t i c , u n e n c u m b e r e d w i th t he f a l s e village i n S o m e r s e t . T h e t w o villages are
a n d i n s i n c e r e t r a p p i n gs o f city life o r w i th similar in that they b o t h are w i t h i n com-

thei r a s s o c i a t e d d u b i o u s v a l u e s . (Little m u t i n g distance o f larger towns, a n d b o t h
a n d A u s t i n, 1 9 9 6 , p. 1 0 2 ) have populations mixed b e t w e e n long-term,
locally born residents and more recent
[the countryside ] is pictured a s a less -
in-migrants.
hurried lifestyle w h e r e p e o p l e follow t he
In Childerley, Bell found a number of
season s rathe r t h a n t he stoc k market,
in-migrants w h o described t h e rural nature o f
w h e r e the y hav e m o re time for o n e anothe r
an d exis t in m o re organic community t h e village b y d r a w i n g c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h t h e
w h e r e p e o p l e h a v e a plac e a n d a n a u t h e n - t o w n s o r cities t h a t t h e y h a d m o v e d from.
tic role. T h e c o u n t r y s i d e h a s b e c o m e t he Usually, such comparisons emphasized the

refuge f r om modernity. (Short , 1 9 9 1 , p. 3 4 ) d i f f e r e n t p a c e o f life:
13
In t he t o w n s , p e o p l e a re in a r u s h . T h a t 's Secondly, rural life was associated with

t he d i f f e r e n c e ! In t he t o w n s , y o u g e t in a close-knit sense of community, with
y o u r c a r [for e v e r y t h i n g ] . I h a d a n e i g h - people drawing on examples from their o w n
bor, live d t h e re t h i r t e en y e a r s . B u t I n e v e r experience:
s p o k e to h e r b e c a u s e s h e ' d c o m e o u t o f
h e r door , g e t in h e r car , g o off, com e t he smal l siz e o f t he community ha s
b a c k , a n d g o i n d o o rs .. . H e r e , t he p a c e e n c o u r a g e d m e to g e t involve d in p a rt s o
is t h a t m u c h s l o w e r . ( I n - m i g r a n t, q u o t e d that I c a n m e e t o t h e r villagers a n d a l s o in
by Bell , 1 9 9 4 , p p . 9 1 - 9 2 ) o r d e r to s u p p o r t village a m e n i t i e s s u c h a s
t he hall, c h u r c h , p u b a n d a s s o r t e d events .
Life is like it w a s in t he p a s t h e r e . Yo u fee l
(Village r q u o t e d b y J o n e s , 1 9 9 5 , p. 4 4 )
like y o u s h o u l d loc k it u p e v e r y night.
Coming hom e a t night w h e n we first P e o p l e h a v e g o t t i m e , t i me fo r l i v i n g, t i me
m o v e d h e r e w e u s e d to t h i nk w e s h o u l d to talk, w h i c h I t h i nk is s m a s h i n g . I m e a n ,
b e c l o s i n g a g a t e b e h i n d u s a t t he b o t t o m e v e n in o u r little c o u n t r y s h o p , t h e y ' v e g o t
o f t he hill. ( I n - m i g r a n t, q u o t e d b y Bell , t i me to serv e somebod y rather than
1 9 9 4 , p. 9 3 ) e x p e c t t h e m to r u s h a r o u n d a n d g e t it
all t h e m s e l v e s a n d g e t ' e m o u t a s q u i c k
The influence o f t h e 'rural idyll' can be as possible . (Village r q u o t e d by Bell ,
seen in b o t h these observations, yet Bell notes 1 9 9 4 , p. 9 1 )
that even those w h o spoke most enthusiasti-
cally a b o u t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e ideal o f t e n q u a l i - Thirdly, Bell observes that m a n y villagers
fied their statements. Furthermore, the felt t h a t r u r a l life w a s c l o s e r t o n a t u r e than
p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as a s l o w e r p a c e u r b a n life. T h e p r e s e n c e o f a n i m a l s w a s one
o f life w a s s h a r e d b y m a n y l o n g e r - t e r m r e s i - s y m b o l o f this. Bell q u o t e s o n e resident w h o
dents. Bell quotes an 18-year-old farmer's son said t h a t t h e w o r d ' c o u n t r y ' m a d e h i m think
who comments that rural 'means a quieter o f ' w o o d s , fields, t h e p l o w e d fields, t h e s h e e p ,
lifestyle t o s t a r t w i t h . I d o n ' t k n o w . Y o u c o u l d t h e c o w s , t h e walks I g o o n , t h e dells, t h e
call it a n e s c a p e f r o m t h e r a t - r a c e ' (p. 9 1 ) . b a d g e r h o l e s , t h e fox h o l e s , t h e rabbits, t h e lot
T h e r e are i n d e e d a n u m b e r o f c o m m o n e l e - of woodpeckers you s e e , t h e d e e r ' (p. 9 0 ) ;
m e n t s that recur in the descriptions o f rurality whilst Jones quotes o n e c o m m e n t that the
recorded by both Bell and Jones from all village was rural b e c a u s e ' w e regularly get
sections of the communities studied and stuck behind cows o n their way back from
which reflect both geographical and social milking. W e hear sheep, birds, tractors etc'
f a c t o r s . First, t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n t e x t is i m p o r - (p. 4 2 ) . F o r s o m e , h o w e v e r , r u r a l life w a s n o t
tant. J o n e s records a villager w h o suggested that j u s t a b o u t seeing nature, b u t a l s o a b o u t under-
r u r a l m e a n t 'a l a c k o f i n d u s t r y , traffic, s h o p s , standing nature. K n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e s e a s o n s ,
offices, d e n s e m a n - m a d e e n v i r o n m e n t ' (p. 4 3 ) , botany, hunting and traditional culinary
a n d a n o t h e r w h o c o m m e n t e d that t h e village m e t h o d s was used to distinguish true rural
w a s r u r a l b e c a u s e it w a s ' v o i d o f u r b a n facilities, people. As one recent in-migrant to
i . e . , i n d u s t r y , s t r e e t l i g h t i n g ' (p. 4 3 ) . T h e p r e s e n c e Childerley albeit w i t h a rural family b a c k -
o f f a r m i n g is also s i g n i f i c a n t for m a n y . J o n e s g r o u n d - told Bell: ' M y a u n t always told m e
again r e p o r t e d t h e c o m m e n t s o f o n e resident that I can't b e a c o u n t r y girl until I learn t o
t h a t , ' w e a r e f o r t u n a t e t o h a v e several l o c a l f a r m s , e a t j u g g e d r a b b i t ' (p. 1 0 4 ) .
a n i m a l s g r a z e t h e fields. T r a c t o r s t r a c k u p a n d Yet, b o t h Bell a n d J o n e s also f o u n d p e o p l e
d o w n t h e r o a d . N o t always a b l e s s i n g ! ' (p. 4 2 ) . w h o felt t h a t t h e i r v i l l a g e w a s n o l o n g e r r u r a l ,
14
Defining the rural
o r at least t h a t it h a d l o s t s o m e o f its r u r a l a g r i c u l t u r e s o it is n o t as r u r a l as it w a s 2 0 o r
identity. T h i s was often because o f t h e decline 3 0 y e a r s a g o ' (p. 4 2 ) , w h i l s t B e l l r e p e a t s a
of agriculture. O n e villager told J o n e s that c o m m e n t t h a t C h i l d e r l e y 'is n o t r e a l l y a r u r a l
'very few of [the village] people work in a r e a . . . It's n o t s o f a r m e r y h e r e ' (p. 9 6 ) .
Summary
' R u r a l ' is o n e o f t h o s e c u r i o u s w o r d s w h i c h e v e r y o n e t h i n k s t h e y k n o w w h a t it m e a n s , b u t
w h i c h is a c t u a l l y v e r y difficult t o d e f i n e p r e c i s e l y . A t t e m p t s b y a c a d e m i c s t o d e f i n e a n d d e l i m i t
r u r a l areas a n d r u r a l s o c i e t i e s h a v e a l w a y s r u n i n t o p r o b l e m s , s o m e t i m e s b e c a u s e t h e
distinctions t h e y have d r a w n have b e e n r a t h e r arbitrary, s o m e t i m e s b e c a u s e t h e y have
o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d t h e differences b e t w e e n city a n d c o u n t r y , a n d s o m e t i m e s b e c a u s e t h e y have
u n d e r - e m p h a s i z e d t h e d i v e r s i t y o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . It is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t b y t h e l a t e 1 9 8 0 s
s o m e g e o g r a p h e r s w e r e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t ' r u r a l ' b e a b a n d o n e d a l t o g e t h e r as a c a t e g o r y o f analysis.
Y e t , t h e c o n c e p t o f r u r a l i t y is still i m p o r t a n t i n t h e w a y t h a t p e o p l e t h i n k a b o u t t h e i r
i d e n t i t y a n d t h e i r e v e r y d a y life. A s s u c h , t h e d o m i n a n t a p p r o a c h i n r u r a l s t u d i e s t o d a y is t o s e e
' r u r a l i t y ' as a ' s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t ' . T h i s m e a n s t h a t g e o g r a p h e r s n o l o n g e r t r y t o d r a w p r e c i s e
b o u n d a r i e s a r o u n d r u r a l areas a n d s o c i o l o g i s t s n o l o n g e r t r y t o i d e n t i f y t h e e s s e n t i a l
characteristics o f rural society. R a t h e r , rural researchers n o w t r y t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w particular
p l a c e s , o b j e c t s , t r a d i t i o n s , p r a c t i c e s a n d p e o p l e c o m e t o b e i d e n t i f i e d as ' r u r a l ' a n d t h e
d i f f e r e n c e t h a t t h i s m a k e s t o h o w p e o p l e live t h e i r e v e r y d a y lives.
T h i s is t h e a p p r o a c h t h a t is t a k e n i n t h i s b o o k . It is n o t a b o o k a b o u t t h e g e o g r a p h y o f
t e r r i t o r i a l l y d e l i m i t e d ' r u r a l a r e a s ' , n e i t h e r is it a b o u t d i s t i n c t i v e l y r u r a l s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s .
I n d e e d , m a n y o f t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a r e at w o r k i n u r b a n a r e a s a n d u r b a n
s o c i e t y as w e l l . R a t h e r , t h e b o o k is c o n c e r n e d w i t h e x a m i n i n g t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t s h a p e
people's e x p e r i e n c e s a n d p e r c e p t i o n s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y rurality a n d t h e responses that are
a d o p t e d b y individuals a n d institutions in o r d e r to p r o t e c t o r p r o m o t e particular ideas a b o u t
r u r a l i t y . A s s u c h , t h e b o o k is s t r u c t u r e d i n t o f o u r p a r t s . A f t e r t h i s o p e n i n g , i n t r o d u c t o r y ,
section, t h e s e c o n d part e x a m i n e s t h e processes that are s h a p i n g t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y
c o u n t r y s i d e , i n c l u d i n g processes o f e c o n o m i c , social, d e m o g r a p h i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e .
T h e third section explores responses to these processes, i n c l u d i n g political responses a n d
s t r a t e g i e s f o r r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n . Finally, t h e f o u r t h p a r t i n v e s t i g a t e s h o w
r u r a l c h a n g e is e x p e r i e n c e d i n p e o p l e ' s lives.
Further Reading
To r e a d m o re a b o u t t he different a p p r o a c h e s to d e f i n i ng rurality, a n d a b o u t h o w rurality
is 'sociall y c o n s t r u c t e d ' b y i n d i v i d u a l s, s e e t wo ke y p a p e r s b y Keith H a l f a c r e e : 'Locality
a n d s o c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n : s p a c e , d i s c o u r s e s a n d a l t e r n a t i ve d e f i n i t i o ns o f t he rural', in
Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 9 , p a g e s 2 3 - 3 7 ( 1 9 9 3 ) a n d T a l k i ng a b o u t rurality:
socia l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t he rural a s e x p r e s s e d b y r e s i d e n t s o f si x E n g l i s h p a r i s h e s ' , in
15
Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 1 1 , p a g e s 1 - 2 0 ( 1 9 9 5 ) . Fo r m o r e o n t he c a s e s t u d i e s ,

s e e M i c h a e l Bell's b o o k Childerley: Nature and Morality in a Country Village ( U n i v e r s i ty
o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 9 4 ) , a n d O w a i n J o n e s ' s p a p e r ' L ay d i s c o u r s e s o f t he r u r a l:
d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d i m p l i c a t i o ns fo r rural s t u d i e s ' , in Journal of Rural Studies, volume 11 ,
p a g e s 3 5 - 4 9 ( 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e c o n c e p t o f t he 'rural idyll' is d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l b y M i c h a e l
B u n c e , ' R e p r o d u c i n g rural idylls', in Pau l C l o ke ( e d . ) , Country Visions (Pearson , 2003) .
Websites
T he v a r i o us d e f i n i t i o ns o f rurality u s e d in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s a re d e s c r i b e d a n d d i s c u s s e d
by t he R u r al Polic y R e s e a r c h Institute a t w w w . r u p r i . o r g. Fo r m o r e c o n t r i b u t i o ns to t he
C o u n t r y s i de A l l i a n c e 's d e b a t e o n ' W h at is R u r a l ?' s e e w w w . c o u n t r y s i d e - a l l i a n c e .
org/policy/whatis/index.html .
16
2
Understanding the Rural
Introduction
I n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r w e d i s c o v e r e d h o w difficult it is s i m p l y t o d e s c r i b e t h e
' r u r a l ' ; y e t as r u r a l social scientists w e n e e d n o t j u s t t o b e able t o d e s c r i b e t h e
processes s h a p i n g t h e ' r u r a l ' a n d t h e i r effects w e n e e d also t o t r y t o understand
t h e s e p r o c e s s e s , a n d t o p r o p o s e a n d c r i t i q u e e x p l a n a t i o n s as t o w h y p a r t i c u l a r
p r o c e s s e s o p e r a t e i n p a r t i c u l a r w a y s i n p a r t i c u l a r places a n d h a v e p a r t i c u l a r
o u t c o m e s . T o d o this w e n e e d t o u s e t h e o r y . U s i n g ' t h e o r y ' m a y s o u n d like a
d a u n t i n g p r o s p e c t b e c a u s e it c o n j u r e s u p t h o u g h t s o f h e a v y - w e i g h t p h i l o s o p h y , b u t
i n fact w e all r o u t i n e l y u s e t h e o r i e s i n o u r e v e r y d a y life. W e all i m p l i c i t l y u s e
scientific t h e o r i e s w h e n e v e r w e s w i t c h o n a l i g h t o r o p e n a d o o r a n d w e also
p r o d u c e o u r o w n t h e o r i e s , for e x a m p l e w h e n w e s p e c u l a t e a b o u t p l o t d e v e l o p m e n t s
i n o u r f a v o u r i t e T V s o a p o p e r a , o r analyse t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f o u r s p o r t s t e a m .
S o m e t h e o r i e s are empirical, i n t h a t t h e y are p r o d u c e d solely f r o m e v i d e n c e
o b s e r v e d i n a specific c o n t e x t . F o r e x a m p l e , I m a y p r o d u c e a t h e o r y a b o u t t h e
c l o s u r e o f a village s h o p b a s e d o n o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e u s i n g t h e
s h o p , e x a m i n a t i o n o f its a c c o u n t s , a n d a s u r v e y o f l o c a l r e s i d e n t s a b o u t w h e r e t h e y
s h o p , t h a t p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e s h o p has c l o s e d b e c a u s e r e s i d e n t s are i n c r e a s i n g l y d o i n g
t h e i r s h o p p i n g i n a n e a r b y t o w n . O t h e r t h e o r i e s are conceptual, i n t h a t t h e y e m p l o y
m o d e l s a n d c o n c e p t s t h a t h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d at a g e n e r a l i z e d o r a b s t r a c t level.
F o r e x a m p l e , i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e c l o s u r e o f m y village s h o p I m i g h t d r a w o n M a r x i s t
t h e o r y t o a r g u e t h a t t h e n e e d for capitalist c o r p o r a t i o n s t o m a x i m i z e profits h a s
e n c o u r a g e d t h e e x p a n s i o n o f s u p e r m a r k e t s w h i c h u n d e r c u t t h e prices o f local
shops, thus d r a w i n g away customers.
Traditionally, a l o t o f r e s e a r c h i n r u r a l studies has b e e n e m p i r i c a l i n n a t u r e , b u t
o v e r t h e past 2 5 years a m o r e critical rural social science has d e v e l o p e d w h i c h has
e m p l o y e d a r a n g e o f c o n c e p t u a l t h e o r i e s i n its analysis, i n c l u d i n g p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c
c o n c e p t s ( w h i c h are d e r i v e d f r o m M a r x i s t t h e o r y ) , feminist t h e o r y a n d p o s t -
s t r u c t u r a l i s m . T h e a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d b y different r e s e a r c h e r s will b e i n f l u e n c e d b y
t h e i r disciplinary b a c k g r o u n d a n d t r a i n i n g . C o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l studies is a v e r y
i n t e r - d i s c i p l i n a r y field, w i t h s i m i l a r t y p e s o f r e s e a r c h b e i n g c o n d u c t e d b y
g e o g r a p h e r s , sociologists, anthropologists, agricultural e c o n o m i s t s , p l a n n e r s a n d
p o l i t i c a l scientists. H o w e v e r , t h e s u b - d i s c i p l i n e s w e r e o n c e m o r e d i s t i n c t i v e , f o c u s i n g
o n different o b j e c t s o f e n q u i r y , a n d d r a w i n g o n d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t s , m o d e l s a n d social
t h e o r i e s . Accordingly, this c h a p t e r b e g i n s b y d e s c r i b i n g t h e features o f t h e t h r e e m a i n
traditions geography, sociology and anthropology and t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n that they
have m a d e to t h e e v o l u t i o n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y rural studies; a n d t h e n p r o c e e d s t o
discuss t w o c o n c e p t u a l a p p r o a c h e s t h a t h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n t i a l across r u r a l s t u d i e s i n t h e
past 2 5 years - t h e p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m y a p p r o a c h a n d t h e cultural a p p r o a c h .
The Geographical Tradition f a r m systems a n d t h e social g e o g r a p h y o f

R u r a l g e o g r a p h y e m e r g e d as a d i s t i n c t s u b - agriculture.
d i s c i p l i n e i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , as t h e d o m i n a n c e o f The organization and impact of human activity
regional g e o g r a p h y faded. Before t h e 1950s over rural space. T h i s i n c l u d e d r e s e a r c h o n
m u c h of what h u m a n geography did had been population distribution and migration,
defacto r u r a l g e o g r a p h y as r e g i o n a l g e o g r a p h y ' s as w e l l as t r a n s p o r t n e t w o r k s a n d rural
central c o n c e r n w i t h h o w people interacted settlement patterns. In the immediate
w i t h their natural e n v i r o n m e n t m e a n t many p o s t - w a r p e r i o d , analysis f o c u s e d o n t h e
human geography studies were conducted classification o f rural s e t t l e m e n t f o r m s , for
w i t h i n r u r a l areas. H o w e v e r , as t h e s t u d y o f e x a m p l e i n S h a r p e ' s classic 1 9 4 6 t e x t o n
u r b a n areas b e c a m e f a s h i o n a b l e w i t h i n a n e w The Anatomy of a Village. Later, a m o r e
process-focused geography, rural geography a p p l i e d a p p r o a c h s h i f t e d its a t t e n t i o n s t o
was created b y default from the remnants of problems o f rural settlement planning.
the old approach, a n d was marginalized within The rural landscape and land use. T h i s
g e o g r a p h y u n t i l it w a s revitalized i n t h e early approach combined elements of the
1970s w i t h a n e w integrated perspective. T h e a b o v e t w o i n its c o n c e r n w i t h d e s c r i b i n g
k e y c o n c e r n s o f r u r a l g e o g r a p h y as p r a c t i s e d and explaining t h e evolution o f t h e rural
during this period (c. 1 9 6 0 - 1 9 8 0 ) fell into l a n d s c a p e . R e s e a r c h i n t h i s field w a s e s p e -
t h r e e m a i n areas (see also T a b l e 2 . 1 ) : cially significant in North American
g e o g r a p h y , w h e r e it has b e e n particularly
The geography of agriculture. This interest associated w i t h t h e w o r k o f J o h n Fraser
reflected the economic importance of Hart (see H a r t , 1 9 7 5 ; H a r t , 1998), a n d
agriculture in t h e post-war era a n d policy with the Contemporary Agriculture and
concerns to modernize farming. The R u r a l L a n d U s e Speciality G r o u p o f t h e
Rural Geography Study Group of the Association of American Geographers
Institute o f British G e o g r a p h e r s h a d b e e n (known as C A R L U ) . It w a s n o t until
known as t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Geography 2002 that CARLU merged with the
Study G r o u p until 1974, a n d even in the R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t Speciality G r o u p t o
late 1970s, over 4 0 p e r c e n t o f research i n form a n e w Rural Geography Speciality
British rural geography was concerned Group.
w i t h agriculture (Clark, 1979). Topics o f
research included structural change in T h e s e traditional approaches to rural g e o g -
farming, agricultural land use patterns, r a p h y t e n d e d t o b e v e r y e m p i r i c a l , w i t h little
18
Understanding the rural
T a b le 2. 1 Chapte r heading s f r om selecte d rural g e o g r a p h y t e x t b o o k s

Clout (1972 ) Rural d e p o p u l a t i o n ; Peopl e in t he countryside ; Urbanization
Rural Geography o f t he countryside ; Land-us e p l a n n i n g ; Structural change s in
agriculture; Forestry as a use r o f rural land ; Landscap e evaluation ;
Settlemen t rationalization in rural areas ; M a n u f a c t u r i ng in
t he countryside ; Passenge r t r a n s p o r t a t i on in Rural
Britain; Integrate d m a n a g e m e n t o f t he countrysid e
Hart (1975 ) The plan t cover ; Som e basi c concepts ; Land divisio n in Britain;
The Look of the Land Land divisio n in America ; Farm siz e an d f a rm t e n u r e ; Farm
e m p l o y m e n t an d f a rm m a n a g e m e n t ; Factors influencing farmers '
decisions ; Farm buildings ; Agricultural region s a n d farmstead ;
Hous e t y pe an d villages ; M i n i n g, forestry an d recreation ;
The changin g America n countrysid e
Phillips an d Williams (1984 ) The rural econom y I: living o f f t he land ; The rural econom y II:
Rural Britain: non-agricultural e m p l o y m e n t ; Populatio n a n d socia l change ;
A Social Geography Housing ; Transport an d accessibility ; Planning ; Service s an d
retailing; Recreatio n an d leisure ; Deprivation; Polic y issue s
a n d t he f u t u re
Gilg (1985 ) Agricultural geography ; Forestry, m i n i ng an d lan d us e

An Introduction to c o m p e t i t i o n ; Rural settlemen t an d housing ; Rural p o p u l a t i o n
Rural Geography an d e m p l o y m e n t ; Rural transport, servic e provisio n an d
d e p r i v a t i o n; Rural recreatio n an d t o u r i s m; Land us e an d
landscape ; Rural p l a n n i ng an d lan d m a n a g e m e n t
e n g a g e m e n t w i t h c o n c e p t u a l ideas. As C l o k e Overall, the contribution of the geographical

(1989a) commented, 'when faced with the tradition to contemporary rural studies has
n e e d to u n d e r p i n research w i t h a conceptual b e e n t h r e e - f o l d . F i r s t , it h a s left a s e n s i t i v i t y t o
framework m a n y rural geographers have p r e - s p a c e a n d s p a t i a l d i f f e r e n c e ; s e c o n d l y , it h a s
ferred to concentrate o n their principal inter- left a c o n c e r n f o r l a n d s c a p e ; a n d t h i r d l y , it h a s
est, t h a t is e m p i r i c a l investigation of rural left a n i n t e r e s t i n h u m a n e n v i r o n m e n t inter-
issues' (p. 164); or as J o h n Fraser Hart a c t i o n s , w h i c h is n o w b e i n g r e w o r k e d i n n e w
describes his a p p r o a c h : try to understand ways.
w h a t I s e e as I r a m b l e t h r o u g h r u r a l a r e a s , a n d
I supplement my observations with census The Sociological Tradition
data a n d m a p s that are based o n these data' The beginnings of rural sociology can be
(University of Minnesota website). To the traced back to the turn of the nineteenth and
e x t e n t that t h e o r y was used, this was often t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e first N o r t h A m e r i c a n
r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f spatial m o d e l s , university course in rural sociology was
s u c h as V o n T h u n e n ' s m o d e l o f l a n d u s e a n d t a u g h t at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o i n 1 8 9 4 ,
Christaller's central place theory. T h e s e mod- followed by a second at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of
els w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y g e n e r a l i z e d cartographic M i c h i g a n i n 1 9 0 2 . It w a s n o t u n t i l after t h e
representations of empirical observations, and First W o r l d W a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t rural s o c i o l o g y
n o t o n l y d i d t h e y o f t e n fail t o w o r k when r e a l l y t o o k off, w i t h r a p i d e x p a n s i o n i n b o t h
t a k e n o u t o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t , t h e y also Europe and N o r t h America, symbolized by
revealed n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e social, e c o n o m i c the founding of a dedicated journal, Rural
and political processes that produced the Sociology, i n 1 9 3 6 . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e p o p u l a r i t y
phenomena concerned. of rural sociology in the interwar p e r i o d was
19
encouraged by the pressure for change t h e differences b e t w e e n rural a n d urban

e n c o u n t e r e d b y rural societies in t h e face o f society has b e e n a m a j o r c o n c e r n o f t h e
rampant urbanization and industralization. sociological tradition.
Indeed, early rural sociology had a strong Social relations within rural areas. S o c i o l o g i s t s
moral agenda, with close connections to e x p l o r e d t h e social s t r u c t u r e o f r u r a l c o m -
churches in b o t h E u r o p e and N o r t h A m e r i c a , munities, including the role of kinship
as w e l l as t o p o l i t i c a l m o v e m e n t s s u c h as t h e n e t w o r k s , t h e systems o f hierarchy, a n d t h e
C o m m i s s i o n o n C o u n t r y Life e s t a b l i s h e d b y i m p o r t a n c e o f i n s t i t u t i o n s s u c h as t h e c h u r c h .
President Roosevelt in 1908. As Mormont The sociology of agriculture. This differed
(1990) n o t e s , this m o r a l a g e n d a h a d t w o , often from agricultural geography in t w o key
contradictory, elements: ' O n the one hand w a y s : first, t h r o u g h a c o n c e r n w i t h t h e f a r m
there was an (agricultural) modernization h o u s e h o l d as a s o c i a l u n i t ; a n d secondly,
m o v e m e n t attempting to transform the struc- t h r o u g h a c o n c e r n w i t h the labour rela-
tures of t h e rural w o r l d in order to integrate tions b e t w e e n farms and farm workers.
it t e c h n i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y i n t o t h e m o d - Change in rural society. A p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m -
ern industrialized world. O n the other hand m o n theme running through much rural
there was a (more ideological) m o v e m e n t of sociology was the impact of moderniza-
r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e social a n d p o l i t i c a l t e n s i o n s tion and change. For s o m e researchers the
o f t h e a g e ' (p. 2 3 ) . role of sociology was to assist rural
R e f l e c t i n g these t w i n pressures, rural s o c i o - m o d e r n i z a t i o n , for others it w a s about
logy d e v e l o p e d a n u m b e r o f research foci, o f s t u d y i n g t h o s e distinctive aspects o f rural
w h i c h f o u r s t a n d o u t (see a l s o T a b l e 2 . 2 ) : societies t h a t m i g h t b e lost.
Rural society versus urban society. As dis- A l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s always a s t r o n g p r a c t i -

cussed in the previous chapter, identifying cal dimension to much rural sociological
T a b le 2. 2 Chapte r heading s f r om selecte d rural sociolog y t e x t b o o k s

Gillette (1913 ) Distinction b e t w e e n rural a n d u r b an c o m m u n i t y ; Type s o f
Constructive Rural c o m m u n i t y as results o f t he d i f f e r e n t i a t i ng effect s o f e n v i r o n m e n t ;
Sociology Rural an d u r b an increase ; The socia l n a t u re o f t he rural p r o b l e m ;
Advantage s a n d disadvantage s o f f a rm life; I m p r o v e m e n t o f
agricultural p r o d u c t i o n; I m p r o v e m e n t o f t he busines s sid e o f
f a r m i n g; I m p r o v e m e n t o f t r a n s p o r t a t i on a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n ;
Socia l aspect s o f lan d a n d labo r in t he U n i t e d States ; Rural h e a l t h
an d sanitation ; M a k i ng f a rm life m o re attractive; Socializatio n o f
c o u n t ry life; Rural socia l institutions a n d t h e i r i m p r o v e m e n t ;
Rural charity an d corrections ; Rural socia l survey s
Sorokin a n d Z i m m e r m an The rural w o r ld a n d t he positio n o f t he farmer-peasan t clas s in

(1929 ) Principles of t he ' g r e a t society' ; Bodily a n d vital traits o f t he r u r a l - u r b an
Rural-Urban Sociology p o p u l a t i o n ; R u r a l - u r b an intelligence , experience , a n d psychologica l
processes ; A cross-sectio n o f r u r a l - u r b an behavior , institutions a n d
culture; R u r a l - u r b an m i g r a t i on
Jone s (1973 ) W h a t is rural?; A conceptua l f r a m e w o r k; Rural way s o f life in Britain;

Rural Life Rural socia l structure a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n I: f a m i ly an d n e i g h b o u r h o o d ;
Rural socia l structure a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n II: t he rural c o m m u n i t y ;
Chang e in c o n t e m p o r a r y rural society ; R u r a l - u r b an i n t e r a c t i on
an d rural chang e
20
T a b le 2. 3 Som e rural c o m m u n i t y studie s in t he British Isles

Arensber g (1937) ; Arensber g a n d Kimball (1948 ) Luogh an d Rynamona , Co . Clare,
Republic o f Ireland
Rees(1950 ) Llanfihangel-yng-Ngwynfa , Wale s
Williams (1956 ) Gosforth , Cumberlan d
Frankenberg (1957 ) Glynceiriog , Wale s
Dennis , Henrique s a n d Slaughte r (1957 ) ' A s h t o n ', Yorkshire
Stace y (1960 ) Banbury, Oxfordshire
Littlejohn (1964 ) Westrigg , N o r t h u m b e r l a nd
Williams (1963 ) Ashworthy, Devo n
Strathern (1981 ) (stud y u n d e r t a k e n in t he 1960s ) Elmdon, Esse x
w o r k , r u r a l s o c i o l o g y as a w h o l e w a s m o r e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l research has c o n c e r n e d itself

engaged w i t h conceptual theories than rural w i t h s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d p r o c e s s e s . T h e dif-
geography. T h e socio-cultural approach to ference, however, has b e e n methodological,
defining rurality, discussed in the previous with anthropology employing the technique
chapter, w a s largely d e v e l o p e d within rural o f e t h n o g r a p h y that usually involved researchers
sociology. As well as t e s t i n g some of the living w i t h i n rural c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e most
dichotomies o f rural a n d urban society e m p i r - notable products of the anthropological tradi-
ically, r u r a l s o c i o l o g i s t s also d r e w i n t h i s c o n - tion are the numerous 'rural community
t e x t o n t h e social t h e o r i e s o f l e a d i n g t h i n k e r s studies' c o n d u c t e d in Britain a n d Ireland in
s u c h as F e r d i n a n d T o n n i e s , M a x W e b e r a n d the 1940s a n d 1950s (see T a b l e 2 . 3 ) . T h e s e
E m i l e D u r k h e i m , w h o h a d c o n s t r u c t e d ideas studies were comprehensive investigations
a b o u t r u r a l a n d u r b a n s o c i e t i e s as p a r t o f t h e i r into individual communities that attempted
c o n c e p t u a l w o r k o n m o d e r n society. F r o m t h e to integrate research o n social structures, e c o -
1950s to the 1970s the concept of the n o m i c activities, families a n d h o u s e h o l d s , reli-
rural-urban continuum became the major g i o n , politics a n d cultural activities. A l t h o u g h
i t e m o f debate w i t h i n rural sociology. t h e c o m m u n i t y studies w e r e essentially i n t e n -
Indeed, o n e of the main contributions of sive e m p i r i c a l e x e r c i s e s , s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s d i d
the sociological tradition to contemporary draw o n conceptual theories to try to u n d e r -
r u r a l s t u d i e s is t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w p e r - stand the communities they studied. Many
c e p t i o n s a b o u t r u r a l - u r b a n differences persist s o u g h t t o identify t h e characteristics o f rural
i n lay d i s c o u r s e s o f r u r a l i t y . O t h e r k e y c o n t r i - society proposed by socio-cultural theories;
b u t i o n s i n c l u d e interests i n social relations a n d whilst F r a n k e n b e r g (1966) used community
social structures; t h e c o n t i n u i n g importance studies t o position n i n e c o m m u n i t i e s along
o f t h e h o u s e h o l d as a u n i t o f a n a l y s i s ; a n d a rural-urban continuum. Other writers
c o n c e r n s w i t h t h e provision o f welfare ser- imported concepts developed in anthropo-
v i c e s i n r u r a l a r e a s , s u c h as h e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n l o g i c a l w o r k i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d , s u c h as
and housing. Erving Goffman's (1959) notions of front-

a n d b a c k - r e g i o n s , t o explain aspects o f social
The Anthropological Tradition interaction in rural c o m m u n i t i e s .
There is significant overlap between the I n i n s t i t u t i o n a l t e r m s , a n t h r o p o l o g y is n o t

anthropological tradition a n d t h e sociological as s t r o n g i n c o n t e m p o r a r y rural s t u d i e s as
tradition, not least because much rural geography o r sociology (except in Australia
21
where much rural research is conducted Much rural research was being conducted
through anthropology departments), but the u n d e r c o n t r a c t for g o v e r n m e n t agencies or
legacy of t h e anthropological tradition remains large c o r p o r a t i o n s , a n d t e n d e d t o uncritically
significant i n t h r e e w a y s . First, ' t h e r u r a l c o m - f o l l o w t h e a g e n d a set b y t h e s e p o w e r f u l i n s t i -
munity' continues to be a major focus of tutions. In contrast, the 1970s saw a n e w crit-
research in rural studies; secondly, t h e a n t h r o p o - ical edge emerge elsewhere in the social
logical tradition has c o n t r i b u t e d a n enduring sciences through engagement with neo-
i n t e r e s t i n r u r a l i d e n t i t y ; a n d thirdly, t h e r e h a s Marxist political-economy theories of the
b e e n a revival i n c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l studies o p e r a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m (see B o x 2 . 1 ) . T h e s e
of the ethnographic community study as a p r o p o s e that t h e social, e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i -
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h , as d e m o n s t r a t e d , f o r cal s t r u c t u r e s t h a t o r d e r t h e m o d e r n w o r l d a r e
e x a m p l e , b y M i c h a e l Bell's s t u d y o f ' C h i l d e r l e y ' , all s h a p e d b y t h e c e n t r a l n e e d o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t
d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r (Bell, 1 9 9 4 ) . mode of production to create profit.
C a p i t a l i s m , it is a r g u e d , r e q u i r e s t h e p o l a r i z a -
The Political-economic Approach t i o n o f society i n t o different classes, o f the
If t h e t h r e e t r a d i t i o n s o u t l i n e d a b o v e p o i n t us bourgeoisie and the proletariat; capitalism
to the beginnings o f rural studies, the origins requires that e c o n o m i c policies, institutions
of contemporary r u r a l s o c i a l s c i e n c e as we a n d g e o g r a p h i e s a r e o r g a n i z e d t o assist p r o -
k n o w it t o d a y c a n b e t r a c e d t o a p a r a d o x t h a t d u c t i o n at t h e l o w e s t c o s t ; c a p i t a l i s m r e q u i r e s
confronted rural research in the 1970s. that mass consumption is encouraged to
Although the volume and range of empirical create a demand for goods; and capitalism
rural research remained buoyant, critics requires and creates u n e v e n geographies of
a c c u s e d r u r a l s t u d i e s o f l o s i n g its w a y t h e o r e t - wealth and opportunity. T h e application of
ically, f a i l i n g t o e n g a g e w i t h new develop- t h e s e ideas h a d t r a n s f o r m e d o t h e r fields, s u c h
m e n t s i n s o c i a l t h e o r y a n d h a v i n g l i t t l e t o say as urban studies, and some younger
of relevance beyond the specific circum- researchers began to consider whether the
stances in which research was conducted s a m e theoretical ideas c o u l d b e introduced
(Buttel and Newby, 1980; Cloke, 1989a). into rural studies.
Box 2.1 Key term
P o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m y : T h e s t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i on a n d c a p i t a l
a c c u m u l a t i o n , t he efficac y o f political a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r t he r e g u l a t i o n o f t he econ -
omy , a n d t h e i m p a c t o f e c o n o m i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d r e l a t i o ns o n social , e c o n o m i c an d
g e o g r a p h i c a l f o r m a t i o n s . In c o n t e m p o r a r y g e o g r a p h y t h e t e r m ' p o l i t i c al e c o n o m y ' is
a p p l i e d t o s t u d i e s t h a t a re i n f l u e n c e d b y M a r x i st t h e o r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r ly t h o s e w i t h a n
e m p h a s i s o n t h e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s , i n c l u d i ng s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s
a n d t h e i m p e r a t i ve o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n .
The political-economic approach was H o w a r d N e w b y and colleagues o n agricultural

hence pioneered by a few projects w i t h i n labour relations and rural p o w e r structures in
rural sociology, including, notably, w o r k by t h e East Anglia region o f E n g l a n d ( N e w b y , 1977;
22
N e w b y e t al., 1 9 7 8 ) . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e e c o n o m i c change to wider transformations

first s t u d i e s s o o n s p r e a d w i t h i n a n d beyond in the capitalist e c o n o m y . A n urban to
rural sociology, a n d b y t h e early 1980s, o r g a - r u r a l shift i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g , f o r e x a m p l e ,
nizations such as t h e R u r a l Economy and was explained by the relocation of p r o -
Society Study G r o u p - established in the U K duction in lower-cost environments.
in 1978 - had created an inter-disciplinary Similarly, the Marxist concept of the
space for p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c research in rural ' c o m m o d i t y ' has b e e n e m p l o y e d t o p r o -
studies. pose that rural landscapes a n d lifestyles
As B u t t e l and Newby (1980) observed, have b e e n 'packaged' to b e sold a n d c o n -
the introduction of the political-economy sumed through tourism and recreation
approach led n o t only to n e w ways of t h i n k - (see C h a p t e r 1 2 ) .
i n g w i t h i n r u r a l s t u d i e s , b u t also t o n e w fields The state.The political-economy approach
o f e n q u i r y . I n p a r t i c u l a r , f o u r k e y areas o f c o n - sees t h e s t a t e n o t as a n e u t r a l a d m i n i s t r a -
cern can be identified with the political- t i o n , b u t r a t h e r as c o m p l i c i t i n creating
e c o n o m y a p p r o a c h in rural studies: favourable conditions for capitalism. As
such, rural researchers have analysed the
Agriculture as a capitalist enterprise. The r o l e o f t h e s t a t e i n areas s u c h as a g r i c u l -
p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m y a p p r o a c h asserted that tural policy a n d planning.
a g r i c u l t u r e o p e r a t e s i n t h e s a m e w a y as
a n y o t h e r f o r m o f capitalist p r o d u c t i o n - T h e a p p r o a c h based o n theories o f political
b y s e e k i n g t o m a x i m i z e profit. F r o m this economy had a major impact on rural
perspective the re-structuring of agricul- research by providing a framework through
t u r e i n t h e p o s t - w a r p e r i o d (see C h a p t e r 4) w h i c h the study of rural e c o n o m i e s and soci-
was d r i v e n b y t h e interests o f capital a c c u - eties c o u l d b e c o n n e c t e d t o w i d e r social a n d
mulation, and the relationship between e c o n o m i c processes. This h e l p e d to highlight
f a r m e r s a n d f a r m l a b o u r e r s is r e c a s t as a n t h a t r u r a l a r e a s d o n o t e x i s t as i s o l a t e d , d i s c r e t e
exploitative relationship. territories b u t rather are s h a p e d a n d influ-
Class. T r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l s t u d i e s t e n d e d to enced by actors and events outside rural
e m p h a s i z e c o m m u n i t y s o l i d a r i t y o v e r class space. T h e political-economy approach also
differences, but the political-economy p e r m i t t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a m o r e radical
approach reversed that by investigating rural studies w h i c h s o u g h t t o use research t o
class c o n f l i c t a n d o p p r e s s i o n . ' C l a s s ' also e x p o s e social a n d economic inequalities in
b e c a m e a basis f o r a n a l y s i s o f p o p u l a t i o n the countryside and to challenge established
change within rural areas, with later structures of power. However, the approach
studies in t h e 1980s a n d 1990s e x a m i n i n g has limitations. From a political-economy
t h e r o l e o f a n e w g r o u p , t h e ' s e r v i c e class', p e r s p e c t i v e , r u r a l a r e a s c a n n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d as
in m i g r a t i o n t o r u r a l areas a n d t h e effect h a v i n g sufficient c o m m o n , distinctive c h a r a c -
of middle class in-migrants displacing teristics t h a t w o u l d a l l o w for t h e p o s i t i o n i n g
w o r k i n g class r e s i d e n t s - or 'gentrifica- o f t h e ' r u r a l ' as a d i s c r e t e o b j e c t o f e n q u i r y .
t i o n ' ( b o t h o f t h e s e issues a r e d i s c u s s e d i n Rather, the logic of the political-economy
C h a p t e r 6). approach leads to the treatment of 'rural'
Change in the rural economy. T h e p o l i t i c a l - l o c a l i t i e s j u s t as o t h e r l o c a l i t i e s , i n o t h e r w o r d s
economy approach connected rural focusing on t h e ' l o c a l ' as o p p o s e d to the
23
' r u r a l ' . T h e emphasis in political e c o n o m y on in w h i c h rural space b e c o m e s i n c o r p o r a t e d

e c o n o m i c structures and o n collective i d e n t i - in humannature engagements. These
ties s u c h as classes a l s o m e a n t t h a t i n d i v i d u a l include work on the geographies of
agency and personal experiences tended to a n i m a l s a n d flora, o n n o n - h u m a n a g e n c i e s
get marginalized in analysis. T h u s , in the and hybrid forms, and o n perceptions of
1990s the emphasis in rural studies shifted natural environments and landscapes
again to a move to bring people back in ( s o m e o f w h i c h are e x p l o r e d in C h a p t e r s 8
through the enculturing of political-economy a n d 13).
approaches. Discourses of rural experience and imagina-
tions. A s w e l l as w o r k o n t h e s o c i a l c o n -
Rural Studies and the Cultural Turn struction of rurality (see Chapter 1), a
At the e n d of the 1980s, h u m a n geography w i d e range of studies have b e e n devel-
a n d t h e social sciences in general e n t e r e d i n t o oped exploring the different rural
what has been subsequently labelled the lifestyles a n d e x p e r i e n c e s , w i t h a p a r t i c u -
'cultural turn'. This p r o m o t e d a n e w under- lar focus o n p r e v i o u s l y n e g l e c t e d 'other'
s t a n d i n g o f c u l t u r e as t h e p r o d u c t o f d i s c o u r s e s r u r a l g r o u p s (see C h a p t e r 1 5 a n d f o l l o w -
t h r o u g h w h i c h p e o p l e signify t h e i r identity ing chapters).
and experiences and which are constantly Symbolic texts of rural cultures. T h e cultural
contested and re-negotiated, and cultural g e o - t u r n also f o c u s e d a t t e n t i o n o n t h e w a y s i n
graphers started to explore spatial relations which r u r a l i t y is r e p r e s e n t e d in various
a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f p l a c e t h r o u g h issues o f media, and h o w such representations c o n -
identity, representation a n d c o n s u m p t i o n . As tribute to the reproduction of discourses
C l o k e (1997a) observes, the cultural t u r n s u p - of rurality. R e s e a r c h has, for example,
p o r t e d a resurgence of rural studies, l e n d i n g focused on the history and heritage of
b o t h respectability a n d e x c i t e m e n t to e n g a g e - r u r a l s y m b o l i s m s ( s u c h as p a s t o r a l a r t ) t h a t
ments with rurality. R u r a l geographers, for are reproduced in contemporary con-
example, drew upon ideas of identity and sumption, and on the representation of
representation to e x a m i n e t h e ways in w h i c h r u r a l s p a c e , l a n d s c a p e s a n d life i n c o n t e m -
r u r a l i t y is d i s c u r s i v e l y c o n s t r u c t e d - as d i s - p o r a r y p o p u l a r m e d i a (see C h a p t e r 1 1 ) .
cussed in the previous chapter. Additionally, Movements. Finally, r e s e a r c h has b e g u n to
several o f t h e key c o n c e r n s that w e r e d e v e l - e x p l o r e aspects o f m o b i l i t y in rural space,
oped in cultural geography more broadly, i n c l u d i n g , for e x a m p l e , w o r k o n tourism
i n c l u d i n g t h e spatiality o f n a t u r e , l a n d s c a p e and travel as w e l l on alternative rural
a n d o t h e r n e s s (see C h a p t e r 1 5 ) , all l e d t o c o n - lifestyles t h a t e m b r a c e f o r m s o f n o m a d i s m
structive e n g a g e m e n t w i t h rural spaces and a n d t r i b a l i s m (see C h a p t e r 2 1 ) .
environments.
Cloke (1997a) lists f o u r a r e a s o f ' e x c i t e - M o r e latterly, n e w s t r a n d s o f r e s e a r c h h a v e
m e n t ' in rural studies in t h e m i d - 1 9 9 0 s that been developed that can be added to the
reflect t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c u l t u r a l t u r n : above, i n c l u d i n g in particular w o r k on the
g e o g r a p h i e s o f f o o d that has e x p l o r e d c o n n e c -
Naturesociety relations. Rural researchers tions b e t w e e n production, c o n s u m p t i o n and
have explored t h e significance o f nature in representation ( G o o d m a n , 2001), o n farming
the constitution of rurality and the ways cultures (Morris and Evans, 2004), and o n the
24
b o d y in rural space and e m b o d i e d experiences policy-makers are frequently suspicious

o f r u r a l i t y (Little a n d L e y s h o n , 2 0 0 3 ) . a b o u t t h e ability to d r a w general conclusions
However, Cloke (1997a) also raises five from qualitative research. T h e fourth c o n c e r n
concerns about the implications of the cul- is t h a t r e s e a r c h o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e r u r a l
t u r a l t u r n . T h e first t h r e e r e l a t e t o a p e r c e i v e d has focused on the more 'seductive' high-
b l u n t i n g of t h e radical rural studies that h a d c u l t u r e t e x t s s u c h as a r t a n d l i t e r a t u r e at t h e
developed with the political economy e x p e n s e o f o t h e r texts that are m o r e closely
a p p r o a c h . C l o k e asks w h e t h e r t h e emphasis r e l a t e d t o t h e e v e r y d a y lives o f m o s t p e o p l e .
o n identity in t h e cultural a p p r o a c h turned Finally, C l o k e w a r n s a g a i n s t ' r e s e a r c h t o u r i s m '
'a c o m m i t m e n t t o e m a n c i p a t o r y social p r a c t i c e s in w o r k o n rural Otherness', u n d e r t a k i n g par-
a n d politics into a c o m m i t m e n t to t h e polit- tial s t u d i e s o f m a r g i n a l i z e d g r o u p s i n t h e r u r a l
i c a l e m p o w e r i n g o f p l e a s u r e ' (p. 3 7 3 ) , r e p l a - b u t ' w i t h o u t requisite attention to the i m p o r -
cing a politics of c o n v i c t i o n w i t h a politics of tance o f sustained, e m p a t h e t i c a n d c o n t e x t u a l -
i d e n t i t y . S i m i l a r l y , h e a l s o asks w h e t h e r the i z e d r e s e a r c h w h i c h is c o n d u c t e d u n d e r c l e a r
openness of cultural approaches to different and acceptable ethical conditions' (p. 3 7 4 ) .
moral positions had p r o m o t e d a moral think- A l t h o u g h s o m e of these c o n c e r n s have b e e n
i n g t h a t is a b o v e a n d f r e e f r o m s o c i a l i n t e r e s t . addressed b y s u b s e q u e n t research, for e x a m p l e
D r a w i n g these c o n c e r n s together, C l o k e thirdly on popular forms of cultural representation
questions the capacity of cultural research to o f r u r a l i t y s u c h as t e l e v i s i o n , o t h e r s remain
have a practical o u t p u t , particularly given that unresolved.
Summary
T h e revitalization o f rural studies in r e c e n t years has o w e d m u c h to t h e creativity g e n e r a t e d

b y t h e fusion o f ideas from different disciplinary traditions a n d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n e w
theoretical perspectives from political e c o n o m y a n d feminism to p o s t - m o d e r n i s m a n d
p o s t - s t r u c t u r a l i s m . T h e story, h o w e v e r , has n o t b e e n a linear n a r r a t i v e o f o n e d o m i n a n t t h e o r y
replacing a n o t h e r . As C l o k e (1997a) o b s e r v e d , ' r u r a l studies have w i t n e s s e d a series o f different
c o n c e p t u a l fascinations, t h e result often b e i n g an interesting h y b r i d i z a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m
r a t h e r t h a n a n y c l e a r p a r a d i g m a t i c shift o n e t o t h e o t h e r ' (p. 3 6 9 ) . R u r a l r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e
b e c o m e adept in u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w particular theoretical ideas can help to t h r o w light o n
particular aspects o f t h e rural e c o n o m y a n d society. W h i l s t care m u s t b e t a k e n n o t t o
c o m b i n e i n c o m p a t i b l e w o r l d - v i e w s , t h i s e c l e c t i c a p p r o a c h is f o l l o w e d i n t h i s b o o k . T h e
analysis o f t h e p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h a t a r e r e s h a p i n g r u r a l
areas, for e x a m p l e , will b e c o n d u c t e d in a p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c f r a m e w o r k ; w h i l s t t h e discussion
o f p e o p l e ' s e x p e r i e n c e s o f r u r a l life o w e s m u c h t o t h e c u l t u r a l t u r n . T h e s e t h e o r e t i c a l
references will, however, b e implicit rather than explicit in t h e individual chapters, a n d will
m a i n l y b e p o i n t e d t o t h r o u g h t h e e x p l a n a t i o n a n d application o f various key c o n c e p t s . In this
w a y I h o p e to d e m o n s t r a t e that a theoretically i n f o r m e d rural studies n e e d n o t b e
difficult o r c h a l l e n g i n g , b u t c r e a t e s vast o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c h a n g i n g
countryside.
25
Further Reading
T h r ee a r t i c l es b y Pau l C l o ke p r o v i de f u r t h er d i s c u s s i o n o f t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f d i f f e r e nt
t h e o r e t i c a l i n f l u e n c e s in rural s t u d i e s . First, his c h a p t e r o n ' R u r al g e o g r a p h y a n d political
e c o n o m y ' , in v o l u m e 1 o f R i c h a rd Pee t a n d N i g e l T h r i ft ( e d s ) , New Models in
Geography: The Political Economy Perspective ( U n w i n H y m a n , 1 9 8 9 ) , d e t a i l s t he
e m e r g e n c e o f t he p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c a p p r o a c h in rural g e o g r a p h y a n d d i s c u s s e s i s s u e s
in its a p p l i c a t i o n . S e c o n d , his e d i t o r i al ' C o u n t ry b a c k w a t e r to v i r t u al v i l l a g e ? R u r al
s t u d i e s a n d "the c u l t u r al t u r n ' ", in t he Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 13 , p a g e s
3 6 7 - 3 7 5 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , r e f l e c t s critically o n t he i n f l u e n c e o f t he c u l t u r al t u rn in rural s t u d i e s .
Finally, t he c h a p t e r o n ' ( E n ) c u l t u r i ng political e c o n o m y : a life in t he d a y o f a "rural
g e o g r a p h e r " ', in P. C l o k e , M. D o e l , D. M a t l e s s , M. Phillips a n d N. Thrift, Writing the Rural
(Pau l C h a p m a n , 1 9 9 4 ) p r o v i d e s a p e r s o n a l i z e d a c c o u n t o f h o w d i f f e r e nt t h e o r e t i c a l
d e v e l o p m e n t s ( a l o n g w i th a r a n g e o f o t h e r f a c t o r s ) h a v e i n f l u e n c e d C l o k e ' s o w n w o r k.
26
Part 2
PROCESSES OF RURAL
RESTRUCTURING
3
Globalization, Modernity and
the Rural World
Introduction
O n e o f the key themes o f this b o o k is that o f the changing countryside. It is, like the
n o t i o n very landscape o f rural areas in the developed world appears to testify to
the changes w r o u g h t u p o n the countryside over the past 5 0 years o r so the
sprawling extensions o f rural settlements, n e w roads and power lines, redesigned
field patterns, n e w forms o f agricultural and industrial buildings, afforestation and
deforestation, and the plethora o f signs that help us to reach and 'interpret'
'protected' rural landscapes and sites. N o r is it j u s t the physical appearance o f
rural space that has changed. O r a l histories by people w h o have lived in rural
c o m m u n i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t the second half o f the twentieth century frequently
c o m m e n t o n the changes they have e x p e r i e n c e d , including many changes to those
intangible qualities that we saw in C h a p t e r 1 are so often at the heart o f lay
definitions o f rurality things like the sense o f community, solidarity, social order,
tranquillity. Equally, it is easy to find statistics that quantify the degree o f change in
the social and e c o n o m i c characteristics o f rural areas - the decline o f agricultural
e m p l o y m e n t , the i n - m i g r a t i o n o f n e w residents, the closure o f village services,
and so o n .
T h e perception o f change is reinforced by the campaigning o f political groups
that regard change as a threat to rurality, and therefore seek to resist further change
and to protect those aspects o f the rural world that they see as b e i n g 'lost'. W h e n
countryside protesters m a r c h e d from four peripheral regions o f B r i t a i n to j o i n
1 2 5 , 0 0 0 m o r e demonstrators at the Countryside R a l l y in London's H y d e Park in
J u l y 1 9 9 7 - an event organized by the Countryside Alliance pressure group
primarily to protest at attempts to ban the hunting o f wild mammals with hounds
o n e marcher was q u o t e d in T h e Guardian newspaper claiming that 'rural p e o p l e '
were a distinctive culture, as threatened as any indigenous tribe in the rainforest
(Woods, 2 0 0 3 a ) .
S u c h warnings convey a sense o f urgency, but is c o n t e m p o r a r y rural change
really anything new? In April 2 0 0 0 , 2 5 0 'rural leaders' gathered in Kansas C i t y to
Processes of rural restructuring
discuss t h e p o l i c y c h a l l e n g e s f a c i n g r u r a l A m e r i c a . A s o n e p a r t i c i p a n t t o l d t h e
c o n f e r e n c e : ' A t t h e d a w n o f t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y r u r a l A m e r i c a faces u n p r e c e d e n t e d
c h a n g e ' , y e t h e t h e n c o n t i n u e d : ' f o r at least t h e last h a l f c e n t u r y m a n y r u r a l
c o m m u n i t i e s have b e e n o n a d e m o g r a p h i c a n d e c o n o m i c roller coaster' (Johnson,
2 0 0 0 , p. 7). A historian w o u l d have probably stretched the timescale even further.
T h e p o i n t b e i n g m a d e is t h a t t h e p r o b l e m w i t h m u c h o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y
r h e t o r i c a b o u t r u r a l c h a n g e is t h a t it s u g g e s t s a false d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n a d y n a m i c
a n d t h r e a t e n i n g r u r a l p r e s e n t a n d a stable, r o m a n t i c i z e d r u r a l past. M o r e a c c u r a t e l y ,
t h e r u r a l c a n b e r e c o g n i z e d as a c o n t i n u o u s s p a c e o f c h a n g e s o m e t i m e s o n a far
g r e a t e r a n d m o r e d i s r u p t i v e scale t h a n t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d today. A r e t h e c h a n g e s
e x p e r i e n c e d in recent decades b y rural regions of N o r t h A m e r i c a , Australia a n d
N e w Z e a l a n d really m o r e significant t h a t t h o s e t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e a r r i v a l o f
E u r o p e a n settlers f r o m t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d s ? Is c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l
c h a n g e i n E u r o p e really as e x t e n s i v e as t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d d u r i n g t h e first a g r i c u l t u r a l
revolution in the eighteenth a n d n i n e t e e n t h centuries, or d u r i n g the great p e r i o d of
i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d u r b a n i z a t i o n at t h e t u r n o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ?
C o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l c h a n g e is, h o w e v e r , d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t w o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T h e first is t h e pace and persistence o f c h a n g e . R u r a l e c o n o m i e s a n d s o c i e t i e s are n o t
j u s t c h a n g i n g , b u t c h a n g i n g c o n s t a n t l y a n d rapidly, affected b y s u c c e s s i v e t r e n d s a n d
i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t roll i n like t h e w a v e s o f a n i n c o m i n g t i d e . T h i s v i g o r o u s p a c e o f
c h a n g e is d r i v e n b y t h e r a t e o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n a n d social r e f o r m i n l a t e
m o d e r n i t y . T h e s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is t h e totality and interconnectivity of change.
M a n y h i s t o r i c a l i n s t a n c e s o f r u r a l c h a n g e , s u c h as t h e e n c l o s u r e o f f a r m l a n d i n
B r i t a i n i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w e r e r e v o l u t i o n a r y for t h o s e d i r e c t l y affected b u t
spatially l i m i t e d . I n c o n t r a s t , t o d a y ' s p r o c e s s e s o f r u r a l c h a n g e r e s o u n d a r o u n d t h e
g l o b e . R u r a l areas, it s e e m s , are t i g h t l y i n t e r c o n n e c t e d b y g l o b a l social a n d
e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s t h a t c u t across r u r a l a n d u r b a n s p a c e i n a c o n d i t i o n o f
advanced globalization.
This c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s these characteristics in m o r e detail, seeking t o identify
s o m e o f t h e key processes o f c h a n g e a n d t o illustrate s o m e o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s ,
highlighting t h e m e s that will b e d e v e l o p e d further in later chapters. D r a w i n g
t o g e t h e r t h e effects o f m o d e r n i t y a n d g l o b a l i z a t i o n , t h e c o n c l u s i o n a r g u e s t h a t it is
the cumulative impacts o f the processes operating u n d e r these s h o r t - h a n d concepts
t h a t e n a b l e us t o t a l k a b o u t rural restructuring.
Modernity, Technology and Social Change a d y n a m i c rural present and an unchanging

'It seems often t o b e a s s u m e d ' , w r i t e s D a v i d rural past, so t h e y h a v e also p r o m o t e d the
M a t l e s s , ' t h a t t h e E n g l i s h v i l l a g e lies o n t h e s i d e equally problematic dualism of the modern
o f tradition against m o d e r n i t y , w i t h t h o s e t w o city a n d t h e traditional countryside. As Matless
t e r m s in o p p o s i t i o n ' (1994, p. 79). In t h e same d i s c u s s e s , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n is b o t h u n h e l p f u l a n d
way that discourses of rural c h a n g e have fre- m i s l e a d i n g , b u t it h a s b e e n a c o n v e n i e n t fiction
q u e n t l y r e p r o d u c e d a false d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n for t h e advocates a n d o p p o n e n t s o f rural c h a n g e
30
Globalization, modernity and the rural world
alike. F o r p r e s e r v a t i o n i s t m o v e m e n t s , ' t r a d i t i o n ' Similarly, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o t o r v e h i c l e s

describes the order and endurance of rural has c h a n g e d practices o f b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a n d
society, c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e m o r a l d i s o r d e r a n d c o n s u m p t i o n in the countryside. C o m m e r c i a l
uncertainty of modernity. For reformers, h o w - f a r m v e h i c l e s , -such as t r a c t o r s a n d combine
ever, m o d e r n i z a t i o n h a s b e e n t h e k e y t o s t i m - harvesters, c h a n g e d the nature of farming and
ulating rural e c o n o m i e s a n d raising t h e living reduced the demand for f a r m l a b o u r , con-
standards o f rural people, r e d u c i n g inequalities t r i b u t i n g t o t h e d e c l i n e o f a g r i c u l t u r e as a
w i t h u r b a n areas. I n t h i s s e n s e , m o d e r n i z a t i o n source of employment in rural areas. T h e
has often d e s c r i b e d p r o g r a m m e s o f infrastruc- g r o w t h o f private car o w n e r s h i p , m e a n w h i l e ,
t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t , s u c h as e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , r o a d - increased the mobility of rural people and
building or the renovation of rural housing. l o o s e n e d ties t o r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s . C o m m u t i n g
S u c h p r o j e c t s left a s i g n i f i c a n t m a r k o n the b e c a m e possible, p r o m p t i n g c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a -
r u r a l l a n d s c a p e , b u t t h e i r g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e is tion and breaking the link b e t w e e n residence
i n t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s that t h e y c r e a t e d for rural a n d e m p l o y m e n t . Mass t o u r i s m , t o o , was facil-
populations to participate in the n e w c o n s u m e r itated, rejuvenating the e c o n o m i e s of some
society and purchase technological innovations r u r a l r e g i o n s b u t also b r i n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l
t h a t w o u l d c h a n g e t h e i r lives. consequences.
T h e list o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s that Thirdly, the, d e v e l o p m e n t o f t e l e c o m m u n i -
h a v e c h a n g e d aspects o f rural social a n d e c o - cations t e c h n o l o g y has alleviated s o m e o f t h e
n o m i c life is e x t e n s i v e , b u t t h r e e e x a m p l e s c a n problems of distance and peripherality e x p e -
be flagged u p h e r e as i l l u s t r a t i o n s . F i r s t , c o n - r i e n c e d b y m a n y rural areas. A t o n e level this
sider refrigeration. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of refrig- has m e a n t t h a t for s o m e n e w e r , ' f o o t - l o o s e ' ,
eration technologies, both for commercial i n d u s t r i e s s u c h as b i o t e c h n o l o g y a n d t e l e m a t -
storage a n d for d o m e s t i c use, has h a d a r e v o - ics, r u r a l l o c a t i o n s a r e n o l o n g e r disadvan-
lutionary impact o n o u r relationship to food t a g e d , p e r m i t t i n g , as H o w a r d N e w b y noted,
in the developed world. Food can n o w be ' r u r a l a r e a s t o c o m p e t e o n a n e q u a l basis w i t h
transported vast d i s t a n c e s from the site of t o w n s a n d cities for e m p l o y m e n t ' for t h e first
p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e site o f c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d n o time since the industrial revolution (quoted in
longer needs to be consumed in season. M a r s d e n et a l , 1 9 9 3 , p. 2). A t a n o t h e r level,
Refrigeration created new food-processing rural p e o p l e are n o w c o n s u m e r s via television,
industries and corporations, and enabled the radio and the Internet, of the same cultural
development of supermarkets. These develop- commodities a n d e x p e r i e n c e as u r b a n resi-
m e n t s in t u r n helped to m a k e agriculture into dents, and the attraction o f localized rural
a global trade, e n c o u r a g e d specialization by traditions, events and cultural practices has
farmers and strengthened the p o w e r of the declined, even in spite o f r e c e n t grassroots
f o o d - p r o c e s s i n g a n d retail c o m p a n i e s against efforts t o r e v i t a l i z e s u c h a c t i v i t i e s .
t h a t o f t h e f a r m e r s . A t a d o m e s t i c level, refrig- Moreover, the impact of modernization on
eration c h a n g e d the s h o p p i n g habits of rural r u r a l areas h a s n o t b e e n r e s t r i c t e d t o t e c h n o -
consumers, reducing their dependence on logical i n n o v a t i o n . Social c h a n g e t o o has h a d
local suppliers a n d allowing m o r e irregular a n effect, w i t h s i m i l a r t r e n d s o p e r a t i n g i n r u r a l
s h o p p i n g trips to supermarkets in t o w n s , thus s o c i e t i e s as i n u r b a n s o c i e t i e s . T h e d e c l i n e o f
contributing to the closure of rural shops and organized religion (more pronounced in
services. E u r o p e , Australia a n d N e w Zealand than in
31
t h e U n i t e d States), for e x a m p l e , has eroded normative ideals of modernity would be

the prominence and power of churches and dissolved into a w o r l d characterized m o r e by
c h a p e l s as o n e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e n e t s o f r u r a l flux, fluidity a n d multiplicity. Postmodernity
c o m m u n i t i e s . Mass participation in secondary d o e s n o t suggest a n y reversal o f (or e v e n an
a n d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n in t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d e n d to) t h e physical m o d e r n i z a t i o n of rural
h a s m e a n w h i l e a l t e r e d t h e life c o u r s e s o f r u r a l s p a c e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , b u t it d o e s s u g g e s t a
y o u n g people, taking m a n y out of their c o m - change in the attitude and perceptions of
munities to colleges and universities and t h o s e w h o live in a n d s h a p e r u r a l space, a n d o f
restricting their o p p o r t u n i t y to return d u e to the academics who attempt to research it.
a shortage of graduate-level jobs. T h e p o s t m o d e r n r u r a l is less p r e c i s e l y d e f i n e d
Collectively these processes match lay and delimited than m o d e r n countryside - the
understandings of the term 'modernization', b l u r r i n g o f t h e r u r a l a n d t h e u r b a n is r e c o g -
b u t t h e y also c o n s t i t u t e a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in n i z e d , as is t h e e x i s t e n c e o f m a n y different
r u r a l societies t h a t reflects a m o r e p h i l o s o p h - rurals o c c u p y i n g t h e s a m e space b u t socially
ical conceptualization of modernity. This c o n s t r u c t e d differently b y p e o p l e f r o m differ-
holds that o n e o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l features o f ent standpoints (see C h a p t e r 1). T h e post-
m o d e r n i t y is t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l a n d m o d e r n c o u n t r y s i d e is p e r h a p s e x p r e s s e d t o o
t h e h u m a n . M o d e r n i z a t i o n has arguably e n g i - in t h e rejection o f s o m e o f t h e idealistic o r t h o -
neered this separation in rural society by doxies o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n , including growing
reducing employment in those occupations scepticism towards science in the wake of
that involve direct contact w i t h the natural food-related disease scares and resistance
w o r l d (for e x a m p l e , a g r i c u l t u r e , f o r e s t r y ) ; b y t o w a r d s G M a g r i c u l t u r e , as w e l l as a t t e m p t s b y
introducing technologies into farming that colonizers seeking to get 'back to nature' to
are d e s i g n e d to i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n deconstruct the modernist separation of the
w o r k e r a n d n a t u r e , o r t o m a n i p u l a t e o r resist n a t u r a l a n d t h e h u m a n . T h e s e issues will b e
nature; by developing technologies to over- picked up again in later chapters (see
come the vulnerability o f rural societies to C h a p t e r s 4, 15 a n d 2 1 ) .
n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a , s u c h as difficult t e r r a i n o r
harsh weather; and by diminishing the cul- Globalization and the Rural
tural c o n n e c t i o n o f rural p e o p l e w i t h nature T h e r u r a l areas o f t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d h a v e
t h r o u g h , f o r e x a m p l e , festivals c e l e b r a t i n g s e a - b e e n subject to the influences o f global trade
sons o f t h e year. M o d e r n a g r i c u l t u r e a n d f o o d a n d m i g r a t i o n s i n c e t h e first E u r o p e a n e x p l o r -
m a r k e t i n g distances food c o n s u m e r s from the ers introduced new crops to their home
place and process of p r o d u c t i o n (such that countries from the nascent colonies, and the
surveys frequently show that children have first E u r o p e a n c o l o n i s t s b e g a n t o c u l t i v a t e t h e
little k n o w l e d g e o f w h e r e t h e i r f o o d comes wildernesses o f A m e r i c a , Australia a n d New
f r o m ) , a n d n a t u r e itself has b e c o m e p a c k a g e d Z e a l a n d . H o w e v e r , in identifying globaliza-
a n d delimited in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e in nature t i o n as o n e o f t h e p r e - e m i n e n t f o r c e s o f o u r
reserves a n d national parks. time, globalization is c o n c e p t u a l i z e d not as
A s t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y d r e w t o a c l o s e it the m o v e m e n t of goods, people and capital
was suggested that w e w e r e m o v i n g from the a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , b u t as t h e a d v a n c e d i n t e r -
era o f m o d e r n i t y i n t o a c o n d i t i o n o f p o s t - c o n n e c t i o n a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f localities
m o d e r n i t y , in w h i c h the order, structure and a c r o s s t h e w o r l d (see B o x 3 . 1 ) .
32
Box 3.1 Key term
Globalization: T he advance d interconnectio n an d interdependenc e of localitie s

a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , r e f l e c t i n g t h e c o m p r e s s i o n o f t i m e a n d s p a c e . It is d e f i n e d b y H e l d
e t a l . ( 1 9 9 9 ) a s ' t he w i d e n i n g , d e e p e n i n g a n d s p e e d i n g u p o f w o r l d w i de interconnect -
e d n e s s in al l a s p e c t s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l l i f e, f r o m t h e c u l t u r al t o t h e c r i m i n a l, t h e
f i n a n c i a l t o t h e s p i r i t u a l' ( p . 2 ) . T h e sens e o f a n i n e v i t a b l e b i n d i ng t o g e t h e r is c o n v e y e d
e v e n m o r e s t r o n g l y b y A l b r ow ( 1 9 9 0 ) , f o r w h o m g l o b a l i z a t i o n is ' a ll t h o s e processe s b y
w h i c h t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e w o r l d a re i n c o r p o r a t e d i n to a s i n g l e w o r l d s o c i e t y , g l o b a l
society ' (p. 9) .
G l o b a l i z a t i o n is t h e r e f o r e , i n e s s e n c e , a b o u t Economic globalization
power - about the lack of p o w e r of rural The term 'global economy' most likely
regions to control their own futures, and conjures u p an i m a g e o f M a n h a t t a n skyscrapers
about the increasing subjection of rural o r t h e t r a d i n g floor o f a s t o c k e x c h a n g e . Yet,
regions to n e t w o r k s a n d processes of p o w e r the most i m m e d i a t e contact w i t h the global
that are p r o d u c e d , r e p r o d u c e d a n d executed e c o n o m y that m o s t o f us have o n a regular
o n a g l o b a l scale. T h e p o w e r o f g l o b a l c a p i t a l - basis is i n t h e aisles o f o u r l o c a l s u p e r m a r k e t .
i s m , a n d , b y e x t e n s i o n , g l o b a l c o r p o r a t i o n s , is T h e r e o n t h e s h e l v e s a r e r o w after r o w of
o n e c l e a r e x a m p l e o f t h i s a n d is as s i g n i f i c a n t f o o d p r o d u c t s t h a t h a v e b e e n s o u r c e d f r o m all
i n t r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l e c o n o m i c s e c t o r s s u c h as over t h e w o r l d , processed a n d sold by global
a g r i c u l t u r e as i n a n y i n d u s t r y . B u t g l o b a l i z a - c o r p o r a t i o n s , a i m e d at a g l o b a l m a r k e t and
t i o n is a b o u t m o r e t h a n j u s t t r a d e o r c o r p o - often promoted through a multinational
rate ownership. I n d e e d , Pieterse (1996) argues advertising c a m p a i g n . As Table 3.1 s h o w s , t h e
that globalization should not be seen as a f o o d t h a t y o u e a t i n a s i n g l e m e a l is l i k e l y t o
m o n o l i t h , b u t that there are m a n y globaliza- have travelled further t h a n y o u will in a w h o l e
tions, sometimes c o n t r a d i c t o r y , always fluid year. T h e location of the supermarket will
a n d often o p e n - e n d e d . As Gray a n d L a w r e n c e m a k e l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e ; all o f t h e p r o d u c t s l i s t e d
(2001) demonstrate in an examination of in Table 3.1 for I o w a are g r o w n in t h e state
rural Australia in t h e c o n t e x t o f globalization, itself, y e t supermarkets buying from agri-
Pieterse's argument presents a means of food corporations or t h r o u g h large wholesale
understanding the multiple ways in which m a r k e t s (Figure 3.1), will g o for t h e cheapest,
globalization o f different f o r m s impacts u p o n best-selling or m o s t convenient option, w h e r -
rural areas, a n d t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s that exist for e v e r s o u r c e d . E v e n i f l o c a l p r o d u c e is s o l d , it
rural actors to d e t e r m i n e their response. may have c o m e via a c i r c u i t o u s r o u t e . A n
T h i s section discusses t h r e e f o r m s o f g l o b - investigation for British television f o u n d that
alization that have a particular relevance for beef from cattle reared in S o u t h Wales was
contemporary rural societies economic transported nearly 500 miles to the slaughter-
globalization, the globalization of mobility house, processing and packaging plant and
a n d t h e globalization o f values - a n d explores distribution centre before being sold in a
t h e i r roles in d r i v i n g rural c h a n g e a n d the s u p e r m a r k e t close t o t h e initial f a r m (Guardian,
c o n s e q u e n c e s for rural societies. 10 M a y 2 0 0 3 ) .
33
T a b le 3. 1 A p p r o x i m a te ' f o o d miles ' travelle d by typica l f o o d products f r om

sourc e to plac e o f c o n s u m p t i o n in Iowa a n d L o n d o n
C e d a r Falls , I o w a London, Englan d
Produc t Sourc e M i l es ( k m ) Produc t Sourc e M i l es ( k m )
Chicke n Colorad o 67 5 (1085 ) Chicke n Thailand 664 3 (10689 )
Potatoe s Idaho 130 0 (2100 ) Potatoe s Israe l 218 7 (3519 )
Carrots California 170 0 (2735 ) Carrots Sout h Africa 597 9 (9620 )
Tomatoe s California 170 0 (2735 ) Tomatoe s Saud i A r a b ia 308 6 (4936 )
Mushroom s Pennsylvani a 80 0 (1290 ) Prawns Indonesi a 727 8 (11710 )
Lettuce California 170 0 (2735 ) Lettuce Spai n 95 8 (1541 )
Apples Washingto n 142 5 (2300 ) Apple s US A 1013 3 (16303 )
Radishe s Florida 120 0 (1930 ) Pea s Sout h Africa 597 9 (9620 )
Sources: Pirog e t al. 2001 ; Guardian,
f Foo d supplement , 10 M ay 200 3
Figure 3. 1 Rungis wholesal e market, Paris . Centre s like this are the major node s in the
globa l agricultural econom y
Source: Woods , private collectio n
T h e g l o b a l i z a t i o n o f t r a d e is o n e o f t h r e e steamships, c u t t i n g t r a n s p o r t costs across the

m a j o r features o f e c o n o m i c globalization that Atlantic and reducing price differentials.
i m p a c t o n r u r a l e c o n o m i e s a n d s o c i e t i e s , a n d is F o l l o w i n g t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r levels o f g l o b a l
an intensifying trend. B r u i n s m a (2003) suggests trade slumped, w i t h exports from the United
that agriculture experienced a first w a v e of S t a t e s falling b y 4 0 p e r c e n t b e t w e e n 1 9 2 9 a n d
globalization in t h e late n i n e t e e n t h century 1933, and imports by 30 per cent over the same
f o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f rail travel and p e r i o d . After t h e S e c o n d W o r l d War, however,
34
T a b le 3. 2 W o r ld export s o f selecte d livestoc k produc e as

a percentag e o f t o t a l w o r ld consumptio n
1964-6 6 1974-7 6 1984-8 6 1997-9 9
Bovine products 9. 4 10. 3 12. 2 16. 4
Pig mea t 5.7 6. 0 7. 9 9. 6
Poultry m e a t 4. 0 4. 7 6.3 13. 9
All mea t 7. 4 7. 9 9. 4 12. 7
Milk an d dairy products 6. 0 7. 6 11. 1 12. 8
Source: Bruinsma , 200 3
global trade steadily increased a n d b e g a n to

a c c o u n t for a significant share o f agricultural
p r o d u c e . As Table 3.2 shows, the p r o p o r t i o n o f
milk and dairy goods p r o d u c e d for export
more than doubled between 1964-66 and
1997-99, and the proportion of poultry meat
e x p o r t e d m o r e t h a n trebled. O t h e r sectors o f
t h e rural e c o n o m y have b e e n similarly i n c o r -
p o r a t e d i n t o global trade flows. F o r e x a m p l e ,
f o r e s t r y is i n c r e a s i n g l y p a r t o f a g l o b a l i n d u s t r y ,
w i t h e x p o r t s a c c o u n t i n g for 3 0 p e r c e n t of
world production of sawnwood, 30 per cent of
w o o d - b a s e d panels a n d 7 per cent of industrial
r o u n d w o o d (Bruinsma, 2003).
A d a p t a t i o n t o t h e n e w global e c o n o m y has
resulted in a n u m b e r o f significant c h a n g e s t o
the practice o f agriculture in the developed
world, with k n o c k - o n effects f o r t h e wider
rural c o m m u n i t y . Farms have b e c o m e more
s p e c i a l i z e d as t h e n e e d t o p r o v i d e a r a n g e o f
p r o d u c e t o local m a r k e t s has e v a p o r a t e d and
greater profitability can b e achieved by m a x i - Figure 3. 2 The 'McFarmer' burge r
m i z i n g sales o f s i n g l e p r o d u c t s t o f o o d pro- advertise d by this fas t foo d outle t in

Switzerlan d hints a t a n attemp t to respon d to
c e s s i n g c o m p a n i e s a n d s u p e r m a r k e t s ; t h e ties
loca l taste s but ultimately represent s the
b e t w e e n farmers a n d local rural c o m m u n i t i e s
homogenizatio n an d corporatization of foo d
h a v e b e e n w e a k e n e d as t h e sales t r a n s a c t i o n consumptio n
has disappeared; a n d a g r i c u l t u r e has become Source: Woods , private collectio n
m o r e vulnerable to global e c o n o m i c factors
(Figure 3.2). When British agriculture
slumped into depression in t h e late 1990s, f r o m e x p o r t s c o m p o u n d i n g t h e effects o f a n
including o n e year w h e n average farm i n c o m e earlier ban on the export of British beef
fell b y 4 6 p e r c e n t , t h e crisis w a s p r e c i p i t a t e d imposed by the European U n i o n due to an
by the strength of sterling r e d u c i n g income e p i d e m i c o f B S E ( m a d c o w disease).
35
T h e s e c o n d feature o f e c o n o m i c g l o b a l i z a t i o n and Archer Daniels Midland (Hendrickson

i m p a c t i n g o n r u r a l areas is t h e rise o f g l o b a l a n d H e f f e r n a n , 2 0 0 2 ) . As B o x 3.2 illustrates,
corporations. Again this is most explicitly these 'food chain clusters' operate o n a truly
p r o n o u n c e d in agriculture. For example, the g l o b a l scale, vertically a n d h o r i z o n t a l l y inte-
global seed market is dominated by just grating the various c o m p o n e n t s of the food
four corporations - Monsanto, Syngenta, p r o d u c t i o n process such that they have c o n -
DuPont a n d Aventis. O v e r 80 per cent of trol, in t h e slogan o f C o n A g r a , from 'seed t o
maize exports from the United States, a n d s h e l f . T h e p o w e r of t h e 'food chain clusters'
over 6 5 p e r c e n t o f s o y b e a n e x p o r t s , are c o n - is i m m e n s e . A s w e l l as b e i n g m a j o r landown-
t r o l l e d b y t h r e e firms ( B r u i n s m a , 2 0 0 3 ) . T h r e e ers a n d e m p l o y e r s in m a n y r u r a l areas, t h e i r
companies control over 75 per cent of the dominance of food processing gives them
retail food distribution system in Australia considerable influence in d e t e r m i n i n g prices
(Bruinsma, 2003). M o r e o v e r , m a n y o f t h e i n d i - paid to farmers, and their involvement in
vidual c o m p a n i e s that d o m i n a t e in these parti- research and d e v e l o p m e n t could enable t h e m
cular sectors are connected through joint t o s h a p e t h e f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e . It
ventures and strategic alliances into three is n o c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t M o n s a n t o a n d N o v a r t i s
'food chain clusters' h e a d e d b y t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s , h a v e b e e n at t h e f o r e f r o n t o f d e v e l o p i n g GM
Cargill and M o n s a n t o , C o n A g r a , and Novartis t e c h n o l o g i e s , as w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 4 .
Box 3.2 The Nov art is IADM food chain duster
N o v a r t is w a s c r e a t e d f r o m a m e r g e r o f C I B A - G e i g y a n d S a n d o z t o f o r m t h e w o r l d 's
l a r g e s t a g r o c h e m i c a l c o m p a n y , w i t h 1 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e g l o b a l a g r o c h e m i c a l m a r k e t in
1 9 9 7 . It s u b s e q u e n t l y m e r g e d its s e e d a n d c h e m i c a l b u s i n e s s w i t h A s t r a Z e n e c a t o c r e -
a t e S y n g e n t a , o n e o f t h e f i ve d o m i n a n t g l o b a l s e e d c o m p a n i e s . N o v a r t is f o r m e d a j o i n t
v e n t u r e , W i l s o n Seeds , w i t h L a n d o ' Lakes , a f a r m e r c o o p e r a t i v e t h a t a l s o h a s j o i n t v e n -
t u r e s w i t h A r c h e r D a n i e l s M i d l a nd ( A D M ), a l e a d i n g g r a i n c o l l e c t i o n a n d f o o d p r o c e s s -
i n g c o m p a n y . A D M 's s t a k e s in f a r m e r c o o p e r a t i v e s i n c l u d i ng G r o w m a r k, C o u n t r y m a r k,
U n i t e d G r a in G r o w e r s a n d F a r m l a n d I n d u s t r i e s , g i v e s it acces s t o s u b s t a n t i a l p a r ts o f
N o r th A m e r i c a n a g r i c u l t u r e, i n c l u d i ng 7 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e C a n a d i a n c o r n a n d s o y b e a n
m a r k e t r e g i o n a n d 5 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e US c o r n a n d s o y b e a n m a r k e t r e g i o n . A D M o w n s
5 0 p e r c e n t o f A . C . T o e p f e r , a G e r m a n c o r p o r a t i o n t h a t is o n e o f t h e w o r l d 's larges t
g r a i n t r a d i ng c o m p a n i e s , a n d ha s j o i n t v e n t u r e s w i t h t h e C h i n e s e g o v e r n m e n t . It ha s
i n t e r e s t s in p r o c e s s i n g f i r ms f o r w e t a n d d ry c o r n , r i c e , p e a n u t s , a n i m a l f e e d , w h e a t ,
o i l s e e d a n d m a l t i n g , i n c l u d i ng i n v e s t m e n t s in M e x i c o , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , F r a n c e , B r i t a i n,
B o l i v i a, B r a z il a n d P a r a g u a y . A D M o w n s H a l d a n e F o o d s in t h e U K a n d p r o d u c e s the
Harves t Burge r v e g e t a r i a n a l t e r n a t i ve in t h e United States , w h i l s t N o v a r t is own s
G e r b e r b a b y f o o d . As s u c h t h e c l u s t e r ha s a w e b o f i n t e r e s t s s t r e t c h i n g a r o u n d t h e
g l o b e a n d f r om 'see d t o s h e l f . T he f o r m a t i on o f t h e cluste r t h r o u g h j o i nt v e n t u r e s
e n a b l e d N o v a r t is t o acces s f o o d p r o c e s s i n g a n d g a v e A D M a d i r e c t l i nk t o f a r m e r s .
For more see Mary Hendrickson and William Heffernan (2002) Opening spaces through relocaliza-
tion: locating potential resistance in the weaknesses of the global food system. Sociologia Ruralis,
42, 347-369.
36
Corporate concentration is no less nations) clashes with domestic political

pronounced in the food retailing sector. pressures in E u r o p e a n d t h e U n i t e d States t o
O v e r 4 0 p e r c e n t o f f o o d r e t a i l sales i n t h e protect internal agricultural markets (see
United States are accounted for by five C h a p t e r 9 for m o r e ) . T h e r e s o l u t i o n o f this
supermarket chains - Kroger, Albertsons, impasse will r e v e r b e r a t e d o w n t o t h e level o f
W a l - M a r t , Safeway a n d A h o l d U S A - some individual farms and rural c o m m u n i t i e s , w i t h
of which are beginning to expand on a the potential that a pro-free-trade outcome
g l o b a l scale. W a l - M a r t n o w o p e r a t e s in the w o u l d r e m o v e t h e subsidies a n d p r i c e s u p p o r t
U K , G e r m a n y , A r g e n t i n a , Brazil, C a n a d a a n d m e c h a n i s m s t h a t h a v e effectively bankrolled
M e x i c o , a n d has j o i n t v e n t u r e s in C h i n a a n d agriculture in s o m e peripheral rural regions
K o r e a . A h o l d has interests in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , for d e c a d e s ( C h a p t e r s 4 a n d 9).
Latin America, Portugal, Spain, Poland, the
Czech Republic, Scandinavia and the Far
East. T h e F r e n c h s u p e r m a r k e t c h a i n Carrefour, The globalization of mobility
meanwhile, is also the largest retailer in It is n o t j u s t t h e m o b i l i t y o f commodities
Brazil, Argentina, Spain, Portugal, Greece, a n d capital that has b e e n liberalized by g l o b -
Belgium and Taiwan (Hendrickson and alization, b u t also t h e mobility of people.
Heffernan, 2002). Supermarkets have a t w o - Technological developments mean that we
fold influence in rural areas. As large-scale are able t o travel across t h e g l o b e in relatively
purchasers from farmers and farm coopera- s h o r t p e r i o d s o f t i m e for relatively little cost.
tives, t h e y exercise c o n s i d e r a b l e p o w e r over For travellers from most developed world
f a r m g a t e p r i c e s . B u t as l a r g e - s c a l e r e t a i l e r s , nations bureaucratic requirements for visas
w i t h the capacity to u n d e r c u t smaller shops, and permits have b e e n gradually relaxed, a n d
s u p e r m a r k e t s h a v e also b e e n a c c u s e d o f c o n - m a n y o f us have an o p p o r t u n i t y t o p a r t i c i -
tributing to the closure of i n d e p e n d e n t rural p a t e in an effectively global l a b o u r m a r k e t if
stores and specialist butchers, bakers and w e so c h o o s e . M a s s m i g r a t i o n has, o f c o u r s e ,
g r e e n g r o c e r s i n small t o w n s a n d villages (see l o n g b e e n a significant factor in t h e evolu-
C h a p t e r 7). t i o n o f r u r a l s o c i e t i e s (see C h a p t e r 6 ) , b u t
T h e third feature o f e c o n o m i c globaliza- the m o v e m e n t of p e o p l e in a n d o u t of rural
t i o n t o i m p a c t o n r u r a l a r e a s is t h e growing a r e a s t o d a y is d i f f e r e n t i n s o f a r as it m u s t b e
significance o f global regulatory frameworks. p o s i t i o n e d w i t h i n this c o n t e x t o f h e i g h t e n e d
As rural e c o n o m i e s b e c o m e integrated into global mobility. F o r e x a m p l e , m i g r a t i o n flows
global trade n e t w o r k s , so t h e capacity o f national are n o l o n g e r p r e d o m i n a n t l y uni-directional
g o v e r n m e n t s t o r e g u l a t e t h e e c o n o m i c life o f forces. M a n y r u r a l areas m a y b e e x p e r i e n c i n g
rural regions is diminished, with power net in-migration through counterurbanization,
s h i f t e d u p w a r d s t o b o d i e s s u c h as t h e W o r l d b u t this t e n d s t o disguise a fluid situation in
Trade Organization ( W T O ) . Agriculture is w h i c h t h e r e is a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t o u t - m i g r a t i o n ,
o n e o f the m o s t c o n t e n t i o u s political flash- and in w h i c h people may m o v e in and out
p o i n t s i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s t h a t set t h e W T O ' s o f r u r a l a r e a s (as w e l l as w i t h i n r u r a l a r e a s )
policies, as the organization's underlying s e v e r a l t i m e s d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i r life.
a g e n d a o f t r a d e l i b e r a l i z a t i o n ( w h i c h is s u p - O n e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s is t h a t p e o p l e h a v e
become less tied to particular places and
ported by the agri-food conglomerates and
therefore that the coherence and stability
by a number of net-agricultural-exporter
37
that o n c e characterized rural communities O n a m o r e t e m p o r a r y basis, g l o b a l m o b i l i t y

h a v e b e e n e r o d e d . T h e s e issues are discussed also e n c o m p a s s e s t h e rise o f g l o b a l tourism,
f u r t h e r in C h a p t e r 6, w h i l s t f u r t h e r implica- with some 692 million people taking holi-
tions for rural housing are considered in days o u t s i d e their country of residence in
C h a p t e r 16. 2 0 0 1 . L o n g - h a u l t o u r i s m has played a major
T h e m a j o r i t y o f m i g r a t i o n i n t o rural areas role in regenerating rural e c o n o m i e s , with
is still o f a d o m e s t i c o r i g i n , b u t t h e r e a r e a l s o New Zealand in particular acquiring a
flows of immigration directly into rural g l o b a l r e p u t a t i o n as a c e n t r e f o r r u r a l a d v e n -
r e g i o n s . N o t a b l y , this reflects t h e m o b i l i t y o f ture tourism (see Chapter 12). However,
both the haves and the have-nots under t h e g r o w t h o f t o u r i s m also b r i n g s social a n d
globalization. O n t h e o n e h a n d , it i n c l u d e s environmental challenges for rural areas,
the purchase of holiday h o m e s and second i n c l u d i n g d e m a n d s for structural c h a n g e s in
h o m e s b y w e a l t h y f o r e i g n e r s , as w e l l as m o r e their local e c o n o m i e s and, like o t h e r forms o f
permanent moves by individuals seeking a g l o b a l i z a t i o n , i n v o l v e s a loss o f p o w e r b y r u r a l
n e w s t a r t i n life. F o r e x a m p l e , o v e r 20,000 c o m m u n i t i e s as t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e i r r u r a l -
Britons purchase property in rural France i t y is r e p r e s e n t e d a n d p r o m o t e d is r e c o n f i g -
each year (Hoggart and Buller, 1995). O n the ured to appeal to the preconceptions of
o t h e r h a n d , i m m i g r a t i o n reflects t h e depen- international tourists (Cater and Smith,
dency of many labour-intensive forms of 2003).
agriculture o n migrant workers, particularly
in t h e U n i t e d States. A n estimated 6 9 p e r c e n t Cultural globalization
o f all s e a s o n a l f a r m w o r k e r s i n t h e United A t h i r d d i m e n s i o n o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n is t h e r i s e
States are f o r e i g n - b o r n , i n c l u d i n g m o r e t h a n of the global media and emergence of a
90 per cent of the seasonal workforce in global mass culture, f o u n d e d o n the c o m m o n
California (Bruinsma, 2003). T h e majority consumption of the same films, television,
h a v e c o m e f r o m M e x i c o , a n d as s u c h they literature, m u s i c a n d so o n . In this global c u l -
are part of a long tradition that extends ture, m u c h of o u r perception of and k n o w l -
back over most of the twentieth century e d g e a b o u t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e is d e r i v e d from
(Mitchell, 1996), and which is a vital films, b o o k s and television programmes in
c o m p o n e n t in the story of A m e r i c a n agri- w h i c h a s t y l i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r u r a l life is
cultural capitalism. However, as will be portrayed a n d in w h i c h the regional distinc-
discussed further in Chapter 18, migrant tions b e t w e e n , for example, a farmyard in
workers have often been subjected to E n g l a n d a n d a farmyard in Pennsylvania, are
extreme exploitation and poor pay and ignored. In particular, our knowledge of
working conditions. Moreover, immigration n a t u r e is f r e q u e n t l y b a s e d o n c h i l d r e n ' s l i t e r -
of any f o r m can provoke ethnic and cultural ature, Disney films and natural history
tensions in rural communities, particularly p r o g r a m m e s - all o f w h i c h t e n d t o h u m a n i z e
where the new arrivals are perceived to animals rather than o n actual interaction
' t h r e a t e n ' nationalistic n o t i o n s o f rurality, o r w i t h n a t u r e in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . T h e result, so
local cultural traditions and languages. r u r a l c a m p a i g n e r s c l a i m , is t h a t t h e r e is l a c k
As such, racism is increasingly acknowl- o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r u r a l life a n d r u r a l t r a d i -
e d g e d as a p r o b l e m i n m a n y r u r a l a r e a s ( s e e tions, l e a d i n g t o conflicts over practices such
Chapter 20). as h u n t i n g a n d s o m e methods of farming.
38
A promotional article for t h e pro-hunting Resisting globalization

British pressure group the Countryside G l o b a l i z a t i o n is n o t a l l - p o w e r f u l . A s noted
A l l i a n c e , f o r i n s t a n c e , r e m a r k e d t h a t 'a g e n e r - e a r l i e r , it is p e r h a p s m o r e a c c u r a t e t o think
a t i o n b r o u g h t u p o n The Animals of Farthing of there being multiple globalizations,
Wood, W a l t D i s n e y f i l m s a n d visits t o t h e m e s o m e o f w h i c h are contradictory, a n d w h i c h
p a r k s is e a s y m e a t f o r s i n g l e - i s s u e pressure present numerous opportunities for resis-
g r o u p s w h o e x p l o i t this lack o f u n d e r s t a n d - tance and contestation. In the c o n t e m p o r a r y
i n g o f t h e realities o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e t o t h e i r countryside, instances of resistance to global-
own ends' (Hanbury-Tenison, 1997, p. 92), ization can be observed when farmers
whilst a recent b o o k celebrating h u n t i n g in blockade ports or distribution plants to
America argued that 'to attempt to " m a n a g e " protest at imports or the prices paid by
n a t u r e after s u c h a kindergarten-cartoonish supermarkets; when pro-hunting groups
fashion as Bambi portrays and fosters ... rally to protect their 'sport'; and when
w o u l d s o o n spell e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e ... e n v i r o n m e n t a l c a m p a i g n e r s fight oil c o r p o -
Bambi - t h a t m o n s t r o u s l y u n n a t u r a l H o l l y w o o d rations in rural Alaska o r l o g g i n g c o m p a n i e s
p r o p a g a n d a beast - m u s t die' (Petersen, 2 0 0 0 , in t h e forests o f t h e Pacific N o r t h W e s t (see
p. 158). also B o x 3.3).
T h e dissemination of such homogenized Resistance to globalization need not be
c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s is o n e c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r confrontational. Hendrickson and Heffernan
in a wider process o f t h e globalization of (2002) suggest that the global agri-food
values, in w h i c h certain W e s t e r n values and c o m p l e x , for e x a m p l e , has a n u m b e r o f v u l -
principles are encoded into international nerable points t h a t offer the potential for
treaties and charters and enforced on a farmers, workers and consumers to develop
global scale. E x a m p l e s o f this i n c l u d e the alternative structures. T h e y cite the e x a m p l e
European Convention on Human Rights of the Kansas City F o o d Circle that brings
and the International War Crimes Tribunal, together local producers and c o n s u m e r s in
b u t also t h e p r o m o t i o n of global environ- an a r r a n g e m e n t that cuts o u t the corporate
mental standards and of animal rights. T h e s e 'middle-man' and reconnects the commu-
latter initiatives are commonly rooted in nity w i t h local food sources. O t h e r examples
scientific and philosophical discourses and include the promotion of farmers' markets
m a y therefore lead to different conclusions t h a t e n a b l e p r o d u c e r s t o sell d i r e c t l y t o l o c a l
f r o m t h e lay u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f n a t u r e p a s s e d consumers (see C h a p t e r 10; also Holloway
down by rural p e o p l e . As such, conflicts a n d Kneafsey, 2 0 0 0 ) , a n d t h e Italian ' s l o w -
c a n a r i s e as t h e y a r e p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e . F o r f o o d ' m o v e m e n t t h a t a i m s t o resist t h e g l o b a l
e x a m p l e , t h e Chasse, Peche, Nature et Tradition s p r e a d o f ' A m e r i c a n ' fast f o o d a n d t o pro-
( h u n t i n g , fishing, n a t u r e a n d tradition) party mote the aesthetic qualities of traditional
p o l l e d 12 p e r c e n t o f t h e v o t e in t h e 1999 regional cuisine (Miele and Murdoch,
E u r o p e a n Parliamentary elections in France 2002). Grassroots action has also been
on a platform of opposition to an E U direc- mobilized to respond to the withdrawal of
tive that w o u l d r e d u c e t h e h u n t i n g season services from rural areas by transnational
f o r m i g r a t o r y b i r d s , w h i c h t h e y p r e s e n t e d as corporations by establishing community
p a r t o f a w i d e r assault o n i n d i g e n o u s rural shops, credit units and c o m m u n i t y transport
values. schemes.
39
Box 3.3 Jose Bove and anti-globalization protests
In A u g u s t 1 9 9 9 , a g r o u p o f f a r m e rs f r o m t h e Confederation Paysanne (smallholders '

c o n f e d e r a t i o n ) w e r e a r r e s t e d f o r ' d i s m a n t l i n g ' a n e w b r a n c h o f M c D o n a l d s in t h e s m a l l
F r e n c h t o w n o f M i l l a u. T h e p r o t e s t w a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y its l e a d e r , Jos e B o v e , a n d his
s u p p o r t e r s , a s p a r t o f a n o n - g o i n g s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t g l o b a l i z a t i o n a n d its i m p a c t o n
F r e n c h a g r i c u l t u r e. T h e Confederation Paysanne h a d c a m p a i g n e d s i n c e t h e 1970 s o n
b e h a l f o f s m a l l f a r m e r s , a n d its p r e v i o u s p r o t e s t s h a d i n c l u d e d o p p o s i t i o n t o a l a r g e
b a t t e r y - c h i c k e n c o m p l e x a n d t o G M c r o p t r i a l s. M a n y o f its m e m b e r s h a d a l s o b e n e -
f i t e d f r o m s o m e a s p e c t s o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e M i l l au i n c i d e n t w a s p r e c i p i t a t e d b y
a t y p i c a l t u s s l e in t h e p o l i t i cs o f g l o b a l t r a d e . In r e t a l i a t i o n f o r a E u r o p e a n U n i o n b a n
o n t h e i m p o rt o f h o r m o n e - t r e a t e d b e e f , t h e U n i t e d State s h a d d o u b l e d t h e custom s
t a r i ff o n a n u m b e r o f E u r o p e a n f o o d p r o d u c t s , i n c l u d i ng R o q u e f o r t chees e - the
p r o d u c t i o n o f w h i c h e m p l o y e d o v e r 1,30 0 p e o p l e in t h e M i l l au r e g i o n . B o v e a n d his
s u p p o r t e r s , h o w e v e r , p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e r e a l a g e n d a b e h i n d t h e ' t r a de w a r ' w a s t h e
ambition o f US-base d a g r i - f o o d c o m p l e x e s to dominate the Europea n market by
o p e n i n g it u p t o m o d i f i e d f o o d s s u c h a s h o r m o n e - t r e a t e d b e e f , t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f
E u r o p e a n f a r m e r s . T h u s , t h e y d i r e c t e d t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e t a r i f fs a t M c D o n a l d s -
a c o m p a n y t h a t s y m b o l i z e d US-le d g l o b a l i z a t i o n a n d t h e p r o m o t i o n o f c h e a p , h o m o g e n i z e d
f o o d , o r 'malbouffe'. A t his t r i al in J u n e 2 0 0 0 , B o v e r e i n f o r c e d t h is a n a l y s i s b y c a l l i n g
e n v i r o n m e n t a l , l a n d r i g h ts a n d a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n c a m p a i g n e r s f r o m a r o u n d t h e w o r l d
as witnesses . A s i m u l t a n e o u s festiva l o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t, a t t e n d e d b y o v e r 20,00 0 a n t i -
g l o b a l i z a t i o n p r o t e s t e r s , f u r t h er h e l p e d t o s u b v e r t t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s i n to w h a t the
F r e n c h n e w s p a p e r . Liberation d e s c r i b e d a s ' t he t r i al o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n ' .
For more see Jose Bove and Frangois Dufour (2001) The World Is Not For Sale: Farmers against
Junk Food (Verso); Michael Woods (2004) Politics and protest in the contemporary countryside, in
L. Holloway and M. Kneafsey (eds), Geographies of Rural Societies and Cultures (Ashgate).
Summary
R u r a l areas h a v e a l w a y s b e e n s p a c e s o f c h a n g e , s h a p e d b y e c o n o m i c c y c l e s , t r a d e f l u c t u a t i o n s ,
n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s , m i g r a t i o n flows, political upheavals a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . I n t h e
late t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y - a n d t h e early t w e n t y - f i r s t - h o w e v e r , r u r a l areas across t h e
d e v e l o p e d w o r l d h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d a p e r i o d o f c h a n g e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y its i n t e n s i t y , p e r s i s t e n c e
a n d totality. D r i v e n b y t h e t w i n forces o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d social m o d e r n i z a t i o n a n d
g l o b a l i z a t i o n , c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l c h a n g e h a s a f f e c t e d all a r e a s o f r u r a l life - f r o m t h e d o m e s t i c
r o u t i n e s o f rural families t o t h e i n v e s t m e n t decisions o f global a g r i - f o o d c o r p o r a t i o n s ; f r o m t h e
o w n e r s h i p o f r u r a l p r o p e r t y t o t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . It is i n t h i s
w a y t h a t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e c a n b e d e s c r i b e d as u n d e r g o i n g ' r e s t r u c t u r i n g ' .
' R e s t r u c t u r i n g ' is a w i d e l y u s e d t e r m i n c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l s t u d i e s b u t its m e a n i n g c a n b e
q u i t e l o o s e . I n s o m e c a s e s , ' r e s t r u c t u r i n g ' is u s e d t o i m p l y n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h a t c h a n g e is
t a k i n g p l a c e , w h i l s t i n o t h e r cases it h a s a m o r e p r e c i s e a n d t h e o r e t i c a l l y g r o u n d e d a p p l i c a t i o n .
H o g g a r t a n d Paniagua (2001) c o n t e n d that the c o n c e p t has b e e n devalued t h r o u g h over-use
a n d m i s a p p l i c a t i o n a n d a r g u e for a m o r e careful usage:
40
Fo r us , w h e n s e e n a s a shif t in s o c i e t y f r om o n e c o n d i t i o n to a n o t h e r , ' r e s t r u c t u r i n g'

s h o u l d e m b o d y m a j o r qualitative, a n d no t j u s t q u a n t i t a t i v e, c h a n g e in s o c i a l s t r u c t u r es
a n d p r a c t i c e s . U n l e s s w e w a n t to trivialize t he c o n c e p t , its u s e s h o u l d b e r e s t r i c t e d to
t r a n s f o r m a t i o ns t h a t a re b o t h i n t e r - r e l a t ed a n d m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l in c h a r a c t e r ; o t h e r -
w i s e w e h a v e d e s c r i p t o r s t h a t a re m o re t h a n a d e q u a t e , like i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n, loca l
g o v e r n m e n t r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , e l e c t o r a l d e a l i g n m e n t o r g r o w th in c o n s u m e r i s m . To clar-
ify, in o u r v i e w r e s t r u c t u r i ng is no t a c h a n g e in o n e 'sector ' t h a t h a s multiplier effect s
o n o t h e r s e c t o r s . R e s t r u c t u r i ng involve s f u n d a m e n t a l r e a d j u s t m e n t s in a v a r i e ty o f
s p h e r e s o f life, w h e r e p r o c e s s e s o f c h a n g e a re c a u s a l l y linked. ( H o g g a r t a n d P a n i a g u a ,
2 0 0 1 , p. 4 2 )
F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , s e c t o r - s p e c i f i c c h a n g e s s u c h as f a r m d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o r t h e c l o s u r e o f
rural schools, c a n n o t b e considered to b e 'restructuring' in their o w n right. Placed in a w i d e r
c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r , t h e y c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e l o c a l e x p r e s s i o n s o f i n t e r - c o n n e c t e d
processes o f rural r e s t r u c t u r i n g d r i v e n b y globalization, t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n a n d social
m o d e r n i z a t i o n . R u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g as p i t c h e d at t h i s scale h a s p r o d u c e d c a u s a l l y l i n k e d effects
a c r o s s a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f s e c t o r s w i t h c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t a r e q u a l i t a t i v e as w e l l as q u a n t i f i a b l e .
T h i s b o o k follows t h e l o g i c o f t h e a b o v e analysis b y n e x t e x p l o r i n g h o w r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g
has b e e n o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d a n d expressed t h r o u g h c h a n g e s in agriculture, t h e w i d e r rural
e c o n o m y , t h e social c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e rural p o p u l a t i o n , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f rural
c o m m u n i t i e s a n d s e r v i c e s , a n d t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . It t h e n p r o c e e d s t o
e x a m i n e the responses to rural restructuring that have b e e n adopted b o t h by those responsible
f o r g o v e r n i n g r u r a l a r e a s a n d b y t h o s e l i v i n g i n r u r a l a r e a s , b e f o r e finally i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e
e x p e r i e n c e s o f c h a n g e a n d t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u n t r y s i d e o f p e o p l e f r o m all p a r t s o f t h e r u r a l
population.
Further Reading
T h e re is relatively little p u b l i s h e d w o rk tha t explicitly e x a m i n e s t he e x p e r i e n c e o f rural
a r e a s u n d e r g l o b a l i z a t i o n . T h e b e s t a c c o u n t , w h i c h is w r i t t en f r om t he p e r s p e c t i v e o f
rural A u s t r a l ia bu t c o n t a i n s e x t e n s i v e g e n e r a l m a t e r i a l o n g l o b a l i z a t i o n , is Ian G r ay a n d
G e o f f L a w r e n c e ' s A Future for Regional Australia ( C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 2 0 0 1 ) .
Fo r m o re o n t he g l o b a l i z a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e, a n d p a r t i c u l a r ly t he role o f g l o b a l ' f o od
c h a i n c l u s t e r s ' , s e e M a ry H e n d r i c k s o n a n d W i l l i am H e f f e r n a n , O p e n i n g s p a c e s t h r o u gh
r e l o c a l i z a t i o n : l o c a t i n g p o t e n t i a l r e s i s t a n c e in t he w e a k n e s s e s o f t he g l o b a l f o o d
s y s t e m ' , in Sociologia Ruralis, v o l u m e 4 2 , p a g e s 3 4 7 - 3 6 9 ( 2 0 0 2 ) . Fo r m o re o n rural
r e s t r u c t u r i ng a n d t he d e b a t e s o v e r t he a p p l i c a t i o n o f t he c o n c e p t , s e e Keith H o g g a r t
a n d A n g e l P a n i a g u a , ' W h at rural r e s t r u c t u r i n g ? ', in Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 17 ,
page s 4 1 - 6 2 (2001) .
41
4
Agricultural C h a n g e
Introduction
A g r i c u l t u r e is o n e o f t h e m o s t p o t e n t a n d e n d u r i n g e m b l e m s o f rurality. F o r
centuries, agriculture was in m o s t rural regions n o t only t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y
d o m i n a n t s o u r c e o f e m p l o y m e n t , b u t also t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e o f t h e r u r a l e c o n o m y
a n d a pervasive influence in t h e organization of rural society a n d culture. T h e
l e g a c y o f this h i s t o r i c a l c e n t r a l i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r e t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e is still e v i d e n t
t o d a y i n m a n y d i s c o u r s e s o f rurality, as d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r l . Y e t , a m a j o r
c o m p o n e n t o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f r u r a l areas o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f t h e p a s t c e n t u r y
has b e e n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e in t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d
w h i c h has seen f a r m i n g m o v e from t h e c e n t r e towards t h e p e r i p h e r y o f everyday
life as e x p e r i e n c e d b y m o s t r e s i d e n t s o f r u r a l areas. I n m a n y d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s ,
i n c l u d i n g t h e U n i t e d States, C a n a d a , t h e U K a n d F r a n c e , less t h a n a fifth o f t h e
r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n are n o w d e p e n d e n t o n a g r i c u l t u r e for t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d ,
s u b s t a n t i a l l y f e w e r t h a n e v e n t w e n t y o r t h i r t y y e a r s a g o (see T a b l e 4 . 1 ) . O t h e r
c o u n t r i e s h a v e s e e n s i m i l a r l y d r a m a t i c shifts i n S p a i n , f o r e x a m p l e , m o r e t h a n
eight o u t o f t e n rural people were d e p e n d e n t o n agriculture in 1970; by 2 0 0 0
it w a s less t h a n o n e i n t h r e e . T h e r e are, o f c o u r s e , i n d i v i d u a l l o c a l i t i e s i n w h i c h
a g r i c u l t u r e is still t h e m a j o r e m p l o y e r , b u t t h e s e a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n f i n e d t o t h e
m o r e r e m o t e rural regions a n d even w i t h i n such localities f a r m i n g t e n d s t o b e
significant r a t h e r t h a n d o m i n a n t i n t h e l o c a l l a b o u r m a r k e t .
T h e s h i f t i n g p o s i t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e w i t h i n r u r a l e c o n o m i e s a n d s o c i e t i e s is
a p r o d u c t o f reforms that have transformed virtually every aspect o f f a r m i n g in
d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s since t h e e n d o f t h e S e c o n d W o r l d War. O v e r this p e r i o d
f a r m s h a v e b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a m o d e r n capitalist e c o n o m y . T h i s
is n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l f a r m is r u n as a capitalist e n t e r p r i s e , i n t h e
s e n s e t h a t t h e r e is a d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n t h e o w n e r s a n d t h e w o r k e r s , b u t t h a t e v e n
t h e m a n y f a r m s t h a t a r e still r u n o n t r a d i t i o n a l , f a m i l y - b a s e d , l i n e s are o b l i g e d t o
p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e capitalist m a r k e t p l a c e i n o r d e r t o sell p r o d u c e , a n d t h e r e f o r e are
Agricultural change
T a b le 4 . 1 A g r i c u l t u r e - d e p e n d e n t p o p u l a t i o n as a percentag e o f t he t o t a l rural
p o p u l a t i o n f o r selecte d countries , 1950-200 0
195 0 196 0 197 0 198 0 199 0 200 0

Canad a 54. 1 45. 6 34. 5 29. 6 15. 6 12. 0
Denmar k 80. 2 68. 1 55. 1 42. 9 36. 6 25. 3
France 70. 5 58. 7 47. 0 30. 9 21. 1 13. 6
German y 82. 0 62. 9 42. 9 40. 0 26. 7 20. 2
Hungary 90. 7 71. 7 53. 8 47. 5 44. 8 33. 9
Ireland 68. 2 67. 6 54. 6 41. 6 33. 2 24. 8
Italy 96. 2 75. 8 52. 6 37. 8 25. 8 16. 1
Japa n 95. 9 85. 4 65. 7 44. 1 30. 8 18. 2
Spai n 94. 4 85. 0 67. 4 47. 8 32. 7
Swede n 66. 8 44. 1 49. 1 40. 8 29. 3 21. 1
UK 34. 6 27. 9 24. 3 23. 0 19. 6 16. 8
US A 36. 4 23. 5 17. 3 14. 1 12. 2 9. 7
Note: Thes e statistic s us e eac h country's o w n d e f i n i t i on o f a rural are a a n d t h e r e f o re are n o t
directly comparable . In all case s a smal l p r o p o r t i on o f t he agriculturally d e p e n d e n t p o p u l a t i o n ma y
live in area s classifie d as ' u r b a n '.
Source: The Foo d & A g r i c u l t u re Organizatio n (FAO) w w w . f a o . o r g
subject t o t h e w h i m s a n d d e m a n d s o f capitalism. T h i s has a transformative effect

b e c a u s e c a p i t a l i s m is a d y n a m i c f o r c e t h a t r e q u i r e s c o n s t a n t i n n o v a t i o n t o
m a x i m i z e profit m a r g i n s a n d secure t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f capital. T h e r e m a i n d e r o f
this c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s h o w t h e capitalist i m p e r a t i v e p r o d u c e d c h a n g e s i n t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d p r a c t i c e o f a g r i c u l t u r e a n d raises q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s
for t h e w i d e r c o u n t r y s i d e .
California: the Laboratory of year t o over $ 2 0 billion, a n d b y t h e 1920s

Capitalist Agriculture t h e state h a d b e c o m e t h e largest agricultural
C a l i f o r n i a is o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a g r i - p r o d u c e r in t h e U n i t e d States. T h e b o o m i n g
cultural economies in the world, and the agricultural economy was o n e significant
p r o d u c e r o f o n e o f t h e most extensive ranges factor in d r a w i n g thousands o f migrants t o
of crops and farm produce. Traditionally, California during the 1920s and 1930s,
a g r i c u l t u r a l g e o g r a p h e r s h a v e a t t r i b u t e d its including farmers escaping t h e devastation
prolificacy t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors, notably of the Dust Bowl in the American Mid-West.
the diversity o f m i c r o - c l i m a t e s within the These migrants, whose experience was
s t a t e . H o w e v e r , as D i c k W a l k e r h a s a r g u e d , vividly recounted by John Steinbeck in
this explanation underplays the extent to the novel The Grapes of Wrath, moved to
w h i c h Californian agriculture was manufac- California in search o f wealth, p u r s u i n g an
tured o v e r a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d a t t h e s t a r t A m e r i c a n dream that was wholly capitalist
of the twentieth century. B e t w e e n 1905 and in its i d e o l o g y . H e n c e W a l k e r advances a
1940, the cumulative output of Californian political-economic analysis of Californian
agriculture rose from a r o u n d $ 5 billion p e r a g r i c u l t u r e t h a t r e v e a l s i t as t h e l a b o r a t o r y o f
43
f a r m i n g as a c a p i t a l i s t i n d u s t r y ( W a l k e r , 2 0 0 1 ; A r i d areas w e r e i r r i g a t e d a n d swamplands
see also H e n d e r s o n , 1 9 9 8 ) . r e c l a i m e d , b o t h w i t h state s u p p o r t , fertilizers
Historians have traced the origins of agrar- developed and experiments undertaken with
ian capitalism to parts o f n o r t h e r n Europe i m p r o v i n g soils a n d s l o p e s . S i m i l a r e f f o r t w a s
in the sixteenth a n d seventeenth centuries, p u t into i m p r o v i n g t h e quality of t h e plants
b u t w h a t C a l i f o r n i a r e p r e s e n t e d at t h e t u r n o f a n d stock that are t h e r a w materials o f a g r i -
the twentieth century was wholesale applica- culture. T h e mass i m p o r t a t i o n of plant vari-
t i o n o f capitalist p r i n c i p l e s t o a g r i c u l t u r e in a eties from around the world in the late
m a n n e r unfettered by aristocratic l a n d o w n e r s n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y gave w a y to t h e d e v e l o p -
o r a p a r t i a l l y s u b s i s t e n c e - b a s e d p e a s a n t r y , as m e n t of extensive nursery and seed industries
was t h e case in E u r o p e . M o r e o v e r , t h e d e v e l - to supply industrial agriculture, a n d later to
o p m e n t o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n C a l i f o r n i a w a s fully the creation of the b i o t e c h n o l o g y industry.
integrated with the development of a wider Factory-farming was i n t r o d u c e d to increase
' r e s o u r c e capitalism' e n c o m p a s s i n g m i n i n g , oil the t h r o u g h p u t of farms, w i t h the mass-rearing
a n d gas e x t r a c t i o n , f o r e s t r y , f i s h i n g a n d h y d r o - of poultry and confined dairy farming both
electric generation (Walker, 2001). As such, p i o n e e r e d in California in t h e early t w e n t i e t h
California b e c a m e t h e l a b o r a t o r y o f capitalist century. M a n y 'factory farms' required indus-
agriculture, innovating and developing strate- trial-scale i n p u t s o f labour, yet t h e h i g h costs
gies, t e c h n i q u e s a n d t e c h n o l o g i e s that have o f capitalization in California d e m a n d e d that
subsequently become fundamental features labour must be cheap. As Mitchell (1996)
o f m o d e r n a g r i c u l t u r e across t h e developed observes, 'large-scale, capital-intensive f a r m i n g
world. simply c o u l d n o t rely o n l y o n family l a b o u r :
Walker argues that farm development was crops would rot before they could all be
driven by petty b o u r g e o i s investment in a g r i - picked. N o r could it r e l y e x c l u s i v e l y on a
culture, s o m e of w h i c h c a m e directly from local p o o l o f l a b o u r for such t e m p o r a r y w o r k .
migrants, s o m e from business o w n e r s in the In t h a t case local f a r m e r s w o u l d h a v e t o pay
e x p a n d i n g u r b a n c e n t r e s , a n d m o r e still f r o m t h e yearly r e p r o d u c t i v e costs o f t h e i r w o r k e r s
t h e profits o f m i n i n g a n d m i n e r a l exploita- (and their families) out o f seasonal profits'
tion. A m o d e r n b a n k i n g system was devel- (p. 5 9 ) . H e n c e , t h e n e e d w a s filled b y m i g r a n t
o p e d t o assist t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l w i t h i n workers, b o t h from elsewhere in the United
C a l i f o r n i a , a n d as s a v i n g s b a n k s w e r e p r o h i b - States a n d f r o m M e x i c o a n d Asia, c r e a t i n g a n
ited from investing in mining, investment agricultural workforce that had n o n e of the
flowed into farming (Henderson, 1998). T h e p a t e r n a l i s t i c ties t o t h e l a n d o w n e r associated
largest b a n k in t h e U n i t e d States was created w i t h farm workers in E u r o p e .
by the a m a l g a m a t i o n o f unit banks in f a r m i n g C a p i t a l i s t a g r i c u l t u r e as a s y s t e m o f c a p i t a l
towns, w i t h a system of credit arrangements accumulation is characterized not just by
extended to farmers that'did not just provide labour exploitation, but also, a m o n g other
c a p i t a l ; it w a s also a b r i l l i a n t d e v i c e f o r o v e r - things, by the creation of higher value
c o m i n g s p a c e - t i m e discontinuities in agricul- through the c o m m o d i t y chain. T h e booming
tural production and marketing' (Walker, cities of San Francisco, Los Angeles and
2 0 0 1 , p. 184). A t t h e s a m e time, t h e pressure San Diego formed an initial market for
for r e t u r n s o n i n v e s t m e n t s led t o i n n o v a t i o n s Californian agriculture, but capitalism
in agricultural organization and practice d e m a n d e d the creation of n e w and higher-
a i m e d at m a x i m i z i n g t h e v a l u e o f o u t p u t s . order markets. Farmers hence established
44
Agricultural change
cooperatives to improve the processing and f a r m i n g t o c o n t i n u e f u n c t i o n i n g as a c a p i t a l i s t

marketing o f their produce. T h e development industry. A l o n g s i d e this, g o v e r n m e n t s have a n
o f railroad a n d s h i p p i n g links h e l p e d t o facil- interest in c h e c k i n g u n e v e n e c o n o m i c devel-
itate a n e x p o r t t r a d e , b u t , significantly, invest- o p m e n t b e t w e e n r e g i o n s (if o n l y t o m a i n t a i n
m e n t w a s also p u t i n t o f o o d p r e s e r v a t i o n , a n d tax bases a n d t o avoid u n m a n a g e a b l e p o p u l a -
by the end of the nineteenth century tion shifts) and therefore to help rural
California h a d t h e world's largest canning economies to remain viable. Both these
industry. Frozen foods a n d dried milk were imperatives have led t o t h e substantial involve-
o t h e r i n v e n t i o n s o f t h e state. C a l i f o r n i a w a s m e n t o f t h e state in r e g u l a t i n g a n d s u p p o r t i n g
also t h e c e n t r e o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o d e r n agriculture, t h r o u g h a variety o f m e t h o d s .
supermarkets during t h e 1920s a n d 1930s, One o f t h e earliest e x a m p l e s o f g o v e r n -
m o s t notably t h e Safeway chain, thus creating m e n t action to support agriculture was t h e
a n e w f o r m o f mass food retailing. M o r e o v e r , establishment in 1862 o f t h e U n i t e d States
as p a r t o f t h e s e a r c h f o r n e w m a r k e t s , t h e Department of Agriculture (USDA), with a
Californian food processing industry led r e m i t o f d i s t r i b u t i n g seeds a n d p l a n t s t o f a r m e r s ,
the development of new food products, together with information about h o w to use
such as t h e f r u i t cocktail, each producing t h e m . This was followed by the foundation o f
n e w o u t p u t s for, b u t also n e w d e m a n d s o n , g o v e r n m e n t - s p o n s o r e d 'land grant colleges' to
agriculture. teach agricultural sciences and to help to
All these innovations have b e e n translated ' m o d e r n i z e ' f a r m i n g . B y t h e early twentieth
in some form to other parts of North century, t h e g r o w i n g political p o w e r o f t h e
A m e r i c a , E u r o p e a n d t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d as American farmers' m o v e m e n t c o m b i n e d with
key elements in t h e restructuring o f agricul- occasional agricultural depressions a n d c o n -
ture. O n l y t h e initial availability o f capital c e r n a b o u t t h e failure rate o f n e w farms t o
investment has b e e n less easily reproduced stimulate a n e w strategy o f direct state i n t e r -
e l s e w h e r e . T h u s i n m a n y c o u n t r i e s it fell t o vention in t h e agricultural market. In 1916
t h e state t o p r o v i d e i n v e s t m e n t for t h e c a p i - the Federal F a r m Loan A c t introduced direct
t a l i z a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e ( t h a t is, t h e p u r c h a s e financial assistance from the U S govern-
o f m a c h i n e r y , seeds, fertilizer, c h e m i c a l s , etc.), m e n t to producer cooperatives, in 1927 the
t h r o u g h g o v e r n m e n t grants a n d subsidies. McNary-Hangen Bill b r o u g h t in t h e first

fixed p r i c e s for a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s , a n d t h e
State Intervention in Agriculture 1930s saw t h e creation o f m a r k e t i n g bodies
T h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e state i n a g r i c u l t u r e and m e c h a n i s m s for controlling production.
reflects t h e d u a l p u r p o s e o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e Collectively, t h e s e A m e r i c a n initiatives set t h e
c a p i t a l i s t e c o n o m y . A g r i c u l t u r e is a m e a n s o f p r e c e d e n t for state i n t e r v e n t i o n i n a g r i c u l t u r e
c a p i t a l r e p r o d u c t i o n i n its o w n r i g h t , b u t it of four types: t h r o u g h training; t h r o u g h price
is also n e e d e d t o p r o v i d e r a w m a t e r i a l s f o r support, including the purchase of surplus
industry a n d food for w o r k e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s . products; through marketing; and through

T h i s l a t t e r p u r p o s e c a n b e r e g a r d e d as falling production controls.
w i t h i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t state's r o l e o f s o c i a l r e g u - Similar policies were adopted in other
lation - in o t h e r w o r d s , g o v e r n m e n t s have a n countries. Agriculture w a s o n e o f t h e first
interest in e n s u r i n g that a g r i c u l t u r e p r o d u c e s d e p a r t m e n t s o f t h e C a n a d i a n federal g o v e r n -
e n o u g h t o f e e d a n a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n at a c o s t ment to b e created in t h e 1860s, w i t h a
t h a t is g e n e r a l l y affordable, w h i l s t enabling responsibility for agricultural research and
45
training. From the 1930s, the Canadian troops d u r i n g the wars was replaced in their
g o v e r n m e n t started to intervene in the agri- aftermath by an imperative t o feed displaced
cultural m a r k e t s , for e x a m p l e b y establishing and rapidly urbanizing populations. Price s u p -
t h e C a n a d i a n W h e a t B o a r d in t h e late 1940s p o r t s w e r e first i n t r o d u c e d i n B r i t a i n during
as t h e s o l e p u r c h a s e r o f w h e a t , o a t s a n d b a r l e y t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r , b u t it w a s after t h e S e c o n d
destined for export, and of domestic feed World War that these principles were most
grain. T h e Australian government similarly explicitly e n s h r i n e d in the 1947 Agriculture
i n t r o d u c e d a W h e a t B o a r d in 1948 and inter- Act, w h i c h established a system of g u a r a n t e e d
v e n t i o n m e c h a n i s m s t o stabilize t h e w o o l s e c t o r p r i c e s f o r f a r m e r s , as w e l l as s t a t e i n v o l v e m e n t
in the 1960s. in marketing, training and the regulation of
In E u r o p e , state i n t e r v e n t i o n i n a g r i c u l t u r e agricultural wages. Similar objectives were
w a s s h a p e d b y t h e effects o f t h e t w o world expressed in the section o f the 1957 Treaty
wars. N o t only had war disrupted (and in of Rome that formulated the Common
s o m e parts of E u r o p e , devastated) farm pro- Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the new
duction, restrictions o n trade h a d limited the European Economic Community (later to
supply o f m a n y g o o d s , a n d t h e n e e d to feed b e c o m e t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n ) (see B o x 4 . 1 ) .
S o x 4. 1 The Common Agricultural Policy
T h e C o m m o n A g r i c u l t u r al P o l i c y s h a l l h a v e a s its o b j e c t i v e s : (a ) t o i n c r e a s e a g r i c u l t u r al
p r o d u c t i v i ty b y p r o m o t i n g t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s a n d b y e n s u r i n g t h e r a t i o n a l d e v e l o p -
m e n t o f a g r i c u l t u r al p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e o p t i m u m u t i l i s a t i on o f t h e f a c t o r s o f p r o d u c -
t i o n , in p a r t i c u l a r, l a b o u r ; (b ) t h u s t o e n s u r e a f a i r s t a n d a r d o f l i v i ng f o r t h e a g r i c u l t u r al
c o m m u n i t y , in p a r t i c u l ar b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e i n d i v i d u al e a r n i n g s o f p e r s o n s e n g a g e d in
a g r i c u l t u r e; (c ) t o s t a b i l i s e m a r k e t s ; ( d ) t o a s s u r e t h e a v a i l a b i l i ty o f s u p p l i e s ; (e ) t o
e n s u r e t h a t s u p p l i e s r e a c h c o n s u m e r s a t r e a s o n a b l e p r i c e s . ( A r t i c le 3 9 o f t h e T r e a t y o f
R o m e ( 1 9 5 7 ) , q u o t e d in W i n t e r, 1 9 9 6 , p. 1 1 8 )
T h e C o m m o n Agricultural Policy was a c o m m u n i t y ' , it t i e d f a r m i n g to the wider

milestone in the d e v e l o p m e n t of capitalist rural c o m m u n i t y in a m a n n e r that reflected
a g r i c u l t u r e i n f o u r w a y s . F i r s t , it w a s t h e first t h e fact t h a t o v e r half o f t h e E E C ' s rural
a g r e e m e n t t o r e g u l a t e a g r i c u l t u r e at a t r a n s - population w a s at t h e t i m e d e p e n d e n t on
n a t i o n a l scale, t h u s m a r k i n g a significant step agriculture, but which has subsequently
towards a regulated global agricultural e c o n - complicated attempts at reform. Fourthly,
o m y . S e c o n d l y , it c r e a t e d a c o m m o n a g r i c u l - it s e t as its first objective the unqualified
tural market in E u r o p e equivalent to that increase of agricultural productivity, thus
of the United States and an agricultural expressing clearly the imperative that was
exporting unit able to compete with the already the driving force of agricultural
US (and other major exporters including development in N o r t h A m e r i c a , Australia,
Australia, Canada and New Zealand) in New Zealand and the U K , and which is
global trade. Thirdly, in seeking to ensure encapsulated in the term 'productivism'
standards of living for the 'agricultural (see B o x 4 . 2 ) .
46
Agricultural change
Box 4.2 Key term
P r o d u c t i v i s m : T he dominan t policy t r e nd in a g r i c u l t u re f r om the 1940 s t o the

m i d - 1 9 8 0 s . T h e c e n t r a l a i m w a s t o i n c r e a s e a g r i c u l t u r al p r o d u c t i o n . T h is i n v o l v e d t h e
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i on o f a g r i c u l t u r e, i n c l u d i ng t h e i n t r o d u c t i on o f a g r i -
chemicals , m e c h a n i z a t i o n a n d t he specializatio n o f farms . T he syste m w a s u n d e r p i n n e d
by stat e subsidies .
T a b le 4 . 2 A p p l i c a t i on o f inorganic fertilizers
( n i t r o g e n , phosphat e an d potash ) in f o u r Wester n
Europea n countrie s
A p p l i c a t i on ( t h o u s a n d t o n n e s )
195 6 196 5 197 5 198 5
Wes t German y 211 4 289 7 330 0 318 5
France 192 4 312 3 485 0 569 4
Netherland s 46 8 56 6 63 8 70 1
UK 155 5 180 0 254 4
Source: A f t er llbery an d Bowler, 199 8
Productivist Agriculture The prairie states o f t h e United States,

The rise of productivist agriculture after meanwhile, witnessed the transformative
the Second World War was characterized impact of rapid advances in farm machinery
by change in three structural dimensions - d u r i n g the 1960s and 1970s:'Tractors doubled
intensification, c o n c e n t r a t i o n and specializa- a n d t h e n q u a d r u p l e d i n size a n d p r i c e i n t h e
tion (Bowler, 1985; see also llbery and space of a few y e a r s , as d i d the array of
B o w l e r , 1 9 9 8 ) . Intensification involved the p u r - specialized m a c h i n e r y for d e a l i n g w i t h i n d i -
suit o f h i g h e r p r o d u c t i v i t y t h r o u g h t h e s u b - vidual crops. T h i s allowed single operators t o
stantial capitalization o f a g r i c u l t u r e , i n c l u d i n g c o v e r vast a c r e a g e s i n a d a y ' ( M a n n i n g , 1 9 9 7 ,
significant i n v e s t m e n t in m a c h i n e r y a n d the pp. 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 ) . T h e attraction o f large m a c h i n -
farm infrastructure, and increasing utilization ery was n o t restricted to the U n i t e d States.
of agri-chemicals and other biotechnologies. Sales o f large four-wheel-drive tractors in
E v i d e n c e o f this c o u l d b e seen a r o u n d the Wales rose from fewer t h a n 100 in 1977 to
developed world. In C a n a d a , for example, 1,500 in 1 9 9 2 (Harvey, 1 9 9 8 ) .
purchases of herbicides soared from C$53.3 Concentration aimed to maximize cost-

million in 1973 to C $ 1 2 1 . 4 million in 1976, effectiveness b y c r e a t i n g larger f a r m units. I n
whilst t h e use o f n i t r o g e n fertilizer in the 1951 the average farm size in Manitoba,
prairie provinces o f C a n a d a increased ten-fold C a n a d a , w a s 1 3 7 h e c t a r e s , b y 1 9 7 6 it w a s 2 4 0
from 50.4 thousand tonnes in 1948 to 569.9 (Wilson, 1981). O v e r the same p e r i o d , average
thousand tonnes in 1979 (Wilson, 1981).Total farm size in England and Wales increased
use o f i n o r g a n i c fertilizers similarly increased from u n d e r 4 0 hectares to nearly 50 hectares,
i n E u r o p e , if at a less d r a m a t i c r a t e ( T a b l e 4 . 2 ) . and again to over 60 hectares by 1983
47
T a b le 4. 3 Siz e o f agricultural holding s in seve n Wester n

Europea n countries , 197 5 a n d 198 7
U n d e r 1 0 h a (%) 1 0 - 5 0 h a (%) O v e r 5 0 h a (%)
197 5 198 7 197 5 198 7 197 5 198 7
Denmar k 32. 5 19. 0 59. 9 64. 0 7. 6 17. 0
German y 54. 3 49. 6 42. 8 44. 6 2. 9 5. 8
France 41. 4 35. 0 48. 0 48. 2 10. 6 16. 8
Ireland 31. 6 31. 2 59. 8 59. 8 8. 6 9. 0
Italy 88. 6 89. 2 10. 0 9. 4 1.4 1.4
Netherland s 52. 4 49. 7 45. 6 46. 4 2. 0 3. 9
UK 26. 2 30. 8 44. 3 38. 1 29. 5 31. 1
Source: A f t er Winter, 199 6
( M a r s d e n e t al., 1 9 9 3 ) . A similar t r e n d c o n t i n u e d a c c o u n t e d f o r 7 5 p e r c e n t o f all r e c e i p t s b y

into the 1980s in m a n y developed countries t h e late 1980s ( T r o u g h t o n , 1992).
(Table 4 . 3 ) . T h e c o r o l l a r y h a s b e e n a d e c r e a s e i n Specialization occurs in other ways too.
t h e total n u m b e r o f farms. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e As agricultural e m p l o y m e n t has b e e n r e s t r u c -
n u m b e r o f f a r m s i n C a n a d a fell b y 4 0 p e r c e n t tured, generalist f a r m w o r k e r s contracted to a
b e t w e e n 1961 a n d 1986, a n d in Australia t h e single employer have been supplanted by
n u m b e r o f f a r m s fell b y a q u a r t e r o v e r 2 5 y e a r s specialist a g r i c u l t u r a l c o n t r a c t o r s w o r k i n g for
(Gray and Lawrence, 2 0 0 1 ; Wilson, 1981). a n u m b e r o f f a r m e r s as r e q u i r e d , f o r e x a m p l e as
E f f i c i e n c y w a s also p r o m o t e d b y concen- c o m b i n e h a r v e s t e r o p e r a t o r s . It is n o t a b l e , f o r
tration in t h e c o m m o d i t y chain. F a r m s m o v e d instance, that whilst e m p l o y m e n t in farming
to contracts w i t h a single purchaser, either a c o n t i n u e d t o fall i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g
government-sponsored marketing board, or t h e 1990s, e m p l o y m e n t in agricultural services
food processing c o m p a n i e s a n d retailers. In increased by 27 per cent b e t w e e n 1990 and
t h e early 1980s, 9 5 p e r c e n t o f p o u l t r y and 1996 (Rural Policy R e s e a r c h Institute, 2003).
peas p r o d u c e d in t h e U K w e r e f a r m e d under T h e s e changes in agricultural practice and
c o n t r a c t f o r a f o o d p r o c e s s o r , as w e r e 6 5 p e r c e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n h a d a n u m b e r o f effects o n the
o f eggs, 5 0 p e r c e n t o f pigs a n d 100 p e r c e n t w i d e r rural e c o n o m y , society a n d e n v i r o n m e n t .
of sugarbeet (Bowler, 1985). First, t h e r e w a s a p h y s i c a l i m p a c t o n t h e l a n d -
Specialization also h e l p e d t o e n h a n c e cost- s c a p e as field sizes w e r e i n c r e a s e d , h e d g e r o w s
effectiveness. I n v e s t m e n t i n e x p e n s i v e specialist r e m o v e d , grasslands p l o u g h e d a n d n e w crops
machinery tailored to a single crop meant introduced. Further, less visible but serious
t h a t d i v e r s i t y w a s d i s c o u r a g e d , as d i d t h e a b i l - environmental consequences included pollu-
i t y t o sell a s i n g l e c r o p u n d e r c o n t r a c t t o a t i o n , soil e r o s i o n a n d t h e loss o f h a b i t a t s , as
single purchaser. T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f particular discussed i n g r e a t e r detail i n C h a p t e r 8. S e c o n d l y ,
agricultural products h e n c e b e c a m e concen- significant social effects resulted from the
trated o n fewer, larger farms. F o r example, dislocation of agriculture from the c o m m u n i t y .
an 81 per c e n t increase in t h e average area o f Mechanization meant that less labour was
cereal cultivation per farm in the UK r e q u i r e d i n a g r i c u l t u r e - it is e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e
b e t w e e n 1967 and 1981 was accompanied by total a m o u n t o f f a r m w o r k u n d e r t a k e n in t h e
a 2 7 p e r cent decrease in t h e n u m b e r o f farms U n i t e d States d e c r e a s e d b y o v e r a third b e t w e e n
growing cereals (Ilbery, 1985). In Canada, 1950 a n d 1970 ( C o p p o c k , 1984) - such that
t h e t o p 5 p e r c e n t o f p o u l t r y f a r m s b y sales f a r m i n g d e c l i n e d as a s o u r c e o f employment
48
Agricultural change
T a b le 4 . 4 Corporate concentratio n in primary processin g

in Ne w Zealan d
Percentag e o f o u t p u t produce d b y
t o p three processin g companie s
196 0 198 6 199 2
Dairying 42. 0 75. 0
Mea t freezin g 37. 5 67. 0
W o o l scourin g 34. 2 50. 0
Fruit an d vegetabl e processin g 78. 5 80 +
Source: A f t er Le Heron , 199 3
in rural c o m m u n i t i e s . In France, for e x a m p l e , presence in farming is a key feature of

there were over 5 million people employed p r o d u c t i v i s t , capitalist, a g r i c u l t u r e . C o r p o r a t e
in agriculture in 1954, b u t only 3 million by l a n d o w n e r s have b e c o m e increasingly signifi-
1968, and 2 million by 1975 ( I N S E E , 1993). cant in particular production sectors (for
T i e s w e r e also w e a k e n e d as f a r m e r s s t a r t e d t o e x a m p l e , fruit, sugar) a n d p a r t i c u l a r regions
sell m o r e o f t h e i r p r o d u c e t o f o o d p r o c e s s i n g ( s u c h as C a l i f o r n i a a n d F l o r i d a ) . O n e com-
companies and supermarkets rather than p a n y , f o r i n s t a n c e , o w n s 8 0 p e r c e n t o f all
t h r o u g h l o c a l s h o p s a n d m a r k e t s , a n d as m o r e land u s e d for h o p g r o w i n g in Tasmania (Gray
a n d m o r e farmland passed i n t o t h e o w n e r s h i p a n d L a w r e n c e , 2 0 0 1 ) . O t h e r specialist c o r p o -
of corporations and absentee proprietors. rations have emerged as contract farming
T h i r d l y , t h e r e h a s b e e n a spatial effect as businesses, w o r k i n g for l a n d o w n i n g clients.
traditional agricultural geographies have b e e n One o f t h e largest s u c h firms in t h e UK,
remoulded. T h e concentration of agricultural Velcourt, farmed nearly 25,000 hectares
production included regional specialization ( 6 0 , 0 0 0 acres) i n t h e m i d - 1 9 9 0 s o n b e h a l f o f
i n p r o d u c t i o n s e c t o r s s u c h as d a i r y a n d fruit insurance companies, pension funds and
farming; in o t h e r regions the entire balance private l a n d o w n e r s (Harvey, 1998). H o w e v e r ,
of agriculture shifted with the targeting of c o r p o r a t e p o w e r has b e e n m o s t substantially
government subsidies, large proportions of advanced by the increasing dependence of
Illinois a n d I o w a , for e x a m p l e , b e i n g c o n v e r t e d independent a n d family farmers on a rela-
from grazing land to arable land in t h e 1970s t i v e l y s m a l l r a n g e o f c o m p a n i e s as s u p p l i e r s
an d 1980s ( M a n n i n g , 1997). Intensive, c o m - a n d b u y e r s . O n t h e o n e h a n d , f a r m e r s rely o n
mercial agriculture was established in some a limited number of companies to supply
p e r i p h e r a l r e g i o n s , s u c h as p a r t s o f A n d a l u c i a seed, agri-chemicals a n d machinery. O n the
i n S p a i n , f o r t h e first t i m e , w h i l s t i n o t h e r less o t h e r h a n d , t h e y rely o n an equally limited
favoured or pressurized rural regions farming range of companies to b u y their products. In
d e c l i n e d at a n a b o v e a v e r a g e r a t e as i n d i v i d u a l N e w Zealand the top three processing c o m -
farms found themselves unable to c o m p e t e in p a n i e s a c c o u n t e d f o r o v e r t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f all
the globalized agricultural market. dairy p r o d u c t s in 1992, u p from 4 2 p e r c e n t
Fourthly, the 'industrialization' of agricul- in 1960, w i t h similar trends o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n
ture has h a d a political a n d e c o n o m i c i m p a c t e v i d e n t in o t h e r sectors (Table 4.4) (Le H e r o n ,
b y shifting p o w e r from individual farmers t o 1993). As n o t e d in C h a p t e r 3, m a n y of the
corporations engaged in different stages of c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e different stages o f
the c o m m o d i t y chain. T h e growing corporate the process have b e e n linked together t h r o u g h
49
shareholdings a n d strategic alliances in global c a p i t a l , a n d o n e w a y o f a c h i e v i n g t h a t is t o

'food chain clusters' dominated by large squeeze the payments m a d e to farmers, such
transnational corporations including M o n s a n t o , that o n l y a small p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e s u p e r m a r -
Cargill and C o n A g r a . Vertical integration k e t p r i c e o f f o o d f i n d s its w a y b a c k t o the
o f t h i s k i n d is d o n e t o m a x i m i z e r e t u r n s on producer (Figure 4.1).
Box 4.3 Disease - an unanticipated consequence

of productivism ?
T h e us e o f b i o t e c h n o l o g y t o e r a d i c a t e o r c o n t r o l p l a n t a n d a n i m a l disease s w a s o n e o f
t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h f a r m e rs a t t e m p t e d t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i ty d u r i ng t h e p r o d u c t i v i s t
e r a . I r o n i c a l ly h o w e v e r , s o m e o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s e m p l o y e d in p r o d u c t i v i s t a g r i c u l t u re
a re n o w s u s p e c t e d o f a s s i s t i n g t h e s p r e a d o f s o m e d i s e a s e s a n d e v e n o f c r e a t i n g ne w
l i v e s t o c k diseases . In 1 9 8 6 t h e f i r st cas e o f b o v i n e s p o n g i f o r m e n c e p h a l o p a t h y (BSE )
( a l s o k n o w n a s ' m a d c o w d i s e a s e ' ) w a s o f f i c i a l ly c o n f i r m e d in c a t t l e in E n g l a n d . A b r a in
d i s o r d e r , BS E w a s n e w in c a t t l e , b u t a s i m i l a r d i s e a s e , s c r a p i e , ha s l o n g a f f e c t e d s h e e p .
It w a s s o o n e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e d i s e a s e h a d p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a t e d in s c r a p i e - i n f e c t e d
s h e e p o f f a l f e d t o c a t t l e - p a r t o f a w i d e r p r a c t i c e o f f e e d i n g n a t u r a l ly herbivorous
l i v e s t o c k , s u c h a s c a t t l e , w i t h c h e a p , i n d u s t r i a l ly p r o d u c e d f e e d m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m t h e
b y - p r o d u c ts o f slaughtere d animals , i n c l u d i ng chicke n l i t t e r, pig offal an d cattle
r e m a i n s ( M a c n a g h t e n a n d U r r y, 1 9 9 8 ) . B e t w e e n 1 9 8 6 a n d 1 9 9 6 o v e r 1 6 0 , 0 0 0 case s
o f BS E w e r e c o n f i r m e d in t h e U K, i n f e c t i n g a t l e a s t 5 4 p e r c e n t o f d a i ry h e r d s an d
3 4 p e r c e n t o f b r e e d i n g h e r d s ( W o o d s , 1 9 9 8 a ) . F o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i on o f a b a n o n
t h e i n c l u s i o n o f s h e e p m e a l in a n i m a l f e e d in 1 9 8 8 , i n c i d e n c e s o f t h e diseas e b e g a n t o f a l l,
50
Agricultural change
b u t a m o r e s e r i o u s w o r ry r e m a i n e d . If BS E h a d b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d t o c a t t l e f r o m s h e e p
b y i n f e c t e d m e a t c o u l d BS E b e t r a n s m i t t e d t o h u m a n s t h r o u g h t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of
i n f e c t e d b e e f ? C o u l d i t i n d e e d , b e t h e c a u s e o f a n e w v a r i a n t o f a s i m i l a r h u m a n b r a in
d i s o r d e r , C r e u t z f e l d - J a k o b Diseas e (CJD) t h a t h a d b e e n r e c o r d e d d u r i ng t h e 1980s ?
W h e n in M a r ch 1 9 9 6 B r i t i sh g o v e r n m e n t s c i e n t i s t s r e p o r t e d t h a t e x p o s u r e t o t h e BS E
a g e n t w a s ' t he m o s t p l a u s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n' o f t h e c a u s e o f n e w v a r i a n t CJD, t h e e f f e c t
w a s d r a m a t i c . T h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n i m p o s e d a n i m m e d i a t e b a n o n t h e e x p o r t o f B r i t i sh
b e e f , a n d b e e f sale s w i t h in t h e U K i t s e l f f e l l s h a r p l y . In a n a t t e m p t t o r e s t o r e c o n s u m e r
confidenc e an d resum e exports , t he g o v e r n m e n t e m b a r k e d o n a n eradicatio n strateg y
i n v o l v i ng the slaughte r of ove r a m i l l i on cattle an d costin g ove r 2. 5 b i l l i on
( M a c n a g h t e n a n d Urry, 1 9 9 8 ) . BS E ha s b e e n c o n t r o l l e d in t h e UK, b u t r e m a i n s a t h r e a t .
O u t b r e a k s h a v e o c c u r r e d in E u r o p e , p a r t i c u l a r ly France , S w i t z e r l a n d a n d m o s t n o t a b l y
G e r m a n y - w h e r e t h e scar e l e d t o t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e a g r i c u l t u re m i n i s t e r a n d t h e
a p p o i n t m e n t o f a n e w m i n i s t e r f r o m t h e G r e e n p a r t y, c o m m i t t e d t o r e f o r m i ng p r o d u c -
t i v i st f a r m i n g. I s o l a t e d i n c i d e n c e s in C a n a d a in M a y 2 0 0 3 a n d t h e U n i t e d State s in
D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 3 h a v e r a i s e d f e a r s t h a t t h e diseas e m a y h a v e s p r e a d t o N o r th A m e r i c a .
B r i t i sh f a r m i ng h a d b a r e l y r e c o v e r e d f r o m BS E w h e n a s e c o n d e p i d e m i c - t h is t i m e
o f f o o t a n d m o u t h d i s e a s e ( F M D) (als o k n o w n a s ' h o o f a n d m o u t h d i s e a s e ' ) - s t r u c k in
2 0 0 1 . U n l i ke BSE , f o o t a n d m o u t h is n o t a n e w d i s e a s e . It is e n d e m i c in m a n y p a r ts o f
t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d , b u t h a d b e e n e r a d i c a t e d in m o s t o f t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d , w h e r e
it is c o n s i d e r e d a s o n e o f t h e m o s t s e r i o u s a g r i c u l t u r al diseases . It is n o t u s u a l l y f a t a l t o
i n f e c t e d a n i m a l s , b u t d o e s r e d u c e p r o d u c t i v i ty a n d is t h e r e f o r e f e a r e d a s a s e r i o u s e c o -
n o m i c t h r e a t . M o r e o v e r , it c a n s p r e a d b e t w e e n specie s a n d i n f e c t a l l h o o f e d l i v e s t o c k ,
i n c l u d i ng c a t t l e , s h e e p a n d p i g s . T h e 2 0 0 1 o u t b r e a k in B r i t a in w a s t h e w o r l d 's w o r s t
e v e r e p i d e m i c o f f o o t a n d m o u t h d i s e a s e , a n d w h i l s t m o d e r n a g r i c u l t u re c a n n o t b e
b l a m e d a s t h e s o u r c e o f F M D, its p r a c t i c e s d i d i n t e n s i f y t h e s p e e d a n d scal e o f t h e e p i -
d e m i c . H i g h s t o c k d e n s i t i e s o n f a r ms a n d , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y, t h e p r a c t i c e o f t r a n s p o r t-
i ng a n i m a l s l o n g d i s t a n c e s acros s t h e c o u n t r y t o c e n t r a l i z e d l i v e s t o c k m a r k e t s an d
a b a t t o i rs h e l p e d t h e d i s e a s e t o s p r e a d r a p i d ly acros s B r i t a i n. A g a i n , t h e e p i d e m i c w a s
c o n t r o l l e d o n l y t h r o u g h a l a r g e - s c a l e c u l l o f o v e r 4 m i l l i on a t - r i sk a n i m a l s , a n d t h e
e f f e c t i v e ' c l o s u r e ' o f s i g n i f i c a n t p a r ts o f t h e B r i t i sh c o u n t r y s i d e t o p u b l ic access , w i t h a
c o n s i d e r a b l e k n o c k - o n i m p a c t o n o t h e r p a r ts o f t h e r u r al e c o n o m y , e s p e c i a l l y t o u r i s m .
For more details see the websites of the UK government's Inquiries into the BSE and foot and mouth
epidemics: www.bse.org.uk and www.defra.gov.uk/footandmouth/. For more on BSE see P. Macnaghten
and J. Urry (1998) Contested Natures (Sage), ch. 8; Michael Woods (1998) Mad cows and hounded deer:
political representations of animals in the British countryside. Environment and Planning A, 30, 1219-1234.
The Farm Crisis consequences (see Box 4.3). However, in

The productivist regime in agriculture has t e r m s o f its c e n t r a l o b j e c t i v e o f i n c r e a s i n g a g r i -
h a d p r o f o u n d a n d f a r - r e a c h i n g effects o n t h e cultural production, productivism was an
rural e c o n o m i e s , societies a n d environments u n d o u b t e d success. B e t w e e n 1961 a n d 1990,
of the developed world. S o m e of these may agricultural p r o d u c t i o n in the developed w o r l d
be judged (depending on your perspective) increased b y a r o u n d 6 2 p e r c e n t , so successful,
as positive, some as negative; some have i n d e e d , t h a t t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d is t o d a y p r o -
been intentional targets, others unintended ducing m o r e agricultural goods than can be
51
Commo n whea t Butter A Bee f carcasse s
p.
900 0
800 0
700 0
/
-
c
500 0
/ \ y

I 400 0
\ /
13
200 0
100 0
0 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1
198 0 198 2 198 4 198 6 198 8 199 0 199 2
Figure 4. 2 Surplus stock s in storag e in the Europea n Community, 1980-199 2

Source: After Winter, 199 6
s o l d at p r o f i t i n t h e m a r k e t p l a c e (this is n o t s t o r a g e w a s n e a r l y five t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n it
t h e s a m e as s u p p l y o u t s t r i p p i n g d e m a n d o n a h a d b e e n in 1 9 7 3 ( W i n t e r , 1996).
d o m e s t i c level - t h e U K , for e x a m p l e , was In an a t t e m p t t o relieve t h e pressure o f o v e r -
e s t i m a t e d t o b e o n l y 7 9 p e r c e n t self-sufficient p r o d u c t i o n , all t h e m a j o r a g r i c u l t u r a l produ-
in i n d i g e n o u s food in 2000). Instead, over- c i n g nations b e g a n t o search for n e w markets
production has b e e n underpinned by price by increasing exports. T h e result was fierce
support mechanisms as governments have competition, sporadic 'trade wars' b e t w e e n the
intervened to buy surplus produce at an major economic blocs, and a depression in
agreed m i n i m u m price. As Figure 4.2 shows, world c o m m o d i t y prices. Large producers, w h o
in 1980 t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y was stor- could compete effectively - and w h o were
ing nearly 5 million tonnes of surplus wheat; anyway favoured by the nature of g o v e r n m e n t
by 1982 the total had increased to nearly subsidies - gained financially during this
7 million tonnes. Although the so-called'wheat p e r i o d , b u t for smaller f a r m e r s , m o r e exposed
mountain' was subsequently (temporarily) to price fluctuations and m o r e vulnerable to
r e d u c e d , s u r p l u s s t o c k s o f b u t t e r , b e e f carcasses the intrusion of imports into domestic markets,
and other products increased. This system was it w a s t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f a f a r m crisis.
a c o r e e l e m e n t o f productivist policy, i n t e n d e d In t h e U n i t e d States t h e p r o b l e m o f o v e r -
to g u a r a n t e e a stable i n c o m e to f a r m e r s , b u t production was c o m p o u n d e d by drought and,
w i t h o v e r p r o d u c t i o n it b e g a n t o p l a c e a f i n a n - most significantly, rising interest rates. Ever
cial b u r d e n o n s o c i e t y as a w h o l e . B y 1 9 8 4 t h e s i n c e it w a s p i o n e e r e d i n turn-of-the-century
implementation of the C o m m o n Agricultural C a l i f o r n i a , c r e d i t h a d b e e n t h e catalyst f o r a g r i -
Policy ( C A P ) was c o n s u m i n g 7 0 per cent o f the cultural m o d e r n i z a t i o n . D u r i n g the 1960s and
European C o m m u n i t y ' s entire budget, and a 1970s, in particular, farmers h a d b e e n encour-
quarter of that was b e i n g spent o n storing a g e d t o b o r r o w m o n e y t o invest in m a c h i n e r y
surplus p r o d u c e . T h e actual e x p e n d i t u r e on and farm modification. Farmer debt in the U S
52
Agricultural change
almost doubled between 1970 and 1980 1 9 8 6 - 7 , nearly o n e million people - farmers
( L e H e r o n , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h i s w a s s u s t a i n a b l e so l o n g a n d t h e i r families - w e r e f o r c e d o u t o f a g r i c u l -
as interest rates remained low, commodity ture over a 1 2 - m o n t h p e r i o d (Dyer, 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e
p r i c e s r e m a i n e d stable, a n d l a n d v a l u e s c o n t i n - f a r m crisis f u n d a m e n t a l l y changed American
u e d t o rise (in I o w a , f o r e x a m p l e , farmland agriculture, reducing the commercial signifi-
p r i c e s n e a r l y q u a d r u p l e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s , see c a n c e o f s m a l l f a m i l y f a r m s , b u t it also e n t a i l e d
Stock, 1996). H o w e v e r , in t h e early 1980s t h e severe personal implications for t h e individuals
collapse o f c o m m o d i t y prices c o i n c i d e d w i t h and communities affected (see Box 4.4).
fiscal p r e s s u r e s t h a t p u s h e d U S i n t e r e s t rates A m o n g the observed consequences have b e e n
i n t o d o u b l e f i g u r e s . O v e r t h e n e x t d e c a d e it is p r o b l e m s w i t h stress a n d i n c r e a s e d s u i c i d e r a t e s
estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 farmers in rural communities (Dudley, 2000), and
defaulted o n their loans, m a n y o f t h e m in t h e g r o w i n g political alienation, s o m e o f w h i c h has
'farm belt' of Iowa, M i n n e s o t a and Wisconsin fuelled s u p p o r t for e x t r e m e r i g h t - w i n g militia
( D u d l e y , 2 0 0 0 ) . A t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e crisis i n groups (Dyer, 1998; Stock, 1996).
Box 4.4 Personal stories of the farm crisis
T he h u m a n s i d e o f t h e US f a r m crisis is r e v e a l e d b y i n t e r v i e w s w i t h f a r m i ng f a m i l i e s
c o n d u c t e d b y K a t h r yn M a r ie D u d l e y in M i n n e s o t a a n d J a n e t F i t c h e n in N e w Y o rk S t a t e .
O n e f a r m i ng c o u p l e i n t e r v i e w e d b y D u d l e y , D i c k a n d D i a n e , d e s c r i b e d t h e s p i r a l o f
c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t p u s h e d t h e i r f a r m i n to crisis . T h e y h a d p u r c h a s e d l a n d in t h e 1970 s
a t a l o w i n t e r e s t r a te o f 6 p e r c e n t a n d t o o k o u t o t h e r l o a n s f o r o p e r a t i n g e x p e n s e s .
In 1 9 8 2 , h o w e v e r , p o o r c r o p s a n d r i s i ng i n t e r e s t r a t e s p u t t h e m b e h i n d o n r e p a y m e n t s .
In o r d e r t o f i n a n c e s p r i n g p l a n t i ng in 1 9 8 4 t h e y h a d t o n e g o t i a t e a n e w l o a n p a c k a g e ,
c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e i r d e b t s w i t h t h e m o r t g a g e o n t h e i r l a n d - b u t a t a n e w i n t e r e s t r a te
o f 1 1 p e r c e n t . As i n t e r e s t r a t e s p e a k e d a t 1 9 p e r c e n t in 1 9 8 5 t h e i r a n n u a l i n t e r e s t p a y -
m e n t a v e r a g e d $ 1 , 0 0 0 a w e e k . To c o n t i n u e f a r m i ng t h e y w e r e f o r c e d t o b o r r o w f r o m
t h e ' l e n d e r o f las t r e s o r t ', t h e F a r m e rs H o m e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n, w h o g a v e t h e m a s e c o n d
m o r t g a g e o n t h e i r l a n d a n d n e w o p e r a t i n g l o a n s a t s u b s i d i z e d i n t e r e s t r a t e s . W i th t h is
p a c k a g e t h e f a r m c o u l d j u s t ' b r e a k e v e n ' a n d t h e c o u p l e r e l i e d o n t h e w i f e 's s a l a r y
f r o m a t e a c h i n g j o b f o r l i v i ng e x p e n s e s . T h e e x p e r i e n c e l e f t t h e f a m i ly s t i ll in d e b t a n d
b i t t e r a t t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e y h a d b e e n t r e a t e d a n d t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t t h e y f e l t
ha d bee n denie d to t h e m bu t give n to others .
D i c k a n d D i a n e s u r v i v e d t h e f a r m crisis . L e n a n d Y o l a n d a , a f a r m i ng c o u p l e i n t e r-
v i e w e d b y F i t c h e n , d i d n o t . Fo r t h e m t h e f i n a n c i a l p r e s s u r e s o f t h e 1980 s c o i n c i d e d
w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n b y t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o f i nd j o b s o u t s i d e f a r m i n g . T h e las t s t r a w w a s
a s u r c h a r g e b y t h e i r m i lk h a u l i e r b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e t h e o n l y f a r m a l o n g a b a c k r o a d .
As L e n e x p l a i n e d , ' t he o n l y w a y t o d e a l w i t h a l l t h is w o u l d b e t o e x p a n d . Bac k t w e n t y -
f i ve y e a r s a g o , a f a m i ly f a r m c o u l d s u r v i ve w i t h 2 5 c o w s , b u t n o w a d a y s y o u h a v e t o
h a v e a t leas t 5 0 - a n d w e s i m p l y c o u l d n ' t d o al l t h e w o r k o u r s e l v e s ' ( F i t c h e n , 1 9 9 1 ,
p. 2 5 ) . L e n a n d Y o l a n d a s o l d t h e i r c a t t l e a s p a r t o f a f e d e r a l b u y o u t , a u c t i o n e d o f f t h e
e q u i p m e n t a n d s o l d t h e f a r m t o a n i n - m i g r a nt f r o m t h e city.
For more on these and other accounts of the farm crisis see Kathryn Marie Dudley (2000) Debt and
Dispossession: Farm Loss in America's Heartland (University of Chicago Press); Janet Fitchen (1991)
Endangered Spaces, Enduring Places: Change, Identity and Survival in Rural America (Westview Press).
53
A r e d u c t i o n in interest rates c o m b i n e d w i t h pursued by New Z e a l a n d , a r e all discussed

adjustments in t h e agricultural sector even- l a t e r i n t h i s b o o k i n C h a p t e r 9 . H o w e v e r , it
t u a l l y s e r v e d t o d e f u s e t h e U S f a r m crisis, b u t w o u l d b e w r o n g to suggest that productivism
the fundamental problem of over-production remains u n c h e c k e d . Since the 1980s, n u m e r o u s
h a s p e r s i s t e d . T h e c o n t i n u i n g efforts o f p o l i c y - initiatives have been adopted to gradually
m a k e r s t o agree substantial reforms t o a g r i c u l - reform agriculture by shifting government
tural policy in E u r o p e a n d t h e U n i t e d States, subsidies a w a y f r o m p r o d u c t i o n . T h e i m p l e m e n -
the significance of agriculture in interna- t a t i o n o f t h e s e m e a s u r e s h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d as
tional trade negotiations, a n d t h e radical r o u t e the 'post-productivist transition' (Box 4.5).
Box 4.5 Key term
P o s t - p r o d u c t i v i s t t r a n s i t i o n : T h e g e n e r a l t e r m e m p l o y e d t o r e f e r t o c h a n g e s w i t h in
a g r i c u l t u r al p o l i c y a n d p r a c t i c e t h a t h a v e s h i f t e d t h e e m p h a s i s a w a y f r o m production
t o w a r d s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e a g r i c u l t u r e. T h e p o s t - p r o d u c t i v i s t t r a n s i t i on
(PPT ) h a s b e e n d r i v e n b y a d i v e r s e s e t o f i n i t i a t i v es a i m e d a t p r o m o t i n g a r a n g e of
s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c o b j e c t i v e s . As t h e t e r m ' t r a n s i t i o n' i m p l i e s , t h e c o n c e p t s u g g e s t s
n o t a n a b r u p t s w i t c h f r o m p r o d u c t i v i s t p o l i c y (q.v.) b u t r a t h e r a g r a d u a l proces s of
r e f o rm a n d a d a p t a t i o n .
The Post-productivist Transition reducing the a m o u n t of chemical and other
When compared w i t h the focused drive of artificial i n p u t s u s e d b y f a r m e r s . T h i s h a s b e e n
productivism, the post-productivist transition p r o m o t e d in part b y r e m o v i n g o r restricting

is a far m o r e a m b i g u o u s a n d multi-faceted subsidies that supported intensive farming,
c o n c e p t . It is c l e a r t h a t it is a m o v e a w a y f r o m b u t also t h r o u g h specific i n i t i a t i v e s t o a c t i v e l y
p r o d u c t i v i s m , b u t w h a t it is a m o v e t o w a r d s is e n c o u r a g e m o r e extensive forms of agriculture,
less c e r t a i n . S o m e e l e m e n t s o f p o s t - p r o d u c t i v i s t s u c h as t h e t e m p o r a r y r e t i r e m e n t o f f a r m l a n d
policy have emphasized environmental goals from p r o d u c t i o n . T h e most notable example of
s u c h as r e p l a n t i n g w o o d l a n d (see C h a p t e r 1 3 ) ; this is t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n ' s s e t - a s i d e s c h e m e ,
o t h e r s h a v e e m p h a s i z e d s o c i a l g o a l s s u c h as l a u n c h e d o n a v o l u n t a r y basis i n 1 9 8 8 . U n d e r
the protection of t h e family farm, yet u n d e r - the scheme, farmers received c o m p e n s a t i o n pay-
l y i n g t h e p o l i c y shift as a w h o l e is a c o n c e r n m e n t s f o r r e t i r i n g at least 2 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r
w i t h finding an economically viable model a r a b l e l a n d from p r o d u c t i o n f o r a m i n i m u m o f
for a g r i c u l t u r e w i t h o u t t h e disbenefits that five years. H o w e v e r , initial projections that
have b e c o m e associated w i t h productivism. In 6 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s w o u l d b e set a s i d e p r o v e d
broad terms, however, the post-productivist over-optimistic, with less than 2 million
transition has b e e n understood as involving hectares (or 2.6 p e r c e n t o f arable land in t h e
four key c o m p o n e n t s extensification; farm E U ) i n c l u d e d i n t h e first p h a s e o f t h e s c h e m e .
diversification; an emphasis on countryside P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n c r e a s e d t o s u b s t a n t i a l levels o n l y
stewardship; and enhancing the value of following the introduction of a compulsory
agricultural products. set-aside s c h e m e for cereal f a r m e r s in 1992
Extensification aims to reverse t h e intensifica- (Table 4.5), a n d b y 2 0 0 1 involved 12.4 p e r c e n t

tion of agriculture, slowing production and o f arable land in t h e E U
54
Agricultural change
T a b le 4 . 5 Land retired unde r t he Europea n Union's

set-asid e schem e
L a nd r e t i r ed ( t h o u s a n d h e c t a r e s )
1988-9 2 1993- 4 2001- 2
Austria 103. 9
Belgiu m 0. 9 19 27. 5
Denmar k 12. 8 20 8 217. 7
Finland 198. 0
France 235. 5 157 8 1575. 8
German y 479. 3 105 0 1156. 2
Greec e 0. 7 15 45. 7
Ireland 3. 5 26 36. 4
Italy 721. 8 19 5 232. 9
Luxembourg 0. 1 2 2. 1
Netherland s 15. 4 8 22. 6
Portuga l 61 99. 1
Spai n 103. 2 87 5 1610. 6
Swede n 269. 2
Unite d K i n g d om 152. 7 56 8 847. 9
Europea n Unio n t o t a l 1725. 8 460 5 6445. 6

Source: llbery an d Bowler, 1998 ; Europea n Unio n DGVI
Farm diversification seeks to reduce the processing, p i c k - y o u r - o w n fruit enterprises

dependency of farm households on agricul- a n d craft s h o p s , as w e l l as d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n into
tural p r o d u c t i o n so t h a t f a r m s r e m a i n viable n e w crops a n d livestock.
as a n e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l u n i t e v e n as p r o - The significance of income from pluri-
d u c t i o n is d e c r e a s e d . T e c h n i c a l l y , f a r m diver- a c t i v i t y h a s i n c r e a s e d as f u r t h e r v o l a t i l i t y i n
sification refers only to 'the development c o m m o d i t y prices has p u s h e d direct a g r i c u l -
of non-traditional (alternative) enterprises tural income down. The average farming
o n t h e f a r m ' (llbery, 1 9 9 2 , p. 102). H o w e v e r , family in t h e U n i t e d States in 1 9 9 7 earned
together with income generated by farm over 88 per cent of their i n c o m e from off-
household members through off-farm farm sources, over half o f w h i c h (equivalent
employment, diversification contributes to to an average of $25,000 per farm) came
pluriactivity, described by llbery a n d B o w l e r from off-farm e m p l o y m e n t (Johnson, 2000).
( 1 9 9 8 ) as ' t h e g e n e r a t i o n b y f a r m h o u s e h o l d s Similarly, in England over a quarter of
of income from on-farm and/or off-farm farms received i n c o m e from pluriactivity in
sources in addition to the i n c o m e obtained 1997-8, again largely through off-farm
f r o m p r i m a r y a g r i c u l t u r e ' (p. 7 5 ) . F a r m d i v e r - employment (Table 4.6). Across Europe,
sification has b e e n s u p p o r t e d b y direct grants, research indicated t h a t a r o u n d 5 8 p e r cent
loans and training schemes. T h e type of diver- o f f a r m h o u s e h o l d s were pluriactive in the
sified activity adopted by farms will vary l a t e 1 9 8 0 s , b u t also t h a t levels o f p l u r i a c t i v i t y
d e p e n d i n g o n t h e farm's location a n d s t r u c - varied considerably b e t w e e n regions, ranging
ture, t h e interests o f t h e farm h o u s e h o l d a n d from 27 p e r cent in Picardie (France) and
t h e potential m a r k e t , b u t significant e x a m p l e s 3 3 p e r c e n t in A n d a l u c i a (Spain) t o 7 2 per
include the development of farm tourism, on- cent in West B o t h n i a (Sweden) and 81 per cent
site f a r m s h o p s , h o r s e r i d i n g c e n t r e s , o n - s i t e f o o d i n F r e y u n g - G r a f e n a u ( G e r m a n y ) (Fuller, 1 9 9 0 ;
55
T a b le 4. 6 Non-agricultural incom e o f farmers an d spouse s in England , 1997-199 8

% o f f a r m e rs Averag e incom e Averag e incom e
receivin g (all f a r m s ) ( o n f a r ms r e c e i v i n g )
O n - f a rm non-agricultural incom e 4 20 0 5,60 0
(e.g . t o u r i s m, f a rm shops )
O f f - f a rm incom e 58 4,80 0 8,40 0
o f w h i c h : Self-employmen t 8 80 0 9,90 0
Employmen t 14 1,60 0 11,10 0
Socia l payment s 18 20 0 1,30 0
Investments , 40 2,20 0 5,50 0
pensions , etc .
All non-agricultural incom e 58 5,00 0 8,60 0
All incom e f r om pluriactivity 23 2,60 0 11,20 0
(exclude s socia l payments ,
investments , pensions , etc. )
Source: Cabine t Office , 200 0
Ilbery and Bowler, 1998). Indeed, farm hedgerows, walls, ponds and orchards, to
engagement in p l u r i a c t i v i t y reflects a range maintain stiles and gates that help public
of factors, i n c l u d i n g the relative prosperity access, t o i m p l e m e n t m a n a g e m e n t plans for
o f t h e locally d o m i n a n t agricultural sector, sensitive habitats, a n d in s o m e parts o f t h e
the opportunities for off-farm employment U n i t e d States - simply to keep farmland in
o r o n - f a r m diversification, a n d historic social a g r i c u l t u r a l use, regardless o f t h e t y p e o r level
and economic structures. T h u s , Campagne of production. Politically, however, some
e t al. ( 1 9 9 0 ) i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f farmers have objected that they are being
pluriactivity o c c u r r i n g in different r e g i o n s o f forced to b e c o m e 'park-keepers', whilst o t h e r
France. In t h e L a n g u e d o c they f o u n d a l o n g critics have a r g u e d that t h e s c h e m e s reward
history of pluriactivity, the income from the w r o n g farmers:
w h i c h is i n v e s t e d i n t h e f a r m . I n t h e more
To collec t a g r a n t fo r r e s t o r i ng a m e a d o w
marginal farming region of the Savoie, in
o r p l a n t i ng a n e w h e d g e y o u n e e d first to
contrast, involvement in a diverse range
h a v e d e s t r o y e d t he o r i g i n a l s . T h e f a r m e rs
o f activities off-farm was n e c e s s a r y for sur-
m a k i ng m o s t f r om environmenta l pay -
vival, w h i l s t in t h e m o r e p r o s p e r o u s , arable
ment s a re t h o s e who d id t he greates t
region of Picardie, pluriactivity t e n d e d to be
d a m a g e d u r i ng t he f r e n z i e d y e a r s o f all-
more entrepreneurial, including farm-based ou t p r o d u c t i o n. (Harvey , 1 9 9 8 , pp . 6 0 - 6 1 )
enterprises.
T h e e m p h a s i s o n countryside stewardship is Finally, a f o u r t h s t r a t e g y h a s b e e n t o e n a b l e
arguably b o t h a form of extensification and f a r m s t o l o w e r p r o d u c t i o n levels b y enhancing
a c o n t r i b u t o r to diversification, b u t has a dis- the value o f t h e i r o u t p u t s , p a r t i c u l a r b y s p e c i a l -
t i n c t i v e l o g i c . It r e c o g n i z e s t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y izing in quality ' r e g i o n - b r a n d e d ' p r o d u c e that
f a r m i n g in creating and m a i n t a i n i n g t h e rural c a n b e s o l d at a p r e m i u m . S i n c e 1 9 9 2 , s p e c i a l -
landscape, b u t seeks to reward farmers directly ist r e g i o n a l f o o d s i n t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n h a v e
for t h e i r s t e w a r d s h i p o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , r a t h e r been awarded a 'protected designation of
t h a n r e g a r d i n g t h i s as a b y - p r o d u c t o f a g r i c u l - origin' ( P D O ) or a 'protected geographical indi-
tural production. Under initiatives of this cation' (PGI) t o restrict t h e use o f place-related
kind, farmers have been paid to restore branding. Examples include P a r m a h a m , Belfort
56
Agricultural change
cheese and Jersey R o y a l potatoes. E v e n w i t h o u t O n t h e o r e t i c a l g r o u n d s , E v a n s e t al. ( 2 0 0 2 )

p r o t e c t e d status, t h e m a r k e t i n g o f r e g i o n a l l y argue that the notion of a 'post-productivist
branded food can evoke an implication of t r a n s i t i o n ' sets u p a n o v e r l y s i m p l i s t i c d u a l i s m
q u a l i t y a n d t h u s i n c r e a s e retail p r i c e s . K n e a f s e y b e t w e e n a p r o d u c t i v i s t era, t h a t p e r h a p s was
e t al. ( 2 0 0 1 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , discuss t h e m a r k e t i n g n e v e r as s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d as s u g g e s t e d , a n d a
o f r e g i o n a l foodstuffs from Wales, including post-productivist era, e v i d e n c e for which is
Welsh Black Beef, Saltmarsh L a m b , Llyn B e e f c o n t e n t i o u s at b e s t . T h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f a g r i -
a n d L l y n R o s e Veal. cultural c h a n g e d u r i n g t h e closing years o f t h e
T h e various initiatives that have b e e n clus- t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y have h e n c e b e e n glossed over
tered together u n d e r the banner of the 'post- by debates that have focused o n the timing a n d
productivist transition' have, as indicated categorization of the post-productivist transi-
above, b e g u n t o c h a n g e aspects o f agricultural tion, and w h i c h h a v e failed t o e n g a g e with
policy and practice. However, the extent to behavioural a n d actor-orientated research on
w h i c h they add up to a fundamental 'restruc- rural change (Wilson, 2001) a n d t h e evidence
t u r i n g ' o f a g r i c u l t u r e is q u e s t i o n a b l e . E v a n s of farm-level dynamics (Argent, 2002). W i l s o n
e t al. ( 2 0 0 2 ) c r i t i q u e t h e c o n c e p t o f ' p o s t - (2001) suggests that the concept might be
productivism' on both empirical and theoret- modified by looking beyond agriculture to
ical g r o u n d s . E m p i r i c a l l y , t h e y a r g u e t h a t t h e w i d e r rural c h a n g e a n d a d o p t i n g n e w terms
evidence for post-productivism has been t h a t b e t t e r reflect t h e l a r g e r p i c t u r e . E v a n s e t al.
selectively p r e s e n t e d . S o m e p r o c l a i m e d fea- ( 2 0 0 2 ) , h o w e v e r , are b l u n t e r , d e s c r i b i n g p o s t -
t u r e s o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n , s u c h as t h e d i v e r s i f i c a - p r o d u c t i v i s m as 'a d i s t r a c t i o n f r o m developing
t i o n o f f a r m s i n t o n e w c r o p s ( s u c h as e v e n i n g theoretically i n f o r m e d perspectives o n agricul-
primrose) and livestock (such as llamas) t u r e ' (p. 3 2 5 ) , a n d p r o p o s i n g t h a t it b e aban-
still r e f l e c t t h e l o g i c o f p r o d u c t i v i s m ; w h i l s t doned in favour of a more critical, v a r i e d ,
o t h e r o b s e r v e d c h a n g e s , s u c h as extensifica- e n g a g e m e n t w i t h b r o a d e r social a n d e c o n o m i c
tion, can result from factors o t h e r t h a n p o s t - theory.
p r o d u c t i v i s m - w h i c h has b e e n p u r s u e d w i t h
differing degrees o f enthusiasm by different The Future of Farming?
g o v e r n m e n t s . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e W h a t e v e r the o u t c o m e o f the o n g o i n g struggle
e v i d e n c e for t h e c o n t i n u i n g s t r e n g t h o f p r o - to reform agricultural policy, t h e future of
d u c t i v i s m . A s E v a n s e t al. ( 2 0 0 2 ) n o t e , ' p o l i t i - f a r m i n g is a l r e a d y b e i n g s h a p e d b y t h e t r a n s -
cal e m p h a s i s o n t h e n e e d f o r f a r m e r s t o b e national corporations that d o m i n a t e the agri-
able to c o m p e t e in a liberalized global m a r k e t b u s i n e s s a n d r e t a i l i n g s e c t o r s . M o r e t h a n ever,
seems to place greater emphasis worldwide twenty-first-century agriculture is d r i v e n by
on the continuation of productivist prin- t h e capitalist i m p e r a t i v e t o m a x i m i z e returns
c i p l e s ' (p. 3 1 6 ) , a n d this can be identified o n i n v e s t m e n t . Increasingly, h o w e v e r , this m e a n s
for instance in t h e d e r e g u l a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e i m p r o v i n g t h e p r o d u c t , as o p p o s e d t o m a x i m i z -
i n N e w Z e a l a n d (see C h a p t e r 9 ) . C e r t a i n l y , ing production. Many of the strategies for
the U K g o v e r n m e n t spent 2 , 6 3 6 . 8 million a c h i e v i n g this b u i l d o n t e c h n i q u e s a n d m e t h o d s
on subsidies and payments supporting d e v e l o p e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i v i s t era, a n d o f t h e s e
agricultural p r o d u c t i o n in 200001, and just t h e m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l is t h e u s e o f g e n e t i c
3 7 6 . 1 m i l l i o n o n ' p o s t - p r o d u c t i v i s t ' initiatives, e n g i n e e r i n g t o m o d i f y crops a n d livestock.
including set-aside, farm diversification and Genetic modification (GM) involves the
countryside stewardship. alteration of a plant o r animal's D N A in order
57
T a b le 4. 7 Som e commerciall y availabl e geneticall y m o d i f i e d organism s (GMOs)

Purpos e o f geneti c
G MO M o d i f i c a t i on Sourc e o f g e n e modification
Maize Insec t resistanc e Bacillus thuringiensis Reduce d insec t d a m a g e
Soybea n Herbicide toleranc e Streptomyces spp . Greate r w e e d c o n t r o l
Cotton Insec t resistanc e Bacillus thuringiensis Reduce d insec t d a m a g e
Escherichia coli Productio n o f chymosi n Cow s Us e in chees e m a k i ng
K12 o r rennin
Carnations A l t e r a t i on o f colou r Freesi a Produc e d i f f e r e nt
varieties o f f l o w e rs
Source: A f t er Bruinsma , 200 3
to suppress or emphasize certain attributes. agriculture w o u l d further concentrate power

T h u s genetically modified organisms ( G M O s ) in t h e c o m m o d i t y chain w i t h large c o r p o r a -
can b e p r o d u c e d that are resistant t o viruses, t i o n s , as t h e m o d i f i e d s e e d m u s t b e p u r c h a s e d
insects o r herbicides, that are larger o r m o r e from the patent-holding biotechnology
productive than in their natural state, or company.
w h i c h are d e s i g n e d t o appeal t o consumers' Between 1 9 9 6 a n d 2 0 0 1 t h e area o f GM
preferences - by being juicier or brighter crop cultivation globally increased 30-fold,
c o l o u r e d (Table 4.7). S u p p o r t e r s o f G M a r g u e from 1.7 million hectares to 52.6 million
t h a t it offers t h e p o t e n t i a l o f m a i n t a i n i n g a g r i - hectares (Bruinsma, 2003).Yet, 69 per cent of
cultural productivity w i t h o u t intensive farming. t h a t l a n d is i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d 2 2 p e r
GM crops, they argue, are environmentally cent in A r g e n t i n a , w i t h t h e r e m a i n d e r spread
friendly because they can b e modified to p r o - between just 11 o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . T h e result
duce their own pest-killing toxins, thus is a h i g h l y p o l a r i z e d a g r i c u l t u r a l geography.
r e d u c i n g t h e n e e d for spraying f a r m l a n d w i t h G M c r o p s n o w a c c o u n t f o r 6 1 p e r c e n t o f all
chemicals. R e s i s t a n t G M O s o f this k i n d are upland cotton grown in t h e U n i t e d States,
particularly advocated to be a solution to and 54 per cent of all soybeans (USDA,
famine in d e v e l o p i n g countries by p r o t e c t i n g 2000), yet in m a n y o t h e r countries cultivation
against c r o p failure d u e t o disease o r insects. is r e s t r i c t e d t o t e s t sites (as i n t h e U K ) , o r
H o w e v e r , scares o v e r f o o d q u a l i t y h a v e d i m i n - specific, n o n - f o o d crops (as i n France and
ished public confidence in biotechnology S p a i n ) . G M f o o d is a l s o a m a j o r i s s u e i n g l o b a l
and there is c o n s i d e r a b l e scepticism about trade negotiations, w i t h the E u r o p e a n Union
t h e safety o f G M O s a n d t h e i r l i k e l y effect o n i n s i s t i n g o n t h e l a b e l l i n g o f all p r o d u c e i n c l u d -
the environment. O p p o n e n t s claim that the ing G M O s . W i t h restricted trade opportuni-
long-term health consequences of G M are ties a n d s o m e d i s a p p o i n t m e n t at t h e r e s u l t s o f
unknown a n d fear t h e e x t i n c t i o n of tradi- GMO cultivation, t h e r e are indications that
tional crop species - n o t least b e c a u s e they t h e r a t e o f g r o w t h o f G M a g r i c u l t u r e is s l o w -
fear t h a t c r o s s - p o l l i n a t i o n will transfer GM ing, and that GMO production in North
genes to n o n - G M plants. As such, t h e decision America d e c r e a s e d i n t h e first y e a r s o f the
whether or not to permit the planting n e w century.
of G M crops has b e c o m e h i g h l y politicized O r g a n i c f a r m i n g is o f t e n p r e s e n t e d as t h e
in m a n y c o u n t r i e s , f o r m i n g , for e x a m p l e , a key p o l a r o p p o s i t e t o G M , a n d as t h e a l t e r n a t i v e
issue in t h e 2 0 0 2 G e n e r a l E l e c t i o n in New m o d e l for future agriculture. O r g a n i c f a r m i n g
Zealand. Moreover, the expansion of GM prohibits the use of synthetic chemical
58
Agricultural change
fertilizers a n d pesticides, m i n i m i z e s external as t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f o r g a n i c s h a s g r o w n , s o it

inputs and maximizes the use o f farm-derived has b e c o m e e s t a b l i s h e d as a n o t h e r f o r m of
resources a n d natural products a n d processes. capitalist a g r i c u l t u r e . Surveys in D e n m a r k a n d
Advocates claim that organic farming O n t a r i o have s h o w n that m o r e recent con-
produces better quality and more healthy verters t o o r g a n i c f a r m i n g are m o r e likely t o
f o o d , s u c h t h a t w h i l s t t h e r e is a l o w e r l e v e l o f b e m o t i v a t e d by profit t h a n earlier converters,
productivity than conventional agriculture, a n d less d r i v e n b y p u r e l y e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n -
organic produce is a b l e t o command pre- cerns (Hall a n d M o g y o r o d y , 2 0 0 1 ; M i c h e l s e n ,
mium retail p r i c e s . As s u c h , c o n v e r s i o n to 2001); and there is s o m e limited evidence
organic p r o d u c t i o n has b e c o m e highly attrac- of'conventionalization' a m o n g organic farm-
t i v e t o f a r m e r s f a c i n g e c o n o m i c difficulties i n ers w h o have specialized and/or increased
conventional agriculture. T h e total amount t h e i r f a r m size ( H a l l a n d M o g y o r o d y , 2 0 0 1 ) .
of certified organic farmland in Western M o r e o v e r , as o r g a n i c producers move into
E u r o p e a n d t h e U n i t e d States tripled b e t w e e n mainstream markets they have become
1995 and 2000, and by 2000 accounted for increasingly dependent on corporate food
2.4 p e r cent o f agricultural land in the f o r m e r processors a n d retailers. O n e o f t h e m o s t sig-
a n d 0.22 p e r c e n t in t h e latter (Bruinsma, nificant boosts to organic f a r m i n g in t h e UK
2 0 0 3 ) . Similarly, t h e v a l u e o f o r g a n i c p r o d u c - was provided by the decision by a super-
t i o n for t h e e x p o r t m a r k e t in N e w Zealand m a r k e t c h a i n , I c e l a n d , i n 2 0 0 0 t o s w i t c h its
increased from U S $ 0 . 0 5 million in 1990, to entire o w n brand vegetable range to organics.
over U S $ 3 0 million in 2 0 0 0 ( C a m p b e l l and H o w e v e r , t h e s u p e r m a r k e t ' s r e c a n t i n g o f its
Liepins, 2001). policy a year later raised c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e
I n its e a r l y d a y s , o r g a n i c a g r i c u l t u r e was sustainability of consumer demand for
often associated with small-scale, non- organic produce and therefore the potential
c o m m e r c i a l f a r m i n g a n d self-sufficiency, yet for f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o f o r g a n i c f a r m i n g .
Summary
A g r i c u l t u r e in t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d has b e e n f u n d a m e n t a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . F r o m a p o s i t i o n at t h e h e a r t o f r u r a l life, f a r m i n g h a s b e e n p u s h e d t o t h e
m a r g i n s o f t h e r u r a l e c o n o m y i n t e r m s o f e m p l o y m e n t a n d its c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p r o d u c t i o n , b u t
r e t a i n s a t r e m e n d o u s s y m b o l i c p o w e r t h a t c o m p l i c a t e s a n y efforts t o f u r t h e r r e f o r m t h e i n d u s t r y .
M u c h o f t h e c h a n g e w i t h i n a g r i c u l t u r e h a s b e e n f o i s t e d o n t o r u r a l areas b y e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s .
I n d e e d , far f r o m b e i n g t h e a g e n t s o f c h a n g e , f a r m e r s t h e m s e l v e s a r e o n l y o n e o f f o u r g r o u p s o f
k e y a c t o r s t h a t h a v e s h a p e d t h e e v o l u t i o n o f m o d e r n a g r i c u l t u r e . First, a p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c
analysis o f a g r i c u l t u r e as a capitalist i n d u s t r y reveals t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e o w n e r s o f c a p i t a l -
i n c l u d i n g i n v e s t o r s , b a n k s a n d a g r i - f o o d c o r p o r a t i o n s as w e l l as s o m e l a n d o w n e r s i n
p r o m o t i n g t h e ' m o d e r n i z a t i o n ' o f a g r i c u l t u r e as a m e a n s o f m a x i m i z i n g r e t u r n s . T h e i n t e g r a t i o n
of farmers into 'food chain complexes' d o m i n a t e d by corporations c o n c e r n e d w i t h seed
p r o d u c t i o n , f o o d p r o c e s s i n g a n d r e t a i l i n g , h a s left d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h e f u t u r e o f a g r i c u l t u r e
i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n c o r p o r a t e h a n d s . S e c o n d l y , h o w e v e r , a g r i c u l t u r e is n o t a n u n f e t t e r e d
free m a r k e t , b u t r a t h e r is o n e o f t h e m o s t r e g u l a t e d p a r t s o f t h e g l o b a l e c o n o m y . T h i s m e a n s
59
t h a t t h e s t a t e is a k e y a c t o r . C o n v e n t i o n a l l y , state i n t e r v e n t i o n i n a g r i c u l t u r e h a s s u p p o r t e d
capitalist e x p l o i t a t i o n b y a b s o r b i n g r i s k t h r o u g h s u b s i d i e s a n d p r i c e g u a r a n t e e s . T r a d e p o l i c y h a s
also b e e n d i r e c t e d b y n a t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s a n d a g r i c u l t u r e r e m a i n s a k e y c o n c e r n i n
t r a d e c o n f l i c t s (see C h a p t e r 9 ) . M o r e r e c e n t l y , r e f o r m s t o a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y h a v e d i r e c t e d s t a t e
s u p p o r t t o w a r d s n o n - e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s o f f a r m i n g , s u c h as l a n d s c a p e c o n s e r v a t i o n . A r g u a b l y
this n o t an anti-capitalist m o v e , b u t r a t h e r r e c o g n i z e s t h e c h a n g i n g n a t u r e o f t h e v a l u e o f
f a r m i n g i n a r u r a l e c o n o m y d r i v e n m o r e b y c o n s u m p t i o n t h a n b y p r o d u c t i o n (see C h a p t e r 1 2 ) .
T h i r d l y , a g r i c u l t u r e l i k e all capitalist i n d u s t r i e s , relies o n c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d h e n c e c o n s u m e r s a r e
a powerful g r o u p o f actors. T h e prices that w e are willing t o pay for o u r food, o u r c o n c e r n
a b o u t f o o d quality, o u r i n t e r e s t o r o t h e r w i s e i n w h e r e o u r f o o d c o m e s f r o m , a n d v a r i o u s
p r e f e r e n c e s f o r l o c a l p r o d u c e , o r g a n i c p r o d u c e , v e g e t a r i a n d i e t s a n d s o o n , all h a v e m i c r o - e f f e c t s
that reverberate b a c k t h r o u g h t h e c o m m o d i t y c h a i n t o influence t h e profitability o f particular
f a r m i n g s e c t o r s . Finally, t h e r e a r e t h e f a r m e r s t h e m s e l v e s , w h o w h i l s t i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e a b o v e
pressures m u s t ultimately d e c i d e h o w t o r e s p o n d in t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f their o w n farm. T h i s
is d e m o n s t r a t e d , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e r e l u c t a n c e o f m a n y f a r m e r s t o diversify.
T h e c o m p l e x w e b of actors involved in agricultural d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g therefore m e a n s
that a n y a c c o u n t o f agricultural c h a n g e , i n c l u d i n g that p r e s e n t e d in this chapter, necessarily
glosses o v e r t h e d e t a i l e d d y n a m i c s , d i s c r e p a n c i e s a n d d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s t h a t f o r m t h e reality o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l c h a n g e as e x p e r i e n c e d o n t h e g r o u n d . M o r e o v e r , a f o c u s p u r e l y o n a g r i c u l t u r e
artificially s e p a r a t e s f a r m i n g f r o m t h e w i d e r r u r a l e c o n o m y a n d t h e c h a n g e s i n o t h e r s e c t o r s .
T h e s e are e x a m i n e d in t h e n e x t chapter.
Further Reading
T h e re is a w e a l t h o f literature o n m a n y d i v e r s e a s p e c t s o f a g r i c u l t u re a n d a g r i c u l t u r al
c h a n g e . A s a s t a r t i ng point, t he c h a p t e r b y B r i an l l b e ry a n d Ian B o w l e r , ' F r om
a g r i c u l t u r al p r o d u c t i v i s m to p o s t - p r o d u c t i v i s m ' , in B. l l b e ry ( e d . ) , The Geography of
Rural Change ( A d d i s o n W e s l e y L o n g m a n , 1 9 9 8 ) , p r e s e n t s a g o o d o v e r v i e w o f t he
t r a n s i t i on f r om p r o d u c t i v i s m to p o s t - p r o d u c t i v i s m f r om a p r e d o m i n a n t l y E u r o p e a n
p e r s p e c t i v e . To b a l a n c e , D a v i d G o o d m a n , B e r n a d o Sor j a n d J o h n W i l k i n s on ( 1 9 8 7 )
From Farming to Biotechnology ( B l a c k w e l l , 1 9 8 7 ) p r e s e n t s a l a r g e l y A m e r i c a n n a r r a t i ve
o f t he rise o f b i o t e c h n o l o g y in a g r i c u l t u r e. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a g r i c u l t u re a s a c a p i t a l i s t
i n d u s t ry is e m p h a s i z e d in s t u d i e s o f C a l i f o r n ia b y G e o r g e H e n d e r s o n a n d R i c h a r d
W a l k e r, p a r t i c u l a r ly W a l k e r 's ' C a l i f o r n i a 's g o l d e n r o a d to r i c h e s : n a t u r al r e s o u r c e s a n d
r e g i o n a l c a p i t a l i s m , 1 8 4 8 - 1 9 4 0 ' , in t he Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, v o l u m e 9 1 , p a g e s 1 6 7 - 1 9 9 ( 2 0 0 1 ) , a n d H e n d e r s o n ' s California and the
Fictions of Capital ( O x f o rd U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 9 8 ) .
T he m o r e h u m a n s i d e o f a g r i c u l t u r al c h a n g e is r e v e a l e d b y K a t h r yn M a r ie D u d l e y in
Debt and Dispossession: Farm Loss in America's Heartland ( U n i v e r s i ty o f C h i c a g o
P r e s s , 2 0 0 0 ) , a n d A n d r e w O ' H a g a n in The End of British Farming (Profile B o o k s , 2 0 0 1 ) .
Fo r m o r e o n t he p o s t - p r o d u c t i v i s t d e b a t e s e e N i c k E v a n s , C a r o l M o r r is a n d M i c h a e l
W i n t e r, ' C o n c e p t u a l i z i n g a g r i c u l t u r e: a c r i t i q ue o f p o s t - p r o d u c t i v i s m a s t he n e w
o r t h o d o x y ', in Progress in Human Geography, volum e 26 , page s 3 1 3 - 3 3 2 (2002) .
60
Agricultural change
Websites
E x t e n s i v e u p - t o - d a t e statistic s o n a g r i c u l t u re a re availabl e f r om a n u m b e r o f w e b s i t e s ,
i n c l u d i ng t h o s e o f t he U n i t e d N a t i o n s ' F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u re O r g a n i z a t i o n ( F A O)
( w w w . f a o . o r g ) , t he U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u re ( U S D A )
( w w w . u s d a . g o v / n a s s ) , t he E u r o p e a n U n i o n 's D i r e c t o r a t e - G e n e r a l fo r A g r i c u l t u re ( D G V I)
( e u r o p a . e u . i n t / c o m m / a g r i c u l t u r e / i n d e x _ e n . h t m ) , t he U K D e p a r t m e n t o f t he E n v i r o n m e n t,
F o o d a n d R u r al Affairs ( D E F R A ) ( w w w . d e f r a . g o v . u k / e s g / ) , t he A u s t r a l i an B u r e a u o f
A g r i c u l t u re a n d R e s o u r c e E c o n o m i c s ( w w w . a b a r e c o n o m i c s . c o m ) a n d t he N e w Z e a l a n d
M i n i s t ry o f A g r i c u l t u re a n d F o r e s t r y ( w w w . m a f . g o v t . n z / s t a t i s t i c s / ) .
61
5
The Changing Rural Economy
Introduction
T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e is o n l y o n e h a l f o f t h e story o f rural e c o n o m i c c h a n g e
over t h e past c e n t u r y . O t h e r ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' rural e c o n o m i c activities, such as forestry, fishing,
m i n i n g and q u a r r y i n g , have e x p e r i e n c e d a similar e v o l u t i o n in t h e i r f o r t u n e s a n d a similar
d e c l i n e in t h e i r level o f e m p l o y m e n t . A t t h e same t i m e , e m p l o y m e n t has risen overall in
rural areas in m a n u f a c t u r i n g , t o u r i s m and t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r . B e t w e e n 1 9 6 9 a n d 1 9 9 7 , t h e
rural c o u n t i e s o f t h e U n i t e d States lost nearly 7 5 0 , 0 0 0 j o b s in a g r i c u l t u r e , b u t g a i n e d o v e r
8 2 7 , 0 0 0 j o b s in m a n u f a c t u r i n g (Isserman, 2 0 0 0 ) . In rural C a n a d a , six in t e n w o r k e r s are
n o w e m p l o y e d in t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r (Trant and B r i n k m a n , 1 9 9 2 ) , as are nearly h a l f t h e
w o r k f o r c e o f rural F r a n c e ( I N S E E , 1 9 9 8 ) a n d seven in t e n w o r k e r s in rural E n g l a n d
(Countryside Agency, 2 0 0 3 ) .
T h e shift in t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e rural e c o n o m y f r o m p r i m a r y industries, based o n t h e
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e natural e n v i r o n m e n t , t o t h e s e c o n d a r y and t e r t i a r y sectors is t h e p r o d u c t
o f a range o f i n t e r - l o c k i n g processes o p e r a t i n g at different scales f r o m t h e local t o g l o b a l .
T h e s e i n c l u d e trends w i t h i n global e c o n o m i c r e s t r u c t u r i n g such as t h e liberalization o f
global trade a n d t h e increasingly ' f o o t - l o o s e ' n a t u r e o f e c o n o m i c e n t e r p r i s e s as d e p e n d e n c e
o n particular resources in particular places has b e e n d i m i n i s h e d b y t e c h n o l o g i c a l advances;
as well as m o r e locally c o n t i n g e n t factors s u c h as i m p r o v e d infrastructure in rural areas, a n d
h i g h e r levels o f e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t in t h e rural p o p u l a t i o n . C o l l e c t i v e l y these f a c t o r s
have altered t h e relative p o s i t i o n o f rural areas in t h e spatial division of labour u n d e r a d v a n c e d
capitalism t h r o u g h w h i c h 'different f o r m s o f e c o n o m i c activity i n c o r p o r a t e o r use t h e fact
o f spatial i n e q u a l i t y in o r d e r t o m a x i m i z e profits' (Massey, 1 9 9 4 ) . Historically, t h e
o p p o r t u n i t i e s p r e s e n t e d b y t h e availability o f natural r e s o u r c e s , u n d e v e l o p e d land and t h e
structures o f rural l a n d o w n e r s h i p a n d e m p l o y m e n t , w e r e e x p l o i t e d in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
r e s o u r c e capitalism. M o r e recently, i n v e s t m e n t has b e e n attracted t o rural areas b y factors
such as l o w e r land p r i c e s , t a x a t i o n a n d w a g e levels, g r e e n f i e l d sites f o r d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d an
aesthetically h i g h e r quality e n v i r o n m e n t . Equally, h o w e v e r , rural areas m u s t c o m p e t e o n a
global scale a n d m a j o r sources o f e m p l o y m e n t like f a c t o r i e s a n d t e l e p h o n e call c e n t r e s c a n
b e suddenly r e l o c a t e d t o l o w e r w a g e e c o n o m i e s in t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d .
The changing rural economy
This chapter examines t h e c h a n g i n g rural economy, focusing in t u r n o n t h e c h a n g i n g

c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f forestry, f i s h i n g a n d m i n i n g , m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y a n d t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r .
It d i s c u s s e s t h e f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e p r o d u c e d t h e s e c h a n g e s , e x p l o r e s t h e i r i m p a c t o n r u r a l
c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d considers t h e prospects for t h e future d e v e l o p m e n t o f rural e c o n o m i e s
u n d e r advanced globalization.
Forestry, Fishing and Mining: the county. In o t h e r regions, significant employ-

Fluctuating Fortunes of the Primary Sector ment in mining, forestry or fishing has
D u r i n g t h e first p a r t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , b e c o m e restricted to fewer a n d fewer com-
the dominance of agriculture in rural munities, and even in those c o m m u n i t i e s t h e
e c o n o m i e s was rivalled o n l y b y t h e localized numbers employed in the dominant industry
supremacy of other primary exploitative has decreased. C a n a d a h a d 8 0 rural commu-
i n d u s t r i e s i n c l u d i n g forestry, f i s h i n g , mining nities in 1 9 7 6 w h e r e over 3 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e
a n d quarrying. O f t e n these sectors w e r e inter- labour force w e r e employed in forestry or
connected through flows of investment, w o o d p r o c e s s i n g ( a n d t h e r e f o r e classified as a
ownership and employment. Walker (2001), 'single industry t o w n ' ) , a l o n g w i t h 5 4 c o m -
for e x a m p l e , identifies t h e patterns o f cross- munities dependent on mining and 38 on
investment between mineral exploitation, fishing ( C l e m e n s o n , 1992). O v e r t h e n e x t t e n
forestry a n d agriculture in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f years b o t h forestry a n d m i n i n g experienced
resource capitalism in California - patterns economic turbulence. Employment in
that were reproduced in other regions. A t a C a n a d i a n f o r e s t r y fell f r o m o v e r 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n
different level, w o r k e r s i n m a n y rural c o m m u - 1980 t o 2 6 0 , 0 0 0 in 1 9 8 2 , whilst half o f t h e
nities w o u l d divide their e m p l o y m e n t b e t w e e n m i n i n g sector was shut d o w n t e m p o r a r i l y at
m i n i n g a n d f a r m w o r k , o r fishing a n d f a r m - t h e h e i g h t o f r e c e s s i o n i n l a t e 1 9 8 2 . T h e effect
w o r k d e p e n d i n g o n t h e season a n d p r o d u c t on the communities c o n c e r n e d was dramatic.
demand. In some communities, however, the T w o m i n i n g t o w n s in Labrador virtually dis-
l o c a l m i n e s o r q u a r r i e s , o r f i s h i n g o r forestry, appeared as t h e i r i r o n ore mines closed -
w e r e t h e o n l y significant sources o f e m p l o y - Schefferville, w h e r e t h e p o p u l a t i o n collapsed
m e n t , particularly w h e r e t h e e c o n o m i c p o t e n - from 3,500 in 1976 to 3 2 0 in 1986, a n d
tial of these activities far exceeded that G a g n o n , w h e r e o n l y five r e s i d e n t s w e r e left
of agriculture. T h u s , whilst the decline in by 1986 c o m p a r e d w i t h 3,400 in 1976. In
e m p l o y m e n t in these sectors m a y have h a d other communities, employment in the main
little effect a c r o s s r u r a l areas as a w h o l e , t h e i n d u s t r y s l u m p e d (Table 5.1), a n d for s o m e ,
localized impact o n individual communities like M a r a t h o n , O n t a r i o , this m e a n t s w a p p i n g
has frequently b e e n severe, s o m e t i m e s creating a sole dependency o n pulp-processing for
pockets o f e x t r e m e deprivation w i t h i n a rela- a dual dependency on pulp and mining
tively p r o s p e r o u s rural r e g i o n . (Clemenson, 1992). O n l y fishing prospered
In s o m e regions, w h o l e industries have dis- in relative terms during this p e r i o d , with
a p p e a r e d . T h e last t i n m i n e i n C o r n w a l l , i n employment i n fish processing in Atlantic
south-west England, closed in 1998, e n d i n g C a n a d a i n c r e a s i n g r a p i d l y i n t w o spells i n t h e
an industry that d a t e d b a c k over 2 , 0 0 0 years late 1970s a n d m i d - 1 9 8 0 s .
a n d w h i c h a t its p e a k i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h T h e fortunes o f particular forestry-, m i n i n g -
century e m p l o y e d s o m e 50,000 people in t h e or fishing-dependent communities will be
63
T a b le 5. 1 Percentag e o f w o r k f o r ce e m p l o y e d in mai n industry f o r 17 2 Canadia n

c o m m u n i t i e s i d e n t i f i ed by dependenc y o n fishing , m i n i ng o r
w o o d in 197 6
Fishing c o m m u n i t i e s M i n i ng c o m m u n i t i e s Wood-base d communitie s
197 6 198 1 198 6 197 6 198 1 198 6 197 6 198 1 198 6
>3 0 38 33 34 54 42 24 80 52 37
15-2 9 0 5 4 0 11 22 0 27 40
<1 5 0 0 0 0 1 8 0 1 3
Source: A f t er Clemenson , 199 2
determined by industry-specific trends and The potential impact of environmental

l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , at a m o r e g e n e r a l pressures o n f o r e s t r y - d e p e n d e n t rural c o m m u -
scale, t h e r e are t h r e e k e y factors that have n i t i e s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e case o f C a t r o n C o u n t y
resulted in j o b losses in all three sectors. in New Mexico. The sparsely populated
First, t h e r e s o u r c e s b e i n g e x p l o i t e d m a y be c o u n t y o f 2 , 7 0 0 residents was reliant o n r a n c h -
e x h a u s t e d . M i n e r a l s in particular are a finite ing, logging and timber processing until 1990,
resource and periods o f significant mining w h e n t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t severely restricted
employment in rural r e g i o n s are frequently timber cutting in the area to protect the
short-lived. Secondly, operations may be endangered Mexican spotted owl. O n e hun-
a b a n d o n e d as u n e c o n o m i c e i t h e r b e c a u s e of dred jobs were lost in the closure of the
decreased c o n s u m e r d e m a n d or competition. sawmill, w i t h unemployment in t h e county
M i n i n g , f o r e s t r y a n d f i s h i n g a r e all v u l n e r a b l e rising to 10.8 p e r cent in 1995 - twice the U S
to competition in a globalized economy. average - and nearly a quarter of the popu-
Thirdly, e n v i r o n m e n t a l challenges are i n c r e a - lation falling beneath the poverty line
singly b e i n g m o u n t e d t o r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n , (Walley,2000).
citing concerns about pollution, landscape T h e fishing c o m m u n i t i e s o f N e w f o u n d l a n d
degradation and threats to plant a n d animal and Labrador have come under pressure
habitats. T h u s , M c M a n u s (2002), in a study of from all t h r e e s o u r c e s m e n t i o n e d above. As
forestry policy in British C o l u m b i a a n d New K e n n e d y (1997) d o c u m e n t s , c o m p e t i t i o n and
S o u t h Wales, notes that 'the regulation of l o w prices gradually e r o d e d t h e fishing i n d u s -
forestry not only includes urban political try d u r i n g the twentieth century, with 16,000
p o w e r (Victoria a n d O t t a w a in C a n a d a , a n d p e o p l e m o v i n g away from coastal c o m m u n i -
S y d n e y a n d C a n b e r r a in Australia) a n d com- ties in t h e 1 9 6 0 s u n d e r a g o v e r n m e n t r e s e t t l e -
mercial power (concentrated in V a n c o u v e r , m e n t programme. Technological modernization,
Sydney and Tokyo), but also voter power and an extension of the Canadian fisheries
( l a r g e l y i n V a n c o u v e r a n d S y d n e y ) ' (p. 8 5 5 ) .
jurisdiction to 2 0 0 miles, helped a rejuvena-
T h e forestry industry ( w h i c h directly e m p l o y s
tion of the industry in the 1970s, b u t s o o n the
some 82,000 people in British Columbia,
l o c a l f i s h i n g fleet f a c e d r e n e w e d competition
indirectly supports 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 m o r e , and con-
from industrial-scale trawlers from Europe
tributes 16 p e r c e n t o f t h e province's gross
and elsewhere in N o r t h America. Moreover,
domestic product) must therefore balance
intensive fishing was seriously d e p l e t i n g the
commercial imperatives w i t h environmental
stock of cod. U n d e r pressure from environ-
r e g u l a t i o n s a i m e d at r e d u c i n g p r o d u c t i o n a n d
mental campaigners, the Canadian govern-
controlling the nature and location of logging
ment closed the 'northern cod' fishery
(McManus, 2002).
in 1992 in an attempt to allow stocks to
64
T a b le 5. 2 Ne t chang e in m a n u f a c t u r i ng manufacturing jobs, whilst manufacturing

jobs in England , Wale s an d Scotland ,
e m p l o y m e n t decreased in every o t h e r type of
1960-199 1
area (Table 5.2) (North, 1998). Similarly,
N u m b e r o f jobs
manufacturing e m p l o y m e n t in rural counties
London -979,00 0
Conurbations -1,392,00 0 in t h e U n i t e d States increased by 4 7 p e r c e n t
Free-standin g cities -631,00 0 between 1960 and 1980 - well above the
Large t o w n s -388,00 0
national average - before fluctuating during
Smal l t o w n s -284,00 0
Rural area s +238,00 0 the recession of the 1980s (North, 1998;
U S D A , 2 0 0 0 ) . As a result, in b o t h t h e U n i t e d
England , Wale s a n d -3,443,00 0
Scotlan d t o t a l States and France, manufacturing now
Source: A f t er N o r t h, 199 8 employs a greater share o f t h e w o r k f o r c e in

r u r a l areas t h a n it d o e s i n u r b a n areas ( I N S E E ,
1 9 9 8 ; U S D A , 2 0 0 0 ) . H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d be
replenish. T h e m o r a t o r i u m led immediately n o t e d that most manufacturing employment
t o 2 0 , 0 0 0 j o b losses, w i t h a f u r t h e r 10,000 a n d the majority share o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g o u t -
j o b s lost t h e f o l l o w i n g year. A l t h o u g h com- put continues to be concentrated in urban
p e n s a t i o n p a y m e n t s w e r e m a d e t o fishers a n d areas.
processing plant workers, and government T h e u r b a n - r u r a l shift i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g h a s
schemes introduced to develop alternative involved t w o distinctive p e r i o d s of expansion.
sources of employment, including hi-tech First, f r o m t h e 1940s t o t h e 1960s t h e r e w a s a
industry, aquaculture, t o u r i s m a n d m i n i n g , the p e r i o d o f absolute expansion as m a n u f a c t u r i n g
closures have severely depressed the local employment increased in both urban and
e c o n o m y and intensified problems of poverty rural r e g i o n s , b u t m o r e rapidly in rural areas.
and out-migration. For example, manufacturing employment in
t h e U n i t e d States in t h e 1960s increased b y
Manufacturing Industry 15 p e r c e n t i n u r b a n areas, b u t b y 3 1 p e r c e n t i n
If agriculture and forestry are commonly r u r a l areas ( N o r t h , 1 9 9 8 ) . S e c o n d l y , t h e 1 9 7 0 s ,
associated w i t h rural areas, t h e n manufactur- 1980s and 1990s have b e e n p r e d o m i n a n t l y a
ing is perhaps the industry most readily p e r i o d o f comparative expansion as m a n u f a c t u r -
identified w i t h urban areas. I n t h e popular i n g e m p l o y m e n t has d e c l i n e d m o r e slowly in
imagination, manufacturing conjures up a r u r a l areas t h a n i n u r b a n areas - or even, in
picture o f a large, s m o k e - b i l l o w i n g factory s o m e cases, i n c r e a s e d a g a i n s t t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d ,
towering over endless rows of workers' as i n t h e U n i t e d States d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s a n d i n
h o u s e s , m u c h in t h e style e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e the U K d u r i n g the 1980s (Townsend, 1993).
B r i t i s h p a i n t e r L.S. L o w r y . Yet, n o t o n l y d o e s North (1998) positions these changes in
manufacturing have a l o n g history in many the context of the global restructuring of
small t o w n s a n d rural c o m m u n i t i e s - particu- manufacturing industry. This, h e notes, has
larly i n the processing of agricultural, fish b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a shift f r o m m a s s p r o -
a n d t i m b e r p r o d u c e b u t t h e late t w e n t i e t h d u c t i o n systems to flexible production, which
c e n t u r y also s a w a n e t shift i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g has enabled firms to become more 'foot-
employment from urban to rural areas in loose' in their location. In an increasingly
developed countries. Between 1960 and 1991, globalized economy, corporations will seek
r u r a l areas o f E n g l a n d , S c o t l a n d and Wales o u t locations w h e r e t h e costs o f m a n u f a c t u r -
m a d e a net gain o f nearly a quarter of a million i n g c a n b e m i n i m i z e d w h i l s t r e t a i n i n g access
65
to h i g h - p r o f i t m a r k e t s . As s u c h , t h e r e has b e e n b e t a k e n o f l o w e r w a g e c o s t s , l o w e r levels
an o v e r a l l shift in m a n u f a c t u r i n g from the of unionization and worker militancy and,
established industrial economies of Europe often, a captive labour m a r k e t w i t h few
and North America to the Pacific Rim a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s o f e m p l o y m e n t (Massey,
(especially J a p a n , T a i w a n , Malaysia a n d S o u t h 1984; Storper and Walker, 1984).
Korea) and the developing world. T h e search
for c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e in t h e m a n u f a c t u r - A fifth thesis, t h e residential preference
i n g p r o c e s s , h o w e v e r , h a s a l s o o p e r a t e d at a hypothesis, varies from t h e above in focusing
d o m e s t i c level, w i t h r u r a l areas p e r c e i v e d to o n n e w b u s i n e s s s t a r t - u p s as o p p o s e d t o t h e
offer m o r e f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s t h a n urban r e l o c a t i o n o f existing firms. T h e thesis argues
sites. V a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s t h e m e f o r m t h e basis that entrepreneurs opt to develop n e w busi-
f o r f o u r e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e u r b a n r u r a l shift nesses in rural locations b e c a u s e o f t h e per-
discussed by N o r t h (1998): c e i v e d h i g h e r q u a l i t y o f life t h a t t h e y afford
(Gould and Keeble, 1984). The above
Tlie constrained location hypothesis suggests hypotheses should n o t necessarily b e regarded
that firms have b e c o m e constrained by the as c o m p e t i n g m o d e l s ; r a t h e r t h e y r e f l e c t the
quantity and quality of space available c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e u r b a n - r u r a l shift i n m a n u -
in urban areas a n d thus have relocated f a c t u r i n g as t h e a m a l g a m o f m a n y different
to rural sites w i t h space for expansion processes d r i v e n b y different imperatives.
(Fothergill and G u d g i n , 1982). I n d e e d , t h e r e are a n u m b e r o f caveats that

Tlie production cost hypothesis argues that should be attached to the notion of an
r e l o c a t i n g firms seek t o increase profits b y u r b a n r u r a l shift i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g . F i r s t , t h e
taking advantage o f spatial v a r i a t i o n s in urban-rural shift has been largely sector-
production costs, particularly w a g e costs specific. T h e traditional rural manufacturing
and land prices that t e n d to b e l o w e r in i n d u s t r i e s , s u c h as f o o d p r o c e s s i n g , t i m b e r a n d
r u r a l a r e a s ( T y l e r e t al., 1 9 8 8 ) . p a p e r p r o d u c t i o n , fish c a n n i n g a n d textiles,
The filter-down hypothesis connects indus- which once dominated single-industry rural
trial l o c a t i o n t o t h e p r o d u c t cycle, s u g - t o w n s , have substantially declined, often with
g e s t i n g t h a t in t h e early stages o f p r o d u c t devastating c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e i r h o s t c o m -
development urban locations provide munities. Manufacturing growth has been
access to skilled labour and specialist particularly associated w i t h light e n g i n e e r i n g ,
knowledge inputs, but that later in the h i g h - t e c h i n d u s t r i e s a n d areas o f n i c h e g o o d s
cycle p r o d u c t i o n b e c o m e s routinized and production, including the production of
m a y b e r e l o c a t e d t o r u r a l sites t o r e d u c e 'quality' foodstuffs.
costs ( M a r k u s e n , 1985). S e c o n d l y , t h e u r b a n r u r a l shift h a s b e e n s p a -
Tlie capital restructuring hypothesis takes a tially s e l e c t i v e . Estall ( 1 9 8 3 ) c h a l l e n g e d con-
b r o a d e r view, a r g u i n g that different phases ventional accounts of the manufacturing shift
o f capital a c c u m u l a t i o n p r o d u c e different in the U n i t e d States b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g that
requirements f o r l a b o u r a n d l o c a t i o n . It g r o w t h was greatest in rural c o u n t i e s adjacent
p r o p o s e s that advances in t e c h n o l o g y a n d to metropolitan areas, a n d t h a t t h e regional
production processes have reduced the shift f r o m n o r t h e r n states t o b o t h r u r a l and
dependency of manufacturing on concen- u r b a n l o c a t i o n s i n s o u t h e r n states w a s more
trations o f skilled l a b o u r a n d e n a b l e d r e l o - significant than t h e u r b a n r u r a l shift per se.
c a t i o n t o rural areas w h e r e a d v a n t a g e c a n Spatial concentration has been particularly
66
m a r k e d in the high-technology sector - flagged It m a y b e e a s i e r f o r c o r p o r a t i o n s t o c l o s e

as o n e of the rural 'growth' industries. For a factory in a rural c o m m u n i t y o r small t o w n
example, a l t h o u g h e m p l o y m e n t in high-tech t h a n in an u r b a n area, b u t t h e i m p a c t o n t h e
i n d u s t r y i n c r e a s e d i n r u r a l B r i t a i n as a w h o l e l o c a l c o m m u n i t y is o f t e n m o r e s e v e r e as j o b
b e t w e e n 1981 a n d 1 9 8 9 b y 12 p e r c e n t c o m - losses w i l l b e p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t
pared with a decrease in urban areas, the a g a i n s t t h e size o f t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s is
g r o w t h was focused in three regions. In 1989, illustrated b y F i t c h e n (1991) in a case s t u d y
three times m o r e people were employed in from rural N e w York. T h e factory concerned
hi-tech industries in South-East England than h a d s t a r t e d as a k n i t t i n g m i l l , b u t h a d c h a n g e d
in any other region, and m u c h 'rural' g r o w t h o w n e r s and p r o d u c t line a n u m b e r o f times
was concentrated a r o u n d particular key locali- and by the mid-1980s was owned by a
ties, s u c h as C a m b r i d g e ( N o r t h , 1 9 9 8 ) . St L o u i s - b a s e d s u b s i d i a r y o f a N e w Y o r k C i t y -
T h i r d l y , t h e u r b a n - r u r a l shift h a s c h a n g e d based c o m p a n y , p r o d u c i n g plastic equipment
the nature of manufacturing i n rural areas. f o r h o s p i t a l s . It e m p l o y e d s o m e 5 0 0 w o r k e r s ,
F a c t o r i e s a r e less i n t e g r a t e d w i t h r u r a l com- mainly w o m e n , w h o earned between $7.30
m u n i t i e s t h a n p r e v i o u s l y , t h e y a r e less l i k e l y t o p e r h o u r for u n s k i l l e d assembly line p o s i t i o n s
u s e l o c a l n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , a n d a r e less l i k e l y t o $ 1 2 p e r h o u r for clerical w o r k e r s . O f t h e
t o b e locally o w n e d . T h e n a t u r e o f w o r k p e r - employees, 155 lived in t h e i m m e d i a t e local
formed h a s also c h a n g e d as p a r t o f a new community of around 600 households. In
spatial d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r . A s N o r t h (1998) 1 9 8 9 t h e f a c t o r y w a s c l o s e d as p r o d u c t i o n w a s
o b s e r v e s , ' i t is a r g u e d t h a t it t e n d s t o b e t h e relocated to M e x i c o w h e r e wages averaged
more routine, less technically advanced, $1.25 per hour. T h e redundancies affected
assembly type functions requiring largely o n e in four h o u s e h o l d s in t h e local c o m m u -
semiskilled w o r k e r s w h i c h are d r a w n t o rural nity, a n d o f t h e 3 6 5 f o r m e r e m p l o y e e s r e g i s -
a n d small t o w n locations r a t h e r t h a n those t e r e d for a j o b assistance p r o g r a m m e , o n l y 2 0
functions that require highly technical and had found n e w jobs by the time the plant
s k i l l e d w o r k e r s ' (p. 1 7 2 ) . closed. As Fitchen notes of the sign that
F o u r t h , m a n y o f t h e factors that have b e e n a p p e a r e d t o a d v e r t i s e t h e s i t e f o r sale, ' [ t h e
i d e n t i f i e d as c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e urban-rural s i g n ] p r o c l a i m [ed] a m e s s a g e that captured
shift also m a k e r u r a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g v u l n e r a b l e and epitomized the change in rural m a n u f a c -
to competition from developing countries and t u r i n g in this d e c a d e : t h e i r o n y o f g o o d faci-
t o c u t - b a c k s i n a r e c e s s i o n . R u r a l areas m a y , lities a n d g o o d w o r k e r s , b u t n o w o r k ' (p. 7 2 ) .
for e x a m p l e , b e able t o u n d e r c u t u r b a n l o c a -
t i o n s o n w a g e levels, b u t n o t d e v e l o p i n g c o u n - The Service Sector in Rural Areas
tries. C o r p o r a t e m e r g e r s a n d takeovers have T h e steady g r o w t h o f t h e service sector in rural
t u r n e d r u r a l areas i n t o a b r a n c h - p l a n t econ- areas a p p e a r s at first s i g h t t o p r o v i d e a c o n t r a s t
o m y i n w h i c h t h e f u t u r e o f a l o c a l f a c t o r y is to the fluctuating fortunes of production-based
d e p e n d e n t o n a b o a r d r o o m decision possibly industries. Service sector e m p l o y m e n t in rural
t a k e n o n a different c o n t i n e n t , w h e r e strategy areas i n c r e a s e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y throughout the
is d e v e l o p e d at a g l o b a l scale. F u r t h e r m o r e , twentieth century to b e c o m e the major source
l o w e r levels o f u n i o n i z a t i o n m e a n t h a t c o r p o - o f w o r k i n r u r a l r e g i o n s across t h e d e v e l o p e d
r a t i o n s m a y face less r e s i s t a n c e t o c l o s i n g r u r a l w o r l d . H o w e v e r , t h e significance o f t h e service
branch plants than those in more militant sector tends t o get inflated by t h e large a n d
t o w n s a n d cities ( W i n s o n , 1 9 9 7 ) . d i v e r s e r a n g e o f activities i n c l u d e d u n d e r its
67
T a b le 5. 3 Servic e secto r e m p l o y m e n t in England , 200 1

R e m o t e r u r al (%) A c c e s s i b l e r u r al (%) U r b a n (%)
D i s t r i b u t i o n, hotel s an d restaurant s 27. 6 25. 9 23. 7
Banking , finance , insurance , etc . 10. 6 17. 4 22. 0
Public a d m i n i s t r a t i o n, educatio n 25. 1 22. 7 23. 7
a n d healt h
O t h e r service s 4. 5 5.1 5.3
Servic e secto r t o t a l 67. 8 71. 1 74. 7

Source: Countryside Agency , 200 3
T a b le 5. 4 Servic e secto r e m p l o y m e n t in t he
Unite d States , 199 6
R u r al (%) U r b a n (%)
Retai l t r a de 17 17
Governmen t 16 14
Finance , insuranc e a n d rea l estat e 5 8
Transport, c o m m u n i c a t i o n s an d utilities 4 5
Wholesal e t r a de 3 5
O t h e r service s 23 32
Servic e secto r t o t a l 68 81
Source: w w w . r u p r i . o rg
umbrella. Service sector e m p l o y m e n t includes of coverage of public service provision in

highly paid lawyers, financiers a n d stockbrokers rural areas a n d t h e e x t e n t a n d q u a l i t y o f t h e
as w e l l as c l e a n e r s , s h o p assistants a n d care service provided by schools, hospitals and
w o r k e r s ; it i n c l u d e s t e a c h e r s a n d t r u c k - d r i v e r s , o t h e r institutions since the e n d of the S e c o n d
d o c t o r s a n d w a i t i n g staff. A s T a b l e s 5 . 3 a n d 5 . 4 World War, has created new employment
s h o w for E n g l a n d a n d t h e U n i t e d States, w h e n opportunities in rural areas. M o r e o v e r , the
broken down into industry groupings the significance o f a large public sector e m p l o y e r
impression of dominance is l e s s e n e d - the s u c h as a s c h o o l , a h o s p i t a l o r a p r i s o n w i l l b e
largest service s e c t o r i n d u s t r y in t h e rural U S , greater in a small rural l a b o u r m a r k e t t h a n in
retailing, e m p l o y s r o u g h l y the same propor- a larger u r b a n l a b o u r market. As such, the
tion of the workforce as manufacturing. public sector m a y a c c o u n t for a q u a r t e r or
M o r e o v e r , t h e r e are different balances in the m o r e o f all e m p l o y m e n t i n r e m o t e r r u r a l a r e a s
e m p l o y m e n t share o f different service sector (see T a b l e 5 . 3 ) , w i t h , f o r i n s t a n c e , o v e r 200
industries in different rural regions, and, it rural c o u n t i e s in t h e U n i t e d States classified
can b e h y p o t h e s i z e d , different processes d r i v i n g b y t h e U S D A as b e i n g d e p e n d e n t o n g o v e r n -
their development. ment employment.
T h e g r o w t h of service sector employment Secondly, the g r o w t h of c o n s u m e r i s m has

in rural areas can t h e r e f o r e b e disaggregated stimulated an e x p a n s i o n in t h e retailing a n d
i n t o f o u r c o m p o n e n t s . First, t h e r e has b e e n an leisure services sectors in rural a r e a s as in
e x p a n s i o n o f t h e public service sector, i n c l u d i n g urban areas. I n d e e d , rural towns and their
education, health a n d local g o v e r n m e n t . T h e h i n t e r l a n d s h a v e f r e q u e n t l y b e e n t a r g e t e d as
development of both the comprehensiveness new markets for expansion by retail and
68
leisure chains, disproportionately increasing d i v e r s e e c o n o m y t h a n as t h e m a i n s t a y o f r u r a l

service sector e m p l o y m e n t in s u c h localities. development' (p. 175). Outside of coastal
However, investment o f this t y p e has also regions and national parks, the potential for
contributed to a spatial restructuring of t o u r i s m t o m a k e a significant c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
s e r v i c e s i n r u r a l a r e a s (see C h a p t e r 7 ) , w i t h rural e m p l o y m e n t m a y b e limited.
t h e closure o f village shops, garages a n d inns F o u r t h l y , r u r a l areas o n t h e p e r i p h e r y of
potentially leading t o a decrease in employ- metropolitan centres have gained in service
ment in retailing and hospitality in some sector e m p l o y m e n t through the relocation of
smaller rural c o m m u n i t i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the financial sector employers and corporate
types o f j o b s created in m o d e r n retailing a n d services c o m p a n i e s . M u r d o c h and Marsden
hospitality are often lower paid, temporary ( 1 9 9 4 ) , for e x a m p l e , r e c o r d t h e r e l o c a t i o n of
and/or part-time. Over h a l f o f all workers insurance, b a n k i n g a n d o t h e r financial services
e m p l o y e d in distribution, hotels and restau- companies from L o n d o n to the country t o w n
rants in remote rural districts of England, o f Aylesbury, 4 0 miles from the centre of
for example, are on part-time contracts t h e city. T h e d y n a m i c s b e h i n d t h i s shift are
( C o u n t r y s i d e A g e n c y , 2 0 0 3 ) (see C h a p t e r 1 8 ) . similar t o t h o s e for m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry
Thirdly, the increase in e m p l o y m e n t in dis- relocation - a lessened n e e d for c o n c e n t r a t i o n
t r i b u t i o n a n d l e i s u r e s e r v i c e s also reflects t h e coupled with the perceived advantages of
g r o w i n g significance o f t o u r i s m in m a n y rural greater space, l o w e r land, tax a n d w a g e costs,
areas. O n e side-effect o f t h e foot a n d m o u t h a n d a h i g h e r quality e n v i r o n m e n t . Yet, firms
disease o u t b r e a k i n B r i t a i n i n 2 0 0 1 (see B o x 4.3) in these sectors t e n d to r e m a i n firmly i n t e g -
was to highlight the contribution m a d e by rated into urban-centred networks and spe-
tourism to the rural economy. S o m e 380,000 cialist l a b o u r m a r k e t s a n d t h u s t h e i r r e a c h i n t o
jobs were estimated to be dependent on m o r e r e m o t e r u r a l areas is l i m i t e d .
tourism in rural England, with a further T h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e service sector in rural
2 5 , 0 0 0 in rural Wales, a n d tourists w e r e calcu- areas has therefore been differentiated by
lated to spend over .10 billion p e r year in the r e g i o n a n d b y industry. R e m o t e r r u r a l areas
rural areas o f E n g l a n d and Wales (Cabinet are m o r e likely t o b e d e p e n d e n t o n tourism
Office, 2 0 0 0 ) . Similarly, hotels and motels or public sector employment, whilst rural
alone e m p l o y s o m e 3 1 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e in the areas c l o s e t o t h e u r b a n f r i n g e m a y benefit
rural U n i t e d States (Isserman, 2 0 0 0 ) . T o u r i s m from t h e relocation o f financial a n d business
is o f t e n f l a g g e d as a m e a n s o f regenerating services. In addition to service sector work-
rural communities depressed by economic places l o c a t e d in rural areas, service sector
decline in agriculture, p r i m a r y p r o d u c t i o n o r e m p l o y m e n t a m o n g residents of ' m o r e acces-
manufacturing, inspired by the example of s i b l e ' r u r a l a r e a s is i n f l a t e d b y w o r k e r s com-
a f e w s u c c e s s f u l i n i t i a t i v e s s u c h as t h a t o f t h e m u t i n g t o n e a r b y t o w n s a n d c i t i e s . T h i s last
former sawmill town of Chemainus on practice highlights the continuing urban-
V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d (see C h a p t e r 1 2 ) . H o w e v e r , centric nature o f m u c h service sector activity
B u t l e r a n d C l a r k ( 1 9 9 2 ) w a r n t h a t , ' t h e least a n d t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l b a r r i e r s t h a t still e x i s t
favourable circumstance in w h i c h to p r o m o t e t o t h e f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o f service sector e m p l o y -
t o u r i s m is w h e n t h e r u r a l e c o n o m y is a l r e a d y m e n t in rural areas. F o r s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s ,
weak, since t o u r i s m will create highly u n b a l - however, such barriers could be removed,
anced i n c o m e and e m p l o y m e n t distributions. with the development of information techno-
It is b e t t e r as a s u p p l e m e n t f o r a t h r i v i n g a n d logies a n d t h e advent o f ' t e l e w o r k i n g ' .
69
Teleworking in the Countryside some authors to herald a de-urbanization of

employment (Huws et al., 1 9 9 0 ) , a n d the
P e o p l e n o l o n g e r n e e d to c o m m u t e to t he potential has b e e n seized u p o n b y m a n y rural
cities . M a n y j o b s c a n n o w trave l to t he development agencies, w h o have attempted to
w o r k e rs usin g today's technologie s - p r o m o t e the d e v e l o p m e n t o f rural telework-
revitalising traditional rural c o m m u n i t i e s .. .
ing by providing training and infrastructure,
A n d t h e re is a d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m o r e a n d
including 'telecottages' or resource centres
m o re p e o p l e to a c h i e v e a b e t t e r q u a l i ty o f
p r o v i d i n g access t o i n f o r m a t i o n a n d commu-
life, a v o i d i n g t he s t r e s s a n d p o l l u t i on o f
nications technologies (Clark, 2000).
commuting , an d playing more active
r o l e s d a y to d a y in t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . Clark (2000) identified 152 telecottages
( A c o rn T e l e v i l l a g e s b r o c h u r e , q u o t e d b y o p e r a t i n g i n t h e B r i t i s h Isles i n 1 9 9 9 , c o n c e n -
C l a r k, 2 0 0 0 , p. 19 ) trated in peripheral rural regions such as

Wales, south-west England and northern
T h e q u o t e a b o v e illustrates t h e aspirations o f Scotland, and mostly in small villages or
a n e w sector within the rural e c o n o m y that remote rural locations. M a n y of the tele-
has e m e r g e d w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f infor- c o t t a g e s o p e r a t e d as ' c l e a r i n g h o u s e s ' t h a t o u t -
mation and communications technologies. sourced work to individual home-based
Advances in c o m p u t i n g t e c h n o l o g y a n d the teleworkers, with common areas of work
development of the Internet, combined with including marketing, secretarial services,
the growth of information-based occupa- t r a n s l a t i o n a n d p u b l i s h i n g . H o w e v e r , as C l a r k ' s
tions, are a r g u e d t o have created a n o p p o r t u - figures i m p l y , o v e r a l l levels o f employment
nity for individuals t o increasingly w o r k f r o m in teleworking remain low and the g r o w t h of
h o m e , using telecommunications to engage t h e s e c t o r i n r u r a l a r e a s is r e s t r i c t e d b y the
with their employers ('teleworking') (Clark, continuing importance of face-to-face contact
2000) . T h e geographical flexibility of such in business a n d b y t h e quality o f t h e rural
work has been furthermore suggested by telecommunications infrastructure.
Summary
T h e r e h a s b e e n a c l e a r q u a n t i t a t i v e shift i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r u r a l e c o n o m y o v e r t h e p a s t
c e n t u r y . S t a t i s t i c s f o r e m p l o y m e n t , b u s i n e s s t y p e a n d i n c o m e g e n e r a t i o n all d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t
t h e d o m i n a n c e o f p r o d u c t i o n - b a s e d activities, i n c l u d i n g a g r i c u l t u r e , forestry, fishing, m i n i n g
a n d q u a r r y i n g , in t h e early t w e n t i e t h century, has b e e n replaced by a m o r e s e r v i c e - o r i e n t e d
e c o n o m y . T h e t r a n s i t i o n h a s also b e e n m a r k e d b y q u a l i t a t i v e c h a n g e s i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
e c o n o m y , o f w h i c h t h r e e k e y t r e n d s a r e a p p a r e n t . F i r s t , r u r a l e c o n o m i e s at a l o c a l s c a l e h a v e
b e c o m e m o r e f r a g m e n t e d , c r e a t i n g a w i d e r r a n g e o f e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s for rural
r e s i d e n t s , b u t also i n c r e a s i n g u n c e r t a i n t y . T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l e c o n o m y is m o r e f l u i d
t h a n t h e previous single-industry e c o n o m i e s a n d there are few ' g u a r a n t e e d ' j o b s . In o r d e r
t o access b e t t e r p a i d e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s , p o t e n t i a l e m p l o y e e s often n e e d t o leave
r u r a l a r e a s t o a c q u i r e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t r a i n i n g o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , w h i l s t l o w e r s k i l l e d w o r k is
frequently characterized by low pay and t e m p o r a r y contracts. T h e implications of these
c h a n g e s for p e o p l e living a n d w o r k i n g in rural areas are discussed in later c h a p t e r s
(see C h a p t e r s 1 5 , 1 7 a n d 1 8 ) .
70
Secondly, rural e c o n o m i e s have b e c o m e m o r e externally d e p e n d e n t . Traditional industries

s u c h as a g r i c u l t u r e a n d m i n i n g r e l i e d o n t h e e x p o r t o f p r o d u c t s t o t o w n s a n d c i t i e s , b u t t h e
farms a n d m i n e s t e n d e d to b e locally o w n e d a n d e a r n e d i n c o m e t e n d e d to circulate w i t h i n
t h e r u r a l e c o n o m y . T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l e c o n o m y is n o t o n l y d e p e n d e n t o n e x t e r n a l
i n c o m e (for e x a m p l e i n t h e f o r m o f i n v e s t m e n t , s t a t e s u p p o r t , a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p o r t s o r t o u r i s t
s p e n d i n g ) b u t m u c h o f t h e profit n o w flows b a c k t o e x t e r n a l p a r e n t c o m p a n i e s a n d investors.
E c o n o m i c d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p o w e r h a s also b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d w i t h e x t e r n a l a c t o r s , s u c h t h a t
t h e d e g r e e o f c o n t r o l t h a t a r u r a l c o m m u n i t y h a s o v e r its e c o n o m i c f u t u r e h a s b e e n w e a k e n e d .
Finally, t h e r e h a s b e e n a d i s c u r s i v e shift i n t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e r u r a l e c o n o m y is i m a g i n e d
a n d r e p r e s e n t e d . F r o m b e i n g c o n c e i v e d o f as a s p a c e o f p r o d u c t i o n , t h e r u r a l is n o w
u n d e r s t o o d as a s p a c e o f c o n s u m p t i o n . T h i s i n c l u d e s b o t h c o n s u m p t i v e a c t i v i t y in t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e ( s u p p o r t i n g t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r ) , a n d t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of t h e c o u n t r y s i d e - most
n o t a b l y t h r o u g h t o u r i s m b u t also t h r o u g h r e s i d e n t i a l i n v e s t m e n t , t h e m a r k e t i n g o f ' r u r a l '
crafts a n d b r a n d e d s p e c i a l i t y f o o d s , a n d t h e u s e o f r u r a l l o c a t i o n s f o r f i l m a n d t e l e v i s i o n
(see C h a p t e r 1 2 ) . T h e d i s c u r s i v e shift is r e p r o d u c e d i n g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c i e s a n d i n c o n f l i c t s ,
s u c h as b e t w e e n l o g g i n g a n d w i l d l i f e c o n s e r v a t i o n , w h e r e t h e i n t e r e s t s o f p r o t e c t i n g a n
idyllized rural e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h c o n s u m e r appeal are increasingly p r i o r i t i z e d over t h e
i n t e r e s t s o f p r o d u c t i o n (see also C h a p t e r 1 4 ) .
Further Reading
T h e re a re fe w c o m p r e h e n s i v e o v e r v i e w s o f e c o n o m i c restructuring in rural a r e a s . D a v i d
North's c h a p t e r o n rural industrialization in B. llbery (ed.) , The Geography of Rural
Change ( A d d i s o n W e s l e y L o n g m a n , 1998 ) c o n c e n t r a t e s largel y o n m a n u f a c t u r i ng bu t
c o n t a i n s materia l o f w i d e r relevance , whils t M i c h a e l Clark's Teleworking in the Countryside
( A s h g a t e , 2 0 0 0 ) is a detaile d s t u d y o f t e l e w o r k i ng in t he UK. Fo r c a s e s t u d i e s a n d m o re
information o n sector-specifi c restructuring, s e e Trevor B a r n e s a n d R o g e r Hayter, T h e
little t o w n tha t d i d: flexible a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i t y r e s p o n s e in C h e m a i n u s , British
C o l u m b i a ', in Regional Studies, v o l u m e 2 6 , p a g e s 6 1 7 - 6 6 3 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , for a s t u d y o f t he
sawmil l c l o s u r e in C h e m a i n u s , C a n a d a , a n d s e e J a n e t Fitchen's d e s c r i p t i o n o f factory
c l o s u r e s in rural N e w York S t a t e in he r b o o k Endangered Spaces, Enduring Places:
Change, Identity and Survival in Rural America ( W e s t v i e w Press , 1991) .
Websites
D e t a i l e d statistic s a n d c o m m e n t a r i e s o n t he rural e c o n o m i e s o f t he U K a n d t he U n i t e d
S t a t e s r e s p e c t i v e l y c a n b e f o u n d in t he S t a t e o f t he C o u n t r y s i d e r e p o r ts
( w w w . c o u n t r y s i d e . g o v . u k / s t a t e o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e / d e f a u l t . h t m ) a n d o n t he R u r al Polic y
R e s e a r c h Institute's w e b s i t e ( w w w . r u p r i . o r g ).
71
6
Social and Demographic C h a n g e
Introduction
I n t h e s p a c e o f a little u n d e r t w o c e n t u r i e s , t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f r u r a l areas i n w h a t is
n o w p e r c e i v e d as t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d h a s u n d e r g o n e s o m e t h i n g a k i n t o a
m e t a p h o r i c a l r o l l e r c o a s t e r r i d e . F r o m a t r e n d o f s t e a d y p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h at t h e
start o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , r u r a l areas lost s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e i r
p o p u l a t i o n s t o t o w n s a n d cities i n t h e e r a o f r a p i d u r b a n i z a t i o n d u r i n g t h e late
n i n e t e e n t h a n d early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s , b e f o r e t h e f l o w w a s r e v e r s e d i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s
a n d 1 9 7 0 s a n d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a g a i n e n j o y e d n e t i n - m i g r a t i o n . Finally, at t h e start
o f t h e t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y t h e r e is a m o r e a m b i g u o u s s i t u a t i o n w i t h a n o v e r a l l
t e n d e n c y towards rural p o p u l a t i o n gain, b u t cross-cut b y diverse national, regional,
l o c a l a n d d e m o g r a p h i c c o u n t e r - t r e n d s . A s t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f r u r a l areas h a s
fluctuated, so t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h a t p o p u l a t i o n h a s also c h a n g e d . T h e r u r a l
p o p u l a t i o n t o d a y is i n g e n e r a l o l d e r a n d m o r e m i d d l e class t h a n it w a s 3 0 o r 4 0
years ago. F u r t h e r m o r e , these trends have b e e n r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e inflationary
effect o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n b y m i d d l e class i n - m i g r a n t s i n r u r a l p r o p e r t y m a r k e t s . T h i s
c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h e s e c h a n g e s i n m o r e d e t a i l . T h e first h a l f o f t h e c h a p t e r
d o c u m e n t s t h e c h r o n o l o g y a n d g e o g r a p h y o f p o p u l a t i o n c h a n g e i n r u r a l areas a n d
discusses t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t h a v e d r i v e n c h a n g e . T h e s e c o n d h a l f t h e n analyses t h e
r e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n , f o c u s i n g o n t h e r i s e o f t h e m i d d l e classes
a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e for rural p r o p e r t y m a r k e t s .
From Urbanization to Counterurbanization T h e depopulation of the British countryside

t h a t is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e s e f i g u r e s w a s a p r o c e s s
Rural depopulation of mass migration that was replicated
In 1851 half o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f E n g l a n d a n d a c r o s s t h e g l o b e as i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n t o o k h o l d .
Wales lived i n rural areas. A c e n t u r y later, i n B e t w e e n 1851 a n d 1 9 5 1 , t h e total p o p u l a t i o n
1 9 5 1 , o n l y one-fifth o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n d i d so. of England a n d Wales increased by 2 6 million

Social and demographic change
p e o p l e (or 144 p e r cent), yet t h e p o p u l a t i o n on a later and more rapid timescale. In

of rural a r e a s fell by some half-a-million Ireland, for e x a m p l e , t h e p r o p o r t i o n of the
people (or a 5 p e r c e n t decrease) (Saville, national p o p u l a t i o n living in rural c o m m u n i -
1957). M o s t o f this c h a n g e o c c u r r e d during ties o f f e w e r than 1,500 people decreased
the height of industrialization from the from 7 1 . 7 p e r c e n t in 1901 t o 6 3 . 5 p e r c e n t
m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o t h e 1 9 2 0 s , as m i g - in 1936 to 4 6 . 7 p e r c e n t in 1 9 7 1 , w i t h out-
rants w e r e attracted by the prospect o f h i g h e r migration driven by the limited economic
wages in urban industry and the greater and social opportunities available in the
employment opportunities in towns and countryside (Hannan, 1970).
cities c o m p a r e d w i t h rural areas, w h e r e the B e y o n d E u r o p e , there w e r e in 1900 large
early stages o f a g r i c u l t u r a l m o d e r n i z a t i o n h a d parts o f rural N o r t h A m e r i c a , Australia and
reduced the number of farmworkers and N e w Z e a l a n d t h a t w e r e still b e i n g s e t t l e d b y
w h e r e earlier outposts o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g and E u r o p e a n s f o r t h e first t i m e . Y e t , t h i s p o p u l a t -
m i n i n g w e r e in decline. T h e arrival o f rail- i n g o f r u r a l s p a c e w a s o u t p a c e d at a n a t i o n a l
ways h e l p e d to facilitate rural depopulation level b y t h e e x p a n s i o n o f u r b a n areas, a n d i n
by increasing the mobility of rural people, t h e m o r e p o p u l o u s regions a similar process o f
a n d advances in e d u c a t i o n a n d communica- rural to u r b a n m i g r a t i o n c o u l d b e identified.
tions p r o m o t e d a social m o b i l i t y in which Urban population growth rates in Canada
m i g r a t i o n w a s also l i n k e d t o t h e p u r s u i t of were consistently m o r e than double those of
h e i g h t e n e d aspirations a n d the attraction of r u r a l areas f r o m at least t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h
t h e p o t e n t i a l for i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d freedom c e n t u r y until the 1930s, w i t h the u r b a n p o p -
in t o w n s a n d cities c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e closed ulation surpassing the rural population soon
and isolated worlds of rural communities after 1 9 2 1 ( B o l l m a n a n d B i g g s , 1 9 9 2 ) .
(Lewis, 1 9 9 8 ; Saville, 1 9 5 7 ) .
T h e trend of depopulation was n o t even. The population turnaround

T h e m o r e peripheral rural counties of E n g l a n d T h e reversal o f t h e rural t o u r b a n m i g r a t i o n
a n d Wales e x p e r i e n c e d greater depopulation f l o w w a s first o b s e r v e d b y p o p u l a t i o n a n a l y s t s
t h a n those closer t o t h e n e w m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n - in the United States in the early 1970s.
tres, a n d this m o d e l w a s r e p e a t e d at a l o c a l scale The new phenomenon, labelled 'counter-
as s m a l l e r a n d m o r e r e m o t e r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s u r b a n i z a t i o n ' b y B e r r y ( 1 9 7 6 ) (see B o x 6 . 1 ) ,
d e c l i n e d faster t h a n t h e m a r k e t t o w n s ( L e w i s , was c o n f i r m e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d by a series
1 9 9 8 ) . T h e rates a n d d i r e c t i o n s o f m i g r a t i o n o f studies over the following few years, m o s t
also f l u c t u a t e d o v e r t i m e . T h e p o p u l a t i o n of notably work by B o u r n e and Logan (1976)
Rutland, for example, decreased in every and Vining and Kontuly (1978) that d e m o n -
decade b e t w e e n 1851 and 1931, except from strated the 'population t u r n a r o u n d ' was evi-
1 9 0 1 t o 1 9 1 1 w h e n it i n c r e a s e d b y 3 . 2 p e r c e n t d e n t n o t just in t h e U n i t e d States (Table 6.1),
(Saville, 1 9 5 7 ) . B y t h e 1920s t h e current of b u t also in C a n a d a , A u s t r a l i a a n d m u c h of
u r b a n i z a t i o n h a d b e g u n t o s l o w nationally, as W e s t e r n E u r o p e . I n t h e U K , t h e fastest p o p -
e c o n o m i c depression reduced the e m p l o y m e n t ulation g r o w t h in b o t h the 1970s and 1980s
o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n t o w n s a n d cities, a n d as t h e was in predominantly rural counties and
m i d d l e classes s t a r t e d t o m o v e i n t h e o p p o s i t e some 100,000 people were recorded as
direction to t h e n e w l y d e v e l o p i n g s u b u r b s . m i g r a t i n g directly f r o m u r b a n t o rural areas
The trend of rural depopulation was in the year p r i o r to the 1981 census (Lewis,
repeated elsewhere in E u r o p e - albeit often 1998; Serow, 1991). Overall, the population
73
of the metropolitan areas of the UK 1982; and in West G e r m a n y , 0.7 per cent
decreased by 6.5 p e r c e n t b e t w e e n 1971 a n d during the early 1980s (Serow, 1991).
1981, whilst that of n o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n coun- Canada, too, showed a more mixed trend,
ties i n c r e a s e d b y 6 p e r c e n t (Serow, 1 9 9 1 ) . In with urban to rural migration exceeding
o t h e r E u r o p e a n countries the difference was rural to u r b a n migration from 1971 into the
less m a r k e d , b u t p r e s e n t n o n e t h e less: t h e 1980s, b u t the rate of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h in
net migration rate to rural areas in the rural areas surpassed u r b a n g r o w t h rates o n l y
N e t h e r l a n d s was a r o u n d 2 per c e n t a year in for a s h o r t p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1971 and 1976
t h e 1 9 7 0 s ; i n F r a n c e it w a s 1.3 p e r c e n t i n (Figure 6.1).
Box 6.1 Key term
C o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n : T h e m o v e m e n t o f p o p u l a t i o n f r o m u r b a n t o r u r al a r e a s . It is
n o r m a l ly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u r b a n t o r u r al m i g r a t i o n , b u t m a y a l s o b e i n d i c a t e d b y d i f-
f e r e n t i a l r a t e s o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h o f r u r al a n d u r b a n a r e a s . Counterurbanization
c a n i n v o l v e b o t h d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n - m i g r a t i o n f r o m t o w n s a n d c i t i e s t o a d j a c e n t r u r al
area s - a n d d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n - i n t e r - r e g i o n a l m i g r a t i on f r om m e t r o p o l i t a n area s to
r u r al d i s t r i c t s .
T a b le 6. 1 The p o p u l a t i o n t u r n a r o u nd in t he U n i t e d States , 1960-1973

A n n u a l p o p u l a t i o n c h a n g e (%) A n n u a l n e t m i g r a t i o n (%)
1960-7 0 1970- 3 1960-7 0 1970- 3
M e t r o p o l i t an countie s 1.7 1.0 0.5 0.1
N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n countie s 0.4 1.4 -0.6 0.7
Entirely rural countie s -0.5 1.4 -1.2 1.0
US t o t a l 1_3 1J 02 0.3
Source: Champion , 1989
As t h e C a n a d i a n e v i d e n c e suggests, c o u n t e r - t h e U n i t e d States w i t h m i g r a t i o n t o w e s t e r n
urbanization should be regarded as an states a n d t o t h e s o u t h e r n ' s u n b e l t ' , a n d in
a m a l g a m o f different processes o f p o p u l a t i o n the U K with migration to peripheral rural
c h a n g e , r a t h e r t h a n as a s i n g l e , c o h e r e n t and r e g i o n s s u c h as t h e s o u t h - w e s t o f England,
u n i d i r e c t i o n a l flow. S o m e a u t h o r s , for e x a m p l e , mid-Wales and the northern Pennines. By
have distinguished between decentralization, d r a w i n g t o g e t h e r analyses c o n d u c t e d over t h e
or migration from cities to nearby rural 20-year period from the mid-1970s, Lewis
areas, a n d deconcentration, or migration from (1998) proposes that c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n can
m a j o r cities t o rural areas in a n o t h e r r e g i o n . be identified as involving four common
D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o m m u t i n g , f a c t o r s . F i r s t , t h e r e is g r e a t e r g r o w t h o c c u r r i n g
whilst d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n often involves a m o r e at p r o g r e s s i v e l y l o w e r levels o f t h e u r b a n h i e r -
s u b s t a n t i a l 'lifestyle c h a n g e ' . It is a s s o c i a t e d i n archy. S e c o n d l y , p o p u l a t i o n increase spreads
74
0 20 0 40 0 60 0 80 0 100 0 120 0
Numbe r of migrants (thousands )
Figure 6. 1 Migration flows in Canada , 1966-86 , an d fastes t rate of population

growth (right)
Source: After Bollman an d Biggs , 199 2
through extended suburbanization. Thirdly, the rate o f c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n slowing or

t h e r e are b u o y a n t rates o f g r o w t h recorded even reversing in m a n y countries. A longer-
outside metropolitan areas, especially in t e r m p e r s p e c t i v e o v e r t h e last q u a r t e r o f t h e
r e m o t e r u r a l a r e a s . F o u r t h l y , t h e r e is a shift i n twentieth century, however, suggests that
population from traditional urban industrial urban to rural migration continues to be the
areas t o r u r a l l o c a t i o n s t h a t a r e m o r e f a v o u r e d p r e v a i l i n g t r e n d , at least i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
in environmental terms. These observations and England (Tables 6.2 and 6.3), albeit
s u g g e s t t h a t t h e u r b a n t o r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n shift subject to qualifications that wiD b e discussed
i m p l i e d b y c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n is c r o s s - c u t b y later in this chapter.
v a r i o u s r e g i o n a l t r e n d s , as w i l l b e r e t u r n e d t o
in a later section.
The Drivers of Counterurbanization
V i n i n g a n d Strauss (1977) declared c o u n t e r -
C o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n is a p r o d u c t o f t h e e c o -
urbanization t o b e 'a c l e a n b r e a k w i t h the
n o m i c restructuring of b o t h urban and rural
past', a n d B e r r y was similarly bullish a b o u t t h e
societies, c o m b i n e d w i t h societal a n d t e c h n o -
historical significance of the 'turnaround',
logical changes that m e a n that people are
stating that:
more mobile physically and socially than
in previous generations. As K o n t u l y (1998)
A t u r n i ng poin t h a s b e e n r e a c h e d in t he
summarizes, studies have proposed a wide
American u r b an experience . Counter-
r a n g e o f ' e x p l a n a t i o n s ' for counterurbaniza-
u r b a n i z a t i on h a s replace d urbanization
as t he dominan t f o r ce shapin g t he tion, w h i c h c a n b e g r o u p e d u n d e r six key
n a t i o n 's settlemen t patterns . ( B e r r y, drivers:

1 9 7 6 , p. 17 )
Economic cyclical factors, including business
The 1980s cast some doubt on the cycles, t h e g r o w t h o f localized employ-
c o n f i d e n c e o f these early p r o c l a m a t i o n s , w i t h m e n t in m i n i n g , tourism and defence, and
75
Table 6. 2 Ne t migration rates to rural T a b le 6. 3 P o p u l a t i o n chang e in rural

an d urban countie s in t he Unite d States , an d u r b an districts o f England ,
1980-199 7 1981-200 1
1 9 8 0 - 9 0 (%) 1 9 9 0 - 7 (%) 1981-9 1 1991-200 1 1981-200 1
Rural -2. 8 4. 0 (%) (%) (%)
Urban 3. 8 2. 1 Rural +7. 1 +4. 9 +12. 4
Source: w w w . r u p r i . o rg base d o n USD A districts
ERS statistic s Urban +1. 4 +0. 9 +2. 4
districts
Englan d +3. 0 +2. 0 +5. 0

t h e cyclic p a t t e r n o f capital i n v e s t m e n t in
total
p r o p e r t y and business.
Economic structural factors, including the
d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f j o b s t o r u r a l areas in a
new spatial division of labour (see also that residential decisions m a y increasingly b e
C h a p t e r 5). made on the basis of aspirational factors,
Spatial and environmental factors, including i n c l u d i n g t h e p e r c e i v e d q u a l i t y o f life i n r u r a l
social and environmental problems in areas.
u r b a n areas, h o u s i n g availability a n d costs, The significance of 'rurality' as a 'pull
and the attraction of rural environmental f a c t o r ' i n m i g r a t i o n is s u g g e s t e d b y o p i n i o n p o l l s
amenities. that record that a majority of the urban p o p -
Socio-economic and socio-cultural factors, ulation in countries such as t h e UK and
including changing demographic compo- C a n a d a w o u l d p r e f e r t o live i n t h e country-
sitions, t h e g r o w t h o f state w e l f a r e p a y m e n t s , s i d e if t h e y w e r e a b l e t o d o s o ( B o i l m a n a n d
a n d changes in residential preferences a n d Biggs, 1992; Halfacree, 1994). Halfacree's
social values. studies o f i n - m i g r a n t s t o villages in L a n c a s h i r e
Government policies, including explicit a n d D e v o n in E n g l a n d f o u n d that nearly half
initiatives t o p r o m o t e rural development stated that t h e rural c h a r a c t e r o f t h e area was
o r t o attract i n - m i g r a n t s t o rural areas, a n d 'extremely important' in their decision to
the improvement of education, health and m o v e t h e r e , c o m p a r e d w i t h all o t h e r f a c t o r s .
o t h e r p u b l i c services in rural areas. Less t h a n o n e i n t e n i n - m i g r a n t s s a i d t h a t t h e
Technological innovations, including improved rural character was u n i m p o r t a n t (Halfacree,
transport links a n d t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . 1994). Similar findings were identified by

C r u m p (2003) in S o n o m a C o u n t y , California.
T h e s e factors have c h a n g e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s Located 50 miles north of San Francisco,
in w h i c h individuals make decisions about S o n o m a C o u n t y is t h e t y p e o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y
w h e r e t o live. In s o m e cases, n e w constraints rural area that has benefited from a c o m b i n a -
have b e e n i n t r o d u c e d , for e x a m p l e t h e u r b a n tion of population decentralization and
to rural shift of many manufacturing and deconcentration, with the county's popula-
service sector j o b s u n d e r e c o n o m i c restruc- tion increasing by 53 per cent b e t w e e n 1970
t u r i n g has m e a n t that e m p l o y m e n t opportu- a n d 2 0 0 0 . C r u m p f o u n d t h a t for 5 0 p e r c e n t
nities m a y b e greater in rural regions t h a n in of i n - m i g r a n t s to a m o r e rural district o f t h e
n e i g h b o u r i n g u r b a n r e g i o n s . In o t h e r cases, county, the 'rural e n v i r o n m e n t ' was the most
economic r e s t r u c t u r i n g , social and cultural i m p o r t a n t factor in their m i g r a t i o n decision.
c h a n g e a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s h a v e all E v e n in a s u b u r b a n district o f the county, the
removed constraints from individuals, such 'rural environment' was cited as a 'very
76
important' or 'the most important' factor r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t as a m a j o r a t t r a c t i o n f o r a

by over half o f in-migrants. O t h e r factors majority of in-migrants to southern Appalachia,
grouped by C r u m p as r e l a t i n g t o t h e rural U S A , has c o n t r i b u t e d t o a g r o w t h o f e n v i r o n -
surroundings, i n c l u d i n g t h e attractive natural mentalist activity in t h e r e g i o n .
e n v i r o n m e n t , nearby o p e n space a n d 'privacy', 'Aspirational migration' is hence an
were all highly cited by a majority of important component in counterurbaniza-
i n - m i g r a n t s t o t h e rural district. t i o n , b u t for m o s t i n - m i g r a n t s t h e a t t r a c t i v e -
C r u m p ' s g r o u p i n g o f ' r u r a l f a c t o r s ' reflects ness o f t h e ' r u r a l ' will b e j u s t o n e o f m a n y
t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e ' r u r a l ' as a s o c i a l c o n - factors influencing t h e multi-stage d e c i s i o n -
s t r u c t i o n , as d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 1, i n w h i c h making process that is followed in the
different attributes will have more or less sequence of deciding to move, selecting an
i m p o r t a n c e for different p e o p l e . T h e attrac- area t o m o v e to, selecting a c o m m u n i t y in
t i o n o f t h e r u r a l as a p l a c e t o live w i l l t h e r e - which to live, a n d selecting a particular
fore vary between different in-migrants. property. N o t all r u r a l i n - m i g r a n t s actively
Halfacree's (1994) study recorded a wide choose t o l i v e i n a r u r a l a r e a - H a r p e r (1991)
r a n g e o f ' k e y a t t r a c t i o n s ' o f r u r a l life c i t e d b y classified o v e r a fifth o f m i g r a n t s t o h e r s t u d y
in-migrants, including the openness and a r e a as ' r e s t r i c t e d r e s i d e n t s ' w h o s e r e s i d e n t i a l
aesthetic quality o f the e n v i r o n m e n t and the choices were controlled by the managers of
' s l o w e r p a c e o f life' a n d g r e a t e r ' c o m m u n i t y local government or housing association
feeling', as well as value j u d g e m e n t s , for property or w h o s e housing was tied to their
i n s t a n c e o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as a b e t t e r p l a c e t o job, and more broadly there are many
r a i s e c h i l d r e n (see B o x 6 . 2 ) . T h e p r o j e c t i o n o f migrants w h o are effectively compelled to
value j u d g e m e n t s o n to rural space and rural move i n t o rural areas b e c a u s e of employ-
society introduces a political d i m e n s i o n into ment or family ties. M o r e o v e r , many in-
migration that can subsequently contribute to m i g r a n t s are attracted by r e g i o n a l factors that
t h e e m e r g e n c e o f local conflicts (see C h a p t e r 14). have little t o d o w i t h t h e rurality o f t h e d i s -
Halfacree, for e x a m p l e , identifies a c o n s e r v a - t r i c t c o n c e r n e d . W a l m s l e y e t al. ( 1 9 9 5 ) f o u n d
tive, racist s t r a n d a m o n g a small m i n o r i t y of in Australia that the c l i m a t e , lifestyle and
rural i n - m i g r a n t s in E n g l a n d for w h o m the environment, and improved employment
c o u n t r y s i d e is a t t r a c t i v e as a m o n o - e t h n i c a n d and housing opportunities, were the key fac-
m o n o - c u l t u r a l space, whilst, in contrast, J o n e s tors driving m i g r a t i o n to the rural coastal
e t al. ( 2 0 0 3 ) r e p o r t h o w t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e district o f n o r t h e r n N e w S o u t h Wales.
Box 6.2 The significance of rurality in migration

decisions
S t u d i e s b y K e i th H a l f a c r e e o f i n - m i g r a t i on t o r u r al c o m m u n i t i e s in t w o E n g l i s h c o u n t i e s ,
D e v o n a n d L a n c a s h i r e , r e v e a l n o t j u s t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r u r al f a c t o r s in p e o p l e ' s d e c i -
s i o n s t o m o v e , b u t a l s o t h e w i d e r a n g e o f r e a s o n s w h y p e o p l e c o n s i d e r r u r al l i fe a n d
r u r al p l a c e s t o b e a t t r a c t i v e . As Halfacree i l l u s t r a t es w i t h q u o t e s f r om his surve y
r e s p o n d e n t s , t h e s e r e a s o n s r e l a t e t o b o t h t h e p h y s i c a l q u a l i ty a n d t h e s o c i a l q u a l i ty
o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , a s w e l l a s t o o t h e r f a c t o r s s u c h a s p r i v a c y, l e i s u r e p o t e n t i a l a n d
f a m i l i a r i ty w i t h t h e a r e a :
(Continued)
77
Physica l q u a l i ty o f t h e environmen t
' We w a n t e d t o m o v e t o .. . a m o r e a t t r a c t i ve a r e a '
' Q u i e t e r - les s t r a f f i c. L i ke t h e c o u n t r y b u t n o t t o o i s o l a t e d . N i c e t o se e f i e l d s e t c '
' W a n t ed m o re natural surroundings '
' S p a c e , f e w e r p e o p l e , t i m e t o b r e a t h e a n d t h i n k'
Socia l q u a l i ty o f t h e environmen t
' To b e in a q u i e t e r a n d m o r e p l e a s a n t r e l a x e d a r e a '
'To s e e k a c a l m e r e n v i r o n m e n t '
' To g e t a w a y f r o m it a l l '
' G e t o u t o f t h e r at race - b e t t e r w a y o f l i f e'
'Pac e o f l i fe - s l o w e r . . . M o re o f a c o m m u n i t y a t m o s p h e r e '
Othe r factors
'Preferenc e f o r a d d i t i o n a l l a n d , peac e a n d privacy'
' P r e f e r o u t d o o r a c t i v i t i e s - t h r o u g h o u t m y l i fe I've l i k e d f e l l - w a l k i n g , a p p r e c i a t i o n o f
c o u n t ry e t c '
'[I c a n ] w a l k o u t o f f r o n t d o o r i n to t h e c o u n t r y , d o n ' t h a v e t o d r i v e '
' W i fe g r e w u p in a r u r al a r e a . I've a l m o s t a l w a y s b e e n r u r a l'
For more see K. Halfacree (1994) The importance of'the rural'in the constitution of counterurbanization:
evidence from England in the 1980s. Sociologia Ruralis, 34, 164-189.
Re-appraising Counterurbanization in t h e U n i t e d States w h e r e t h e population

C o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n has b e e n o n e o f t h e key t u r n a r o u n d was particularly m a r k e d and the
concepts e m p l o y e d b y rural social scientists U K - w h e r e u r b a n t o rural m i g r a t i o n has b e e n
over t h e past c o u p l e o f d e c a d e s , yet t h e e v i - consistently predominant. In many other
d e n c e a c c u m u l a t e d in this p e r i o d suggests that c o u n t r i e s t h e significance o f c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a -
it n e e d s t o b e a p p r o a c h e d c r i t i c a l l y ( M i t c h e l l , t i o n has b e e n weaker. K o n t u l y (1998) docu-
2 0 0 4 ) . It is c l e a r t h a t t h e e r a o f p e r s i s t e n t r u r a l ments that in m a n y E u r o p e a n countries the
depopulation has c o m e to an e n d and that tide o f counterurbanization t u r n e d back to a
t h e r e is n o w a s t r o n g c u r r e n t o f u r b a n t o r u r a l f l o w o f u r b a n i z a t i o n i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , o r at least a
m i g r a t i o n t h a t is c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a n i n c r e a s e i n p e r i o d o f i n d e t e r m i n a t e t r e n d (Figure 6.2). In
t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f m a n y r u r a l areas. H o w e v e r , some countries, including Finland and
the population dynamics of the contemporary Portugal, urbanization remained the p r e d o m i -
c o u n t r y s i d e a r e n o t as s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d as t h e nant trend t h r o u g h o u t the 1970s and 1980s.
c o m m o n usage o f the t e r m 'counterurbaniza- S e c o n d l y , there are regional differences in popu-
t i o n ' suggests. In particular, there are four key lation dynamics and 'regional' factors may be more
caveats t h a t s h o u l d b e n o t e d . important than 'rural' factors in explaining migra-
First, the emphasis placed on counterurbanization tion. T h e r e g i o n a l l y u n e v e n n a t u r e o f c o u n t e r -
in Anglo-American literature has understated the urbanization is e v i d e n t in North America,
diversity of national trends.The counterurbaniza- w h e r e t h e ' r u r a l ' areas o f b o t h C a n a d a a n d t h e
t i o n thesis has b e e n p r o m o t e d b y researchers U n i t e d States e n c o m p a s s a large a n d diverse
78
197 0 198 0 199 0

Austria
Belgui m
France
German y
Icelan d
Ireland
Netherland s
Spai n
Swede n
Switz .
UK
= Counterurbanization | | = Urbanization m = No dominan t trend
Figure 6. 2 Predominanc e of counterurbanizatio n an d urbanization for 11 Europea n

countries
Source: Base d o n Kontuly, 199 8
territory. U r b a n to rural migration in Canada the e n v i r o n m e n t , lifestyle and employment

has p r i m a r i l y t a k e n t h e f o r m o f d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , o p p o r t u n i t i e s w h i c h also b o o s t e d u r b a n p o p -
w i t h p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h c o n c e n t r a t e d in those ulations in t h e r e g i o n . T h r o u g h o u t m u c h of
r u r a l districts closest t o t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n t r e s the prairie belt, in contrast, t h e populations o f
o f t h e St L a w r e n c e v a l l e y a n d s o u t h e r n B r i t i s h rural counties decreased, s o m e t i m e s by over
C o l u m b i a (Bollman a n d Biggs, 1992). R e m o t e r 1 0 p e r c e n t , as t r a d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s o f e m p l o y -
rural regions of central and n o r t h e r n Canada m e n t s u c h as f a r m i n g d e c l i n e d ( F i g u r e 6 . 3 ) .
h a v e conversely suffered significant d e p o p u l a - T h e polarization of the countryside into
tion, with the population of Newfoundland, zones of population growth and population
for e x a m p l e , falling b y 7 p e r c e n t b e t w e e n 1 9 9 6 d e c l i n e is also e v i d e n t i n F r a n c e a n d A u s t r a l i a .
and 2 0 0 1 , that of the Y u k o n by 6.8 p e r cent Rural population growth in Australia has
and that of the N o r t h West Territories by b e e n focused o n t h e rural coastal strip o f N e w
5.8 p e r cent. In response, t h e C a n a d i a n gov- S o u t h Wales, Victoria and Queensland, and
ernment has a d o p t e d a policy o f t r y i n g to on sparsely populated regions of Western
encourage i m m i g r a t i o n by foreign nationals Australia a n d N o r t h e r n T e r r i t o r y w h e r e a g r i -
directly i n t o r u r a l areas t o t r y t o stabilize p o p - cultural e m p l o y m e n t has increased against t h e
ulation decline. trend (Hugo, 1994). At the same time,
In t h e U n i t e d States, p o p u l a t i o n d e c o n c e n - h o w e v e r , 1 2 0 r u r a l m u n i c i p a l i t i e s lost m o r e t h a n
t r a t i o n is t h e k e y f a c t o r i n counterurbaniza- o n e p e r c e n t o f their p o p u l a t i o n in a single
tion, but in a regionally selective manner. year in 1 9 9 8 - 9 , most of t h e m in the wheat,
Over three-quarters of the population s h e e p a n d d r y l a n d g r a z i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l areas
g r o w t h in rural areas b e t w e e n 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 7 of the interior (Kenyon and Black, 2001).
occurred in western and southern states, Altogether, s o m e 75 rural c o m m u n i t i e s lost
notably Arizona, Nevada, Idaho, O r e g o n and m o r e t h a n a fifth o f t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n
Washington, stimulated by a combination of 1 9 7 6 a n d 1 9 9 8 , w i t h t h e p o p u l a t i o n falling b y
79

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m o r e t h a n a t h i r d i n t h e m o s t e x t r e m e cases rural communities in the English East

such as B u l o k e in Victoria and Isisford in M i d l a n d s w i t h fewer t h a n 1,000 residents in
Queensland (Kenyon and Black, 2001). 1981 had decreased in p o p u l a t i o n since 1 9 7 1 ;
Similarly, in F r a n c e t h e prevailing t r e n d of whilst S p e n c e r (1997) f o u n d that o n e in three
c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n masks p r o b l e m s o f severe parishes in S o u t h Oxfordshire - one of the
d e p o p u l a t i o n in m a n y o f t h e smallest rural fastest g r o w i n g r u r a l d i s t r i c t s h a d l o s t p o p -
communities, particularly in the Auvergne, ulation b e t w e e n 1961 and 1 9 9 1 . T h e u n e v e n
Limousin, Lorraine and parts of Brittany, local g e o g r a p h y of rural migration is pro-
N o r m a n d y and the Pyrenees, where agricul- duced by a combination of the residential
tural employment remains comparatively preferences of individual migrants and the
high (INSEE, 1995). Predictions suggest availability o f p r o p e r t y . P r o p e r t y s u p p l y in t h e
t h a t s o m e 1,500 F r e n c h villages a n d h a m l e t s U K is r e g u l a t e d b y t h e p l a n n i n g s y s t e m t h a t
c o u l d effectively d i s a p p e a r b y 2 0 1 5 (Lichfield, controls development, restricting n e w build-
1998). ing and hence t h e capacity for population
Thirdly, even in areas of rural population growth in valued environments, very small
growth there can he pockets of local depopulation. c o m m u n i t i e s a n d p r e s s u r e d r u r a l s p a c e s (see
T h e U K has t h e m o s t p r o n o u n c e d a n d c o n - B o x 6.3). As S p e n c e r (1997) argues, p l a n n i n g
sistent p a t t e r n o f c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n in t h e p o l i c y is n o t f o r m e d objectively, b u t repre-
developed world, b u t even in rapidly p o p u l a t - sents t h e o u t c o m e o f an a s y m m e t r i c a l p o w e r
ing parts of the British countryside the relationship b e t w e e n planning authorities and
dynamics of population change can vary landowners that has t e n d e d to protect less
starkly from one community to the next. populous communities from growth and can
W e e k l e y ( 1 9 8 8 ) s h o w e d t h a t n e a r l y h a l f o f all encourage localized depopulation.
Box 6.3 Planning and counterurbanization in rural Britain
P r o p e r t y d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e U K is r e g u l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e t o w n a n d c o u n t r y p l a n n i n g
s y s t e m . N e w d e v e l o p m e n t s r e q u i re p r i or p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e l o c a l p l a n n i n g a u t h o r i ty
w h i c h is a w a r d e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o l i c i e s o u t l i n e d in p e r i o d i c a l l y r e v i s e d l o c a l ' p l a n s '.
T he p l a n s i d e n t i fy l a n d f o r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d l a n d w h e r e d e v e l o p m e n t w i ll n o t n o r -
m a l l y b e p e r m i t t e d , r e f l e c t i n g n a t i o n a l a n d r e g i o n a l g u i d e l i n e s . T h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h is
p l a n n i n g s y s t e m ha s i n f l u e n c e d t h e g e o g r a p h y o f c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n in t h e U K a t
t w o levels . First, o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t s t r a t e g i e s o f t h e p l a n n i n g s y s t e m a f t e r t h e S e c o n d
W o r ld W a r w a s t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f ' g r e e n b e l t s ' a r o u n d m a j o r c i t i e s in o r d e r t o c o n t r o l
u r b a n s p r a w l . D e v e l o p m e n t in t h e ' g r e e n b e l t s ' is h e a v i l y r e s t r i c t e d , t h u s encouragin g
u r b a n o u t - m i g r a n ts t o ' j u m p' t h e g r e e n b e l t a n d m o v e t o r u r al d i s t r i c ts f u r t h er o u t ( f o r
e x a m p l e se e M u r d o c h a n d M a r s d e n , 1 9 9 4 o n B u c k i n g h a m s h i r e ) . T h is ha s h e l p e d t o p r o -
m o t e c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n as o p p o s e d t o s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n as t h e d o m i n a n t p o p u l a t i o n
t r e n d in t h e U K. S e c o n d l y , a t a l o c a l l e v e l , m a n y c o u n c i l s h a v e a d o p t e d p l a n n i n g p o l i -
cie s t h a t c o n c e n t r a t e n e w d e v e l o p m e n t in ' k e y s e t t l e m e n t s ' . P o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h h e n c e
a l s o t e n d s t o b e c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s , w h i l s t in o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s ne w
d e v e l o p m e n t is r e s t r i c t e d , l i m i t i ng p r o p e r ty s u p p l y a n d p o t e n t i a l l y l e a d i n g t o p o p u l a -
t i on stagnatio n o r decline .
(Continued)
81
T he f o r m u l a t i on o f p l a n n i n g p o l i c i e s is n o t a n o b j e c t i v e p r o c e s s b u t o n e t h a t r e f l e c t s
t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r in r u r al l o c a l i t i e s . As S p e n c e r ( 1 9 9 7 ) a r g u e s , p l a n n i n g p o l i c y is
o f t e n b i a s e d in f a v o u r o f l a n d e d i n t e r e s t s , w h o m a y s e e k t o e x p l o i t t h e commercia l
v a l u e o f t h e i r l a n d t h r o u g h d e v e l o p m e n t o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y m i g h t w o r k t o restrict d e v e l -
o p m e n t in o r d e r t o a v o i d a d i l u t i on o f t h e i r p o w e r b a s e . M i d d le clas s r e s i d e n t s hav e
a l s o m o b i l i z e d t o o p p o s e d e v e l o p m e n t in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n a l i m it o n t h e s u p p l y o f
p r o p e r t y, k e e p i n g p r o p e r ty v a l u e s h i g h a n d h e n c e p r o t e c t i n g t h e e x c l u s i v i t y o f c e r t a i n
r u r al c o m m u n i t i e s ( M u r d o ch a n d M a r s d e n , 1 9 9 4 ) (se e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e ' m i d d le clas s
c o u n t r y s i d e ' l a t e r in t h is c h a p t e r ) . U n s u r p r i s i n g l y, p l a n n i n g p o l i c y a n d developmen t
c o n t r o l h a v e b e c o m e k e y f o c a l p o i n t s o f p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t in c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r al B r i t a in
(se e C h a p t e r 14) .
For more see Jonathan Murdoch and Terry Marsden (1994) Reconstituting Rurality (UCL Press,) ; David
Spencer (1997) Counterurbanization and rural depopulation revisited: landowners, planners and the
rural development process. Journal of Rural Studies, 13, 75-92.
Table 6. 4 Ne t m i g r a t i on t o (+)/from (-) n o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n

area s o f t he U n i t e d State s (thousands )
A g e ( y r) 1975- 6 1983- 4 1985- 6 1992- 3
18-2 4 -14. 4 -33. 6 -39. 6 -7. 3
25-2 9 +22. 0 -18. 2 -26. 2 -3. 5
30-5 9 +8. 3 -4. 5 -1. 8 +10. 3
60 an d ove r +2 2 +4. 8 +6. 5
Source: Fulton e t al. , 199 7
Fourthly, counterurbanization can disguise i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , c i t i e s still h o l d a n a t t r a c t i o n

different migration patterns for different age groups as p l a c e s o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t a r e n o t a v a i l -
and social groups. The predominance of able in rural c o m m u n i t i e s . O t h e r migration
counterurbanization in many developed decisions are forced by l i m i t e d employment
c o u n t r i e s for substantial p e r i o d s o f t h e late opportunities (often reflecting the decline
twentieth c e n t u r y disguised the persistent net of employment in agriculture and other
out-migration of young people from rural traditional industries), or, in s o m e areas, a n
areas. E v e n d u r i n g t h e h e r a l d e d 'population inability t o afford inflated property prices.
turnaround' in 19756, o v e r 14,000 more M o s t significantly, t h e e x p a n s i o n of higher
young people aged between 18 and 24 education means that large numbers of
migrated from rural counties of the United y o u n g p e o p l e leave rural c o m m u n i t i e s to g o
States t h a n m o v e d to t h e m , a n d this n e t o u t - t o college o r university a n d are restricted in
flow intensified in the 1980s (Table 6.4). their ability to r e t u r n by a shortage o f a p p r o -
Similarly, 4 4 o f t h e 4 8 n o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n d i s - priate graduate-level jobs in many rural
tricts of Australia experienced a net out- areas.
migration of 15-24-year-olds between 1986 S o m e w i l l r e t u r n l a t e r i n life, as o p p o r t u n i -
and 1991 (Gray and Lawrence, 2001). ties t o d o s o a r i s e a n d as t h e i r p e r s o n a l c i r c u m -
T h e out-migration of young people from stances c h a n g e . Little a t t e n t i o n has b e e n paid
r u r a l a r e a s is a p r o d u c t o f b o t h c h o i c e and by researchers to measuring the numerical
circumstance. F o r m a n y y o u n g p e o p l e raised significance o f return migration in counter-
82
Age 10-1 9 20-3 4 35-4 9 50-6 4 I 65 +

100 %
90 %
80 %
70 %
60 %
50 %
40 %
30 %
20 %
10 %
0%
Powy s S Lakeland. Cardiff Mancheste r England and
Wales
Rural Urban
Figure 6. 4 Age profiles for two rural an d two urban districts in Englan d an d Wales , from
the 200 1 Censu s
Source: Base d o n data publishe d by the Office of Nationa l Statistic s
urbanization, but on the basis of noted A t t h e o t h e r e n d o f t h e a g e scale f r o m y o u t h

o b s e r v a t i o n s i n several c o u n t r i e s it c a n b e c o n - o u t - m i g r a t i o n , t h e flow o f i n - m i g r a t i o n t o rural
c l u d e d t h a t at least a s i z e a b l e m i n o r i t y o f u r b a n areas has also been boosted by retirement
t o r u r a l m i g r a n t s a r e i n fact n o t ' n e w c o m e r s ' m i g r a t i o n . F u l t o n e t al. ( 1 9 9 7 ) , for example,
b u t 'returnees'. R e t u r n migrants will normally record a net migration of some 6,500 people
b e m o r e easily i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y , a g e d o v e r 6 0 i n t o n o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas o f t h e
a n d often have a particular c o m m i t m e n t to the United States in 1992-3. M u c h retirement
place that leads to community service. As m i g r a t i o n is spatially c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t o rural
F i t c h e n observes in rural N e w York State: coastal districts a n d o t h e r ' r e s o r t ' areas, w i t h
p a r t i c u l a r t r e n d s o b s e r v e d i n r e g i o n s s u c h as
Thes e return migrants o c c u p y important s o u t h - w e s t E n g l a n d a n d t h e A u s t r a l i a n coastal

roles in the community . T h e y w o rk in plan - strip o f Q u e e n s l a n d and N e w S o u t h Wales.
n i ng offices , r un employmen t t r a i n i ng T h e 1 9 0 U S c o u n t i e s classified as ' r e t i r e m e n t
offices , a n d s e r v e as schoo l principals, destination counties' (mostly along the west
probation directors , a n d s o forth. In their off- coast a n d i n t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n s a n d F l o r i d a ) ,
the-job time the y are servin g a s c o m m u n i t y w e r e t h e f a s t e s t - g r o w i n g localities i n t h e U n i t e d
leader s in various capacities , f r om scou t
States i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s , w i t h a n e t m i g r a t i o n g a i n o f
leader s to coordinators o f recyclin g c a m -
o v e r 17 p e r c e n t b e t w e e n 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 7 ( R u r a l
paigns . T h e s e adults w e r e o n c e youngster s
Policy R e s e a r c h Institute, 2 0 0 3 ) .
w h o couldn't wai t to leav e h o m e to g o to
colleg e a n d w h o v o w e d that afte r colleg e T h e effect o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t i a l d e m o g r a p h i c
the y w o u l d neve r return, a s there w a s nei - d y n a m i c s has b e e n t o polarize t h e p o p u l a t i o n

the r caree r no r socia l life for t h e m in their profiles o f r u r a l a n d u r b a n a r e a s . F i g u r e 6.4
h o m e t o w n . (Fitchen , 1 9 9 1 , p. 93 ) c o m p a r e s t h e a g e profiles o f t w o r u r a l d i s t r i c t s
83
in t h e U K w i t h t h o s e o f t w o large cities. In t h e social classes i n rural communities and can

t w o rural districts, P o w y s in Wales a n d S o u t h become self-reproducing as p r o p e r t y prices
Lakeland in north-west England, over two- s o a r a n d m i d d l e class i n - m i g r a n t s m o b i l i z e t o
fifths o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a r e a g e d o v e r 5 0 a n d resist d e v e l o p m e n t , as w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e
a r o u n d 15 p e r c e n t a r e a g e d o v e r 7 0 , b u t t h e r e r e m a i n d e r o f this chapter.
are substantially fewer residents a g e d b e t w e e n
2 0 a n d 3 5 than t h e national average. In the Class Recomposition in Rural Areas
t w o cities, Cardiff a n d M a n c h e s t e r , in contrast, Traditionally, the class structure of rural
a r o u n d o n e i n f o u r r e s i d e n t s is a g e d b e t w e e n society was based o n p r o p e r t y relations. T h e
2 0 a n d 3 5 , b u t fewer t h a n a third are aged over o w n e r s h i p o f land b r o u g h t n o t j u s t status, b u t
5 0 , a n d o n l y o n e i n t e n is a g e d o v e r 7 0 . T h e also p o w e r i n a r u r a l e c o n o m y b a s e d o n the
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e s e t r e n d s for t h e e x p e r i - exploitation of land, through agriculture,
ences of b o t h y o u n g people and the elderly o f forestry, m i n i n g a n d so o n (see C h a p t e r s 4 a n d 5 ) .
l i v i n g i n r u r a l areas a r e d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r in L a n d o w n e r s r e a p e d t h e profits o f l a n d - b a s e d
C h a p t e r 17. economic activity and controlled both the
M i g r a t i o n flows i n t o a n d o u t o f r u r a l areas employment opportunities and the housing
a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d n o t j u s t b y a g e , b u t also b y c h o i c e s o f t h e r u r a l w o r k i n g class. F o r its p a r t ,
i n c o m e a n d social class. T h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e s e the rural w o r k i n g class w a s a l s o a tenanted
t r e n d s is m o r e m i x e d t h a n f o r a g e , a n d s u g g e s t s class, m a n y o f w h o m w e r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e i r
that there are a n u m b e r o f c o m p l e x d y n a m i c s e m p l o y e r s for a c c o m m o d a t i o n . T h e restruc-
that have influenced the migration direction of turing of the rural economy in the late
d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . T h e r e twentieth century, however, u n d e r m i n e d this
is, f o r i n s t a n c e , s o m e e v i d e n c e o f i n - m i g r a t i o n class structure. T h e decline of agricultural
t o r u r a l areas b y l o w i n c o m e g r o u p s . F i t c h e n employment, together with the expansion of
(1991) describes a second group of return non-land-based economic activities a n d the
m i g r a n t s w h o left r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s t o find g r o w t h o f public h o u s i n g provision in rural
work, but having been unsuccessful have a r e a s , all d i m i n i s h e d t h e p o w e r a n d s t a t u s o f
r e t u r n e d h o m e jobless. H u g o a n d Bell (1998), t h e l a n d o w n i n g class. T h i s d i d n o t , though,
m e a n w h i l e , identify a trend of 'welfare-led p r o d u c e a class-less s o c i e t y , r a t h e r it m a r k e d a
m i g r a t i o n ' i n A u s t r a l i a , w h i c h reflects t h e fact t r a n s i t i o n t o a n e w class s t r u c t u r e b a s e d on
that whilst g o v e r n m e n t welfare p a y m e n t s are occupation in which the pivotal position
t h e s a m e across t h e c o u n t r y , l i v i n g costs c a n b e w e n t t o t h e b u r g e o n i n g ' m i d d l e class'.
lower in rural areas. H o w e v e r , i n much of T h e g r o w t h o f t h e r u r a l m i d d l e class w a s

E u r o p e a n d m a n y o f t h e fastest-growing parts produced both by the restructuring of the
of rural N o r t h America, counterurbanization r u r a l l a b o u r m a r k e t (see C h a p t e r 5) a n d by
h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m i d d l e class i n m i g r a - t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y m i d d l e class c h a r a c t e r of
t i o n . F u l t o n e t al.'s ( 1 9 9 7 ) analysis, f o r e x a m p l e , counterurbanization. Members of the rural
suggests that there was a n e t i n - m i g r a t i o n of m i d d l e class a r e t h e r e f o r e d r a w n f r o m a w i d e
upper blue-collar and white-collar workers range of backgrounds and their entry routes
i n t o t h e rural U n i t e d States in b o t h t h e m i d - i n t o t h e class w i l l b e v a r i e d . M o r e o v e r , the
1970s a n d early 1990s c o m p a r e d w i t h a n e t t e r m ' m i d d l e class' n o w e n c o m p a s s e s a l a r g e
out-migration of lower blue-collar and w h i t e - n u m b e r o f different, diverse o c c u p a t i o n s and
c o l l a r w o r k e r s . W h e r e s u c h differential migra- e m p l o y m e n t s i t u a t i o n s , a n d a vast s p e c t r u m o f
t i o n o c c u r s , it l e a d s t o t h e r e c o m p o s i t i o n of h o u s e h o l d i n c o m e levels, s u c h t h a t it is difficult
84
t o a t t r i b u t e t h e r u r a l m i d d l e class w i t h any arise, b e c o m i n g dynamics that may drive

c o m m o n set o f v a l u e s o r i n t e r e s t s . A s s u c h , t h e local-level c h a n g e in rural areas ( C l o k e and
r u r a l m i d d l e class is n o t a c o h e r e n t , u n i f i e d , Thrift, 1987). In particular, rural researchers
agent acting to reshape rural communities, have focused o n the role of a 'fraction' of p r o -
b u t is c o m p o s e d o f m a n y d i f f e r e n t ' f r a c t i o n s ' fessional a n d m a n a g e r i a l w o r k e r s , k n o w n as
between which tensions and conflicts can t h e ' s e r v i c e class' (see B o x 6 . 4 ) .
Box 6.4 Key term
S e r v i c e c l a s s : T h e ' s e r v i c e class ' a re a f r a c t i on o f t h e m i d d le clas s e m p l o y e d in p r o -

f e s s i o n a l , m a n a g e r i a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i ve o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e t e r m o r i g i n a t e s in M a r x i st
clas s a n a l y s i s a n d r e f l e c t s t h e f a c t t h a t m e m b e r s o f t h is clas s a re n e i t h e r t h e o w n e r s o f
c a p i t a l n o r e x p l o i t e d w o r k e r s , b u t r a t h e r s e r w c e c a p i t a l b y p r o v i d i ng s p e c i a l i s t h i g h -
o r d e r skills a n d b y m a n a g i n g c a p i t a l i s t e n t e r p r i s e s . Servic e clas s o c c u p a t i o n s a re f o u n d
in b o t h t h e p r i v a te s e c t o r ( f o r e x a m p l e , m a n a g e r s , e n g i n e e r s , a c c o u n t a n t s , lawyers )
a n d t h e p u b l ic s e c t o r ( f o r e x a m p l e , t e a c h e r s , d o c t o r s , civil s e r v a n t s , p l a n n e r s ) , b u t a re
g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y ' r a p id n u m e r i c a l g r o w t h , h i g h level s o f e d u c a t i o n a l c r e d e n -
tials, a considerabl e degre e o f a u t o n o m y a n d d i s c r e t i o n a t w o r k, reasonabl y high
i n c o m e s .. . o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p r o m o t i o n b e t w e e n e n t e r p r i s e s a n d r e l a t i ve residentia l
f r e e d o m ' ( U r r y, 1 9 9 5 , p. 2 0 9 ) .
T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e r v i c e class t o r u r a l c r e a t e d m o r e s e r v i c e class j o b s , s u c h as t e a c h e r s ,
r e s t r u c t u r i n g is d e r i v e d f r o m five k e y f a c t o r s . d o c t o r s a n d l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t officers, p a r t i -
First, t h e u r b a n t o r u r a l shift i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g c u l a r l y i n t h e U K , w h e r e t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r is
e m p l o y m e n t as a p a r t o f a w i d e r r e s t r u c t u r i n g a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f s e r v i c e class e m p l o y -
of manufacturing industry (see C h a p t e r 5), m e n t (Lash a n d U r r y , 1 9 8 7 ) . F o u r t h l y , as n o t e d
a n d especially t h e e x p a n s i o n o f h i g h t e c h n o l - i n B o x 6 . 4 , t h e s e r v i c e class is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y
o g y i n d u s t r y in rural locations, has created relative residential mobility. Employment
s e r v i c e class m a n a g e r i a l a n d t e c h n i c a l j o b s i n o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r m a n y s e r v i c e class o c c u p a -
rural localities. T h i s has been particularly tions exist across b o t h u r b a n a n d rural r e g i o n s
significant i n c o u n t r i e s s u c h as t h e U n i t e d States a n d s e r v i c e class m e m b e r s a r e u s u a l l y a b l e t o
and G e r m a n y w h e r e the e m e r g e n c e of the ser- m o v e easily b e t w e e n e m p l o y e r s , m e a n i n g t h a t
v i c e class h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r i s e o f t h e y a r e less c o n s t r a i n e d i n t h e i r residential
scientific managerialism in private industry decision-making and more able to follow
(Lash a n d U r r y , 1 9 8 7 ) . S e c o n d l y , t h e r e l o c a - ' q u a l i t y o f life' m o t i v a t i o n s ( U r r y , 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e
t i o n o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f u n c t i o n s t o r u r a l areas w o r k i n g h o u r s a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f s e r v i c e class
b y service s e c t o r e m p l o y e r s (see again C h a p t e r 5) m e m b e r s also m e a n t h a t t h e y c o m p r i s e a d i s -
has b o t h p r o m o t e d j o b - r e l a t e d in-migration proportionate share of commuters. Fifthly,
b y s e r v i c e class m e m b e r s and created new some analysts have argued that there is a
service class employment opportunities for strong identification i n s e r v i c e class culture
'local' residents. Thirdly, t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e w i t h t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d t h e ideals o f t h e
p u b l i c s e r v i c e s i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n r u r a l areas h a s 'rural idyll'. As Thrift c o n t e n d s :
85
Members o f t he servic e clas s hav e a [ t h e i n - m i g r a n t s e r v i c e class] h a v e dominated

s t r o n g predilectio n for the rural i d e a l / i d y l l . . . local politics, a n d u s e d their p o w e r t o p u r s u e
m o re t h a n o t h e r c l a s s e s t h e y h a v e t he their o w n sectional interests w h i c h represent
capacit y to do somethin g abou t that very particular ideologies of w h a t rural com-
p r e d i l e c t i o n . T h e y c a n e x e r c i s e c h o i c e in
munity and development should be like'
t wo w a y s . First o f all, t h e y c a n a t t e m p t to
(p. 3 2 8 ) . I n t h e s o u t h - w e s t e r n E n g l i s h c o u n t y o f
k e e p t he e n v i r o n m e n t s t h e y live in a s
S o m e r s e t , for e x a m p l e , o v e r h a l f o f t h e c o u n t y
'rural' a s p o s s i b l e . S u c h a p r o c e s s ca n
council in 1995 was d r a w n from t h e service
operat e a t a numbe r of scales . H o m e s
c a n b e c o v e r e d w i th L a u ra A s h l e y p r i n ts class a n d r e f l e c t e d t h i s i n a p r o g r a m m e that
a n d fitted o u t w i th s t r i p p e d p i ne f u r n i t u r e. included opposition to housing development
Development s that do no t ge l w i th and hunting (see Woods, 1997, 1998b).

s e r v i c e c l a s s t a s t e s c a n b e e x c l u d e d in A l t h o u g h r e s e a r c h o n t h e r u r a l s e r v i c e class h a s
t he nam e of conservatio n .. . Second , b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e U K , similar e x a m p l e s
t h e y c a n c o l o n i s e a r e a s no t p r e v i o u s l y can be found elsewhere. Walker (1999), for
n o t e d for thei r s e r v i c e clas s c o m p o s i t i o n .. . instance, highlights the leadership role of
a n d m o u l d t h e s e in t h e i r i m a g e . (Thrift,
s e r v i c e class i n - m i g r a n t s i n p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t a
1987 , pp. 7 8 - 7 9 )
p r o p o s e d waste d u m p in t h e rural fringe of
Toronto.
Research in the UK has indicated that T h e s e r v i c e class t h e s i s , h o w e v e r , d o e s h a v e
s o m e 4 0 p e r c e n t o f i n - m i g r a n t s t o rural areas its critics. U r r y (1995) acknowledges that
between 1970 and 1988 were m e m b e r s of the t h e r e a r e m e m b e r s o f classes o t h e r t h a n the
s e r v i c e class, a b o u t t w i c e as g r e a t as t h e p r o - s e r v i c e class w h o also h a v e a s t r o n g i d e n t i f i c a -
p o r t i o n o f t h e s e r v i c e class i n t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g tion w i t h t h e countryside, a n d that there are
p o p u l a t i o n (Halfacree, 1992, q u o t e d in U r r y , many service class members who do not
1995). By the 1990s, C l o k e , Phillips et al. participate in rural activities. M o r e forcibly,
(1995) w e r e able t o r e p o r t that nearly two- Murdoch and Marsden (1994) question the
thirds o f residents in t h r e e case s t u d y areas in supposed d o m i n a n c e o f an identifiable 'service
the C o t s w o l d s a n d Berkshire in E n g l a n d a n d class culture' in rural areas, commenting
G o w e r in Wales w e r e m e m b e r s o f t h e service that, 'there is n o t one "culture" associated
class. M o r e o v e r , o n l y a m o n g t h o s e r e s i d e n t s o f with the middle class i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s of
m o r e t h a n 4 0 y e a r s w a s t h e s e r v i c e class i n a Buckinghamshire, although we would agree
minority. that these "cultures" are becoming hege-
T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e r v i c e class is n o t m o n i c ' (p. 4 5 ) . I n r e s p o n s e , C l o k e , Phillips
j u s t i n its n u m e r i c a l s t r e n g t h , b u t also as e t al. ( 1 9 9 5 ) s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s c r i t i q u e is a m i s -
implied above - in t h e proactive involvement o f reading of the original argument, contending
s e r v i c e class m e m b e r s i n l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h a t ' i t w a s n e v e r c l a i m e d t h a t t h e s e r v i c e class
c o m m u n i t y leadership. M e m b e r s o f the service e q u a t e s t o t h e m i d d l e class, o r t h a t all r u r a l
class a r e w e l l e q u i p p e d for p o l i t i c a l activity, w i t h areas w e r e b e c o m i n g d o m i n a t e d b y t h e s e r v i c e
h i g h levels o f e d u c a t i o n , g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n , class; r a t h e r it w a s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e service
organizational and other professional skills, class is a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t " f r a c t i o n " o f
s t r o n g n e t w o r k s , s p a r e time a n d m o n e y a n d middle-class residents within selected rural
crucially the motivation to defend their a r e a s ' (p. 2 2 8 ) .
i n v e s t m e n t in t h e 'rural idyll'. As C l o k e and E i t h e r w a y , t h e r e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e class
G o o d w i n (1992) observed, ' H a v i n g colonized s t r u c t u r e o f m a n y r u r a l a r e a s is a n i n d i s p u t a b l e
86
observed fact, a n d the increasingly middle Yet, competition of this type forces up
class n a t u r e of many rural communities is property prices still further and excludes
r e p r o d u c e d n o t just by political intervention, lower income potential buyers. In many
but also as a s i m p l e r e s u l t o f m i d d l e class r e g i o n s , s u c h as s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d , formerly
involvement in t h e rural p r o p e r t y market. A w o r k i n g class p r o p e r t i e s s u c h as s m a l l , t e r -
f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s e r v i c e class is t h a t raced, cottages have increased in value b e y o n d
m e m b e r s have a relatively h i g h i n c o m e and t h e r e a c h o f w o r k i n g class b u y e r s b y c o m p e -
are therefore well placed t o c o m p e t e in t h e t i t i o n a n d p r o p e r t y i m p r o v e m e n t as p a r t o f a
i n c r e a s i n g l y e x p e n s i v e m a r k e t for r u r a l h o u s i n g . p r o c e s s o f r u r a l g e n t r i f i c a t i o n (see B o x 6 . 5 ) .
Box 6.5 Key term
G e n t r i f i c a t i o n: T h e r e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r o p e r ty b y a n d f o r a f f l u e n t i n c o m e r s l e a d i n g
t o t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f l o w e r i n c o m e g r o u p s w h o a re u n a b l e t o a f f o rd t h e inflated
p r o p e r ty p r i c e s . O r i g i n a l ly c o i n e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n o f u r b a n n e i g h -
b o u r h o o d s s u c h a s t h e L o w e r Eas t Sid e o f N e w Y o rk a n d I s l i n g t o n in L o n d o n , t h e t e r m
ha s r e c e n t l y c o m e t o b e a p p l i e d t o r u r al c o m m u n i t i e s w h e r e m i d d le clas s ( o r s e r v i c e
class ) colonizatio n ha s increase d p r o p e r ty prices an d exclude d lowe r incom e
purchasers .
Gentrification middle class residents to further housing
The gentrification of rural communities d e v e l o p m e n t , especially t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of
i n v o l v e s n o t o n l y a r e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e class low-cost homes.
structure, such that communities become T h e p r o c e s s o f r u r a l g e n t r i f i c a t i o n a n d its

m o r e m i d d l e class, b u t also t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s are best d e m o n s t r a t e d b y refer-
o f t h e local p r o p e r t y m a r k e t s u c h that l o w e r ence to t w o examples drawn from the U K in
income households are actively excluded the 1990s. T h e first example concerns four
f r o m r e s i d e n c e . I n u r b a n areas gentrification villages in G o w e r , a rural area close t o t h e city
has b e e n associated w i t h p r o p e r t y develop- of Swansea on the coast of South Wales
ment where speculators buy run-down or ( C l o k e et a l , 1 9 9 8 ; Phillips, 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e e x p e -
d e r e l i c t h o u s i n g , r e f u r b i s h it a n d sell it o n at a rience of counterurbanization in G o w e r is
m u c h i n c r e a s e d p r i c e . T h i s p r o c e s s is t o s o m e typical of that in m a n y parts of the UK.
e x t e n t r e p l i c a t e d i n r u r a l a r e a s , as m i d d l e class A significant p r o p o r t i o n o f i n - m i g r a n t s c a m e
investors a n d i n - m i g r a n t s p u r c h a s e relatively f r o m n e a r b y t o w n s a n d cities in S o u t h Wales,
cheap properties, such as farmworkers' but many had made longer-distance moves
cottages, and then enhance their value by from other parts of England and Wales,
redecorating and refurbishing, building e x t e n - including London, the West Midlands and
sion and modernizing facilities. However, north-west England. They also i n c l u d e d a
rural gentrification c a n also o c c u r without significant n u m b e r o f r e t u r n m i g r a n t s , e s p e -
p r o p e r t y i m p r o v e m e n t , s i m p l y as a p r o d u c t o f cially f r o m L o n d o n . W h i l s t m a n y i n - m i g r a n t s
c o m p e t i t i o n for l i m i t e d h o u s i n g s t o c k inflat- h a d m o v e d for e m p l o y m e n t o r family reasons,
ing prices c o m b i n e d w i t h opposition from C l o k e e t al. n o t e t h a t ,
87
m a n y o f t he p e o p l e w e s p o k e to d r e w o n p r o p e r t y s u p p l y i n B o x f o r d h a s also e n c o u r a g e d
e x p e c t a t i o n s o f rural life w h i c h i n v o l v e d 'marginal gentrification' through the purchase
s o m e n o t i o n tha t living in t he c o u n t r y s i d e and modification of formerly public-owned
wa s a wa y of escapin g or m i n i m i z i ng council h o u s i n g , yet in b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s g e n -
t he risks o f m o d e r n living. In p a r t i c u l ar
t r i f i c a t i o n h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o class r e c o m p o s i -
notions of community, family, environ-
t i o n that has seen t h e strength o f t h e service
m e n t a n d safet y ( p a r t i c u l a r ly fo r c h i l d r e n)
class m o r e t h a n d o u b l e in t h r e e decades to
w e r e u s e d f r e q u e n t ly a s r e a s o n s fo r m o v -
constitute a r o u n d half the p o p u l a t i o n in b o t h
ing to G o w e r . ( C l o ke e t al. , 1 9 9 8 , p. 179 )
villages i n 1 9 9 1 .
S u c h a p p e a l s t o t h e r u r a l idyll w e r e g i v e n a
m o r e material manifestation in t h e refurbish- Second homes
m e n t and r e d e c o r a t i o n o f properties that fol- O n e f o r m o f gentrification that has a greater
l o w e d t h e ' r u r a l i s t ' i d e a s o f lifestyle m a g a z i n e s . impact in rural c o m m u n i t i e s than in urban
Around a third of households in the four areas is t h e p u r c h a s e of property as second
villages h a d c a r r i e d o u t s u b s t a n t i a l improve- homes or holiday homes by urban-based
m e n t and nearly a quarter o f householders had middle class householders. T h e extent and
purchased their property with the potential status of second home ownership varies
resale v a l u e i n m i n d . T h e s u b s e q u e n t i n f l a t i o n b e t w e e n c o u n t r i e s a n d reflects c u l t u r a l differ-
o f p r o p e r t y v a l u e s p r o d u c e d a ' r e n t g a p ' effect ences. In Scandinavia and N o r t h America sec-
as t h e c o s t o f h o u s i n g e s c a l a t e d o u t o f t h e r e a c h o n d h o m e o w n e r s h i p has b e e n commonplace
o f local, l o w i n c o m e residents. In a m a j o r i t y o f s i n c e t h e 1 9 3 0 s a n d s p a n s class b o u n d a r i e s . I n
the gentrifying households, the p r i m e earner s o u t h e r n E u r o p e , s e c o n d h o m e o w n e r s h i p is
belonged to the service class; h o w e v e r , the associated w i t h rural d e p o p u l a t i o n and out-
r e s e a r c h also i d e n t i f i e d a s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p o n e n t migrant families retaining property in their
o f ' m a r g i n a l g e n t r i f i e r s ' , u n a b l e t o access t h e native c o m m u n i t i e s . S e c o n d h o m e ownership
mainstream property market but w h o had pur- in these c o u n t r i e s can b e q u i t e extensive a n d
chased and renovated dilapidated dwellings. inclusive, w i t h nearly o n e in four h o u s e h o l d s in
T h e s e c o n d e x a m p l e r e l a t e s t o t h e villages o f Sweden owning second homes in 1970
B o x f o r d a n d U p p e r Basildon in Berkshire, j u s t (Gallent and T e w d w r - J o n e s , 2000). In the UK
over 9 0 k i l o m e t r e s (50 miles) west o f L o n d o n . and northern Europe outside Scandinavia,
T h e t w o villages h a d e x p e r i e n c e d c o n s i d e r a b l e however, second home ownership is more
i n - m i g r a t i o n w i t h a r o u n d a third of residents restricted and middle class i n c h a r a c t e r and
i n 1 9 9 8 h a v i n g l i v e d i n t h e p a r i s h e s f o r less h e n c e is m o r e o b v i o u s l y a f o r m o f g e n t r i f i c a -
than five years (Phillips, 2002). However, t i o n . S e c o n d h o m e s a r e b o u g h t as a n invest-
whereas in-migration to U p p e r Basildon had ment, exploiting price differentials between
b e e n facilitated b y extensive n e w housebuild- urban and peripheral rural property markets.
i n g ( w i t h t h e n u m b e r o f h o u s e h o l d s in the Yet over time demand for second homes
village d o u b l i n g b e t w e e n 1951 a n d 1991), t h e inflates p r i c e s a n d as t h e t y p e o f p r o p e r t i e s p u r -
n u m b e r o f h o u s e h o l d s in Boxford h a d r e m a i n e d chased t e n d to b e smaller dwellings that m i g h t
m o r e o r less c o n s t a n t . T h u s i n - m i g r a n t s have otherwise go to first-time p r o p e r t y o w n e r s , the
had to purchase existing houses, with prices effect c a n b e t o e x c l u d e l o c a l y o u n g a n d l o w
inflated b y t h e limited stock (and protected i n c o m e w o u l d - b e buyers.
by - unsuccessful - opposition against pro- M o r e o v e r , as s e c o n d h o m e p u r c h a s e s t e n d
posed n e w housing development).The limited t o b e spatially c o n c e n t r a t e d , often in coastal o r
88
w i n t e r sports resorts, their seasonal o c c u p a n c y minority have b e e n purchased by Britons;

can contribute to dramatically reducing the over 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 are estimated to o w n h o m e s in
p e r m a n e n t resident population of host c o m - F r a n c e , a l t h o u g h this figure i n c l u d e s full-time
m u n i t i e s . T h i s h a s a k n o c k - o n effect o n c o m - residents as w e l l as h o l i d a y home owners
munity life, i n c l u d i n g the closure of local ( H o g g a r t a n d Buller, 1995). T h e British are
s h o p s a n d s e r v i c e s as a r e s u l t o f decreased attracted by lower p r o p e r t y prices in France
demand. Such impacts can create tension and by the romanticized appeal o f sparsely
between local residents and second home populated rural France compared with the
o w n e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e r e a r e also c u l t u r a l m o r e urbanized British countryside. As such,
differences between the two groups. For British buyers often purchase properties in
example, the purchase of second homes in need of renovation in areas of population
Welsh-speaking parts of Wales by n o n - W e l s h - decline and therefore operate outside the
speakers has b e e n accused b y s o m e c a m p a i g n - mainstream property market, thus avoiding
e r s as a k e y f a c t o r i n t h e d e c l i n i n g u s a g e o f t h e conflict with local communities despite
language in m a n y communities - although h o l d i n g t o a very different cultural concep-
recent research has suggested that in t h e m a i n tion o f rurality (Gallent a n d T e w d w r - J o n e s ,
second homes in Welsh-speaking counties 2 0 0 0 ; H o g g a r t a n d Buller, 1995).Tensions are
constitute only around 4 - 5 per cent of the far m o r e l i k e l y t o a r i s e b e t w e e n r u r a l p o p u l a -
t o t a l h o u s i n g s t o c k ( G a l l e n t e t al., 2 0 0 3 ) . tions a n d F r e n c h s e c o n d h o m e o w n e r s , for
T h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c o n f l i c t also a r i s e s i n r u r a l whom a ' p l a c e i n t h e c o u n t r y ' is a n escape
France, w h e r e t h e r e are s o m e two million f r o m t h e city, a n d w h o a r e less l i k e l y t h a n t h e
second homes. Many of these are owned British to integrate w i t h the p e r m a n e n t local
by French urban-dwellers, but a significant community.
Summary
T h e social r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f r u r a l areas has p r o g r e s s e d i n t a n d e m w i t h e c o n o m i c r e s t r u c t u r i n g

t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a s t c e n t u r y . T h e shifting spatial d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r , i n c l u d i n g t h e d e c l i n e o f
t r a d i t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s s u c h as a g r i c u l t u r e a n d t h e n e w e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n t h e
e x p a n d i n g service sector, has variously e x e r t e d p u s h a n d pull influences o n m i g r a t i o n patterns
b e t w e e n t o w n s a n d c o u n t r y s i d e at different t i m e s . W i d e r societal t r e n d s h a v e also b e e n significant,
including, a m o n g s t others, increased private vehicle ownership, technological advances, the
e x p a n s i o n o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , a n d l o n g e r life e x p e c t a n c y . C o m b i n e d t o g e t h e r t h e s e v a r i o u s
f a c t o r s p r o d u c e d a d o m i n a n t f l o w o f o u t - m i g r a t i o n f r o m r u r a l areas d u r i n g t h e first p a r t o f t h e
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , w h i c h has i n m a n y r e g i o n s b e e n r e v e r s e d t o a t r e n d o f c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n
o v e r t h e past t h r e e d e c a d e s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e are c o n s i d e r a b l e r e g i o n a l a n d l o c a l differences i n
m i g r a t i o n patterns that are c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e increasingly diverse rural p o p u l a t i o n geography.
M o r e o v e r , differences i n t h e m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n s b e t w e e n different a g e g r o u p s a n d social classes
are reshaping t h e d e m o g r a p h i c structure o f t h e rural p o p u l a t i o n . T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f m a n y rural
c o m m u n i t i e s is g e t t i n g m o r e e l d e r l y as y o u n g p e o p l e leave t h e c o u n t r y s i d e f o r e d u c a t i o n a n d
e m p l o y m e n t a n d o l d e r p e o p l e m o v e i n o n r e t i r e m e n t . M a n y c o m m u n i t i e s are also b e c o m i n g
m o r e m i d d l e class, a t r e n d t h a t c a n b e s e l f - r e p r o d u c i n g as m i d d l e class c o m p e t i t i o n for h o u s i n g
inflates p r o p e r t y p r i c e s b e y o n d t h e r e a c h o f l o c a l l o w i n c o m e h o u s e h o l d s .
89
A s t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n h a s b e e n r e c o m p o s e d , s o t h e n a t u r e o f c o m m u n i t y life h a s c h a n g e d .
T h e solidarity of rural c o m m u n i t i e s w h e r e residents shared c o m m o n values a n d reference
p o i n t s a n d c o u l d often trace t h e i r family's p r e s e n c e in t h e village b a c k o v e r c e n t u r i e s , has b e e n
e x p l o d e d b y t h e d y n a m i c s o f p o p u l a t i o n c h a n g e . T h e i m p a c t o f this o n t h e structure a n d
c o h e r e n c e o f c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y o n t h e d e m a n d for services a n d facilities t h a t w e r e
t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e f o c a l p o i n t s f o r c o m m u n i t y life, a r e e x p l o r e d i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r .
Further Reading
Pau l B o y l e a n d Keith H a l f a c r e e ' s e d i t e d v o l u m e Migration Into Rural Areas (Wiley, 1 9 9 8 )
p r o v i d e s a g o o d o v e r v i e w o f relatively r e c e n t r e s e a r c h o n rural p o p u l a t i o n c h a n g e ,
i n c l u d i ng c h a p t e r s o n c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n , w e l f a r e - l e d m i g r a t i o n, c l a s s r e c o m p o s i t i o n
a n d g e n t r i f i c a t i o n, a n d e x a m p l e s f r om t he U K, t he U n i t e d S t a t e s , A u s t r a l ia a n d E u r o p e .
A g o o d critical r e v i e w o f t he literature o n c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n c a n a l s o b e f o u n d in C l a re
M i t c h e l l, ' M a k i ng s e n s e o f c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n ', Journal of Rural Studies, volume 20 ,
p a g e s 1 5 - 3 4 ( 2 0 0 4 ) . Fo r m o r e o n t he s e r v i c e c l a s s a n d rural c h a n g e s e e J o h n U r r y 's
chapte r m i d d l e - c l a s s c o u n t r y s i d e ? ' , in T. B u t l e r a n d M. S a v a g e ( e d s ) , Social Change
and the Middle Classes ( U C L P r e s s , 1 9 9 5 ) , a n d fo r m o r e o n rural g e n t r i f i c a t i on s e e
M a r t in Phillips, ' R u r al g e n t r i f i c a t i on a n d t he p r o c e s s o f c l a s s c o l o n i s a t i o n ' , in Journal of
Rural Studies, v o l u m e 9 , p a g e s 1 2 3 - 1 4 0 ( 1 9 9 3 ) , a n d Phillips, T h e p r o d u c t i o n ,
s y m b o l i z a t i o n a n d s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f g e n t r i f i c a t i o n: i m p r e s s i o n s f r om t w o B e r k s h i re
v i l l a g e s ' in Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, volume 27 , page s
2 8 2 - 3 0 8 (2002) .
Websites
D e t a i l e d p o p u l a t i o n s t a t i s t i c s a re a v a i l a b l e o n n a t i o n a l statistica l a n d c e n s u s office
w e b s i t e s , i n c l u d i ng t h o s e fo r t he U n i t e d S t a t e s ( w w w . c e n s u s . g o v ) , t he U K
(www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/default.asp ) a n d A u s t r a l ia ( w w w . a b s . g o v . a u ) .
T he N e w Z e a l a n d c e n s u s w e b s i t e h a s a s p e c i f i c s e c t i o n o n rural N e w Z e a l a n d
( w w w . s t a t s . g o v t . n z / c e n s u s . h t m ) w h i l s t t he C a n a d i a n c e n s u s w e b s i t e i n c l u d e s d e t a i l e d
m a p s o f i n t e r n al m i g r a t i on p a t t e r ns (www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/release /
index.cfm) .
90
7
Changing Communities:
Restructuring Rural Services
Introduction
' C o m m u n i t y ' is o n e o f t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l w o r d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h rurality. F o r

m a n y early s o c i o l o g i s t s , t h e i d e a o f ' c o m m u n i t y ' e n c a p s u l a t e d t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n r u r a l life a n d u r b a n life (see C h a p t e r 1). F e r d i n a n d T o n n i e s , for
e x a m p l e , c o n t r a s t e d t h e p r e - e m i n e n c e of gemeinschaft, o r c o m m u n i t y ' , i n r u r a l areas
based o n 'close h u m a n relationships d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h kinship ... c o m m o n habitat
a n d . . . c o - o p e r a t i o n a n d c o - o r d i n a t e d a c t i o n for social g o o d ' ( H a r p e r , 1 9 8 9 ,
p . 1 6 2 ) , w i t h t h a t of gesellschaft, o r society, i n u r b a n space, w h e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e
based o n formal e x c h a n g e a n d contract. A l t h o u g h later writers have critiqued the
overly simplistic n a t u r e o f this d u a l i s m , ' c o m m u n i t y ' remains a strong e l e m e n t in
lay d i s c o u r s e s o f r u r a l i t y a n d is a c o m m o n l y u s e d t e r m i n r u r a l p o l i c y d o c u m e n t s .
H o w e v e r , it is far f r o m clear w h a t ' c o m m u n i t y ' m e a n s i n e a c h o f t h e s e c o n t e x t s .
I n lay d i s c o u r s e s , ' c o m m u n i t y ' is o f t e n u s e d t o i m p l y f r e q u e n t , h i g h - q u a l i t y
social i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s , s t r o n g social n e t w o r k s a n d a s h a r e d sense
o f i d e n t i t y (Bell, 1 9 9 4 ; J o n e s , 1 9 9 7 ) , b u t s u c h q u a l i t i e s exist m o r e as a m b i g u o u s
abstractions t h a n anything concrete and measurable. In policy discourse,
' c o m m u n i t y ' m a y v a r i o u s l y b e a s h o r t h a n d t e r m t o refer t o a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
territory, or to the public, or a normative c o n c e p t of a self-organizing g r o u p of
people. Even in academic discourse the m e a n i n g of the t e r m ' c o m m u n i t y ' can b e
elusive.
A s s u c h , c o m m u n i t i e s a r e b e s t e n v i s a g e d as m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l e n t i t i e s . T h e
first p a r t o f this c h a p t e r discusses o n e s u c h a p p r o a c h , w h i c h c o n c e p t u a l i z e s a
' c o m m u n i t y ' as c o m p r i s i n g t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s o f p e o p l e , m e a n i n g s , p r a c t i c e s a n d
s p a c e s / s t r u c t u r e s ( L i e p i n s , 2 0 0 0 a ) . A n a d v a n t a g e o f a d o p t i n g this p e r s p e c t i v e is t h a t
it h i g h l i g h t s t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e different d i m e n s i o n s o f a c o m m u n i t y are i n t e r -
d e p e n d e n t a n d c o - c o n s t i t u t i v e , t h u s t h e i m p a c t o f social a n d e c o n o m i c
restructuring o n any e l e m e n t o f the c o m m u n i t y will have w i d e r implications. T h e
c l o s u r e o f s h o p s a n d facilities t h a t h a d a c t e d as m e e t i n g p l a c e s for c o m m u n i t y
m e m b e r s , for e x a m p l e , m a y c h a n g e t h e p a t t e r n s o f e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e in t h e
c o m m u n i t y , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f social i n t e r a c t i o n in t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e m e a n i n g s
that m e m b e r s attribute to a community. T h e second part of the chapter develops
this line o f t h o u g h t f u r t h e r b y focusing o n t h e c h a n g i n g p a t t e r n s o f service
provision in rural c o m m u n i t i e s , w i t h examples from t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , U n i t e d
S t a t e s a n d F r a n c e . T h e c h a p t e r t h e n p r o c e e d s t o e x a m i n e issues o f a c c e s s i b i l i t y i n
r u r a l areas t h a t h a v e c o n t i n u e t o r e i n f o r c e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l
c o m m u n i t y f o r m a n y r u r a l r e s i d e n t s , b e f o r e finally c o n s i d e r i n g s o m e o f t h e
strategies that have b e e n a d o p t e d to o v e r c o m e p r o b l e m s o f peripherality a n d
isolation in rural service provision.
Conceptualizing Community a r g u e s t h a t , ' a t least i n a t e m p o r a r y sense,

T h e meaning of the term 'community' can " c o m m u n i t y " can be conceived as a s o c i a l
b e elusive even w i t h i n a c a d e m i c discourse. phenomena [sic] t h a t u n i f i e s p e o p l e i n t h e i r
Liepins (2000a) argues that four main ability t o speak t o g e t h e r even while being
approaches t o ' c o m m u n i t y ' have b e e n used in located in m a n y positions and holding a
r u r a l s t u d i e s , all o f w h i c h a r e i m p e r f e c t . T h e variety of contrasting identities' (p. 2 7 ) .
first t w o , t h e structural-functionalist approach Moreover, Liepins suggests that t h e spaces
w h i c h i d e n t i f i e d c o m m u n i t i e s as d i s c r e t e a n d i n w h i c h a c o m m u n i t y is e n a c t e d c a n b e c o n -
stable entities w i t h o b s e r v a b l e characteristics c e i v e d o f t o i n c l u d e ' b o t h t h e m a t e r i a l sites
a n d t h e ethnographic/essence approach - which filled b y c o m m u n a l a c t i v i t i e s , a n d t h e s y m -
s o u g h t t o discover a n d d o c u m e n t t h e lived bolic a n d m e t a p h o r i c spaces i n w h i c h p e o p l e
'essence' of communities - can both be connect " i n c o m m u n i t y " even while existing
critiqued because they take the existence in different physical or social locations'
of communities to b e a given a n d therefore (p. 2 8 ) . T h i s l a t t e r p o i n t m e a n s t h a t c o m m u n i -
can say l i t t l e about h o w communities are ties n e e d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e g e o g r a p h i c a l e n t i t i e s
produced. T h e third approach, t h e minimalist (one m i g h t think, for e x a m p l e , o f ' t h e agri-
a p p r o a c h simply involves reference t o ' c o m - cultural c o m m u n i t y ' , o r ' t h e business com-
munity' as a w a y o f d e n o t i n g a scale of m u n i t y ' o r ' t h e gay c o m m u n i t y ' ) , b u t Liepins's
e n q u i r y o r a loosely specified social collectiv- definition also allows for c o m m u n i t y to be
ity. Fourthly, researchers have focused on approached in geographical terms even w h e n
t h e socially constructed meanings and symbolism the population o f t h e territory c o n c e r n e d has
attached to the term 'community'. However, u n d e r g o n e substantial restructuring.
t h i s last a p p r o a c h is c r i t i c i z e d f o r d o w n p l a y - T h e m o d e l developed by Liepins represents
ing t h e significance o f material practices a n d a community as c o m p r i s i n g f o u r elements:
physical elements in constituting communi- people, meanings, practices and spaces/
ties, a n d for d e t a c h i n g s y m b o l i c representa- structures. P e o p l e are p o s i t i o n e d at t h e c e n t r e
tions o f c o m m u n i t y from t h e social relations of the community b e c a u s e ' c o m m u n i t y ' is
that p r o d u c e t h e m . created through social collectivity and
To move beyond these conventional connection, a n d participate in ' c o m m u n i t y '
a p p r o a c h e s , L i e p i n s ( 2 0 0 0 a ) p r o p o s e s a fifth through their engagement with the three
perspective, w h i c h recognizes communities components of meanings, practices and
to b e 'social collectives o f great diversity'. S h e spaces/structures (Figure 7 . 1 ) . First, people
92
Changing communities
1 M E A N I N GS legitimate practice s
2 P R A C T I C ES enabl e the circulation an d challengin g o f meaning s
3 P R A C T I C ES occu r in space s an d through structures ,

an d shap e thos e space s an d structures
4 S P A C E S an d S T R U C T U R E S affec t ho w practice s ca n occu r
5 SPACE S an d S T R U C T U R E S enabl e the materialization o f meaning s
6 M E A N I N GS are e m b o d i e d in space s an d structures
Figure 7. 1 The constitutive component s an d dynamic s of 'community'

Source: Liepins, 2000 a
create the symbolic representation of a t he circulation o f m e a n i n g s a n d m e m o r i e s

c o m m u n i t y by formulating meanings about t h r o u gh n e w s l e t t e r s a n d m e e t i n g s , t he
t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n s a n d identities. Significantly, e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s a t a loca l
L i e p i n s a r g u e s t h a t s u c h ideas n e e d n o t b e u n i - s t o r e o r h e a l t h clinic; t he c r e a t i o n an d
m a i n t e n a n c e o f s o c i a l g r o u p s a n d rituals;
versally h e l d b y all m e m b e r s o f a c o m m u n i t y ,
a n d t he o p e r a t i o n o f loca l g o v e r n m e n t
a n d t h a t c o m m u n i t i e s a r e c o n s t i t u t e d as m u c h
b o a r d s a re all e x a m p l e s o f w a y s in w h i c h
b y c o n t e s t e d m e a n i n g s as b y s h a r e d m e a n i n g s .
we m a y t r a ce practice s of community.
Secondly, communities are given a more
(Liepins , 2 0 0 0 a , pp . 3 1 - 3 2 )
material manifestation through the practices
a n d activities in w h i c h m e m b e r s participate. Thirdly, cultural and e c o n o m i c dimensions
These include routine everyday interactions o f c o m m u n i t y life o c c u r i n p a r t i c u l a r s p a c e s
with neighbours as w e l l as f o r m a l events, and through particular structures, which
such that, m a y b e r e a d as t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l a n d m a t e r i a l
93
T a b le 7. 1 Key characteristic s o f t he t h r ee cas e stud y c o m m u n i t i e s

D u a r i n ga Newstea d K u r ow
(Queensland ) ( V i c t o r i a) (Sout h Island)
Populatio n <50 0 <80 0 <100 0
Type o f f a r m i ng Beef , grain a n d c o t t o n M i x ed sheep/croppin g Predominantl y shee p
Peopl e Aboriginals Commuters Beneficiarie s

(liste d alphabetically ) Farming families Farming families Farming families
Servic e employee s Lifestylers Servic e employee s
Loca l g o v e r n m e n t Servic e employee s
employee s
Locationa l aspec t M a in highway , 1 h o u r M i n or highway , 1.5 M i n or highway , 1.5

f r om a regiona l city hours f r om a Stat e hours f r om a regiona l
(Rockhampton ) capita l ( M e l b o u r n e ) city (Dunedin )
Service s Petro l station/sho p Bakery Petro l statio n

Pos t office Pos t office Pos t sho p
Hote l Hotels Hotels
Primary schoo l Primary schoo l Area schoo l
Shire office s Butche r Supermarket s
Farm supplie s Farm supplie s
Transportation
companie s
Key trends a n d Declinin g e m p l o y m e n t Loss o f loca l counci l Contraction o f

concern s Depopulatio n Increasingl y divers e loca l e c o n o m y
population Depopulatio n
Source: A f t er Liepins, 2000 b
embodiment of 'community'. These include Communities in practice:

t h e p h y s i c a l sites o f s c h o o l s , h a l l s , s t r e e t c o r - three case studies
n e r s a n d p a r k s w h i c h s e r v e as t h e 'meeting Liepins (2000b) demonstrates the application
places' of a c o m m u n i t y , alongside o t h e r 'struc- o f t h e m o d e l t h r o u g h case s t u d i e s o f t h r e e r u r a l
t u r e s ' s u c h as n e w s p a p e r s a n d w e b s i t e s that c o m m u n i t i e s in Australia a n d N e w Zealand.
facilitate social collectivity. T h e three c o m m u n i t i e s - D u a r i n g a in central
Liepins contends that these four elements Queensland, N e w s t e a d in centralVictoria, and
of 'community' are mutually constitutive. K u r o w in S o u t h Island, N e w Z e a l a n d share
As Figure 7.1 indicates, m e a n i n g s legitimate a broadly common macro-economic and
practices that in t u r n enable t h e circulation political context, including the decline of
and challenging of meanings. Practices also agriculture, neo-liberal government policies,
o c c u r in spaces a n d t h r o u g h structures, a n d a historical dependency on farming, and
shape those spaces and structures, whilst locations that are a similar distance from a
spaces and structures affect how practices l a r g e r city. H o w e v e r , t h e y also r e p r e s e n t dif-
c a n o c c u r . Finally, s p a c e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s e n a b l e ferent local social, e c o n o m i c a n d cultural c o n -
the materialization of meanings and meanings texts, different priority issues, a n d different
are embodied in spaces and structures local responses t o w i d e r processes o f c h a n g e
(Liepins, 2000a). (Table 7.1).
94
In all three case studies, residents made community, including a market, summer
reference to ' c o m m u n i t y ' in describing the place festival, flower show and ball in Kurow;
i n t w o w a y s . First, m e a n i n g s o f c o m m u n i t y w e r e a ' b u l l a r a m a ' , c h a r i t y g o l f day, f l y i n g doctor
expressed that positioned t h e locality within r a c e day a n d t h e D a w s o n r i v e r m u d trials i n
a w i d e r context. T h u s reference was m a d e to D u a r i n g a ; a n d a m a r k e t , s c h o o l fete a n d an
t o p o g r a p h i c a l features ' t h e small c o m m u n i t y Australia D a y c o n c e r t in N e w s t e a d . Events
n e s d e d i n u n d e r t h e hill' ( K u r o w ) - or, m o r e s u c h as t h e s e , a n d t h e s e r v i c e s a n d facilities
c o m m o n l y , to the historic function of servicing mentioned a b o v e , also form some of the
agriculture such that the c o m m u n i t y identity s p a c e s i n w h i c h c o m m u n i t y o c c u r s (see a l s o
w a s associated w i t h a f a r m i n g identity. S e c o n d l y , Figure 7.2). As Liepins c o m m e n t s ,
residents acknowledged the heterogeneity of
t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . I n K u r o w a n d D u a r i n g a this t h e s e site s a re no t jus t m a t e r i a l s p a c e s
was given a negative m e a n i n g , suggesting that but a l s o f o rm a locu s of i n t e r a c t i o n,
fragmentation posed a threat to ' c o m m u n i t y ' . w h e t h e r it b e t h r o u gh s p o r t , ' c o m m u n i t y'
In contrast, residents in N e w s t e a d , w h i c h had d a y s o r leisur e activities . In e a c h i n s t a n c e

t he spac e itsel f is a resourc e t h r o u gh
e x p e r i e n c e d t h e m o s t significant social r e c o m -
w h i c h p e o p l e e n g a g e in different f o r ms o f
position through the in-migration of com-
' c o m m u n i t y' interaction. It is a sit e a t w h i c h
m u t e r s a n d ' a l t e r n a t i v e lifestylers', felt t h a t t h e
' c o m m u n i t y' b e c o m e s sociall y e m b e d d e d
diversity a n d t o l e r a n c e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y w a s
a n d visible (howeve r temporarily) within the
p o s i t i v e l y p r o m o t e d as p a r t o f its identity.
socia l a n d cultural life o f t he ' c o m m u n i t y '.
The meanings of community are repro- (Liepins , 2 0 0 0 b , p. 3 3 6 )
duced through the community practices in
w h i c h its m e m b e r s i n t e r a c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r . T h i n k i n g a b o u t a c o m m u n i t y in terms o f
T h e p o s t office, g a r a g e , s c h o o l , s h o p a n d h o t e l its m e a n i n g s , its p r a c t i c e s a n d its s p a c e s a n d
o r b a r all f o r m e d k e y p l a c e s o f community structures p r o v i d e s a useful r o u t e in for the
p r a c t i c e in t h e case studies: analysis o f t h e p r o c e s s e s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
r u r a l c h a n g e i n t w o w a y s . F i r s t , it h i g h l i g h t s
To t h e m , [the c o m m u n i t y ] is thei r loca l
h o w processes o f social a n d e c o n o m i c restruc-
centre . [ G o i ng to ] the butcher , the baker,
turing impact o n communities in b o t h material
a n d t he milk ba r a n d tha t kind o f thing, tha t
and immaterial ways. T h e decreasing impor-
nucleu s is t h e re for t he p e o p l e to g o d o w n
t a n c e o f a g r i c u l t u r e , for i n s t a n c e , will i m p a c t
into t he t o w n a n d ge t w h a t t h e y want .
o n t h e spaces a n d structures o f a rural c o m -
( N e w s t e a d r e s i d e n t , q u o t e d in L i e p i n s ,
2 0 0 0 b , p. 3 3 3 ) m u n i t y as sites s u c h as l i v e s t o c k m a r t s b e c o m e
less s i g n i f i c a n t , w i l l a l t e r c o m m u n i t y p r a c t i c e s
You f i nd o u t a b o u t t h i n gs g o i n g o n in
as i n t e r a c t i o n through y o u n g farmers' clubs
D u a r i n ga t h r o u gh t he Pos t Office an d
o r agricultural s h o w s diminish, a n d will c h a n g e
t he s c h o o l . G o i n g to t he Pos t Office , a n d ,
the meanings of community as t h e identi-
there's t he s c h o o l n e w s l e t t e r I w o u l d h a v e
fication w i t h f a r m i n g w e a k e n s . Secondly, t h e
to say . A n d w o r d o f m o u t h . I s e e a fair f e w
approach reveals how change may occur
p e o p l e a t t he s c h o o l . ( D u a r i n ga resident ,
q u o t e d in Liepins , 2 0 0 0 b , p. 3 3 3 ) t h r o u g h t h e different c o m p o n e n t s o f a c o m m u -
nity a n d t h e shifting d y n a m i c s b e t w e e n m e a n -
Additionally there are regular communal ings, practices a n d spaces a n d structures. In
events that help to promote practices of p a r t i c u l a r , t h e stress p l a c e d o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e
95
Figure 7. 2 Event s suc h a s this communit y danc e advertise d in Lompoc ,

California - which brands itsel f a s the seed-growin g capita l of the world - are part of
the practice s through which communitie s are constitute d
of community services and facilities in processes, a n d national and regional factors.

Liepins's case studies suggests t h a t t h e i r d i s - First, t h e r e a r e e c o n o m i c f o r c e s w i t h i n c a p i t a l -
appearance, or any alteration in their nature, ism that m e a n that i n d e p e n d e n t traders have
would significantly change the meanings, b e c o m e less c o m m o n as l o c a l c o m p a n i e s a r e
practices and spaces and structures of the b o u g h t u p by larger corporations, w h i c h t h e n
community concerned. seek to rationalize their n e t w o r k s of outlets,
closing t h o s e that are j u d g e d t o b e unprofitable.
The Disappearance of Rural Services Any smaller, independent, enterprises that
T h e r e was a t i m e w h e n t h e idyllized i m a g e o f r e m a i n find it difficult t o c o m p e t e effectively
a rural c o m m u n i t y almost existed. E v e r y small against t h e larger c o r p o r a t i o n s a n d m a n y are
t o w n w o u l d h a v e its b a n k , its p o s t office and d r i v e n o u t o f business. S e c o n d , t h e r e are social
its s t o r e . E v e r y v i l l a g e w o u l d h a v e its c h u r c h , forces that h a v e altered c o n s u m p t i o n habits. A
its s h o p a n d its p u b . N o m o r e . T h e rational- m o r e m o b i l e p o p u l a t i o n is less d e p e n d e n t on
ization and closure of b o t h private and public s h o p s a n d facilities w i t h i n t h e i r p l a c e o f r e s i -
services in rural c o m m u n i t i e s has b e e n o n e o f dence and those commuting to work may
the most visible manifestations of contem- even find it m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o s h o p away
porary countryside change. Like many of from the c o m m u n i t y in a mall or larger t o w n .
the trends discussed in this b o o k , t h e dis- T e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s s u c h as refrigeration
a p p e a r a n c e o f r u r a l s e r v i c e s is a p r o d u c t of m e a n that c o n s u m e r s bulk b u y o n m o r e infre-
b o t h o v e r a r c h i n g global social a n d economic q u e n t s h o p p i n g trips, a n d that supermarkets
96
Table 7. 2 Percentag e o f rural parishe s in Englan d havin g

ke y public an d commercia l services , 200 0
Populatio n
A ll p a r i s h e s 100-19 9 500-99 9 3,000-9,99 9
Pos t office 54 22 67 93
Ban k o r b u i l d i ng societ y 9 n/a n/a n/a
Genera l store 29 7 26 78
Smal l village sho p 29 10 35 52
Petro l f i l l i ng statio n 19 4 16 64
Public hous e 75 63 58 92
Primary schoo l 52 13 71 94
Village o r c o m m u n i t y hall 85 72 93 96
Youth clu b 51 23 58 91
Doctor's surger y 14 1 7 64
a r e a b l e t o offer e x t e n s i v e c h o i c e across a r a n g e youth club as w e l l as a p u b l i c house and

of goods imported from around the world. a v i l l a g e h a l l , w h i l s t n e a r l y all l a r g e r p a r i s h e s
T h i r d , however, there are national a n d regional have a post office, p r i m a r y school, public
factors that reflect cultural differences and h o u s e , c o m m u n i t y hall a n d y o u t h club. T h i s
rural settlement geography in shaping the clear relationship between community size
actual t r e n d o f service provision. T o illustrate a n d services n o t o n l y suggests that there are
these, this s e c t i o n presents t h r e e n a t i o n a l p e r - rough population thresholds necessary for
spectives o n t h e c h a n g i n g fortunes of rural c e r t a i n facilities t o b e v i a b l e , b u t also that
services, from E n g l a n d , France a n d t h e U n i t e d facilities i n l a r g e r s e t t l e m e n t s s e r v e b o t h the
States, respectively. immediate community and that of neigh-
b o u r i n g smaller villages.
England The evolution o f this p a t t e r n of service

M o s t rural parishes in E n g l a n d have neither a p r o v i s i o n is i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e c a s e s t u d y of
general store n o r a village shop. O n l y j u s t over C r e w k e r n e , a t o w n o f a r o u n d 6,000 p e o p l e in
h a l f h a v e a p o s t office, a n d o n l y a s i m i l a r p r o - south-west England that acts as a service
portion have a p r i m a r y (elementary) school. c e n t r e for 18 n e i g h b o u r i n g villages w i t h p o p -
F e w e r t h a n o n e i n five p a r i s h e s h a v e a d o c t o r s ulations ranging b e t w e e n 50 and 2,000. In
s u r g e r y (Table 7 . 2 ) . T h e s e figures, recorded in k e e p i n g w i t h m a n y similar t o w n s , C r e w k e r n e
2 0 0 0 , are t h e p r o d u c t o f a process o f c o n c e n - has e x p e r i e n c e d considerable growth under
tration by w h i c h m a n y public and commer- counterurbanization, with its population
cial s e r v i c e s h a v e e f f e c t i v e l y d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m increasing by 2 3 per cent b e t w e e n 1971 and
smaller rural communities to be centrally 1 9 8 6 . F o u r o f t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e s also
p r o v i d e d in larger villages a n d small t o w n s . As experienced population growth of 25 per
Table 7.2 indicates, parishes w i t h fewer than c e n t o r m o r e over this p e r i o d , b u t in t h r e e t h e
two hundred residents will typically have p o p u l a t i o n fell a n d , o v e r a l l , six o f t h e v i l l a g e s
o n l y a p u b l i c h o u s e a n d a v i l l a g e h a l l as c o m - h a d a smaller p o p u l a t i o n at t h e e n d o f t h e
munity facilities. T h o s e with a population t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h a n at t h e b e g i n n i n g . Y e t
between 500 and 1,000 will typically be both expanding and depopulating villages
s e r v e d b y a p o s t office, p r i m a r y s c h o o l and l o s t facilities a n d s e r v i c e s . I n 1 9 0 2 , t h e r e w e r e
97
Crewkerne I I Villages
20 0
18 0
190 2 191 0 191 9 193 1 193 9 195 0 196 5 197 0 198 1 198 9
Figure 7. 3 Numbe r of public an d commercia l service s an d facilities in the town of

Crewkerne an d surrounding village s in south-wes t England , 1902-198 9
Source: Woods , original researc h
m o r e services in total in t h e villages t h a n in school, a tobacconist, an insurance agent and a

C r e w k e r n e . E v e n t h e smallest s e t t l e m e n t h a d cycle repairer, was r e d u c e d b y 1 9 5 3 t o o n l y t h e
b o t h a village store a n d a b l a c k s m i t h , whilst p o s t office a n d o n e p u b l i c h o u s e . T h i s p a t t e r n
t h e largest village, w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 1,300, o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n c o n t i n u e d , at a s l o w e r p a c e ,
boasted two schools, seven public houses, throughout the latter half of the century
a p o l i c e s t a t i o n , a p o s t office, a l a u n d r y and (Figure 7.4), such that by 2 0 0 0 t h e range of
2 0 shops o r retailers i n c l u d i n g grocers, bakers, facilities e v e n i n t h e l a r g e s t v i l l a g e h a d been
butchers, coal dealers a n d a tobacconist. reduced to t w o public houses, a post office,
T h e first w a v e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m e i n t h e a s c h o o l , t w o g e n e r a l s t o r e s , a p e t r o l filling s t a -
1 9 1 0 s , 1 9 2 0 s a n d 1 9 3 0 s as a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e tion, a village hall a n d a fish-and-chip takeaway.
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e first b u s s e r v i c e s - e n a b l i n g A t t h e start o f t h e t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y a
v i l l a g e r e s i d e n t s t o travel m o r e easily i n t o t h e t h i r d w a v e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n is u n d e r w a y as
local t o w n a n d significant d e p o p u l a t i o n of the development of supermarkets and edge-
s o m e o f t h e smaller s e t t l e m e n t s shifted t h e b a l - o f - t o w n s h o p p i n g complexes in larger nearby
a n c e o f facilities f r o m t h e v i l l a g e s t o t h e t o w n t o w n s h a s d r a w n t r a d e f r o m C r e w k e r n e itself,
(Figure 7.3). T h e s e c o n d wave o c c u r r e d after leading to the closure of food shops and other
the Second World War, driven by a c o m b i n a - mainstream retailers. T h e only functions to
tion of increased car ownership, shifting show any expansion in n u m b e r s , either in
employment patterns, the restructuring of Crewkerne o r t h e s u r r o u n d i n g villages, are
public services following t h e establishment of those linked to leisure c o n s u m p t i o n - notably
t h e welfare s t a t e , a n d t h e effects o f r a t i o n i n g i n bars, restaurants, specialist retailers such as
reducing the economic viability of smaller p o t t e r y s h o p s a n d c o m m u n i t y halls.
enterprises. T h e impact o n individual c o m m u -
nities was severe. In o n e village, for e x a m p l e , France
the range o f services that h a d in 1 9 3 9 i n c l u d e d Two key factors have p r o d u c e d a different
t w o p u b l i c h o u s e s , t w o b a k e r s , a p o s t office, a pattern o f rural service provision in France
98
190 2 191 0 191 9 193 1 193 9 195 0 196 0 197 0 198 1 198 9
------ Grocers and genera l store s Other food retailers - -A- - Newsagents , etc .
Non-foo d retailers * Motor trade and garage s Pos t office/store s
Professiona l service s School s - - - - Medical
Hotels , pubs and restaurants Police stations Laundries, hairdresser s
Figure 7. 4 Numbe r o f ke y service s an d facilities in eightee n village s in south-wes t

England , 1902-198 9 (aggregat e total)
Source: Woods , original researc h
f r o m that in E n g l a n d . First, F r e n c h c o n s u m e r s (Soumagne, 1995); whilst across France,

continue to exhibit a greater preference for 12 p e r c e n t o f b a n k s in isolated rural communes
purchasing fresh produce, and particularly closed between 1988 and 1994 (INSEE,
local p r o d u c e , t h a n their English counter- 1998).
parts. T h i s has h e l p e d t o m a i n t a i n b o t h local T h e c l o s u r e o f r u r a l s e r v i c e s i n F r a n c e is
m a r k e t s , w h i c h a r e still a n i m p o r t a n t com- particularly associated with depopulation.
m u n i t y space for m o s t F r e n c h small towns, Lichfield (1998) describes the village of
a n d s p e c i a l i s t f o o d r e t a i l e r s s u c h as b u t c h e r s Vallieres i n C r e u s e , a s e t t l e m e n t o f 5 0 0 r e s i -
a n d b a k e r s . S e c o n d l y , local g o v e r n m e n t at t h e d e n t s a n d f a l l i n g . D e s p i t e its s m a l l p o p u l a t i o n ,
c o m m u n i t y l e v e l i n F r a n c e - t h e commune - Vallieres in 1998 boasted five cafes, two
has extensive p o w e r s , i n c l u d i n g responsibil- restaurants, two grocers, two butchers, a
ities for the police, social services and bakery, a h a r d w a r e store, t w o electrical g o o d s
primary education. In consequence, many shops, t w o general shops, a bank, a garage, a
rural c o m m u n i t i e s in F r a n c e h a v e a level o f chemist and a post office. Y e t , as Lichfield
s e r v i c e p r o v i s i o n t h a t is s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher c o n t i n u e s , ' a n o t h e r six s h o p s o r b a r s around
than that in equivalently sized villages in the main square are closed. T h e patisserie
England (Table 7 . 3 ) . Y e t , as T a b l e 7.3 also d o w n t h e s t r e e t has a l a r g e s i g n s a y i n g " C J vendre".
shows, the coverage of key services in rural T h e m e n u outside the hotel t w o doors away
communes decreased during the 1980s, and r e a d s "hotel ferme definitivement"' (p. 1 2 ) .
t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e d o w n w a r d trend
intensified in the 1990s. In the Poitou- United States
C h a r e n t e s r e g i o n , for e x a m p l e , 1 3 1 communes lost T h e connection between depopulation and
t h e i r last g r o c e r y s t o r e b e t w e e n 1 9 8 8 a n d 1 9 9 5 the disappearance of rural services is also
99
T a b le 7. 3 Percentag e o f rural communes in France havin g ke y public a n d

commercia l services , 1988 , a n d chang e b e t w e e n 198 0 an d 198 8
Villages a r o u n d I s o l a t e d r u r al
R u r al c e n t r e s r u r al c e n t r e s communitie s
Bakery 79. 6 (-1.0 ) 26. 8 (-2.3 ) 35. 7 (-2.0 )
Genera l store 81. 5 (-8.0 ) 34. 1 (-11.1 ) 45. 9 (-9.6 )
Supermarke t 64. 1 (+13.6 ) 1.0 (+0.5 ) 5. 4 (+2.6 )
Clothe s shop s 63. 3 (+2.2 ) 3. 1 (-0.3 ) 12. 4 (-0.2 )
Pos t office 71. 2 (-0.1 ) 18. 3 (n/a ) 31. 6 (n/a )
Ban k 61. 4 (+0.2 ) 2. 7 (=) 12. 4 (+0.2 )
Doctor's surger y 74. 8 (n/a ) 10. 2 (n/a ) 20. 3 (n/a )
Primary schoo l 96. 9 (n/a ) 67. 4 (n/a ) 61. 7 (n/a )
Sports g r o u n d 83. 5 (+4.4 ) 35. 4 (+6.7 ) 36. 9 (+3.0 )
Library 89. 1 (+5.4 ) 58. 8 (+7.3 ) 60. 5 (+6.4 )
Cinem a 41. 6 (-2.4 ) 0. 3 (-0.3 ) 4. 1 (-0.9 )
Source: INSEE, 199 8
well established in the United States. becaus e t he cost-effectivenes s mode l

M c P h e r s o n C o u n t y i n N e b r a s k a is t y p i c a l o f j u d g e s a p r o g r a m 's w o r th n o t in t e r m s o f
m a n y parts of the A m e r i c a n rural heartland - w h a t it d o e s fo r p e o p l e o r c o m m u n i t i e s
since 1 9 2 0 t h e c o u n t y has lost t w o - t h i r d s o f but h o w m u c h it c o s t s p e r p e r s o n s e r v e d ,

it a g g r a v a t e s t he effec t o f t he h i g h e r c o s t
its p o p u l a t i o n as w e l l as 1 9 p o s t o f f i c e s and
o f rural s e r v i c e s .. . it c o n t r i b u t e s to t he
58 school districts (Gorelick, 2000). More
increasin g centralizatio n o f service s an d
generally, t h e rationalization of service p r o -
l e a v e s s o m e rural p o p u l a t i o n s u n s e r v e d ,
vision in rural c o m m u n i t i e s has b e e n d r i v e n
(p. 1 5 5 )
b y e c o n o m i c s t r a t e g i e s a i m e d at m a x i m i z i n g
profits in t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r a n d minimizing For example, b e t w e e n 1980 and 1988, 161 o f
costs in the public sector. In the private t h e U n i t e d States's 2 , 7 0 0 r u r a l hospitals c l o s e d
sector t h e traditional small t o w n ' m a i n street' as a r e s u l t o f m a r k e t p l a c e p r e s s u r e s a n d c o s t -
of i n d e p e n d e n t retailers has b e e n e r o d e d b y containment measures (Fitchen, 1991). T h e
the development of corporate chains, super- professionalization of public services, with
markets, malls a n d o u t - o f - t o w n commerical g r e a t e r e x p e c t a t i o n s o f qualifications a n d level
c e n t r e s (Vias, 2 0 0 4 ) . In r u r a l areas t h e s e are o f t r a i n i n g o f e m p l o y e e s s u c h as l i b r a r i a n s a n d
frequently l o c a t e d at h i g h w a y intersections a m b u l a n c e p e r s o n n e l , has also c r e a t e d r e c r u i t -
and can draw custom from a wide area, m e n t p r o b l e m s in rural areas. O v e r 2 2 m i l l i o n
pulling trade away from shops a n d services in people in rural A m e r i c a live i n areas that
rural communities. Wal-Mart, the largest have been officially designated as 'Health
supermarket in the US, built its market Professions Shortage Areas' or 'Medically
p o s i t i o n b y retailing p r i m a r i l y in rural areas, Unserved Areas' (Rural Policy Research
establishing a presence in over 1,100 rural Institute, 2003).
t o w n s (Farley, 2 0 0 3 ) . I n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r t h e T h e loss o f r u r a l s e r v i c e s has n o t , how-
p r o v i s i o n o f h e a l t h facilities, social services, ever, b e e n universal. Resort areas in the
libraries and schools (see also Box 7.1) rural US, such as parts of the Rocky
has b e e n s q u e e z e d by a prevailing emphasis Mountains, have often experienced an
on cost-effectiveness. As Fitchen (1991) expansion of local services and facilities
comments, along with a growing population.Yet many of
10 0
t h e n e w v e n t u r e s are a i m e d at l e i s u r e - b a s e d up, as ha s t he t o w n 's secon d liquor

consumption rather than serving the every- store . Ne w shop s an d boutique s si t
day needs of the local community One o n t he sit e o f t he o l d r o u n d h o u s e . L o c a l
such community is Ridgway, Colorado, cappuccin o cowboy s ca n no w f i nd

c o m f o r t a t a c o f f e e h o u s e w h i le t h e y ride
whose population doubled in the two
h e r d o n thei r s t o c k s in t he W a ll S t r e e t
decades from 1975 to just over a thousand
J o u r n a l .. . N e w s h o p s u p t he s t r e e t offe r
people and which additionally attracts
Guatemala n clothing an d furnishings ,
tourists and seasonal residents. N e w services
f r e s h f l o w e r s , m o t o r c y c l e s , a n t i q ue f u r n i-
i n c l u d e a l i b r a r y a n d a c h i r o p r a c t o r , as w e l l t u re a n d prints, lingerie , s a d d l e s , quilts,
as a b a k e r y , a h a r d w a r e s t o r e , f a s t - f o o d out- wester n wear , a n d 'collectables' . Fou r
lets a n d a g r o c e r y store. As D e c k e r d e s c r i b e s : r e s t a u r a n t s s e r v e e v e r y t h i n g f r om p a s t a ,
enchiladas , a n d l o b s t e r tails to alfalfa
O l d - t i m e rs n o l o n g e r r e c o g n i z e t he t o w n . sprouts an d zucchin i bread . (Decker ,
In t he o l d rail y a rd t h e re s t a n d s a b u i l d i ng 1 9 9 8 , p. 9 3 )
housin g a washeteria , a rea l estat e
office , a n d a n office s u p p l y s h o p . At t he N e w d e v e l o p m e n t s o f this k i n d w i l l i m p a c t
t o w n 's m a i n i n t e r s e c t i o n , t wo conveni - o n t h e sites a n d s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y j u s t

e n c e s t o r e s w i th g a s p u m p s h a v e s p r u n g as m u c h as t h e c l o s u r e o f s h o p s a n d services.
Box 7.1 Rural schools
F o r m a n y r u r al c o m m u n i t i e s t h e v i l l a g e s c h o o l is m o r e t h a n j u s t a n e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b -
l i s h m e n t , it is a l s o a f o c a l p o i n t o f c o m m u n i t y l i f e . F u n d r a i s i n g e v e n t s f o r s c h o o l s a n d
s c h o o l - g a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n s b e t w e e n p a r e n t s b o t h s e r v e a s site s a n d s t r u c t u r e s t h r o u g h
w h i c h c o m m u n i t y is p r a c t i s e d . F r i e n d s h i p s f o r m e d b e t w e e n c h i l d r e n a t s c h o o l c a n
s h a p e t h e s o c i a l n e t w o r k s o f a r u r al c o m m u n i t y f o r d e c a d e s . S c h o o l h a l ls a re u s e d a s
venue s f o r c o m m u n i t y gatherings . Moreover , t he presenc e o r absenc e o f a schoo l ca n
influenc e t he attractivenes s o f a village t o in-migrants, w i th families w i th school-age d
c h i l d r e n b e i n g les s l i k e ly t o m o v e t o v i l l a g e s w i t h o u t a s c h o o l , t h u s c o n t r i b u t i ng t o t h e
d i s p r o p o r t i o n a te a g e i n g o f t h a t c o m m u n i t y . It is t h e r e f o r e u n s u r p r i s i ng t h a t p r o p o s a l s
t o clos e r u r al s c h o o l s a re highly contentiou s a n d a re usuall y m e t w i th resistanc e
( F i g u re 7.5) . As M o r m o n t ( 1 9 8 7 ) o b s e r v e s , ' t he v i l l a g e s c h o o l c o n s t i t u t e s a s y m b o l .. . o f
loca l a u t o n o m y . T h e i r c l o s u r e w a s t o b e c o m e t h e f o c u s f o r a f a i r ly s u b s t a n t i a l o p p o s i t i o n ,
i n s o f a r a s i n h a b i t a n ts n o t o n l y f e l t d e p r i v e d o f a servic e t o w h i c h t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t h e y
w e r e e n t i t l e d , b u t als o o f a l o c a l i n s t i t u t i on w i t h w h i c h t h e y c o u l d i d e n t i f y' ( p . 5 6 4 ) .
Y e t , t h e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f r u r al s c h o o l s ha s b e e n a f e a t u r e o f r e c e n t e d u c a t i o n p o l i c y
in a n u m b e r o f c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d i ng t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e U K, C a n a d a , N e w Z e a l a n d ,
I r e l a n d, G e r m a n y , S w e d e n a n d Finland (Ribcheste r a n d Edwards , 1999 ; Robinson ,
1 9 9 0 ) . In F r a n c e , o v e r 1,40 0 r u r al communes los t t h e i r schoo l b e t w e e n 198 8 a n d 199 4
(INSEE, 1 9 9 8 ) ; w h i l s t 4 1 5 s m a l l r u r al s c h o o l s c l o s e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e t w e e n 1 9 8 6 - 7
a n d 1 9 9 3 - 4 (NCES , 1 9 9 7 ) .
R u r al s c h o o l s a re p a r t i c u l a r ly v u l n e r a b l e t o a cost-effectivenes s analysi s becaus e
population an d demographi c trends hav e mean t that man y hav e very low (an d
o f t e n d e c r e a s i n g ) e n r o l m e n t s . S o m e 2 , 7 0 0 p r i m a ry s c h o o l s in E n g l a n d (1 5 p e r c e n t ) h a v e
(Continued)
10 1
f e w e r t h a n 10 0 p u p i l s , a s d o o v e r 9,00 0 school s in t h e U n i t e d State s (1 0 p e r c e n t o f al l

s c h o o l s ) - p r e d o m i n a n t l y s c h o o l s in r u r al a r e a s . E n r o l m e n t s d e c r e a s e d b y a t e n t h or
m o re betwee n 1 9 9 6 a n d 2 0 0 0 in 3 8 p e r c e n t o f r u r al s c h o o l s in t h e United State s
( B e e s o n a n d S t r a n g e , 2 0 0 3 ) . As t h e n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s in a s c h o o l f a l l s , t h e c o s t p e r
s t u d e n t o f r u n n i ng t h e s c h o o l i n c r e a s e s b e c a u s e o f t h e f i x e d cost s o f b u i l d i n gs a n d s t a f f .
T h u s , t h e N e w Z e a l a n d E d u c a t i o n M i n i s t e r w a s r e p o r t e d j u s t i f y i ng t h e c l o s u r e o f r u r al
s c h o o l s in 2 0 0 3 a s a s w i t c h o f r e s o u r c e s f r o m b u i l d i n gs t o ' t h i n gs w h i c h d i r e c t ly i n f l u-
e n c e e d u c a t i o n ' (Manawatu Evening Standard, 1 7 J u n e 2 0 0 3 ) . R u r al s c h o o l c l o s u r e s m a y
a l s o r e s u l t f r o m d i f f i c u l t i es in i m p l e m e n t i n g n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s (suc h a s t e s t s
o r c o m m o n c u r r i c u l a ), t e a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t s h o r t a g e s , a n d c h a n g e s in t h e organizatio n
o f l o c a l e d u c a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s , or, c o n t r o v e r s i a l l y , o n t h e basi s o f p e d a g o g i c a r g u m e n t s .
M o re recently , pedagogi c argument s in favou r of smal l school s hav e bee n
a d v a n c e d t o s l o w o r h a l t r u r al s c h o o l c l o s u r e s . H o w e v e r , s c h o o l s in r u r al a r e a s c o n -
t i n ue to confron t challenge s f r om h i g h e r u n i t costs , s h o r t a g e o f resources , an d
f a l l i ng e n r o l m e n t s . R u r al s c h o o l s a r e o f t e n h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t o n v o l u n t e e r h e l p a n d
in m a n y case s c o s t s hav e bee n cu t by sharing resource s an d amalgamatin g the
a d m i n i s t r a t i on o f school s o r s c h o o l districts.
For more on rural education provision in Britain, see Chris Ribchester and Bill Edwards (1999) The
centre and the local: policy and practice in rural education provision. Journal of Rural Studies, 15, 49-63.
F i g u re 7. 5 Protest s agains t the propose d closur e o f Llangurig village school , Mid-Wales ,

Summe r 200 3
10 2
T a b le 7. 4 Percentag e o f rural household s in Englan d w i t h in 2 k m ,

4 k m a n d 8 k m o f ke y public an d commercia l services , 200 0
R u r al h o u s e h o l d s w i t h in d i s t a n c e o f
n e a r e s t f a c i l i ty
2 km 4 km 8 km
Pos t office 93. 5 99. 5 _
Ban k 58. 1 78. 4 96. 7
Cashpoin t 61. 1 79. 3 96. 2
Supermarke t 60. 9 79. 0 96. 0
Primary schoo l (elementar y school ) 91. 6 99. 0
Secondar y schoo l 57. 2 78. 2
-
96. 3
Doctor's surger y 66. 1 85. 8 98. 5
Hospita l 44. 7 74. 1
Jobcentr e ( e m p l o y m e n t exchange )
- 42. 5 72. 4
Benefit s Agenc y office
- 15. 7 36. 4
-
Accessibility to Services and who d o n o t have control over their o w n

Rural Public Transport mobility.
C h a n g i n g patterns o f rural services provision This impact is b e s t measured not by
impact on communities by changing the a count of those communities with or with-
sites a n d s t r u c t u r e s t h r o u g h w h i c h commu- o u t key services, b u t rather b y t h e distance
n i t y takes p l a c e , b u t t h e y also c h a n g e com- that p e o p l e have t o travel t o access k e y ser-
munities b y creating n e w divisions b e t w e e n vices a n d facilities. E v i d e n c e f r o m B r i t a i n a n d
t h o s e r e s i d e n t s w h o are able t o easily access France suggests that these distances c a n b e
services located outside t h e village o r t o w n , quite considerable. M o r e than nine in ten
and those w h o are m o r e constrained in rural households in England are within
their mobility. A t o n e level, t h e rationaliza- 2 k i l o m e t r e s ( 1 . 2 5 miles) o f a p o s t office a n d
tion a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f services in rural a p r i m a r y school, b u t fewer than t w o in three
areas reflects increased levels o f mobility. rural households are within t h e same distance
People are willing to travel further to of a bank, cashpoint, supermarket, secondary
s h o p o r t o access k e y services, a n d for t h e school or doctor's surgery (Table 7.4).
majority who now work outside their Residents of isolated rural communities
place of residence, shopping or using w i t h o u t key services in France h a d , o n aver-
services in t h e t o w n in w h i c h they work age, t o travel 6 k m t o t h e nearest bakery, 7 k m
m a y b e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t . A s s u c h , it c o u l d t o t h e n e a r e s t p o s t office, 1 0 k m t o t h e n e a r -
be argued that the spatial restructuring est s u p e r m a r k e t , 1 0 k m t o t h e n e a r e s t bank
o f r u r a l s e r v i c e s is s i m p l y p a r t o f a n u p s c a l - and 18 k m t o t h e nearest clothes shop in 1 9 8 8
ing o f people's everyday lived community. ( I N S E E , 1 9 9 8 ) . I n e v e r y case t h e distance h a d
However, the restructuring of service increased significantly since 1 9 8 0 .
provision i n this w a y excludes a significant T h e relatively h i g h p o p u l a t i o n density o f
element of people in rural communities E n g l a n d m e a n s that only a small p e r c e n t a g e
10 3
o f rural h o u s e h o l d s have to travel significant p a s s e n g e r n u m b e r s fall b e l o w a s u s t a i n a b l e

distances to access key services, b u t these threshold. In s o m e countries, governments
households tend to be geographically con- have sought to underwrite unprofitable
centrated in the most rural parts of the routes, b u t t h e rise o f neo-liberal policies in
country. There are, for example, some the 1980s and 1990s has c h a l l e n g e d such
29,000 rural households over 4 k m from the strategies, w i t h public transport in the UK,
n e a r e s t p o s t office, m o s t l y in t h e northern for example, undergoing 'deregulation' in
uplands and parts of south-west England the late 1980s w i t h a c o n s e q u e n t i a l r e s t r u c -
a n d East Anglia. Similarly, large parts o f t h e t u r i n g of rural bus services. A n u m b e r of
northern uplands, the Welsh Marches, communities have responded by experi-
D o r s e t , D e v o n a n d C o r n w a l l are m o r e than m e n t i n g with 'alternative' transport initia-
8 k m f r o m t h e n e a r e s t s u p e r m a r k e t . I n less tives to replace commercial services. In
densely populated countries, including the 2001, 20 per cent of rural parishes in
United States, C a n a d a and Australia, dis- England had o n - d e m a n d 'dial-a-ride' trans-
tances from r e m o t e c o m m u n i t i e s to services port schemes, whilst 17 per cent were
of this k i n d m a y b e m e a s u r e d in h u n d r e d s o f served by community minibus or taxi
kilometres. A basic rule o f t h u m b applies in s c h e m e s . Yet, in 16 p e r c e n t o f English rural
both contexts, however remote and communities an important f o r m of public
isolated rural c o m m u n i t i e s are m o r e likely transport is p r o v i d e d by the 'supermarket
to have key services and facilities than bus' that takes residents free-of-charge to
equivalently sized settlements n e a r e r t o u r b a n a s u p e r m a r k e t in a n e i g h b o u r i n g t o w n , thus
areas, b u t are likely to b e a g r e a t e r distance helping to redirect trade from smaller i n d e -
from t h o s e services that t h e y d o n o t possess p e n d e n t retailers to s u p e r m a r k e t s .
(see also B o x 7 . 2 ) . Notably, many of the services that are
Distances o f a few k i l o m e t r e s are easily most distant from the majority of rural
travelled b y car, b u t for t h o s e r u r a l r e s i d e n t s communities - including hospitals, job-
w h o are u n a b l e to drive o r w h o d o n o t o w n c e n t r e s a n d b e n e f i t offices are t h o s e w h o s e
a car, a n y j o u r n e y t h a t involves l e a v i n g t h e i r users are least likely t o h a v e access t o their
o w n s e t t l e m e n t c a n b e difficult. O n e in 14 own private transport. This produces a
rural households in the United States do d o u b l e d i s a d v a n t a g e t h a t is a d i s t i n c t i v e f e a -
not o w n a vehicle, yet 80 per cent of rural t u r e o f social e x c l u s i o n in rural areas (see
counties do not have a public bus service C h a p t e r 19). S i m i l a r issues arise w i t h access
a n d 4 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n live t o f i n a n c i a l s e r v i c e s , as t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
in areas w i t h n o f o r m of public transport bank branches has p r o d u c e d new geogra-
(Rural Policy Research Institute, 2003). phies of financial exclusion. Efforts to
O n l y half of rural settlements in England, rechannel banking services through other
and a third of rural c o m m u n i t i e s in France, o u t l e t s s u c h as p o s t o f f i c e s c a n t h e m s e l v e s b e
have a daily bus service. Public transport undermined by the closure of sub-post
provision has been eroded by the same offices w h i c h are fully c o m p e n s a t e d for by
calculations of cost-effectiveness as other increases in car o w n e r s h i p in t h e c o m m u n i t i e s
public services, w i t h routes w i t h d r a w n w h e n affected.
10 4
Box 7.2 Isolated rural communities: the islands

of western Ireland
Fo r m a n y r e m o t e r u r al c o m m u n i t i e s , i s o l a t i o n is p a r t o f t h e i r n a r r a t i ve m e a n i n g . T h e
c o m m u n i t y d e f i n e s a n d describe s itsel f b y r e f e r e n c e t o its i n s u l a r i ty a n d p o o r accessibility ,
a n d e m p l o y s suc h m e a n i n g s t o construc t c o m m u n i t y practice s t h a t p r o m o t e self -
s u f f i c i e n c y . T h e s m a l l i s l a n d c o m m u n i t i e s o f f t h e w e s t c o a s t o f I r e l a nd a r e a p r i me
e x a m p l e o f t h i s , i n c l u d i ng n i n e i s l a n d s s t u d i e d b y Cros s a n d N u t l e y ( 1 9 9 9 ) - A r r a n m o r e,
B e a r e , C a p e Clear , C l a r e , I n i s h b o f i n, I n i s h e e r , I n i s h t u r k, S h e r k i n a n d T o r y. T h e i s l a n d s
hav e p o p u l a t i o n s r a n g i ng f r om 7 8 t o 596 , a n d all e x p e r i e n c e d considerabl e d e p o p u -
l a t i o n d u r i ng t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y - a l t h o u g h f o u r r e c o r d e d p o p u l a t i o n growth
b e t w e e n 1 9 8 1 a n d 1 9 9 1 . S e r v i c e p r o v i s i o n o n t h e i s l a n d s is i n e v i t a b l y f i n e l y b a l a n c e d
b e t w e e n t h e l e v e l o f t r a de t h a t c a n b e s u s t a i n e d b y t h e s m a l l p o p u l a t i o n s a n d t h e
n e e d s t h a t r e s u l t f r o m t h e d i f f i c u l t i es o f acces s t o t h e m a i n l a n d . A ll n i n e i s l a n d s i n
1 9 9 1 h a d a g r o c e r y s t o r e , a p u b o r c l u b , a n u r s e a n d a p r i m a ry s c h o o l . A ll b u t t h e
s m a l l e s t h a d a r e s i d e n t p r i e s t a n d f i ve h a d a h o t e l . H o w e v e r , o n l y t w o i s l a n d s h a d a
s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l a n d o n l y t h e l a r g e s t h a d a r e s i d e n t d o c t o r . Eve n basi c p r o v i s i o n s
c o u l d b e d i f f i c u lt t o o b t a i n . D a i l y n e w s p a p e r s w e r e a v a i l a b l e o n o n l y f o u r i s l a n d s ,
a n d f r e s h m i lk w a s n o t a v a i l a b l e o n t w o i s l a n d s . I s l a n d e r s w e r e h e n c e h e a v i l y d e p e n -
d e n t o n t r a v e l t o t h e m a i n l a n d in o r d e r t o acces s m o s t s e r v i c e s , y e t t r a n s p o r t l i n ks t o
m a n y o f t h e i s l a n d s w e r e p o o r . D a i l y f e r ry s e r v i c e s o p e r a t e d a l l y e a r r o u n d t o j u s t
t h r e e o f t h e i s l a n d s , w i t h f i ve m o r e s e r v e d d a i l y o n l y in t h e s u m m e r . T h e s m a l l e s t
i s l a n d , I n i s h t u r k, h a d n o f e r ry s e r v i c e , ' w i th resident s having to depen d o n the
w e e k l y m a i l b o a t o r o n e o f t h e island's f i s h i ng b o a t s ' (p . 3 2 2 ) . Despit e governmen t
s u p p o r t f o r t r a n s p o r t l i n k s, i n c l u d i n g m a i l b o a t s a n d h e l i c o p t e r s e r v i c e s , t h e c o m m u -
n i t i es h a v e l i t t le o p t i o n t h a n t o a c c e p t a l o w e r l e v e l o f s e r v i c e p r o v i s i o n t h a n t h a t
expecte d elsewhere .
For more details see Michael Cross and Stephen Nutley (1999) Insularity and accessibility: the small
island communities of Western Ireland. Journal of Rural Studies, 15, 317-330.
Overcoming Isolation: organization for American farmers also

from Mail Order to the Internet k n o w n as t h e G r a n g e , h a d l a u n c h e d a m a i l
There are numerous isolated farms and o r d e r s e r v i c e f o r its m e m b e r s . B y 1 9 0 0 , t h e
s e t t l e m e n t s i n r e m o t e rural areas t h a t have Grange's business h a d b e e n eclipsed b y that o f
always b e e n b e y o n d t h e reach o f m a i n s t r e a m the Sears-Roebuck Catalog, selling every-
commercial and public services. F o r such t h i n g f r o m s h o e s t o cars t o r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s
h o u s e h o l d s t h e vital link t o healthcare a n d across t h e U n i t e d States. I n E u r o p e , m o b i l e
e d u c a t i o n , as w e l l as t o s h o p p i n g , h a s b e e n and peripatetic services were extensively
provided b y t h e postal service, t e l e c o m m u n i - adopted after t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r as a
cations, m o b i l e services and, m o r e recently, m e a n s o f delivering a w i d e range o f services
t h e I n t e r n e t . A s e a r l y as 1 8 7 2 , t h e P a t r o n s to rural communities, including libraries
of Husbandry, a social and educational and healthcare, groceries and even cinema
10 5
I 1 Rural I Urban
% 30
Unde r $ 5 $5-9. 9 $10-14. 9 $15-19. 9 $20-24. 9 $25-34. 9 $35-49. 9 $50-74. 9 Ove r $7 5
Income ban d
($000 )
Figure 7. 6 Percentag e of rural an d urban household s in the United State s with acces s to
on-line services , 1999 , by incom e ban d
Source: Base d o n Fox an d Porca , 200 0
performances. Similarly, air transport was and training, b a n k i n g services, e n t e r t a i n m e n t ,

enrolled to help provide healthcare cover to information sources, and, of course, on-line
large r u r a l areas o f Australia. H o w e v e r , s u c h s h o p p i n g . Y e t , as w i t h the development of
services are subject to assessments o f cost- t e l e w o r k i n g (see C h a p t e r 5 ) , t h e usefulness
e f f e c t i v e n e s s j u s t as s t a t i c f a c i l i t i e s a r e , a n d as o f t h e I n t e r n e t i n r u r a l s e r v i c e p r o v i s i o n is
the rural population has become more restricted by the I T infrastructure in rural
m o b i l e itself t h e d e m a n d for p e r i p a t e t i c ser- areas. A pilot s c h e m e t o c o n n e c t schools in
vices has fallen a n d m a n y h a v e b e e n a x e d . rural N o r t h Carolina to a fibre-optic system
In t h e late t w e n t i e t h century, t h e possibili- in 1 9 9 5 , for example, found that it cost
ties offered b y n e w t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t e c h - a typical high school $ 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 to $150,000
n o l o g i e s w e r e e a g e r l y e x p l o i t e d as a t o o l f o r to b u y the e q u i p m e n t and u p to $50,000 in
o v e r c o m i n g rural isolation. N e w Zealand had a n n u a l t e l e p h o n e bills - significant demands
l a u n c h e d a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s c h o o l for rural for smaller rural schools (Marshall, 2 0 0 0 ) . A t
children in 1922, but made increasing use a h o u s e h o l d level, c o m p u t e r ownership by
of radio broadcasts and tape cassettes to r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is, a t
expand the service in t h e 1970s. Australia 40 p e r cent in 1998, lower than in urban
similarly developed 12 'schools of the air' areas a n d t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s
after 1 9 5 1 u s i n g t w o - w a y r a d i o c o m m u n i c a - w i t h a c c e s s t o o n l i n e s e r v i c e s is l o w e r than
t i o n s . O n e s u c h s c h o o l , b a s e d at P o r t A u g u s t a , for u r b a n h o u s e h o l d s in e v e r y i n c o m e band
S o u t h Australia, was in 1978 t e a c h i n g some (Figure 7.6) (Fox a n d Porca, 2 0 0 0 ) . Studies
80-90 pupils living up to 700 k m away have identified a similar 'digital divide' in
(Nash, 1980). Britain, with fewer than 6 per cent of the
M o r e recently, attention has t u r n e d t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n in p e r i p h e r a l rural areas p a r t i c i -
potential of the Internet to provide rural res- p a t i n g i n o n - l i n e s h o p p i n g less t h a n i n a n y
idents w i t h access t o h e a l t h advice, e d u c a t i o n other part of the c o u n t r y (Figure 7.7).
10 6
Figure 7. 7 Frequen t on-line shopper s a s percentag e of adult population, by count y in

Grea t Britain, 200 0
Source: Base d o n CACI, 200 0
10 7
Summary
R u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s are c h a n g i n g . Social a n d e c o n o m i c trends, i n c l u d i n g t h e d e c l i n e o f

a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e shifting spatial division o f l a b o u r , d e p o p u l a t i o n a n d c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n , a n d
i n c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f m o b i l i t y , h a v e all i m p a c t e d o n t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d c o h e r e n c e o f r u r a l
c o m m u n i t i e s . C h a n g e h a s a l s o b e e n d r i v e n f r o m w i t h i n c o m m u n i t i e s , as t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f
p u b l i c a n d c o m m e r c i a l s e r v i c e s a n d facilities h a s a l t e r e d t h e d y n a m i c s o f c o m m u n i t y life.
C o m m u n i t i e s are a b o u t m o r e t h a n just services, b u t c h a n g e s in t h e provision o f rural services
h a v e h a d particular c o n s e q u e n c e s for c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t c a n b e analysed b y r e t u r n i n g t o
L i e p i n s s m o d e l o f t h e c o m m u n i t y as c o n s t i t u t e d b y m e a n i n g s , p r a c t i c e s a n d sites a n d
structures.
First, t h e rationalization o f service p r o v i s i o n c a n i m p a c t o n t h e m e a n i n g s o f c o m m u n i t y
t h a t c i r c u l a t e i n t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n . S m a l l t o w n s t h a t h a v e d e f i n e d t h e m s e l v e s as s e r v i c e
c e n t r e s f o r a s u r r o u n d i n g r u r a l a r e a h a v e t h i s m e a n i n g c h a l l e n g e d as s h o p s , b a n k s , h o s p i t a l s a n d
o t h e r key services are closed. Similarly t h e sense o f i n d e p e n d e n c e o f smaller villages m a y b e
u n d e r m i n e d i f k e y f u n c t i o n s a r e l o s t , a n d f u r t h e r i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e s e r v i c e field o f a l a r g e r
u r b a n settlement m a y lead to the rural identity of the c o m m u n i t y b e i n g contested.
S e c o n d l y , as L i e p i n s d e s c r i b e s i n h e r c a s e s t u d i e s , e v e r y d a y i n t e r a c t i o n s i n s h o p s a n d p o s t
offices a n d e v e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s c h o o l s a n d c o m m u n i t y h a l l s a r e c e n t r a l t o t h e p r a c t i c e o f
c o m m u n i t y . T h e c l o s u r e o f s h o p s , s c h o o l s a n d o t h e r c o m m u n i t y facilities h e n c e r e m o v e s
a w h o l e s t r a t u m o f c o m m u n i t y practices a n d r e d u c e s t h e capacity for regular i n t e r a c t i o n
b e t w e e n c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s . T h u s , thirdly, t h e closure o f rural services c a n b e l i n k e d t o
a r e l o c a t i o n o f t h e sites a n d s t r u c t u r e s o f c o m m u n i t y f r o m t h e p u b l i c s p a c e s o f s h o p s , s c h o o l s ,
p o s t offices, m a i n s t r e e t s a n d v i l l a g e s q u a r e s t o t h e p r i v a t e s p a c e s o f r e s i d e n t i a l g a r d e n s ,
b a c k y a r d s a n d p o r c h e s . T h i s r e l o c a t i o n assists t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f c o m m u n i t i e s as r e s i d e n t s
r e t r a c t t o i n t e r a c t o n l y w i t h t h e i r i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o u r s a n d s o c i a l n e t w o r k s r a t h e r t h a n as
p r e v i o u s l y t h r o u g h m o r e o p e n a n d i n c l u s i v e sites o f c o m m u n a l i n t e r a c t i o n .
Therefore, whilst the n o t i o n o f a historically h o m o g e n e o u s rural c o m m u n i t y m a y b e

c o n t e s t e d , it is i n d i s p u t a b l e t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l c h a n g e h a s p r o m o t e d a f l o w e r i n g o f
multiple c o m m u n i t i e s in rural space. A single village o r small t o w n m a y have m a n y different
c o m m u n i t i e s existing alongside each o t h e r (sometimes overlapping, sometimes not), each w i t h
t h e i r o w n m e a n i n g s , p r a c t i c e s a n d sites a n d s t r u c t u r e s t h a t c o n s t r u c t b o u n d a r i e s o f e x c l u s i v i t y .
R u r a l r e s i d e n t s m a y also p a r t i c i p a t e i n d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s a t d i f f e r e n t scales - i n t h e i r o w n
h a m l e t , in t h e w i d e r parish, in t h e c a t c h m e n t area o f t h e local t o w n a n d so o n - b u t t h e
a b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s t o p a r t i c i p a t e at p r o g r e s s i v e l y h i g h e r scales w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e i r
access t o t r a n s p o r t , s u c h t h a t s t r u c t u r e s o f social e x c l u s i o n are c r e a t e d . Finally, i n d i v i d u a l s m a y
additionally identify w i t h particular c o m m u n i t i e s of interest w h i c h they m a y consider to b e
m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n a n y affiliation w i t h a g e o g r a p h i c a l c o m m u n i t y .
T h e s e shifting patterns o f c o m m u n i t y are significant for m e a s u r e s t o r e s p o n d t o rural
c h a n g e , as a n y a t t e m p t t o e n g a g e ' c o m m u n i t i e s ' i n t h e d e l i v e r y o f r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t o r o t h e r
p o l i c y initiatives can n o l o n g e r e x p e c t t o c o n n e c t w i t h discrete g e o g r a p h i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s , b u t
m u s t b e sensitive t o a n d inclusive o f t h e m u l t i p l e rural c o m m u n i t i e s that n o w exist.
10 8
Further Reading
T he a p p r o a c h o f t h i n k i ng a b o u t rural c o m m u n i t i e s in t e r m s o f thei r m e a n i n g s , p r a c t i c e s
a n d s i t e s a n d s t r u c t u r es is d e v e l o p e d f u r t h er b y R u th L i e p i ns in ' N e w e n e r g i e s fo r a n o l d
i d e a : r e w o r k i ng a p p r o a c h e s to " c o m m u n i t y" in c o n t e m p o r a r y rural s t u d i e s ' , in t he
Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 16 , p a g e s 2 3 - 3 5 ( 2 0 0 0 ) ; a n d ' E x p l o r i ng rurality
t h r o u gh " c o m m u n i t y ": d i s c o u r s e s , p r a c t i c e s a n d s p a c e s s h a p i n g A u s t r a l i an a n d
N e w Z e a l a n d rural " c o m m u n i t i e s ' ", in t he Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 16 , p a g e s
3 2 5 - 3 4 1 ( 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e first p a p e r p o s i t i o n s t he m o d e l w i t h in a d i s c u s s i o n o f a p p r o a c h e s
to ' c o m m u n i t y' in rural s t u d i e s , w h i l s t t he s e c o n d p a p e r f o c u s e s o n t he c a s e s t u d i e s in
A u s t r a l ia a n d N e w Z e a l a n d , e x a m i n i n g t he i m p a c t o f rural c h a n g e o n c o m m u n i t i e s .
D e t a i l e d a c c o u n t s o f s e r v i c e p r o v i s i o n in rural a r e a s t e n d to b e fairly s p e c i f i c to a
p a r t i c u l ar t y pe o f s e r v i c e a n d a p a r t i c u l ar c o u n t ry o r r e g i o n , a n d m a n y a re n o w q u i te
d a t e d . H o w e v e r , S e a n W h i t e, Cliff G u y a n d G a r y H i g g s , ' C h a n g e s in s e r v i c e p r o v i s i o n in
rural a r e a s . Par t 2 : C h a n g e s in p o s t office p r o v i s i o n in M id W a l e s : a G I S - b a s e d
e v a l u a t i o n ' , in t he Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 13 , p a g e s 4 5 1 - 4 6 5 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , p r o v i d e s
a n e m p i r i c a l s t u d y o f t he p r o v i s i o n o f rural p o s t offices , w h i l s t A l e x a n d e r V i a s , ' B i g g e r
s t o r e s , m o r e s t o r e s , o r n o s t o r e s : p a t h s o f retail r e s t r u c t u r i ng in rural A m e r i c a ', in t he
Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 2 0 , p a g e s 3 0 3 - 3 1 8 ( 2 0 0 4 ) , d i s c u s s e s t r e n ds in retail
p r o v i s i o n in rural a r e a s o f t he U n i t e d S t a t e s .
Websites
D e t a i l e d statistic s f r om t he 2 0 0 1 s u r v e y o f rural s e r v i c e s in E n g l a n d a re a v a i l a b l e o n t he
C o u n t r y s i de A g e n c y ' s w e b s i t e ( w w w . c o u n t r y s i d e . g o v . u k / r u r a l s e r v i c e s / ) . R e s o u r c e s o n
t he sit e i n c l u de G IS m a p s o f d i s t a n c e s to k e y s e r v i c e s a n d t he full E x c e l d a t a s h e e t s o f
t he s u r v e y r e t u r n s.
10 9
Environmental C h a n g e a n d Rural A r e a s
Introduction
I f ' c o m m u n i t y ' is o n e k e y w o r d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r u r a l i t y ( C h a p t e r 7 ) , t h e n
' n a t u r e ' is a n o t h e r . I t m a y b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e a r e n o t r u l y ' n a t u r a l ' p l a c e s l e f t ,
t h a t all r u r a l a r e a s h a v e b e e n s h a p e d b y h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n t o a g r e a t e r or
lesser e x t e n t , b u t t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f ' n a t u r a l ' features a n d materials in the
r u r a l l a n d s c a p e c o n t i n u e s t o b e its m o s t v i s u a l l y d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . T h e
popular association of the countryside w i t h 'nature' a n d the 'natural environment'
explains in part w h y rural landscapes a n d places are valued in m o d e r n society,
a n d w h y t h e ' r u r a l i d y l l ' h a s s u c h a p p e a l , y e t it also e m p h a s i z e s t h e vulnerability
o f t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . W e m a y v a l u e t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as a ' p l a c e o f n a t u r e ' ,
b u t w e often d o n o t treat the natural e n v i r o n m e n t o f the countryside very
well. I n d e e d , m a n y o f t h e key processes o f social a n d e c o n o m i c c h a n g e in
rural areas over t h e past c e n t u r y h a v e h a d significant, negative, e n v i r o n m e n t a l
impacts.
T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e in rural areas b y f o c u s i n g on
three particularly p r o m i n e n t trends: the degradation of the e n v i r o n m e n t by modern
agriculture, including pollution, p o i s o n i n g a n d the destruction of habitats; u r b a n
e n c r o a c h m e n t a n d t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e built e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h i n rural areas, again
p r o d u c i n g pollution a n d the destruction o f habitats; and the rural dimensions of
global climate change, including the probable impact o n the geography of
a g r i c u l t u r e a n d t o u r i s m . T h e l e v e l o f c o n c e r n t h a t is a t t a c h e d t o e a c h o f t h e s e
trends, a n d therefore t h e responses that are c o n s i d e r e d to b e appropriate, are
influenced by the philosophy of nature that o n e adopts. F r o m s o m e perspectives,
n a t u r e is r e g a r d e d as r e s i l i e n t a n d a b l e t o a d a p t t o c h a n g e , f r o m o t h e r s , n a t u r e is s e e n
as f r a g i l e a n d i n n e e d o f p r o t e c t i o n . T h u s , t h e s e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e d i s c u s s e d
f u r t h e r i n t h e first p a r t o f t h e c h a p t e r , w h i c h e x a m i n e s i n m o r e d e t a i l t h e
association of rurality a n d nature.
Environmental change and rural areas
Rurality and Nature pasture, orchards), or employ local natural

The identification of the countryside with resources in small-scale c o n s t r u c t i o n s that c o n -
nature is an offspring of the fundamental f o r m t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g aesthetic o f t h e l a n d s c a p e
dualisms in w e s t e r n culture b e t w e e n nature a n d (for e x a m p l e , d r y s t o n e walls, s t o n e cottages,
s o c i e t y a n d n a t u r e a n d civilization t h a t h a v e h i s - isolated farmbuildings) ( W o o d s , 2 0 0 3 b ) .
torically i n f o r m e d t h e separation o f t o w n a n d S e c o n d l y , rural activities are defined as those
c o u n t r y i n l i t e r a t u r e , a r t a n d g o v e r n m e n t policy. that use and work with nature. T h u s , f a r m i n g ,
T h e a l i g n m e n t o f r u r a l i t y w i t h n a t u r e h a s also forestry, fishing, hunting and crafts such as
produced moral geographies in which the b a s k e t - m a k i n g a r e all h e l d t o b e i n t r i n s i c a l l y
c o u n t r y s i d e is h e l d t o b e a p u r e r , n o b l e r a n d 'rural' in a w a y that, for e x a m p l e , m a n u f a c t u r -
m o r e t r e a s u r e d s p a c e t h a n t h e c i t y (see B u n c e , ing industry, a c c o u n t a n c y a n d skateboarding
1 9 9 4 ; M a c n a g h t e n and Urry, 1998; Short, 1991). a r e n o t . T h i r d l y , t h e r e a r e p e r c e i v e d t o b e rural
Furthermore, these various elements have b e e n people, who can be identified by their knowledge of
d r a w n i n t o t h e lay d i s c o u r s e s b y w h i c h i n d i v i d - and sensitivity towards nature. T r u e r u r a l p e o p l e ,
uals d e f i n e t h e i r o w n ' r u r a l i d e n t i t y ' a n d u n d e r - it is c o n j e c t u r e d , a r e i n t u n e w i t h t h e c h a n g -
s t a n d p l a c e s as r u r a l (see C h a p t e r 1). B e l l , f o r i n g o f t h e seasons, u n d e r s t a n d t h e w e a t h e r a n d
example, highlights the i m p o r t a n c e placed on have an innate k n o w l e d g e of local plants a n d
n a t u r e i n t h e lay d i s c o u r s e s o f t h e r e s i d e n t s o f his w i l d l i f e (Bell, 1 9 9 4 ; S h o r t , 1 9 9 1 ) .
a n o n y m i z e d case s t u d y village o f ' C h i l d e r l e y ' : Like m a n y e l e m e n t s i n t h e social c o n s t r u c -

t i o n o f r u r a l i t y (see C h a p t e r 1), t h e a b o v e a s s o -
A l t h o u gh t he v i l l a g e rs a re b y n o m e a n s c i a t i o n s a r e i d e a l i z e d n o t i o n s t h a t a r e difficult
s u r e t h a t t he v i l l a ge o f C h i l d e r l ey is a t o d e m o n s t r a t e empirically.Yet t h e y are p o w e r -
plac e o f nature , the y hav e no doub t that ful i d e a s b e c a u s e t h e y i n f o r m a p o p u l a r c o n -
s u c h p l a c e s exist . M o r e o v e r , t h e y d o no t
flation o f t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f n a t u r e w i t h the
d o u b t t h a t t h e re a re c o u n t ry w a y s of
p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e countryside that has shaped
living a n d p e o p l e w h o follow t h o s e w a y s .
the ways in w h i c h environmental change in
A c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i th n a t u r e , t h e y find,
r u r a l areas is p e r c e i v e d a n d r e s p o n d e d t o .
is t he sures t w a y to identify w h a t t h o s e
w a y s a n d w h o s e t h o s e p e o p l e are . T he O n t h e o n e h a n d , a d i s c o u r s e o f n a t u r e as
mora l f o u n d a t i o n o f c o u n t ry life .. . rest s p u r e , idyllic a n d v u l n e r a b l e h a s b e e n d r a w n o n

u p o n this rock. (Bell , 1 9 9 4 , p. 1 2 0 ) t o p o s i t i o n t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t as n e e d i n g
p r o t e c t i o n from d a m a g i n g h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n .
T h i s r a t h e r r o m a n t i c i z e d association o f rurality Human a c t i v i t y i n r u r a l s p a c e is considered
a n d n a t u r e is b u i l t o n t h r e e c o r e c o m p o n e n t s . a c c e p t a b l e o n l y i n s o f a r as it w o r k s w i t h n a t u r e
First, t h e rural landscape is perceived as a natural a n d c o n s t r u c t s artefacts i n t h e l a n d s c a p e t h a t
landscape. It is d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the urban c o n f o r m t o t h e n a t u r a l a e s t h e t i c (as d e s c r i b e d
landscape by the p r e - e m i n e n c e o f ecological above). Developments that introduce large
f e a t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g flora, f a u n a a n d a relatively q u a n t i t i e s o f a l i e n m a t e r i a l ( s u c h as t a r m a c o r
u n m o d i f i e d physical g e o m o r p h o l o g y . A l t h o u g h metal) or m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y into the land-
the concept o f ' l a n d s c a p e ' itself implies a s c a p e , o r w h i c h a p p e a r d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e i n scale
fusion o f the ecological and the h u m a n , the to the morphology of the landscape, are
p r e s e n c e o f h u m a n artefacts is t o l e r a t e d i n this considered to b e unnatural a n d o u t of place
d i s c o u r s e o f t h e r u r a l l a n d s c a p e o n l y if t h e y are ( W o o d s , 2 0 0 3 b ) . Similarly, t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o -
essentially b i o l o g i c a l (for e x a m p l e , c r o p s , forest, vations in agriculture that e m p l o y synthetic
11 1
chemicals, or that involve t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f agriculture, t h e creation o f reservoirs a n d the

n a t u r e ( G M crops, for e x a m p l e ) , are p o s i t i o n e d generation of hydro and w i n d power. Resilient
as harmful to the environment. From this n a t u r e is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a b l e t o withstand
'natura-ruralist perspective', the disconnection the impact of such developments, and to adapt
of the h u m a n realm from the natural w o r l d that t o scientific i n n o v a t i o n s i n a g r i c u l t u r e ( W o o d s ,
is a c e n t r a l characteristic of modernity (see 2003b).
C h a p t e r 3) h a s e r o d e d s u s t a i n a b l e f o r m s o f r u r a l The two perspectives offer contrasting
living and p r o d u c e d environmental problems a p p r o a c h e s as t o h o w e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e i n
t h a t a r e n o w p e r c e i v e d as t h r e a t e n i n g t h e c h a r - r u r a l areas m i g h t b e e v a l u a t e d . T h e y provide
acter of the countryside. d i f f e r e n t g u i d a n c e as t o w h i c h c h a n g e s s h o u l d
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a utilitarian perspective b e r e p r e s e n t e d as ' p r o b l e m s ' a n d o n t h e a p p r o -
o n t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t c o n c e i v e s o f n a t u r e as priate remedial action. However, b o t h per-
b e i n g b o t h w i l d a n d resilient. F r o m this p e r - spectives would recognize that the rural
s p e c t i v e , t h e r u r a l i n its ' n a t u r a l ' s t a t e is a w i l d e r - environment is changing and that these
ness t h a t r e q u i r e s t a m i n g t h r o u g h r o a d - b u i l d i n g , changes have resulted from a range o f factors
b r i d g e - b u i l d i n g , electrification a n d so o n in i n c l u d i n g t h e practices o f agriculture, forestry
o r d e r t o m a k e it h o s p i t a b l e for h u m a n activity. and primary production; the impact of urban-
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , r u r a l s p a c e is also r e p r e s e n t e d ization and building development; and the
as o f f e r i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t y for t h e h a r n e s s i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t o u r i s m a n d leisure activities;
of 'natural' resources for human service as w e l l as e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s o r i g i n a t i n g
through mining and q u a r r y i n g , forestry and o u t s i d e rural space ( B o x 8.1).
Box 8.1 Factors in environmental change in rural areas ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H^
A g r i c u l t u r al practice s F o r e s t r y a n d p r i m a ry production
Us e o f p e s t i c i d e s Deforestatio n
Us e o f c h e m i c a l f e r t i l i z e rs Afforestation o f o p e n m o o r l a n d
Increasin g yields P l a n t i ng o f n o n - n a t i v e specie s
Remova l o f hedgerow s
S p o i l s o f m i n i n g a n d q u a r r y i ng
Destructio n o f habitats F l o o d i n g o f lan d f o r reservoirs
S p e c i a l i z a t i o n - r e d u c t i o n o f p l a n t specie s
U r b a n i z a t i o n a n d b u i l d i ng developmen t Tourism a n d leisure activities

Los s o f o p e n s p a c e t o h o u s i n g , e t c . D e m a n d f o r facilities ,
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f roads , etc . a c c o m m o d a t i o n , ca r parks , etc .
Increase d p o l l u t i on Erosio n o f f o o t p a t h s , etc .
Deman d for drainage , water, sewerag e
D a m a g e t o trees , plants , walls , etc .
Nois e a n d l i g ht p o l l u t i on
L i t t er
D i s t u r b a n c e o f w i l d l i fe
External processe s
A c i d r a in
R e m o v a l o f w a t e r f o r d r i n k i n g, e t c .
Globa l w a r m i ng
D o w n s t r e a m p o l l u t i on
11 2
Agriculture and the Rural Environment The first major w a r n i n g that agricultural
M o d e r n capitalist a g r i c u l t u r e t u r n e d t h e tables modernization o f this type could lead to
o n nature. Traditional farming had b e e n d e p e n - serious e n v i r o n m e n t problems c a m e in the
d e n t o n n a t u r e , r e s t r i c t e d b y soil t y p e , c l i m a t e 1930s w h e n over-grazing, the conversion of
and topography and at the mercy of the grassland to arable land, a n d drought con-
w e a t h e r , pests a n d disease. F o r t h e p i o n e e r s o f spired in the A m e r i c a n prairie to produce
m o d e r n agriculture, however, these constraints t h e catastrophe o f t h e 'dust b o w l ' (Box 8.2).
a n d risks r e p r e s e n t e d w a s t e d c a p i t a l a n d t h e y The experience of the dust bowl resulted
began to harness n e w technologies to control, in t h e r e p l a n t i n g o f grasslands in t h e prairie
manipulate and modify environmental condi- states a n d the introduction of government
tions. F r o m l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d t e c h n i q u e s s u c h as p r o g r a m m e s f o r soil c o n s e r v a t i o n , b u t f u n d a -
irrigation and selective breeding, through mentally the agricultural practices that had
' i m p r o v e m e n t s ' t o s l o p e s a n d soils, t o a d v a n c e d contributed to the p r o b l e m changes in land
biotechnology and the application of agri- use, t h e removal o f vegetation, o v e r s t o c k i n g
chemicals, agricultural practices w e r e developed and the over-exploitation o f w a t e r tables -
that changed the environment in order to not only continued but intensified under
e n h a n c e p r o d u c t i v i t y (see also C h a p t e r 4 ) . productivism.
Box 8.2 The dust bowl
T he g r e a t p l a i n s o f t h e c e n t r a l U n i t e d S t a t e s a re n a t u r a l g r a s s l a n d . H o w e v e r , in t h e
e a r l y p a r t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h e y w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d b y i n d u s t r i al a g r i c u l t u r e.
First c a m e l a r g e - s c a l e c a t t l e r a n c h i n g , w i t h o v e r - g r a z i n g t h i n n i ng t h e v e g e t a t i o n c o v e r .
T h e n f a r m e rs m o v e d i n to t h e m o r e l u c r a t i ve a r a b l e sector , p l o u g h i n g u p t h e g r a s s l a n d .
A c r o s s t h e s o u t h e r n p l a i n s o f Kansas , C o l o r a d o , N e b r a s k a , O k l a h o m a a n d Texas , s o m e
1 1 m i l l i on acre s ( 4 . 4 m i l l i on h a ) o f g r a s s l a n d w e r e p l o u g h e d f o r a r a b l e c r o p s b e t w e e n
1 9 1 4 a n d 1 9 1 9 . B e t w e e n 1 9 2 5 a n d 1 9 3 0 a n o t h e r 5. 3 m i l l i on acre s (2. 1 m i l l i on h a ) w e r e
c o n v e r t e d ( M a n n i n g , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e m o t i v e w a s e c o n o m i c . As W o r s t e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) c o m m e n t s ,
' by t h a t t i m e t h e W e s t e r n w h e a t f a r m e r w a s n o l o n g e r i n t e r e s t e d in m e r e l y r a i s i n g
f o o d f o r h i m s e l f a n d his f a m i l y. M o re t h a n a n y o t h e r p a r t o f t h e n a t i o n 's a g r i c u l t u r e,
h e w a s a c o g in a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l w h e e l . As l o n g a s it k e p t t u r n i n g, h e w o u l d r o ll a l o n g
w i t h it. B u t if it s u d d e n l y s t o p p e d h e w o u l d b e c r u s h e d ' ( p . 8 9 ) .
T he c h a n g e in l a n d us e r e m o v e d v e g e t a t i o n a n d l o o s e n e d soil . This c o u l d b e t o l e r a t e d
in t h e u n u s u a l l y w e t y e a r s o f t h e l a te 1920s , e n c o u r a g i n g e x p a n s i o n i n to t h e m o s t e n v i -
r o n m e n t a l l y m a r g i n a l r e g i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r ly a s f a r m e rs w e r e p r e s s u r i z e d b y a s e v e r e e c o -
n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n . In 1 9 3 1 , h o w e v e r , t h e r a i ns f a i l e d . A v e r a g e y e a r l y p r e c i p i t a t i on acros s
t h e r e g i o n f r o m 193 1 t o 193 6 w a s o n l y 6 9 p e r c e n t o f n o r m a l levels . In t h e d r o u g h t c o n -
d i t i o ns t h e soi l d r i e d t o d u s t , a n d w i t h l i t t le v e g e t a t i o n t o h o l d it t o g e t h e r , t h e soi l w a s
r a p i d ly e r o d e d b y s t r o n g w i n d s t h a t w h i p p e d u p f i e r ce d u s t s t o r m s . T he w o r s t a f f e c t e d
a r e a w a s t h e r e g i o n w h e r e t h e O k l a h o m a p a n h a n d l e i n t e r s e c t s w i t h t h e s t a t e s o f Kansas ,
C o l o r a d o , N e w M e x i c o a n d Texas , b u t b e t w e e n 193 5 a n d 1 9 4 0 area s o f s e v e r e w i n d e r o -
s i o n p e r i o d i c a l l y e x t e n d e d t o c o v e r t h e e n t i re w e s t e r n h a l f o f Kansas , l a r ge p a r ts of
s o u t h - e a s t C o l o r a d o a n d t h e c o t t o n - g r o w i n g r e g i o n o f n o r t h e rn Texa s ( W o r s t e r, 1979) .
(Continued)
11 3
A t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e s t o r m s , in s p r i n g 1 9 3 5 , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i c h i ta in K a n s a s
m e a s u r e d a c l o u d o f s o m e f i ve m i l l i on t o n s o f d u s t s u s p e n d e d o v e r 3 0 s q u a r e m i l e s o f
t h e c i ty ( M a n n i n g , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e w o r s t s i n g l e s t o r m , o n 1 4 A p r il 1 9 3 5 - B l a c k S u n d a y -
t r a v e l l e d f r o m n o r t h e r n K a n s a s t o Texas , b l a c k i n g o u t d a y l i g h t f o r m o r e t h a n four
h o u r s a s it p a s s e d . T h e n e x t d a y a r e p o r t in t h e Washington Evening Star coine d the
t e r m , ' t he d u s t b o w l o f t h e c o n t i n e n t ' ( W o r s t e r , 1 9 7 9 ) . C o n f r o n t e d b y t h e c o m b i n a t i o n
of drought a n d dus t storms , crops failed or were destroye d a n d cattle starved .
B u i l d i n gs a n d f a r m s t r u c t u r e s w e r e d a m a g e d b y d r i f ts o f d u s t a n d t h e i n c i d e n c e of
r e s p i r a t o ry disease s i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . T h e e f f e c t s o f t h e d u s t b o w l c o m p o u n d e d
t h e e a r l i e r a g r i c u l t u r al d e p r e s s i o n t o c r e a t e a c u t e l e v e l s o f p o v e r t y , p a r t i c u l a r ly in t h e
O k l a h o m a p a n h a n d l e , n o r t h e rn Texa s a n d s o u t h - w e s t K a n s a s . O v e r 3 m i l l i on p e o p l e l e f t
t h e r e g i o n d u r i ng t h e 1930 s - m a n y m i g r a t i ng t o C a l i f o r n i a. S o m e c o u n t i e s in t h e w o r s t
a f f e c t e d z o n e l o s t b e t w e e n a t h i rd a n d a h a l f o f t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n ( W o r s t e r, 1 9 7 9 ) .
By 1 9 4 0 t h e d u s t s t o r m s h a d b e c o m e m o r e i n f r e q u e n t . T h e r e t u rn o f 9 m i l l i on a c r e s
o f a b a n d o n e d f a r m l a n d t o n a t u re h e l p e d t o s t a b i l i z e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s a n d
g o v e r n m e n t - l e d soi l c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s w o r k e d t o r e s t o r e g r a s s l a n d a n d p l a n t
s h e l t e r b e l t s o f trees . D e s p i t e t h e s e e f f o r t s , soi l e r o s i o n ha s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a seriou s
p r o b l e m in t h e r e g i o n .
For more on the dust bowl, its causes and its consequences, see Richard Manning (1997) Grassland
(Penguin); Donald Worster (1979) Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (Oxford University
Press).
T h e second major warning came in 1962 A g e o f b i o l o g y a n d p h i l o s o p h y , w h e n it

with the publication of a ground-breaking w a s s u p p o s e d t h a t n a t u re e x i s t s f o r t he
b o o k , Silent Spring, b y a n A m e r i c a n scientist, c o n v e n i e n c e o f m a n .. . It is o u r a l a r m i ng
R a c h e l Carson. Carson argued that the increas- m i s f o r t u ne t h a t s o p r i m i t i ve a scienc e

h a s a r m e d itsel f w i th t he m o s t m o d e r n
ing use of inorganic chemicals in agriculture -
a n d t e r r i b le w e a p o n s , a n d t h a t in t u r n i ng
as p e s t i c i d e s , h e r b i c i d e s , i n s e c t i c i d e s a n d s o
the m agains t t he insect s it h a s als o
o n risked m a k i n g t h e E a r t h an unfit place t o
t u r n ed t h e m a g a i n s t t he e a r t h . ( C a r s o n ,
live. S h e d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w t o x i c chemicals
1 9 6 3 , p. 2 4 3 )
passed through the food chain, devastating
wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d e x p l o r e d t h e p o t e n - Silent Spring h a d a d r a m a t i c i m p a c t o n a g r i -
tial t h r e a t s t o h u m a n h e a l t h . I n p a r t i c u l a r s h e cultural policy. T h e use o f D D T was b a n n e d
highlighted t h e e x t r e m e toxicity o f t h e c h e m - and measures taken to control the worst
ical D D T , i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 9 4 3 a n d u s e d in excesses o f pesticides. Yet, again, t h e a g r i c u l -
pesticides, w h i c h C a r s o n proved was r e s p o n - tural practices that c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r o b -
sible for significant numbers of deaths of lem remained fundamentally unchanged.
b i r d s , fish and mammals that were n o t its Farmers c o n t i n u e to use pesticides a n d o t h e r
i n t e n d e d t a r g e t s . A b o v e all, C a r s o n attacked chemicals and biotechnology companies c o n -
the culture of biotechnology and the belief tinue to attempt to control nature.
that nature could b e controlled: The rural e n v i r o n m e n t has b e e n signifi-
cantly c h a n g e d by t h e practices o f industrial
T he 'control o f nature ' is a phras e c o n c e i v e d a n d p r o d u c t i v i s t a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d still is b e i n g

in a r r o g a n c e , b o rn o f t he Neandertha l changed. These impacts can b e grouped into
11 4
60 0
Hedge s Pond s Walls
Figure 8. 1 Exten t o f selecte d farmland feature s in Grea t Britain (pon d an d wall figures are
for England , Wale s an d Scotland ; hedgero w figures are for Englan d an d Wale s only)
Source: After Cabine t Office, 200 0
three dimensions - the destruction o f habitats habitats seriously depletes t h e populations o f

a n d loss o f flora a n d f a u n a ; t h e p o l l u t i o n of native species.
w a t e r c o u r s e s ; a n d soil e r o s i o n , flooding and M o d e r n agriculture primarily impacts on
t h e l o w e r i n g o f aquifers. wild plant and animal populations through
three processes of agricultural 'moderniza-
Loss of habitats, flora and fauna t i o n ' , e a c h a i m e d at i n c r e a s i n g f a r m produ-
T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e loss o f w i l d p l a n t s ctivity or income. First, habitats are lost
a n d a n i m a l s is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a n environ- through the modification of farmland. The
mental problem created by agricultural pursuit o f h i g h e r p r o d u c t i v i t y leads farmers t o
practice is a matter of perspective. Some minimize the amount of unused land on
d e s t r u c t i o n o f flora a n d f a u n a is d e l i b e r a t e o n f a r m s , w h i l s t t h e effective u s e o f m a c h i n e r y
t h e p a r t o f f a r m e r s as t h e y s e e k t o e r a d i c a t e such as combine harvesters favours large,
pests a n d w e e d s a n d has always, in o n e form uninterrupted, fields. Together these factors
or another, been part of farming. T h e differ- have p r o v i d e d a rationale for t h e r e m o v a l o f
e n c e i n t r o d u c e d b y i n d u s t r i a l a g r i c u l t u r e is hedgerows that previously formed field
t h a t t h e c h e m i c a l s e m p l o y e d as p e s t i c i d e s a n d boundaries. Between 1945 and 1985,22 per cent
herbicides are m o r e indiscriminate t h a n b i o - of hedgerows in England a n d Wales were
logical or manual methods and can have r e m o v e d o r o t h e r w i s e lost, w i t h s o m e 8 , 0 0 0
unanticipated effects elsewhere in the food k i l o m e t r e s o f h e d g e r o w lost e a c h year d u r i n g
c h a i n . S i m i l a r l y , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f h a b i t a t s is the 1970s (Green, 1996). A further third of
for many farmers an acknowledged and remaining hedgerows disappeared between
a c c e p t e d s i d e - e f f e c t o f efforts t o i m p r o v e p r o - 1 9 8 4 a n d 1 9 9 3 (Figure 8.1). A r o u n d a third o f
ductivity. D r a w i n g on the idea of resilient native British plant species have been
nature, they will argue that nature can w i t h - r e c o r d e d i n h e d g e r o w s , b u t as G r e e n (1996)
s t a n d t h e loss o f t h e occasional hedgerow, notes, only a b o u t 2 5 0 species o c c u r regularly
p o n d or meadow. Environmentalists, however, in hedges and n o n e o f t h e s e is threatened
contend that the aggregate loss of such with extinction as a result of hedgerow
11 5
r e m o v a l . M o r e s e r i o u s , G r e e n s u g g e s t s , is t h e ove r t he c o u n t r y: b y 1 9 6 3 its U K p o p u l a t i o n
i m p a c t o f t h e loss o f b r e e d i n g g r o u n d s for w a s o n l y 4 4 % o f t he 7 0 0 p a i rs b r e e d i n g
animals leading to smaller populations. T h r e e in 1 9 3 9 . In o t h e r p a r ts o f t he w o r ld t he
in four species o f British l o w l a n d mammals d e c l i n e w a s e v e n g r e a t e r : in t he U S A its

p o p u l a t i o n fel l b y 8 5 % . R e s e a r c h b y t he
b r e e d i n h e d g e r o w s , as d o s e v e n i n t e n n a t i v e
N a t u re Conservanc y in [ t he U K] wa s
species of bird and four in ten species of
instrumental in s u b s t a n t i a t i n g that t he
butterfly (Green, 1996).
c a u s e w a s t he n e w p e s t i c i d e s . D i e l d r in
Secondly, habitats are also lost through
( u s e d a s a s e e d d r e s s i n g to g i v e p r o t e c -
c h a n g e s in l a n d use for e c o n o m i c reasons. T h e t i on a g a i n s t t he w h e a t b u lb fly) a n d A l d r in
h i g h e r rate of r e t u r n from arable f a r m i n g t h a n ( u s e d in s h e e p d i p s ) w e r e b e i n g p a s s e d
from pastoral farming has encouraged the alon g t he foo d chai n to predators .
c o n v e r s i o n o f l a r g e areas o f p a s t u r e i n t o c r o p - ( G r e e n , 1 9 9 6 , p. 2 0 8 )
land. In Europe, conversion to cropland was
supported by grants under the Common In a d d i t i o n t o p o i s o n i n g , D D T a n d similar
Agricultural P o l i c y , a n d e v e n after subsidies pesticides h a r m e d bird populations by thin-
w e r e w i t h d r a w n m a r k e t forces have c o n t i n u e d n i n g t h e eggshells o f s o m e species, r e d u c i n g
to dictate the trend. S o m e 122,227 hectares of rates o f successful r e p r o d u c t i o n . Shell t h i n n i n g
p e r m a n e n t grassland (or 4.1 p e r cent o f t h e in the eggs of the South Carolina brown
total) w e r e lost in E n g l a n d a n d Wales b e t w e e n pelican, for e x a m p l e , c o n t r i b u t e d t o a decrease
1 9 9 2 a n d 1 9 9 7 - t h e equivalent t o t h e area o f in the breeding population from m o r e than
a h u n d r e d soccer pitches disappearing every 5 , 0 0 0 pairs in 1960 to 1,250 pairs in 1969
day (Wilson, 1999). C o n s u m e r fashions can (Hall, 1987). O t h e r species h a v e suffered from
also h a v e a n i n f l u e n c e . T h e a r e a o f o r c h a r d s i n the effect of pesticides and herbicides in
E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s fell f r o m 6 2 , 0 0 0 hectares reducing their food supply (Green, 1996).
i n 1 9 7 0 t o 2 6 , 0 0 0 h e c t a r e s i n 2 0 0 2 as s u p e r - The above processes have also worked

market purchases have switched from native collectively to d a m a g e habitats. For e x a m p l e ,
apples a n d pears to c h e a p e r i m p o r t e d fruit the disappearance of 97 per cent of wildflower
( D E F R A , 2003). m e a d o w s i n t h e U K s i n c e t h e 1 9 6 0 s is a r e s u l t
Thirdly, plants and animals have been n o t j u s t o f c o n v e r s i o n t o arable l a n d b u t also
affected b y t h e use o f c h e m i c a l pesticides a n d of the application of herbicides to remaining
herbicides. As C a r s o n n o t e d , the i n t r o d u c t i o n grassland and of poor land management.
of n e w chemicals, including D D T and other Similarly, hedgerows that have been left
chlorinated hydrocarbons, into agricultural in situ h a v e b e e n d e p l e t e d b y c h e m i c a l s , e i t h e r
use passed lethal toxins i n t o t h e food chain. directly applied or drifting from adjacent
T h e i m p a c t o n b i r d s a n d p r e d a t o r m a m m a l s is fields, s u c h t h a t
summarized by Green:
w h e r e h e d g e s d o s u r v i ve o n f a r m l a n d,
In B r i t a in t h e re were mas s death s of t h e i r wildlife n o w is u s u a l l y v e r y l i m i t e d.
see d eatin g a n d o t h e r f a r m l a nd b i r ds A fe w coars e herbicide-resistan t w e e d s
i n c l u d i ng p i g e o n s , p h e a s a n t s a n d r o o k s , suc h a s cleaver s an d others suc h a s co w
a n d o f t h e i r p r e d a t o rs p a r t i c u l a r ly r a p t o rs parsley , h o g w e e d , f a l s e o a t a n d s t e r i le
a n d f o x e s , e s p e c i a l l y in t he c o r n g r o w i n g b r o m e , w h i c h a re f a v o u r e d b y fertiliser a t
area s o f Eas t Anglia. T he populatio n o f t he e x p e n s e o f l e s s c o m p e t i t i v e s p e c i e s ,
g o l d e n e a g l e s c o l l a p s e d a n d t he pere - a re o f t e n al l t h a t r e m a i n o f once-ric h
g r i ne f a l c o n b e c a m e a rare s p e c i e s all f l o r a s . ( G r e e n , 1 9 9 6 , p. 2 0 6 )
11 6
T a b le 8. 1 Chang e in p o p u l a t i o n o f Pollution of watercourses

selecte d British f a r m l a nd birds
T h e intensive use of chemicals in agriculture
% chang e
has also i n c r e a s e d the pollution of water-
1968-9 9 1994- 9
courses d r a i n i n g f a r m l a n d . S o m e o f this again
Grey partridge -8 5 -3 3
Corn b u n t i ng -8 8 -3 8 results f r o m pesticides, w h i c h enter water-
(farmland habitats ) courses either b y surface r u n - o f f o r b y l e a c h -
Lapwing ( f a r m l a nd -4 0 -2 i n g t h r o u g h t h e soil. O n c e i n r i v e r s a n d l a k e s ,
habitats )
pesticides can act to reduce reproduction
Skylark ( f a r m l a nd -5 2 -1 0
habitats ) levels i n fish a n d o t h e r a q u a t i c o r g a n i s m s , as
Linnet ( f a r m l a nd -4 7 +2 w e l l as l o w e r i n g w a t e r q u a l i t y t o b e l o w fit
habitats )
standards for h u m a n consumption. In 1993
Kestre l -4 +2
concentrations of the herbicide atrazine w e r e
Source: British Trust f o r O r n i t h o l o gy (Commo n
Birds Census) , w w w . b t o . o r g / b i r d t r e n ds f o u n d to exceed E U d r i n k i n g water standards
i n 11 p e r c e n t o f s a m p l e s t a k e n f r o m r i v e r s i n
E n g l a n d and Wales (Harvey, 1998).
Furthermore, the impact on wildlife is The most serious form of agriculture-
often intensified b y t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f these r e l a t e d p o l l u t i o n , h o w e v e r , is b y n i t r a t e s a n d
processes. T h e populations of many bird phosphates from inorganic fertilizers. The
species, for instance, have b e e n hit n o t j u s t b y annual use o f n i t r o g e n - b a s e d inorganic fertil-
d i r e c t c h e m i c a l p o i s o n i n g , b u t a l s o as a r e s u l t izers in the UK increased from 200,000
o f t h e loss o f n e s t i n g sites i n h e d g e r o w s a n d tonnes in 1950 to 1,600,000 tonnes in 1985
the depletion o f food supplies by the use o f ( W i n t e r , 1 9 9 6 ) a n d t h e r e a r e s i m i l a r levels o f
insecticides and herbicides. As Table 8.1 usage elsewhere in t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n . T h e
shows, the numbers of m a n y farmland birds a p p l i c a t i o n o f n i t r o g e n o u s fertilizers t o crops
h a v e d e c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y (see also H a r v e y , s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e s p r o d u c t i v i t y , b u t it a l s o
1 9 9 8 ) . O v e r a l l , t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f 12 c o m m o n increases t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e m o s t com-
farmland bird species in England fell by p e t i t i v e w e e d s , s u c h as n e t t l e s , w h i c h conse-
58 per cent between 1978 and 1998. quently monopolize hedgerows and verges,
T h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e t h a t m o r e recent dominating less competitive species. W h e n
changes in agricultural policy and practice, washed into watercourses on eroded soil
including the introduction of agri-environmental particles, nitrates p r o d u c e a similar result:
s c h e m e s (see C h a p t e r 13) a n d t h e g r o w t h o f
organic farming ( C h a p t e r 4), have b e g u n to T he accidenta l eutrophicatio n of thes e
reverse t h e decline in wildlife populations. w a t e r s h a s e x a c t l y t he s a m e ecologica l
Studies in the UK have indicated that effec t as doe s its deliberat e us e on
30 species o f bird, spider, e a r t h w o r m and g r a s s l a n d to increas e cro p yield . T he

m o re v i g o r o u s w a t e r w e e d s a re f a v o u r e d
wildflower out of 92 m o n i t o r e d were present
a n d t h e y r a p i d ly r e d u c e t he d i v e r s i ty o f
in greater n u m b e r s o n organic farms than o n
t he ecosyste m by outcompetin g othe r
conventional farms, and that populations of
p l a n ts w h i c h a re lost , w i th thei r a s s o c i -
butterflies are increasing o n farms w i t h a g r i -
a t e d a n i m a l s . In w a t e r this effec t is m a g -
environmental projects. H o w e v e r , such recov-
nified b y t he kills o f fis h a n d o t h e r a q u a t i c
eries r e m a i n comparatively small compared a n i m a l s t h a t resul t f r om deoxygenatio n
w i t h t h e scale o f p o p u l a t i o n loss o v e r t h e p a s t b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t he a e r o b i c m i c r o b i al
5 0 years. breakdow n o f greatly increase d plant
11 7
p r o d u c t i o n. T h o u s a n d s of coars e fish, erosion remains a major problem in rural

s e a t r o ut a n d s w a n m u s s e l s d i e d f r om a r e a s . A d e g r e e o f s o i l e r o s i o n is n a t u r a l , b u t
thes e cause s o n t he Rive r Rothe r in modern f a r m i n g practices can intensify the
S u s s e x in 1 9 7 3 a n d p i l e d u p in a s t i n k i ng process b e y o n d t o l e r a b l e levels. I n particular,
m a s s f o l l o w i ng a d r a i n i ng s c h e m e in t he
soil erosion is aggravated by the removal
valley . ( G r e e n , 1 9 9 6 , p p . 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 )
of vegetation - including the conversion
o f p a s t u r e t o a r a b l e fields, t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of
S o m e 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f nitrates are l e a c h e d
hedgerows and deforestation the creation of
i n t o British rivers e a c h year, w i t h particularly
larger fields, the abandonment of rotation
high concentrations in watercourses draining
i n t e n s i v e l y f a r m e d a r a b l e areas ( H a r v e y , 1 9 9 8 ) . farming for specialization, and the use of
I n t h e U n i t e d States, over 10 k g p e r h e c t a r e o f large m a c h i n e s that n e e d to b e w o r k e d u p a n d
n i t r a t e s m a y find t h e i r w a y f r o m t h e c r o p l a n d s down slopes rather than along contours
o f I o w a , Illinois, I n d i a n a a n d O h i o i n t o the (Green, 1996; Harvey, 1998; U S D A , 1997).
Mississippi river system, w i t h t h e cumulative A r o u n d 2 . 8 b i l l i o n t o n n e s o f soil w e r e e r o d e d
build-up of nitrogen eventually resulting in from c r o p l a n d in t h e U n i t e d States in 1982,
a 15,000 k m 2
'hypoxic z o n e ' in t h e G u l f of and whilst conservation p r o g r a m m e s succeeded
M e x i c o i n w h i c h t h e r e is i n s u f f i c i e n t oxygen i n r e d u c i n g t h i s t o t a l t o 1.9 t o n n e s i n 1992,
in the water d u r i n g s u m m e r to support n o r m a l e r o s i o n r a t e s w e r e still m o r e t h a n t w i c e the
p o p u l a t i o n s o f f i s h a n d shellfish ( U S D A , 1 9 9 7 ) . tolerable level in a r o u n d 9 p e r c e n t o f arable
Whilst nitrate pollution is associated with land, i n c l u d i n g large parts o f Texas, eastern
a r a b l e f a r m i n g , s i m i l a r effects c a n r e s u l t from C o l o r a d o , M o n t a n a a n d t h e central plains o f
the pollution of watercourses with livestock N o r t h Carolina (USDA, 1997).
slurry and silage effluent. Cattle slurry is A g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t p r o v o k e soil e r o -
80 times m o r e polluting than raw domestic sion are c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e in that o n e o f t h e

s e w a g e a n d silage e f f l u e n t up to 170 times m a j o r r e s u l t s is r e d u c e d s o i l p r o d u c t i v i t y . S o i l
m o r e p o l l u t i n g ( L o w e e t al., 1 9 9 7 ) . e r o s i o n also c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f
Agricultural pollution can pose a threat to h a b i t a t s , as n a t i v e p l a n t s c a n n o l o n g e r s u r v i v e
h u m a n health w h e n d r i n k i n g w a t e r supplies on denuded top soils, t o the pollution of
a r e c o n t a m i n a t e d . T h e r e is a s t r o n g correla- watercourses b y pesticides a n d nitrates, a n d to
t i o n b e t w e e n p o o r quality w a t e r a n d areas o f l o c a l i z e d f l o o d i n g . I n s o u t h e r n E u r o p e , soil
intensive farming. Parts of England with erosion associated with the conversion of
d r i n k i n g w a t e r supplies b e l o w t h e acceptable traditional forms of cultivation to intensive
E u r o p e a n U n i o n standard in t h e late 1980s arable p r o d u c t i o n has c o n t r i b u t e d t o c r e e p i n g
included the major arable f a r m i n g areas of desertification, particularly in s o u t h e r n Italy,
East A n g l i a , t h e Vale o f Y o r k a n d Salisbury south-central Spain and upland Greece.
Plain (Ward and Seymour, 1992); whilst the A t t e m p t s t o m a i n t a i n p r o d u c t i v i t y levels in
w a t e r at o n l y t w o o u t o f 5 0 s a m p l i n g sites o n s u c h c o n d i t i o n s are s u p p o r t e d b y irrigation,
rivers in Brittany, France, was d e e m e d to b e of which can in turn produce environmental
passable quality in 1 9 9 9 (Diry, 2 0 0 0 ) . p r o b l e m s o f aquifer d e p l e t i o n if t h e rate of

extraction exceeds the rate o f r e p l e n i s h m e n t
So/7 erosion and aquifer depletion by precipitation. Severe g r o u n d w a t e r deple-
In spite o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e dust bowl tion has b e e n r e c o r d e d in a n u m b e r o f parts
a n d t h e soil c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s l a u n c h e d o f t h e U n i t e d States, i n c l u d i n g t h e massive
by the US government in response, soil Ogallala or H i g h Plains aquifer that provides
11 8
w a t e r for s o m e 8 million hectares (or 5 p e r c r o p l a n d i n t h e U n i t e d States w e r e c o n v e r t e d

c e n t o f t h e total f a r m e d area i n t h e U n i t e d t o d e v e l o p e d land, 6 8 p e r c e n t o f it for resi-
States) from Texas n o r t h to South Dakota d e n t i a l u s e , a n d l o w d e n s i t y u r b a n s p r a w l is
and Wyoming, and where over-extraction estimated t o reduce t h e value o f agricultural
has resulted in w a t e r table declines o f over p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e C e n t r a l Valley o f C a l i f o r n i a
30 metres ( 1 0 0 feet) in the worst affected by $ 2 billion each year ( U S D A , 1997). O t h e r
areas ( U S D A , 1 9 9 7 ) . environmental impacts include the destruc-
t i o n o f h a b i t a t s , t h e loss o f a e s t h e t i c a l l y v a l u e d
Urbanization and the Physical recreational land, and local problems of
Development of the Countryside waste disposal, w a t e r supply a n d d i s r u p t i o n o f
Rural environmental change also occurs drainage systems, t h e latter o f w h i c h can lead
through t h e physical development of the to flooding a n d landslides ( R o m e , 2 0 0 1 ) .
countryside. T h e construction of buildings, National and local governments have

roads, car parks, airports a n d p o w e r stations, adopted a number o f initiatives to restrict
a l o n g w i t h o t h e r p e r m a n e n t s t r u c t u r e s , is p e r - u r b a n sprawl, i n c l u d i n g p l a n n i n g c o n t r o l s (see
ceived to introduce an unnatural, urban, pres- C h a p t e r 13), a n d t h e purchase of'greenbelt'
ence into rural space. I n addition to this land for p r o t e c t i o n u n d e r public ownership
discursive impact, such d e v e l o p m e n t s have a ( R o m e , 2001). T h e consequence, however,
measurable environmental impact through c a n b e f o r d e v e l o p m e n t s i m p l y t o 'leapfrog*
the removal of vegetation, disruption of over protected areas into the surrounding
hydrological systems a n d destruction o f h a b i - rural areas. T h u s , secondly, p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h
tats. T h e physical d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o u n - in rural areas has generated demands for
tryside can, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e circumstances, development within the countryside itself.
b e either driven b y t h e consequences o f rural Around 80 per cent of n e w housing develop-
social a n d e c o n o m i c c h a n g e , o r i m p o s e d b y m e n t i n t h e U n i t e d States b e t w e e n 1 9 9 4 a n d
external actors. Generally, however, d e v e l o p - 1997 was located outside urban areas
m e n t s are linked t o o n e o f four processes. ( H e i m l i c h a n d A n d e r s o n , 2 0 0 1 ) . Similarly, i n
F i r s t , t h e r e is c o n t i n u i n g u r b a n encroach- r u r a l p a r t s o f t h e U K , s u c h as D o r s e t , s i g n i f i -
m e n t o n rural space. T h e area o f ' u r b a n i z e d cant n e w housing development has taken
space' i n t h e U n i t e d States m o r e t h a n d o u b l e d place in rural c o m m u n i t i e s , particularly in
from 10.3 million hectares in 1960 to 2 2 . 6 small t o w n s (Table 8.2 a n d F i g u r e 8.2). T h i s
million hectares in 1990, a n d was predicted trend is a n t i c i p a t e d to continue. Land use
to exceed 25 million hectares by 2000 planning policy in t h e U K has projected that
( H e i m l i c h a n d A n d e r s o n , 2001). This rate o f 2.2 million n e w houses will n e e d to b e built
e x p a n s i o n is f a r g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f u r b a n in rural areas b y 2 0 1 6 , i n t u r n p r o v o k i n g a
p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h a n d reflects s o c i a l t r e n d s fierce political d e b a t e (see C h a p t e r 1 4 ) .
towards smaller households and residential Thirdly, t h e c h a n g i n g social a n d e c o n o m i c

preferences for l o w density h o u s i n g b e i n g m e t character of the countryside has created
through contiguous suburban development. d e m a n d s for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n e w infra-
O n e m a j o r effect is t o s q u e e z e t h e c a p a c i t y structure, including new roads, car parks,
for agriculture in the urbanrural fringe s e w e r a g e s y s t e m s a n d s h o p p i n g facilities. P r e s s u r e
(which currently accounts for a r o u n d a third f o r s u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s is p r o d u c e d n o t j u s t b y
o f total U S agricultural p r o d u c t i o n ) . B e t w e e n population growth and n e w house growth, but
1 9 8 2 a n d 1 9 9 2 n e a r l y 1.7 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s o f also b y t h e rise i n c o m m u t i n g , t h e r e l o c a t i o n
11 9
T a b le 8. 2 N e w house s b u i lt in Dorset , England , 1994-2002 ,

by p o p u l a t i o n siz e o f parish
No . o f n e w % o f all n e w % o f total Mea n no . o f
Populatio n o f No . o f h o u s e s b u i lt h o u s e s b u i lt population n e w house s
p a r i s h in 199 4 parishe s 1994-200 2 in c o u n t y o f count y pe r parish
Unde r 25 0 12 1 20 2 1.3 3. 5 1.7
250-49 9 52 48 4 3. 2 5. 0 9. 3
500-99 9 38 95 9 6. 4 7. 9 25. 2
1000-249 9 27 155 5 10. 3 9. 3 57. 6
2500-499 9 10 139 2 9. 3 10. 0 139. 2
5000-999 9 13 426 7 28. 4 26. 7 328. 2
10000-1999 9 4 306 3 20. 4 15. 2 765. 8
Ove r 2000 0 2 312 2 20. 8 22. 3 1561. 0
Source: Dorse t Count y Counci l
Figure 8. 2 Ne w housin g in the village o f Burton Bradstock , Dorset , built in the loca l
vernacula r usin g reconstitute d ston e
of industrial plants and offices, and the habitats have e m e r g e d as k e y s sites around
expansion of tourism (Robinson, 1992). Major which environmental protests against new
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s u c h as h i g h w a y s a n d railways roads have been mobilized in locations as
are also r o u t e d t h r o u g h r u r a l s p a c e t o c o n n e c t d i v e r s e as N e w b u r y and Twyford Down in
urban centres. T h e visual d i s r u p t i o n to the England, W y o m i n g County in New York
rural landscape a n d the physical destruction o f State, t h e Interstate 6 9 r o u t e in Indiana and
12 0
T h i i r i n g e n in G e r m a n y . M o r e subtle e n v i r o n - c h a n g e . T h e r e is n o w a s i g n i f i c a n t scientific
m e n t a l effects o f d e v e l o p m e n t a r e t h e i n c r e a s e s consensus that h u m a n activity has increased
in light pollution a n d noise pollution in rural atmospheric concentrations of 'greenhouse
areas. F o r e x a m p l e , a British pressure g r o u p , gases' - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
the Campaign to Protect Rural England oxide, chlorofluorocarbons and o z o n e - and
( C P R J i ) , has c l a i m e d that t h e e x t e n t o f ' t r a n - t h a t as a r e s u l t t h e g l o b a l c l i m a t e is c h a n g i n g
quil areas' in E n g l a n d - defined by distance a n d is l i k e l y t o c h a n g e d r a m a t i c a l l y o v e r t h e
f r o m m a j o r s o u r c e s o f n o i s e p o l l u t i o n s u c h as course of the next century. T h e key impacts
significant roads, airports a n d p o w e r stations - identified by the Intergovernmental Panel o n
decreased by 21 per cent b e t w e e n the 1960s Climate C h a n g e ( I P C C ) include an increase
a n d 1990s (Figure 8.3). in the overall global m e a n temperature of
Fourthly, rural locations have c o n t i n u e d to b e t w e e n 1.4 t o 5 . 8 d e g r e e s Celsius b y 2 1 0 0 ,
b e f a v o u r e d as sites f o r l a r g e - s c a l e , n o x i o u s higher m a x i m u m temperatures and increasing
and otherwise sensitive land uses, whose m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e s o v e r m o s t l a n d areas,
d e v e l o p m e n t is e i t h e r easier, o r faces less r e s i s - more intense precipitation events and an
t a n c e , i n less p o p u l a t e d r e g i o n s . T h e s e i n c l u d e i n c r e a s e i n t h e sea l e v e l g l o b a l l y o f 1050 c m
airports, reservoirs, p o w e r stations, prisons a n d by 2050 (IPCC, 2001).
m i l i t a r y c a m p s . A s w e l l as t h e environmental R u r a l areas c o n t r i b u t e t o c l i m a t e change
impact of the development itself, i n some t h r o u g h t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f ' g r e e n h o u s e gases'
cases t h e n a t u r e o f t h e l a n d u s e concerned ( p a r t i c u l a r l y m e t h a n e ) , a n d c a n also h e l p to
m a y also i n t r o d u c e n e w e n v i r o n m e n t a l r i s k s . moderate climate change through carbon
For example, rural Tooele C o u n t y in Utah s e q u e s t r a t i o n b y a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s a n d forests
c o n t a i n s a m a g n e s i u m factory, a private l o w - (Bruinsma, 2003; Rosenzweig and Hillel,
level nuclear waste burial site, t h r e e toxic 1998). M o r e o v e r , t h e e c o n o m i e s a n d societies
chemical stores and a military depot that o f r u r a l areas a r e v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e environ-
stores half o f t h e United States s chemical mental consequences of climate change.
weapons. In 1999, a conflict developed Although the modelling of climate change
b e t w e e n t h e State g o v e r n m e n t a n d local tribal i m p a c t s is a n i m p r e c i s e s c i e n c e a n d different
a u t h o r i t i e s o v e r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a facility models vary in their predictions, a n u m b e r o f
i n t h e S k u l l Valley G o s h u t e R e s e r v a t i o n for likely c o n s e q u e n c e s can be identified with
the interim storage of high-level nuclear respect to agriculture, tourism and human
waste, intended for eventual disposal at a communities.
p r o p o s e d ( a n d e q u a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l ) d u m p at
Yucca M o u n t a i n , N e v a d a . W h i l s t tribal leaders Agriculture
a r g u e d t h a t t h e facility w a s n e e d e d t o create Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide
j o b s o n the reservation, the State expressed in the atmosphere should in t h e o r y increase
wider public concerns about pollution by photosynthesis and stimulate greater p r o d u c -
radioactive material (Wald, 1999). tivity for agricultural crops, yet t h e I P C C a n d
other commentators have argued that this
Climate Change benefit is l i k e l y to be offset by negative
R u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e is n o t j u s t the impacts including crop damage from higher
result o f h u m a n activities w i t h i n rural space temperatures and extreme events, drought,
b u t is also i n f l u e n c e d b y g l o b a l s c a l e e n v i r o n - soil d e g r a d a t i o n a n d c h a n g i n g r a n g e s o f p e s t s
mental processes, such as global climate a n d diseases ( I P C C , 2 0 0 1 ; R o s e n z w e i g and
12 1
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Hillel, 1998). T h e agricultural impact of including parts o f C a n a d a , t h e Great Lakes

c l i m a t e c h a n g e is t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y t o b e spatially a r e a a n d t h e Pacific states, c o u l d s e e i n c r e a s e s
differentiated. Crop productivity is most i n a r a b l e p r o d u c t i o n as t h e y b e c o m e r e g a r d e d
probable to increase in high-latitude regions as m o r e f a v o u r a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t s .
such as Canada, Scandinavia and Russia,
w h i l s t p r o d u c t i v i t y is p r e d i c t e d t o decrease Tourism
most substantially in tropical regions Climate change poses challenges for both
( R o s e n z w e i g a n d H i l l e l , 1 9 9 8 ) . I n effect t h i s w i n t e r and s u m m e r t o u r i s m in rural regions.
will m e a n that p o o r e r developing countries Temperature increases are already reducing
w i l l suffer m o s t f r o m c l i m a t e c h a n g e , w h i l s t s n o w c o v e r in m o u n t a i n o u s areas, t h r e a t e n i n g
s o m e developed nations may be in a position the w i n t e r sports industries in N e w Zealand,
to benefit from new trade opportunities. the Alps and the R o c k y M o u n t a i n s . S u m m e r
H o w e v e r , e v e n w i t h i n d e v e l o p e d states t h e r e t o u r i s m , m e a n w h i l e , is l i k e l y t o b e a f f e c t e d b y
are likely t o b e significant c h a n g e s in t h e g e o - p r o b l e m s o f w a t e r s u p p l y a n d h e a t stress i n
graphies of agricultural production. a r e a s s u c h as s o u t h e r n E u r o p e , a n d b y sea l e v e l
In N e w S o u t h Wales, Australia, increased rise a n d e x p o s u r e t o t y p h o o n s in rural coastal
t e m p e r a t u r e s , r e d u c e d soil m o i s t u r e , m o r e f r e - zones o f Australia. R u r a l e c o n o m i e s that have
q u e n t h e a v y rainfall a n d d e c r e a s e d r i v e r f l o w diversified f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e i n t o t o u r i s m m a y
a r e all p r o j e c t e d t o h a v e a n e g a t i v e i m p a c t o n t h e r e f o r e find t h a t f u r t h e r e c o n o m i c r e s t r u c -
agricultural p r o d u c t i o n . T h e area o f arable l a n d t u r i n g b e c o m e s necessary. A t t h e s a m e t i m e ,
is e x p e c t e d t o b e r e d u c e d as a r e s u l t o f d r o u g h t however, patterns of more consistently dry
and soil degradation and increased carbon and warm summers could help to boost
d i o x i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are p r e d i c t e d t o r e d u c e countryside t o u r i s m in m o r e temperate parts
grain quality. Similarly, i n c r e a s e d incidences of northern Europe and N o r t h America, thus
o f h e a t stress i n c a t t l e a r e p r o j e c t e d t o r e d u c e providing new opportunities for economic
dairy production in New S o u t h Wales by diversification ( I P C C , 2 0 0 1 ) .
around 4 per cent by 2030 (Harrison, 2001).
I n E u r o p e , t h e cultivation o f olives a n d citrus Human communities
fruit is projected to move northwards as Aside from the e c o n o m i c challenges to agri-
Mediterranean zones b e c o m e m o r e prone to c u l t u r e a n d t o u r i s m , c l i m a t e c h a n g e also c a n
d r o u g h t ( R o s e n z w e i g a n d Hillel, 1998). N e w h a v e a d i r e c t i m p a c t o n t h e e v e r y d a y lives o f
c r o p s s u c h as n a v y b e a n s c o u l d b e i n t r o d u c e d people in rural areas. T h e low population
in t h e U K , offering farmers a n o p p o r t u n i t y for densities of some rural regions reflect the
diversification (Holloway and llbery, 1997). already harsh e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions and
The most economically significant impact, many are particularly exposed to extreme
h o w e v e r , is l i k e l y t o b e i n N o r t h America weather events such as storms, tornados,
w h e r e m o r e frequent droughts and heat waves f l o o d i n g a n d d r o u g h t , all o f w h i c h a r e p r e -
could substantially reduce crop production dicted to increase with global warming.
in t h e prairie regions, especially t h e s o u t h e r n Additionally, the culture of s o m e indigenous
plains (Rosenzweig and Hillel, 1998). T h e communities in remote rural regions is
e x t e n d e d d r o u g h t o f 1 9 8 8 is r e g a r d e d b y s o m e threatened by the impact of climate change
c o m m e n t a t o r s as a f o r e t a s t e o f f u t u r e p r o b l e m s o n wildlife. B o t h o f these processes are starkly
and saw c r o p yields in the US grain belt evident in Alaska, w h e r e temperatures are
drop by 40 per cent. O t h e r regions, however, i n c r e a s i n g at t e n times the global average.
12 3
Since 1960, average w i n t e r temperatures in c h a n g e are also c h a l l e n g i n g t o aspects o f r u r a l

Alaska have risen b y 4.5 d e g r e e s celsius, w i t h life. F o r e x a m p l e , p u n i t i v e t a x e s o n p e t r o l a n d
t h e c o n s e q u e n c e that snowfall has decreased, diesel aimed at reducing consumption of
g l a c i e r s a r e r e t r e a t i n g a n d t h e t u n d r a is m e l t - fossil fuels h a v e a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e i m p a c t i n
ing. T h e t h a w i n g o f t h e p e r m a f r o s t has c a u s e d rural areas w h e r e m a n y residents are depen-
p r o b l e m s o f s u b s i d e n c e a n d landslips d a m a g - d e n t o n t h e use o f private vehicles t o access
i n g b u i l d i n g s a n d r o a d s at a c o s t o f o v e r $ 3 0 e m p l o y m e n t , schools a n d key services - as
m i l l i o n p e r year. T h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l changes demonstrated by farmer-led protests against
h a v e also d r i e d u p s t r e a m s a n d rivers - s t a r v e d h i g h fuel taxes i n E u r o p e i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 0 .
o f seasonal meltwater - and disrupted the Furthermore, any substantial transition to
f e e d i n g p a t t e r n s o f w i l d l i f e s u c h as c a r i b o u renewable energy sources depends on the
and polar bears, reducing their numbers. construction o f a large n u m b e r o f renewable
T h e s e changes in t u r n threaten the traditional p o w e r generation plants, notably hydroelec-
hunting- and fishing-based culture of the tric stations a n d ' w i n d f a r m s ' , i n rural locations
Gwich'in people living above the Arctic that can m e e t their resource demands. Such
Circle (Campbell, 2001). developments inevitably have an impact on
Significantly, h o w e v e r , m a n y o f t h e strate- t h e i m m e d i a t e l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t as w e l l as
gies p r o m o t e d by campaigners in order to conflicting w i t h aesthetic appreciations of the
alleviate t h e h u m a n c o n t r i b u t i o n t o climate r u r a l l a n d s c a p e (see B o x 8 . 3 ) .
Box 8.3 The environmentalist's dilemma: wind

power generation in rural locations
T he h a r n e s s i n g o f w i n d p o w e r is a c r u c i a l e l e m e n t in t h e t r a n s i t i on t o renewabl e
e n e r g y . C o m m e r c i a l w i n d p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n w a s p i o n e e r e d in D e n m a r k in t h e early
1980s , c l o s e l y f o l l o w e d b y C a l i f o r n i a, w h e r e f r o m t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e f i r st ' w i n d-
f a r m ' in 1 9 8 1 n e a r l y 1 6 , 0 0 0 w i n d t u r b i n es w e r e in o p e r a t i o n b y 1 9 9 1 ( G i p e , 1 9 9 5 ) . In
t h e UK, w i n d e n e r g y is t a r g e t e d t o p r o d u c e 1 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l e l e c t r i c i t y s u p p l y
by 201 0 (Woods , 2003b) .
A l t h o u g h in s o m e place s s i n g l e w i n d t u r b i n es h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d t o s u p p l y i n d i v i d-
u a l c o m m u n i t i e s , m o s t c o m m e r c i a l w i n d p o w e r is g e n e r a t e d b y l a r g e - s c a l e installations
p r e d o m i n a n t l y l o c a t e d in r u r al s e t t i n g s . H o w e v e r , s u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e increasingl y
b e e n c o n t e s t e d b y loca l p r o t e s t m o v e m e n t s in t h e UK, G e r m a n y a n d t h e U n i t e d States . As
B r i t t an ( 2 0 0 1 ) n o t e s , o b j e c t i o n s t o w i n d t u r b i n es a re f r e q u e n t l y a e s t h e t i c , b u t in m a n y
case s t h e y a l s o h i g h l i g h t e c o l o g i c a l d a m a g e t o t h e i m m e d i a t e loca l e n v i r o n m e n t .
O n e s u c h cas e c o n c e r n e d p r o p o s a l s t o c o n s t r u c t a 3 9 - t u r b i ne w i n d p o w e r s t a t i o n a t
C e f n C r o e s in t h e C a m b r i a n M o u n t a i n s o f W a l e s in 2 0 0 0 . T h e p r o p o s e d w i n d f a rm w a s
a t t h e t i m e t h e l a r g e s t t o b e b u i lt in t h e U K a n d w a s p r o m o t e d b y s u p p o r t e r s , i n c l u d -
i n g F r i e n ds o f t h e E a r t h, a s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i on t o r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y g e n e r a t i o n
an d to t he alleviatio n o f globa l w a r m i n g. However , a vociferou s protes t campaign ,
supporte d by t he l o c a l G r e e n p a r ty a n d t h e C a m p a i g n f o r t h e Protectio n o f R u r al
Wales , e m p h a s i z e d n o t o n l y t h e visua l i m p a c t o n t h e landscape , b u t als o t h e e f f e c t o n
l o c a l w i l d l i fe ( W o o d s , 2 0 0 3 ) .
For more information see Michael Woods (2003b) Conflicting environmental visions of the rural:
windfarm development in Mid Wales. Sociologia Ruralis, 43 (3), 271-288.
12 4
Summary
N a t u r e is at t h e h e a r t o f p o p u l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f r u r a l i t y , y e t t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f
r u r a l areas h a s b e e n d e g r a d e d b y t h e h u m a n e x p l o i t a t i o n o f r u r a l s p a c e . M o d e r n a g r i c u l t u r e
h a s b e c o m e d i s t a n c e d f r o m n a t u r e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t p r a c t i c e s s u c h as r e m o v i n g h e d g e s a n d
t h e use o f c h e m i c a l pesticides a n d i n o r g a n i c fertilizers have b e e n b l a m e d for falling
p o p u l a t i o n s o f plant a n d a n i m a l species. Tourists, attracted by 'natural' rural landscapes, have
c o n t r i b u t e d t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s o f e r o s i o n , p o l l u t i o n a n d t h e loss o f l a n d t o b u i l d i n g
d e v e l o p m e n t s . S i m i l a r l y , c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n m o t i v a t e d i n p a r t b y lay d i s c o u r s e s o f t h e r u r a l
as a ' n a t u r a l ' s p a c e h a s c r e a t e d d e m a n d s f o r h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s , a n d n e w r o a d s a n d
facilities, a n d h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o l i g h t p o l l u t i o n a n d t h e loss o f ' t r a n q u i l a r e a s ' .
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , r u r a l areas h a v e also suffered t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f g l o b a l
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e , i n c l u d i n g global w a r m i n g . T h e s e have t h e potential to significantly
a l t e r p a t t e r n s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d t o u r i s m as w e l l as c a u s i n g d a m a g e t o p r o p e r t y
a n d infrastructure and t h r e a t e n i n g the cultural practices o f i n d i g e n o u s peoples. As such, t h e
processes o f rural e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e have a cyclical character. T h e y are p r o d u c e d o r
intensified b y h u m a n activities a n d in t u r n t h e y h a v e a n i m p a c t o n h u m a n activity. T h e
question of h o w h u m a n societies should r e s p o n d to rural e n v i r o n m e n t a l change, however,
generates different answers d e p e n d i n g o n one's p e r c e p t i o n o f nature. F r o m a utilitarian
p e r s p e c t i v e , a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e is n o t c o n c e r n i n g , as n a t u r e is
perceived to b e resilient e n o u g h to adapt. In contrast, from a natura-ruralist perspective,
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e has already resulted in irreparable d a m a g e to nature a n d u r g e n t
a c t i o n is r e q u i r e d t o h a l t o r r e d u c e f u r t h e r c h a n g e . F i n d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n ,
t h o u g h , inevitably involves c o m p r o m i s e s . M e a s u r e s to p r o t e c t wildlife habitats, for e x a m p l e ,
m a y i n v o l v e a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d d e g r e e o f r e g u l a t i o n o f f a r m i n g , w h i l s t initiatives a i m e d at
a l l e v i a t i n g c l i m a t e c h a n g e , s u c h as c o n s t r u c t i n g w i n d p o w e r s t a t i o n s , c a n h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t
impact o n the i m m e d i a t e local e n v i r o n m e n t . T h u s , although n u m e r o u s conservation
p r o g r a m m e s a n d m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d (see C h a p t e r 13), t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
response to rural e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e remains a key source of conflict in the
c o u n t r y s i d e (see C h a p t e r 14).
Further Reading
B r yn G r e e n ' s Countryside Conservation ( S p o n , 1 9 9 6 ) a n d G r a h a m H a r v e y 's The Killing
of the Countryside ( V i n t a g e , 1 9 9 8 ) d i s c u s s in detai l m a n y o f t he c h a n g e s to t he rural
e n v i r o n m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r ly t h o s e r e l a t e d to a g r i c u l t u r e, albei t f r om a s t r o n g l y British
p e r s p e c t i v e . A d a m R o m e , in The Bulldozer in the Countryside ( C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i ty
P r e s s , 2 0 0 1 ) , m e a n w h i l e p r o v i d e s a historica l o v e r v i e w o f u r b an e x p a n s i o n into t he
A m e r i c a n c o u n t r y s i d e a n d t he rise o f t he e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o v e m e n t in r e s p o n s e . Fo r a n
o v e r v i e w o f t he p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t o f g l o b a l c l i m a te c h a n g e o n a g r i c u l t u re s e e C y n t h ia
R o s e n z w e i g a n d Darrell Hillel, Climate Change and the Global Harvest ( O x f o rd
U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 9 8 ) .
12 5
Websites
A n u m b e r o f r e p o r ts o n c l i m a t e c h a n g e a re a v a i l a b l e o n t he I n t e r n e t, i n c l u d i ng t h o s e b y
t he N a t i o n a l A s s e s s m e n t S y n t h e s i s T e a m in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s ( w w w . g c r i o . o r g / N a t i o n a l
A s s e s s m e n t ) a n d t he D e p a r t m e n t fo r E n v i r o n m e n t , F o o d a n d R u r al A f f a i rs in t he U n i t e d
K i n g d om (www.defra.gov.uk/environ/climate/climatechange) .
R e p o r t s a n d ( s u b j e c t i v e ) a c c o u n t s o f o t h e r i m p a c t s o n rural e n v i r o n m e n t s a re
a v a i l a b l e o n t he w e b s i t e s o f a n u m b e r o f p r e s s u r e g r o u p s , i n c l u d i ng t he C a m p a i g n to
P r o t e c t R u r al E n g l a n d ( w w w . c p r e . o r g . u k ) a n d S c e n i c A m e r i c a ( w w w . s c e n i c . o r g ) .
12 6
Part 3
RESPONSES TO RURAL
RESTRUCTURING
9
Rural Policy and the Respons e
to Restructuring
Introduction
As the previous chapters have described, the rural areas of the developed world
have experienced considerable social, economic and environmental change over
the course of the past few decades. The next part of this book focuses on the
responses to these changes that have been adopted by policy-makers and rural
communities. Subsequent chapters examine strategies for rural development,
reforms to the way in which rural areas are governed, the repacking o f the
countryside for the new consumption-based economy, initiatives to protect the
rural environment, and the emergence of rural political conflicts. In each of these
cases the responses to rural restructuring have been shaped by a number of actors
both within and outside rural space, including local residents, employers, tourists,
corporations and most significantly governments. T h e practices that will be
described in the next few chapters with respect to rural development,
conservation, governance and the commodification of the rural all either involve or
have been influenced by the adoption of particular policies by government.
Similarly, rural political conflicts are commonly targeted at particular government
policies. As such, this chapter aims to provide an introduction to Part 3 of the book
by examining the processes through which 'rural policy' is made. It starts by
exploring what is meant by 'rural policy' and discussing how the way in which
governments approach rural policy has been affected by restructuring. T h e chapter
then proceeds to describe how policy is made, before concluding by concentrating
on one of the key policy challenges the reform of agricultural trade as an
illustration of how different governments have adopted different policy responses
to a similar problem.
Responses to rural restructuring
The Enigma of Rural Policy role o f t h e state in r e g u l a t i n g a n d subsidising

O n e o f t h e first t h i n g s t o n o t e a b o u t ' r u r a l a g r i c u l t u r e increased, so rural policy in the
p o l i c y ' is t h a t it is a v e r y e l u s i v e a n d e n i g m a t i c U n i t e d States effectively b e c a m e f a r m policy,
entity. G o v e r n m e n t d o c u m e n t s a n d websites and the farmers' unions became increasingly
t e n d t o m a k e relatively few explicit references powerful as t h e g a t e k e e p e r s t o t h e policy-
t o ' r u r a l p o l i c y ' as s u c h , a n d , i n d e e d , r e l a t i v e l y making process (see also Browne, 2001a,
few countries have a g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t 2001b). Although lobby groups did emerge
f o r ' r u r a l affairs' ( o r a s i m i l a r title) - w i t h t h e to represent, for example, rural electricity
UK and the R e p u b l i c of Ireland being the cooperatives and rural health providers, their
notable exceptions. To some extent the elu- a t t e n t i o n s t e n d e d t o b e d i r e c t e d at r e p r e s e n t -
s i v e n e s s o f ' r u r a l p o l i c y ' r e f l e c t s t h e fact t h a t i n g rural interests w i t h i n their o w n policy
there are a whole range of policies in field, n o t i n s e e k i n g t o p r o m o t e a m o r e i n c l u -
health, education, transport, law and order, sive rural policy or in working together
a n d s o o n t h a t a p p l y t o r u r a l a r e a s as m u c h to form a 'non-agricultural' rural lobby.
as t h e y a p p l y t o u r b a n a r e a s , b u t w h i c h d o n o t F u r t h e r m o r e , o n c e agricultural interests had
get branded as ' r u r a l p o l i c y ' . Y e t , t h e r e are control over the bulk of g o v e r n m e n t spend-
o t h e r p o l i c y areas t h a t are p r i m a r i l y o r largely i n g o n rural areas, t h e y w e r e n o t i n c l i n e d t o
c o n c e r n e d w i t h rural space and rural activi- support policy shifts that w o u l d see funds
ties: agriculture, forestry, rural economic redirected to tackling rural poverty or regen-
development and, arguably, substantial ele- erating declining c o m m u n i t i e s . As Browne
m e n t s of land use planning and conservation (2001a) observes, 'within this institutional
p o l i c y . T h e fact t h a t u n t i l r e c e n t l y l i t t l e c o n - structure, an alternative national rural policy
nection had been made between the develop- w a s r e g a r d e d as far f r o m a g o o d t h i n g . P a s s i n g
m e n t o f p o l i c y in e a c h o f t h e s e areas reveals a it m i g h t b r i n g c u t s i n f a r m p r o g r a m funding
great deal a b o u t t h e p o w e r of vested interests and even skepticism about the w h o l e policy
in the countryside and the way in which b a s e ' (p. 4 9 ) .
policy-makers have perceived of the character A similar privileging o f agriculture shaped
a n d needs o f rural societies a n d e c o n o m i e s . B r i t i s h r u r a l p o l i c y as it w a s d e v e l o p e d after
Bonnen (1992), for e x a m p l e , has argued the Second World War. A l t h o u g h a number
that the United States failed to develop a of w i d e - r a n g i n g reports o n rural Britain had
coherent rural policy because of the emphasis been produced during the wartime period,
placed on agriculture and the strength of the their recommendations were implemented
agricultural lobby. H e c o n t e n d s that t h e g o v - t h r o u g h several different Acts o f P a r l i a m e n t
e r n m e n t policies a d o p t e d in t h e late nine- that helped to create a segmented policy
t e e n t h a n d early t w e n t i e t h centuries w e r e n o t structure. In this structure, agriculture, c o n -
focused o n rural c o m m u n i t i e s or people, b u t servation, land use planning and economic
w e r e ' i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c i e s ' a i m e d at s u p p o r t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t w e r e all t r e a t e d as p a r a l l e l b u t
a g r i c u l t u r e , forestry a n d m i n i n g . It w a s t h u s s e p a r a t e p o l i c y fields t h a t w e r e t h e r e s p o n s i -
around these interests that t h e institutional bilities o f different g o v e r n m e n t departments
structures for g o v e r n i n g rural A m e r i c a were a n d different g o v e r n m e n t agencies, e n g a g i n g
developed, including notably the US w i t h different pressure g r o u p s ( W i n t e r , 1996).
D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e ( U S D A ) . As the T h u s , agriculture was the responsibility of the
13 0
Rural policy
M i n i s t r y for A g r i c u l t u r e , Fisheries a n d F o o d ; p r o c e s s t h a t it h a s o f t e n t a k e n crises s u c h as t h e

conservation was the responsibility of the B S E and foot and m o u t h epidemics in the U K
D e p a r t m e n t for t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d o f t h e a n d t h e B S E scare i n G e r m a n y t o f o r c e signifi-
Countryside C o m m i s s i o n ; whilst economic cant changes in the policy structure. At the
development was the responsibility of the same time, rural policy-makers, practitioners
Department of Trade and Industry and the a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e all b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y
Rural Development Commission. aware that m a n y of the problems resulting from
T h e structuring of the 'rural' policy process rural restructuring can b e addressed only by
in this w a y h a d f o u r k e y c o n s e q u e n c e s . First, integrating t h e various diverse strands o f g o v -
agriculture was elevated above other rural e r n m e n t policy relating to t h e countryside.
interests b y b e i n g a w a r d e d a dedicated gov- One of the most notable initiatives to
e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t and ministerial position develop an integrated rural policy was the
o f its o w n . S e c o n d l y , as t h e m o s t v i s i b l e ' r u r a l ' p r o d u c t i o n in 1995 and 1996 by the U K g o v -
presence in government, agriculture depart- e r n m e n t o f ' R u r a l W h i t e P a p e r s ' for E n g l a n d ,
m e n t s c a m e t o b e r e g a r d e d as representing Scotland and Wales. T h e s e d o c u m e n t s were
' t h e c o u n t r y s i d e ' w h i l s t i n fact t h e y o n l y r e p - integrated statements of the governments
r e s e n t e d o n e sector o f rural society. Thirdly, policies o n a w i d e r a n g e o f issues r e l a t i n g t o
agricultural policy-making operated within a rural areas, f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e t o t e l e c o m m u n i -
vacuum and was protected from having to cations, h o u s i n g t o village halls, a n d forestry
take account of non-agricultural interests. to sport. M o r e o v e r , they explicitly recognized
Fourthly, the non-agricultural countryside the diverse character of the contemporary
b e c a m e subordinate to the agricultural and countryside and the need to develop a m o r e
was marginalized in policy terms. Problems integrated rural policy:
s u c h as r u r a l p o v e r t y w e r e e f f e c t i v e l y con-
W e c o n s t a n t l y h a v e to f i nd t he balanc e
s t r u c t e d as ' n o n - i s s u e s ' b e c a u s e t h e r e w a s n o
betwee n competin g interest s an d con -
o n e speaking u p for t h e m w i t h i n t h e p o l i c y -
flicting c o n c e r n s . F a r m e rs a n d f o r e s t e r s
m a k i n g process.
who loo k afte r 8 0 % o f t he l a n d ; t he
e n t h u s i a s t s fo r o u r f l o ra a n d f a u n a , fo r
Towards integrated rural policy a n c i e n t b u i l d i n gs a n d t r a d i t i o n al crafts ;
T h e s e g m e n t a t i o n o f rural p o l i c y has b e c o m e thos e w h o a re b u i l d i ng t he ne w busi -
m o r e a n d m o r e u n s u s t a i n a b l e as s o c i a l and n e s s e s to r e p l a c e t he o l d ; t he i n c o m e r s
economic r e s t r u c t u r i n g has progressed. T h e w h o s e e k to realis e t h e i r rural idyll; t he
decline in t h e e c o n o m i c significance o f a g r i - r a m b l e rs a n d lover s o f c o u n t ry s p o r t s ;
culture has b r o u g h t its p r i v i l e g e d position t h o s e w h o d e l i g h t in b i r d s, train h o r s e s ,

o r ride t he b r i d l e w a y s ; l a n d o w n e r s an d
into question, not least as it has become
p e o p l e w h o s e r o o ts r un d e e p into rural
apparent that agricultural policy has b e e n part
Englan d - t h e s e a n d m a n y m o re hav e
of the problem - e n c o u r a g i n g a strategy of
i n t e r e s t s t h a t n e e d to b e a c c o m m o d a t e d
agricultural m o d e r n i z a t i o n that has d e g r a d e d
in a l i v i ng an d w o r k i ng countryside .
t h e rural e n v i r o n m e n t , drastically r e d u c e d t h e
( D o E / M A F F, 1 9 9 5 , p. 6 )
farm labour force and resulted in over-
production (see C h a p t e r 4 ) . Y e t , s u c h is t h e However, critics have argued that the
entrenched nature of the agricultural policy W h i t e Papers continued to be influenced by
13 1
the thinking of the old policy structure, that Hodge (1996) bemoans the absence of in
they did n o t fundamentally challenge existing t h e British W h i t e Papers. Yet, a l t h o u g h the
agricultural policy, a n d that they failed to Australian g o v e r n m e n t was c o m m i t t e d to taking
develop a truly integrated approach. As H o d g e forward the summit's recommendations, its
( 1 9 9 6 ) c o n t e n d s , ' w e m a y feel t h a t t h e r e is e p h e m e r a l n a t u r e a n d its semi-independent
a c h a p t e r m i s s i n g at t h e end of the Rural status m e a n s t h a t t h e s u m m i t d i d n o t in itself
W h i t e Paper. O n e that draws o u t the inter- change the policy-making structure.
relationships b e t w e e n t h e areas o f rural p o l i c y T h e B r i t i s h a n d A u s t r a l i a n cases b o t h h i g h -
and between rural conditions and wider light s o m e o f t h e challenges that c o n t i n u e to
social, e c o n o m i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l change' confront the d e v e l o p m e n t o f integrated rural
(p. 3 3 6 ) . N o n e t h e less, t h e 1995-6 Rural policy. B o t h initiatives w e r e arguably more
W h i t e Papers marked the b e g i n n i n g of a tran- symbolic than substantive and in b o t h cases
sition towards an integrated rural policy in m a n y of the actors, institutions and attitudes
t h e U K , that has b e e n s u b s e q u e n t l y d e v e l o p e d associated with the old segmented policy
by the publication of a second Rural W h i t e structure remain involved in the n e w struc-
P a p e r for E n g l a n d in 2 0 0 0 , a n d t h e merger t u r e a n d m a y c o n t i n u e t o press for t h e i r o w n
o f t h e M i n i s t r y for A g r i c u l t u r e , Fisheries a n d particular sectoral interests.Therefore, in order
Food with the Department of the Environ- to understand h o w an evolving rural policy
m e n t in 2001 to form the Department for m i g h t p r o d u c e responses to rural restructur-
the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs i n g , it is first n e c e s s a r y t o s t e p b a c k a n d c o n -
(DEFRA). s i d e r h o w p o l i c y is m a d e .
An alternative approach was taken in
Australia, w h e r e the g o v e r n m e n t c o n v e n e d a The Policy-making Process
'Regional Australia Summit' in 2000 to T h e p r e c i s e w a y i n w h i c h r u r a l p o l i c y is m a d e
bring together representatives of various w i l l v a r y b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , a n d dif-
r u r a l i n t e r e s t s . T h e s u m m i t a n d its 1 2 w o r k - f e r e n t scales o f g o v e r n m e n t , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
i n g g r o u p s c o n s i d e r e d a w i d e r a n g e o f issues, c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e state, t h e p r e -
including infrastructure, health, community vailing political ideology and the relative
well-being, facilitating entrepreneurship, strengths of the various institutional actors
adding value to farming communities, new involved. Essentially, however, the policy-
industries, c o m m u n i t y leadership, education making process will in all cases involve
and sustainable resource management. The negotiation between the state institution
outcomes from discussion of these themes responsible for formulating the policy
w e r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a final r e p o r t s t r u c t u r e d whether national, supranational, regional or
a r o u n d t h e three 'strategic areas' o f c o m m u - local scale - the agencies responsible for
nity e m p o w e r m e n t , e c o n o m i c and business implementing the policy, a n d the pressure
d e v e l o p m e n t in regional c o m m u n i t i e s , and g r o u p s c a m p a i g n i n g for o r against particular
equity of services in regional communities. p o l i c y o u t c o m e s (see B o x 9 . 1 ) . T h e n a t u r e o f
As such, the Australian approach could the relationship b e t w e e n these various actors
b e a r g u e d t o b e m o r e inclusive a n d delibera- m a y b e close-knit o r loose, stable o r unstable,
tive t h a n t h e B r i t i s h a p p r o a c h , a n d t o have c o n s e n s u a l o r c o n f l i c t u a l , as is d e s c r i b e d b y a
i n v o l v e d t h e t y p e o f strategic analysis that n u m b e r o f different m o d e l s o f p o l i c y - m a k i n g .
13 2
Rural policy
Box 9.1 Institutional actors in rural policy-making
Global
World Trade Organization (WTO) - S u p r a n a t i o n a l b o d y o f 14 6 m e m b e r states , r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r n e g o t i a t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a de a g r e e m e n t s w i t h t h e a i m o f l o w e r i n g t a r i f fs an d
e l i m i n a t i ng t r a de b a r r i e r s. I n f l u e n c e s r u r al p o l i c y t h r o u g h a g r e e m e n t s o n t r a de in a g r i -
c u l t u r al p r o d u c t s , f o r e s t p r o d u c t s , e t c . W T O p o l i c y - m a k i n g t e n d s t o b e d o m i n a t e d b y
t h e m a j o r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d n a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r ly t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
Supranationa l
European Union (EU) - O r g a n i z a t i o n o f 2 5 m e m b e r s t a t e s in E u r o p e . R e s p o n s i b l e f o r

Commo n A g r i c u l t u r al Polic y (CAP ) an d f o r f u n d i ng r u r al developmen t through
E u r o p e a n S t r u c t u r al F u n d s . P o l i c y is m a d e b y t h e C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e rs - comprising
m i n i s t e rs f r o m t h e m e m b e r s t a t e s - a n d m a n a g e d b y t h e C o m m i s s i o n - comprising
commissioner s a p p o i n t e d by m e m b e r states , eac h o f w h o m head s a D i r e c t o r a t e - G e n e r a l
( D G ) . T h e D i r e c t o r a t e s - G e n e r a l f o r A g r i c u l t u r e, E n v i r o n m e n t a n d R e g i o n a l P o l i c y h a v e
m o s t i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h r u r al p o l i c y .
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) - A g r e e m e n t f a c i l i t a t i ng f r e e t r a de

betwee n the U n i t e d S t a t e s , C a n a d a a n d M e x i c o , i n c l u d i ng m a n y a g r i c u l t u r al an d
f o r e s t ry p r o d u c t s . N o i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i c y - m a k i n g s t r u c t u r e.
Cairns Group - A n allianc e o f 1 8 a g r i c u l t u re exporting state s i n c l u d i ng A u s t r a l i a,

C a n a d a , N e w Z e a l a n d , S o u t h A f r i ca a n d A r g e n t i n a . F o r m e d in 1 9 8 6 t o l o b b y f o r g l o b a l
f r e e t r a de in a g r i c u l t u r e.
National
Government departments - Responsibl e f o r p r o p o s i n g , i n t r o d u c i ng an d enforcing

p o l i c y . A r a n g e o f d i f f e r e n t d e p a r t m e n t s m a y h a v e a n i n t e r e s t in r u r al p o l i c y ( i n c l u d -
i n g d e p a r t m e n t s o f h e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n , t r a n s p o r t, e t c . ) , b u t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r r u r al
p o l i c y a re d e p a r t m e n t s o f a g r i c u l t u re a n d / o r r u r al a f f a i r s . N o t a b l e e x a m p l e s i n c l u d e :
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) - F o u n d e d 1 8 6 2 , n o w ha s o v e r

1 0 0 , 0 0 0 e m p l o y e e s . R e s p o n s i b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u re a n d a g r i c u l t u r al t r a d e , r u r al d e v e l -
o p m e n t , f o o d s a f e t y , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) - UK governmen t

d e p a r t m e n t , f o r m e d 2 0 0 1 b y m e r g e r o f f o r m e r a g r i c u l t u re m i n i s t ry a n d e n v i r o n -
m e n t d e p a r t m e n t . R e s p o n s i b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r e, f o r e s t r y , f i s h e r i e s , f o o d s a f e t y , r u r al
development , anima l welfare an d environmenta l protection .
Government agencies - R e s p o n s i b l e f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g r u r al p o l i c i e s . A g e n c i e s t y p i c a l ly
h a v e a s p e c i f i c r e m i t f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n , n a t i o n a l p a r k s , f o r e s t r y , r u r al d e v e l o p m e n t , e t c .
Notable example s include :
(Continued)
13 3
US Forest Service - M a n a g e s t h e 15 5 n a t i o n a l f o r e s t s a n d 2 0 n a t i o n a l g r a s s l a n d s in
t he U n i t e d States .
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) - W o r ks w i t h f a r m e r s , r a n c h e r s a n d
l a n d o w n e r s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o d e v e l o p v o l u n t a ry c o n s e r v a t i o n s c h e m e s .
Countryside Agency - U K g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s u p p o r t i n g r u r al c o m -
m u n i ty d e v e l o p m e n t , c o u n t r y s i d e p r o t e c t i o n a n d r e c r e a t i o n a l acces s t o r u r al l a n d in
England .
Sub-nationa l
S u b - n a t i o n a l r e g i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s m a y hav e s o m e responsibilit y f o r area s o f agricul-

t u r e, planning , conservation , r u r al d e v e l o p m e n t , healt h an d education . Example s
i n c l u de t h e U n i t e d State s a n d t h e A u s t r a l i an s t a t e s , C a n a d i a n provinces , Germa n
L a n d e r, a n d t h e d e v o l v e d g o v e r n m e n t s in S c o t l a n d , W a l e s a n d N o r t h e rn I r e l a nd in t h e U K.
Pressur e g r o u p s - A g r i c u l t u r al
A g r i c u l t u r al pressur e g r o u p s h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l ly b e e n t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i al n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l
a c t o r s in s h a p i n g r u r al p o l i c y . N o t a b l e e x a m p l e s i n c l u d e :
Farm Bureau - US f a r m e r s , u n i o n , w i t h 5 m i l l i on m e m b e r s , f o r m e d in 1 9 1 9 w i t h a
f e d e r a l s t r u c t u re o f c o u n t y - a n d s t a t e - l e v e l a s s o c i a t i o n s .
National Farmers' Union (NFU) (US) - US f a r m e r s ' u n i o n , w i t h 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 members ,
f o r m e d in 1 9 0 2 .
National Farmers' Union (NFU) (UK) - L a r g e s t B r i t i sh f a r m e r s ' u n i o n , w i t h 9 0 , 0 0 0
m e m b e r s , f o r m e d in 1 9 0 8 .
National Farmers' Federation - F o r m e d in 1 9 7 9 a s a c o a l i t i o n o f s t a t e farmers'
organization s an d commodit y council s t o p r o v i de a singl e voic e f o r A u s t r a l i an
a g r i c u l t u r e.
Federated Farmers of New Zealand - F a r m e r s ' u n i o n , w i t h 1 8 , 0 0 0 f a m i l y a n d i n d i-
v i d u a l m e m b e r s , f o r m e d in 1 9 4 5 .
Federation Nationale des Syndicats d'Exploitants Agricoles (FNSEA) - Larges t Frenc h
farmers' union.
Comite des Organizations Professionnelles Agricoles (COPA) - Coalition o f farmers'
u n i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g a g r i c u l t u r al i n t e r e s t s a t t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n l e v e l .
Pressur e g r o u p s - Othe r
Rural p o l i c y i n c r e a s i n g l y e n g a g e s a w i d e r a n g e o f o t h e r p r e s s u r e g r o u p s , i n c l u d i ng conser -
v a t i o n b o d i e s , p r o - h u n t i ng l o b b i e s , r u r al p o v e r t y c a m p a i g n s a n d i n d u s t ry o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
Notable example s include :
Countryside Alliance - B r i t i sh p r o - h u n t i ng g r o u p , w i t h 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 m e m b e r s , i n c r e a s i n g l y
c a m p a i g n i n g o n a r a n g e o f r u r al issues , i n c l u d i ng f a r m i ng a n d servic e p r o v i s i o n .
(Continued)
13 4
Rural policy
Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) - B r i t i sh c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t g r o u p e s t a b l i s h e d

in 1 9 2 6 t o resis t u r b a n i z a t i o n . F o r m e r ly k n o w n a s t h e C o u n c i l f o r t h e Preservatio n
o f R u r al E n g l a n d .
Friends of the Earth - I n t e r n a t i o n al e n v i r o n m e n t a l g r o u p i n v o l v e d in r u r al p o l i c y
t h r o u g h i n t e r e s t s in t h e r u r al e n v i r o n m e n t a n d G M c r o p s .
Sierra Club - A m e r i c a n c o n s e r v a t i o n g r o u p f o u n d e d in 1 8 9 2 . N o w ha s o v e r 7 0 0 , 0 0 0
m e m b e r s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
National Rural Health Association - I n d u s t ry o r g a n i z a t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g healthcar e
p r o v i d e rs a n d a s s o c i a t e d g r o u p s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
Rural Coalition - Federatio n o f progressiv e r u r al p r e s s u r e g r o u p s in t h e United
S t a t e s a n d M e x i c o , i n c l u d i ng f a r m w o r k e r s ' g r o u p s , l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a -
t i o n s a n d o r g a n i c f a r m i ng g r o u p s a m o n g o t h e r s .
Conventionally, political analysts distin- policy structure was n o t i n t e n d e d to resolve

guished between pluralist and corporatist conflict a n d that bargaining was limited.
models of policy-making. In the pluralist Instead, Smith and others have p r o m o t e d
m o d e l , p o l i c y is o p e n t o i n f l u e n c e b y a l a r g e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l o f policy networks. In
number of groups responsive to grassroots contrast to the polarity of the pluralist/cor-
m e m b e r s . G o v e r n m e n t is s e e n t o b e p a s s i v e , poratist dualism, the policy networks m o d e l
simply allocating resources and m a k i n g policy recognizes that there are different degrees
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e relative strengths o f c o m p e t - of interaction between government and
i n g p r e s s u r e g r o u p s at a n y o n e t i m e . T h e cor- interest groups, ranging from loose 'issue
poratist model, in contrast, involves a close n e t w o r k s ' at o n e e x t r e m e t o c l o s e d , t i g h t -
relationship b e t w e e n t h e state a n d a l i m i t e d k n i t , ' p o l i c y c o m m u n i t i e s ' at t h e o t h e r (see
n u m b e r of interest groups representing major Box 9.2). W h e r e a s issue n e t w o r k s have a
e c o n o m i c interests. T h e state plays a n active large, unstable membership, fluctuating
role in d r i v i n g policy, b u t t h e interest g r o u p s access to p o l i c y - m a k e r s a n d variable influ-
are fully involved in policy-making and ence, policy c o m m u n i t i e s are characterized
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , delivering benefits t o their by a limited, stable m e m b e r s h i p , frequent
members. Policy-making hence takes the h i g h - q u a l i t y access a n d consistent influence
form of bargaining, resolving conflicts (Table 9.1). In b e t w e e n these t w o extremes
b e t w e e n different e c o n o m i c interests ( M a r s h are stable a n d restricted 'professional net-
and R h o d e s , 1992). C o m m e n t a t o r s such as w o r k s ' r e p r e s e n t i n g specific professions s u c h
Grant (1983) and W i n t e r (1996) have sug- as medical doctors; 'inter-governmental
gested that the closed structure of agricultural networks' of sub-national government
p o l i c y - m a k i n g in t h e m i d - t w e n t i e t h century organizations; and 'produce networks' rep-
was a f o r m o f c o r p o r a t i s m ; h o w e v e r , this has resenting t h e interests of p r o d u c e r s in p o l i c y -
b e e n critiqued by Smith (1992), w h o argues making, whose membership and influence
that farmers were rarely involved in the varies with economic trends (Marsh and
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f policy, that t h e agricultural R h o d e s , 1992).
13 5
Box 9.2 Key term
P o l i c y n e t w o r k : A c l u s t e r o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i ng s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o ns a n d i n t e r e s t
g r o u p s , c o n n e c t e d by relationship s o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e f o r resource s a n d therefore
i n v o l v e d in p o l i c y - m a k i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o a s p e c i f i e d p o l i c y f i e l d .
P o l i c y c o m m u n i t y : T h e m o s t c l o s e - k n i t f o r m o f p o l i c y n e t w o r k , i n v o l v i ng a l i m i t e d
n u m b e r o f p a r t i c i p a t i ng a c t o r s in a s t a b l e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p , e x e r c i s i n g t i g h t
control ove r a policy field.
I s s u e n e t w o r k : T h e l o o s e s t f o r m o f p o l i c y n e t w o r k , i n v o l v i ng a w i d e r a n g e o f g r o u p s
w i t h l i m i t ed i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e in f l u c t u a t i ng p a r t i c i p a t i on in t h e p o l i c y - m a k i n g p r o c e s s
w i t h r e s p e c t t o a p a r t i c u l ar p o l i c y f i e l d .
T a b le 9. 1 Characteristic s o f polic y c o m m u n i t i e s a n d issu e n e t w o r ks

Polic y c o m m u n i t y Issu e n e t w o r k
N u m b e r o f participants Very l i m i t e d. Som e group s Large, unstabl e m e m b e r s h i p
consciousl y exclude d
Interests o f participants Economi c and/o r professiona l Encompasse s rang e o f affecte d
interest s p r e d o m i n a t e interest s
Frequenc y o f interaction F r e q u e n t h i g h - q u a l i ty interaction Contact s f l u c t u a te in f r e q u e n c y
o n all matters relate d t o polic y a n d intensit y
issue s
C o n t i n u i ty M e m b e r s h i p , value s a n d outcome s Acces s fluctuate s significantly
are consisten t ove r t i me
Consensu s All participants shar e basi c A measur e o f a g r e e m e n t exists ,
value s an d accep t legitimac y b u t conflic t is ever-presen t
o f t he o u t c o m e
D i s t r i b u t i on o f resource s All participants hav e resources ; Som e participants ma y hav e
w i t h in n e t w o r k basi c relationshi p is a n resources , b u t t h e y are l i m i t ed
exchang e relationshi p an d basi c relationshi p is
consultativ e
D i s t r i b u t i on o f resource s Hierarchical; leader s ca n delive r Varied a n d variable d i s t r i b u t i on
w i t h in p a r t i c i p a t i ng to member s a n d capacit y t o r e g u l a t e
organization s member s
Powe r A balanc e o f p o w e r b e t w e e n Unequa l powers , r e f l e c t i ng
members . On e g r o u p ma y u n e q u a l resource s a n d u n e q u a l
d o m i n a t e b u t all group s mus t access . Som e participants
gai n if t he c o m m u n i t y is t o b e n e f i t a t expens e o f other s
persis t
Source: A f t er Marsh an d Rhodes , 1992 ; Winter, 199 6
T h e p o l i c y n e t w o r k a p p r o a c h is b a s e d on and interest groups w h o are d e p e n d e n t on

two key assumptions. First, that policy- each other for resources. G o v e r n m e n t , for
m a k i n g is u n d e r t a k e n t h r o u g h a l a r g e n u m b e r example, can provide finance, b u t may be
o f d i f f e r e n t s e g m e n t s , e a c h o f w h i c h is a c c e s - d e p e n d e n t o n interest groups to supply the
sible t o o n l y a l i m i t e d r a n g e o f g r o u p s ; a n d cooperation of workers o n the ground. Policy
secondly, that policy-making involves an n e t w o r k s p r o v i d e a s t r u c t u r e for t h e s e rela-
inter-relationship between state institutions tionships b y defining t h e roles o f t h e actors
13 6
Rural policy
involved, deciding which issues will be consisted of the USDA, the congressional
i n c l u d e d o n t h e policy a g e n d a a n d w h i c h are agriculture committees and the three main
excluded, and setting the 'rules o f the g a m e ' farmers' associations - the Farm Bureau, the
w h i c h shape the behaviour of the participat- N F U and the Grange. This close-knit group
ing groups. effectively c o n t r o l l e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y from
Furthermore, the differentiation between t h e 1930s t o t h e 1970s, o v e r s e e i n g t h e rise o f
types o f policy n e t w o r k recognizes that interest productivism (see C h a p t e r 4). At the same
groups have differing degrees o f influence a n d time they excluded from the policy-making
access t o g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y - m a k e r s . As such, process smaller f a r m u n i o n s , e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d
a distinction can b e m a d e b e t w e e n 'insider consumer groups, non-agricultural members
groups', w h o operate within policy commu- of Congress, and even the Bureau of the
n i t i e s , a r e r e g a r d e d as l e g i t i m a t e b y govern- B u d g e t and the W h i t e H o u s e . T h e participants
m e n t a n d a r e c o n s u l t e d o n a r e g u l a r basis; in the policy c o m m u n i t y shared a common
a n d O u t s i d e r g r o u p s ' , w h o are e x c l u d e d from i d e o l o g y that s h a p e d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f policy,
policy communities and w h o s e contact with and were dependent on each other for
g o v e r n m e n t is less f r e q u e n t a n d less i n f l u e n t i a l resources. T h e USDA had the capacity to
(Grant, 2000; Winter, 1996). In the context of deliver the outcomes desired by the farm
rural policy, t h e large farmers' unions and unions, b u t relied o n t h e consultative structures
e s t a b l i s h e d c o n s e r v a t i o n g r o u p s s u c h as t h e of the unions. T h e unions in turn provided
C P R E and the Sierra C l u b m a y b e regarded electoral support to t h e m e m b e r s of C o n g r e s s
as ' i n s i d e r groups', whilst 'outsider groups' w h o supported their agenda (Smith, 1993).
include smaller farm unions, farmworkers' In the UK, a similar 'primary' policy
unions, militant rural protest groups and c a m - community comprising the Ministry of
p a i g n e r s o n r u r a l p o v e r t y issues. E n v i r o n m e n t a l Agriculture, Fisheries and F o o d ( M A F F ) and
groups and consumer groups have arguably the National Farmers' U n i o n ( N F U ) was inti-
m o v e d from b e i n g O u t s i d e r s ' t o at least a p a r t i a l mately involved in day-to-day policy-making,
insider status. b u t also d r e w i n m e m b e r s o f a ' s e c o n d a r y c o m -
When applied t o rural policy, t h e policy munity', including the C o u n t r y Landowners'
n e t w o r k s f r a m e w o r k reveals t h a t a b r o a d t r a n - Association, food processors and the farm
sition has o c c u r r e d in t h e past t w o decades w o r k e r s ' u n i o n , for c o n s u l t a t i o n o n specific
from a policy-making structure organized issues. E x c l u d e d completely, however, were
around a number of specialized a n d auto- environmental, c o n s u m e r a n d animal welfare
n o m o u s policy communities, to a m o r e open, g r o u p s . As in t h e U n i t e d States, t h e British
less stable series of issue networks with agricultural policy c o m m u n i t y shared a c o m -
b r o a d e r r e m i t s . T h i s is m o s t c l e a r l y e v i d e n t i n mon ideological commitment to produc-
t h e case o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y c o m m u n i t y tivism and represented an interdependent
in t h e U K a n d t h e U n i t e d States. relationship in which MAFF provided a

single d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g centre a n d t h e NFU
The agricultural policy community provided the support of farmers in delivering
Agricultural policy-making in post-war policy outcomes (Smith, 1992, 1993). After
Britain and the United States has been the U K joined the European Community
d e s c r i b e d b y S m i t h ( 1 9 9 3 ) as ' t h e paradigm ( n o w the E U ) in 1973, a further dimension
c a s e o f a c l o s e d p o l i c y c o m m u n i t y ' (p. 1 0 1 ) . was added through adherence to the C o m m o n
I n t h e U n i t e d States t h e policy community Agricultural Policy. T h e established policy
13 7
c o m m u n i t y continued to control agricultural communities into question. Meanwhile, the

p o l i c y w i t h i n t h e U K b u t also h a d influence rise o f n e o - l i b e r a l g o v e r n m e n t s in t h e 1980s
through their representatives in the policy created a political climate that was u n s y m p a -
community that operated at a European t h e t i c t o t h e e m p h a s i s o n state intervention
level, involving the Directorate-General that was a core tenet of the policy c o m m u n i t y
for Agriculture (known as DG VI) and ideology.
C O P A , the European's farmers' organization The US agricultural policy community
(Smith, 1993). b e g a n t o disintegrate i n t o a n issue n e t w o r k in
The products of the agricultural policy t h e 1 9 7 0 s , as t e n s i o n s e m e r g e d b e t w e e n the
communities included state i n t e r v e n t i o n in p a r t i c i p a t i n g f a r m u n i o n s , a n d as t h e W h i t e
agriculture, the unquestioned expansion of H o u s e - a n o u t s i d e r in this c o n t e x t - began
farm production and the prioritizing of agri- t o e x e r t m o r e s t r o n g l y its o w n agricultural
culture over consumer and environmental agenda. In the U K , Smith (1989) argues that
interests. Yet, they also arguably included the 1980s saw a turn back towards pluralist
overproduction, environmental degradation and policy-making as the assumptions of the
f o o d q u a l i t y s c a r e s , all o f w h i c h w e r e a l l o w e d policy c o m m u n i t y were questioned by both the
to happen because the policy community governing neo-liberal Conservative party and
rationalized that t h e r e was n o n e e d to listen to the increasingly vocal environmental lobby.
dissident voices. As S m i t h observed, Certainly, the production of the R u r a l W h i t e
Papers in 1 9 9 5 - 6 m a r k e d a clear break w i t h
B y e x c l u d i n g g r o u p s w h i c h d i s a g r e e w i th the closed policy c o m m u n i t y . A consultation
a g r i c u l t u r al policy , t he c o m m u n i t y is a b l e
exercise elicited some 380 responses from
to s a y t h a t t h e re is a c o n s e n s u s o n a g r i-
interest groups a n d individuals (Table 9.2),
c u l t u r al policy . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t he con -
whilst a further 1,300 p e o p l e c o n t r i b u t e d to
s e n s u s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e re is o n l y
an associated debate o n rural policy r u n by a
on e possibl e a g r i c u l t u r al policy , an d
h e n c e t h a t t h e re is n o n e e d fo r c o n s u m e r t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m m e . H o w e v e r , it w o u l d b e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a s t he c o m m u n i t y e n s u r e s erroneous to conclude that rural policy in the

t h a t a g r i c u l t u r al polic y is in t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . U K is n o w p l u r a l i s t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s h a n d -
( S m i t h , 1 9 9 2 , p. 3 2 ) ling o f the 2001 foot and m o u t h outbreak,
for example, demonstrated the continuing
From policy community to issue network influence of the National Farmers' Union.
The exclusivity of the policy communities T h u s , i n t h e U K , as i n t h e U S , r u r a l p o l i c y -
b e c a m e t h e i r fatal w e a k n e s s as t h e a b s e n c e o f m a k i n g m i g h t b e r e g a r d e d m o r e as a n i s s u e
n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l rural interests limited their n e t w o r k , in w h i c h a large range o f different
ability t o adapt t o t h e c h a n g i n g character o f groups may participate, but where some
t h e countryside. As t h e e c o n o m i c significance groups continue to have greater access to
of agriculture declined, and that of tourism policy-makers than others do.
a n d t h e service sector increased, so t h e p r i v i -
leging of farming over other e c o n o m i c inter- The Challenges for Rural Policy
ests b e c a m e less j u s t i f i a b l e . T h e 1980s farm T h e trends towards a m o r e integrated rural
crisis and later problems of falling farm policy and towards the involvement of m o r e
incomes created tensions within the agricul- open networks in policy-making are both
tural c o m m u n i t y , b r i n g i n g the legitimacy of signs i n themselves of the challenges con-
the farmers' unions involved in the policy fronting governments in adopting appropriate
13 8
Rural policy
T a b le 9. 2 Response s receive d in t he consultatio n exercis e f o r t he 199 5

Rural W h i te Pape r f o r England , by categor y o f responden t
Categor y Numbe r Example s

Conservatio n bodie s 51 CPRE, Nationa l Trust, Roya l Societ y f o r t he Protectio n
o f Birds
Businesse s 50 Booke r Countryside Ltd
Individuals 49
Loca l g o v e r n m e n t 47
Academi c institutions 26 Centre f o r Rural Econom y
Professiona l bodie s 26 NFU, Country Landowners ' Association , Smal l
Farmers ' Association , Institute o f Chartere d Forester s
Voluntary organization s 26 Women' s Institute, Rural Voice
G o v e r n m e n t agencie s 20 Rural Developmen t Commission , Englis h
Nature, Nationa l Rivers A u t h o r i ty
Others 57
Source: DoE/MAFF, 199 5
responses to rural restructuring. B y dismantling m o r e agricultural goods were being p r o d u c e d

the previous segmentation of rural policy and than could be sold at appropriate market
bringing a wider range of actors into the prices in the developed world. F u r t h e r m o r e ,
policy-making process, governments have the squeeze o n agricultural prices, c o m b i n e d
a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e n e e d for n e w t h i n k i n g , a n d w i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s s u c h as h e a v y f a r m debts
e v e n for f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e s in t h e w a y in from i n v e s t m e n t in m o d e r n i z a t i o n , has led t o
w h i c h r u r a l areas are g o v e r n e d a n d r e g u l a t e d . periods of severe economic depression in
T h e challenges that confront contemporary agriculture, i n c l u d i n g t h e ' f a r m crises' in t h e
rural p o l i c y - m a k e r s are diverse a n d n u m e r o u s , United States in the mid-1980s and late
a n d i n c l u d e issues c o n c e r n i n g t h e regenera- 1990s, in N e w Z e a l a n d in t h e 1980s, a n d in
tion of rural economies, the conservation of t h e U K f r o m t h e late 1990s. T h e key c h a l -
rural e n v i r o n m e n t s , s u p p o r t for rural c o m m u - lenges facing government with respect to
nities a n d c o m m u n i t y services, a n d t h e allevi- a g r i c u l t u r e are therefore:
ation of rural poverty and deprivation. T h e
policy responses a d o p t e d to m a n y of these 1 To find new markets for agricultural
challenges are e x p l o r e d in s u b s e q u e n t chapters products, including export markets, whilst
(see C h a p t e r s 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 3 , 1 4 ) . T h e remainder p r o t e c t i n g t h e d o m e s t i c m a r k e t for h o m e -
o f this chapter, h o w e v e r , focuses o n t h e k e y produced goods.
issue o f r e f o r m i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l policy, a n d in 2 To reduce government expenditure on
d o i n g so considers t h e ways in w h i c h n a t i o n a l agriculture whilst p r o t e c t i n g t h e viability
political contexts can lead to the a d o p t i o n of o f small a n d marginal farms that have
different strategies in response t o t h e same b e e n d e p e n d e n t o n subsidies.
broader problems. 3 T o balance the e c o n o m i c interests o f a g r i -
The background to agricultural policy culture with environmental and consumer
reform has been discussed at length in concerns.
C h a p t e r 4. As detailed in that chapter, the
productivist policies that h a d g u i d e d agricul- T h e regulation of global trade in agricul-
ture through the mid-part of the twentieth t u r a l p r o d u c t s is a p a r t i c u l a r l y t r i c k y i s s u e i n
century had resulted in a situation where the resolution of these questions. For major
13 9
e x p o r t e r s s u c h as A u s t r a l i a a n d N e w Z e a l a n d , g o v e r n m e n t in 1 9 8 4 . L a n g e a n d his finance
the expansion o f free trade w o u l d provide minister, R o g e r D o u g l a s , i n t r o d u c e d a series
a d d i t i o n a l m a r k e t s for t h e i r p r o d u c e a n d s u p - o f n e o - l i b e r a l p o l i c i e s a i m e d at r e s t r u c t u r i n g
port the e c o n o m i c health of their farms. In t h e role o f t h e state, similar t o t h o s e f o l l o w e d
E u r o p e a n d t h e U n i t e d States, h o w e v e r , t h e by the ' N e w R i g h t ' g o v e r n m e n t s of R e a g a n in
p i c t u r e is m o r e c o m p l e x . S o m e l a r g e f a r m e r s t h e U n i t e d States a n d T h a t c h e r in t h e UK.
and agri-food companies w o u l d benefit from Differently, h o w e v e r , Lange's r e f o r m s w e r e also
m o r e free t r a d e , b u t it c o u l d a l s o p o s e a t h r e a t applied to agriculture. Price supports and s u b -
to smaller farmers w h o are m o r e dependent sidies f o r f e r t i l i z e r s , p e s t i c i d e s , w a t e r supply
o n domestic markets and w h o can often not and irrigation w e r e w i t h d r a w n or reduced; tax
compete effectively with exports without credits a n d concessions w e r e e n d e d ; a n d s u b -
g o v e r n m e n t assistance. W i t h this c o n c e r n in sidised f a r m interest rates increased t o com-
m i n d , t h e political strength o f t h e agricultural m e r c i a l levels ( C l o k e , 1 9 8 9 b ; C l o k e a n d Le
lobbies in Europe and the United States H e r o n , 1994; Le H e r o n , 1993). In part, these
means that these governments have tended to reforms were driven by a broader concern to
adopt a m u c h m o r e cautious attitude to the r e d u c e t h e n a t i o n a l d e b t , as t h e N Z $ 2 . 5 b i l l i o n
deregulation of agricultural trade than those spent on farm support between 1980 and
o f Australia a n d N e w Zealand. As such, the 1985 h a d b e e n largely financed b y overseas
adoption of three distinctive strategies for b o r r o w i n g (Cloke and Le H e r o n , 1994).
agricultural reform can b e identified in New Notably, the reform package received broad
Zealand, the European U n i o n and the United support from t h e agricultural lobby, a l t h o u g h
States respectively. the Federated Farmers Union was divided
internally, w i t h smaller farmers c o n c e r n e d at
New Zealand: deregulation t h e effect o f t h e loss o f s u b s i d i e s . T o some
A g r i c u l t u r e is a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r t o t h e N e w extent these concerns were r e a l i z e d , as the
Z e a l a n d e c o n o m y , a c c o u n t i n g for s o m e 5 7 p e r i m m e d i a t e results o f d e r e g u l a t i o n i n c l u d e d a
cent of the nation's exports in the m i d - 1 9 8 0 s fall in farm incomes, increased farm debt,
(Cloke, 1989b). In the post-war period, the changes in farm practice a n d t h e folding of
agricultural export industry was supported by some farm businesses. H o w e v e r , t h e rate of
substantial state intervention in farming, c l o s u r e o f less e c o n o m i c f a r m s w a s s l o w e r t h a n
including subsidies to encourage increased that o f u p to 8 , 0 0 0 - 1 0 , 0 0 0 per year predicted
production and state-owned marketing at t h e t i m e ( C l o k e , 1 9 8 9 b ) a n d s u p p o r t e r s h a v e
b o a r d s . Yet, in t h e early 1980s N e w Zealand a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e f o r m s s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e ability
f a r m i n g faced similar p r o b l e m s t o t h o s e e x p e - of New Zealand's agricultural exporters to
rienced by agriculture elsewhere in the devel- c o m p e t e i n g l o b a l m a r k e t s . Yet, N e w Zealand
oped world and therefore faced similar agriculture has n o t escaped t h e e c o n o m i c pres-
pressures for reform to agricultural policy. sures faced b y f a r m i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y in the
T h e response in N e w Zealand, however, was 1 9 9 0 s , a n d as L e H e r o n a n d R o c h e (1999)
dictated by a sharp shift in the prevailing n o t e the proclaimed 'deregulation' o f the 1980s
national political ideology that followed h a s i n fact t u r n e d o u t t o b e m o r e o f a ' r e r e g u -
from the election of David Lange's Labour lation' to m e e t the demands of the export
14 0
Rural policy
market, global agri-food corporations and p a y m e n t t h a t is b a s e d o n p r e v i o u s r e c e i p t s a n d

purchasing supermarkets. is n o t l i n k e d t o p r o d u c t i o n . H o w e v e r , F r a n c e
negotiated concessions in the 2 0 0 3 a g r e e m e n t
European Union: diversification and C A P reform continues to be a highly
Agricultural policy reform in the E U has c o n t e n t i o u s political issue, w i t h m a n y critics
been driven by the triple concerns of a r g u i n g t h a t t h e r e f o r m s h a v e n o t y e t g o n e far
over-production, environmental degradation enough.
and the financial cost of the Common
A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y (see C h a p t e r 4 ) . A l t h o u g h United States: protectionism
periodic reforms have been attempted since Agricultural policy in the U n i t e d S t a t e s is
t h e early 1980s, t h e pressure for f u n d a m e n t a l r e g u l a r l y r e v i e w e d o n a f i v e - y e a r l y basis w i t h
c h a n g e b e c a m e m o r e a c u t e as t h e enlarge- the passing o f n e w F a r m Bills ( D i x o n and
m e n t of the E U into Eastern E u r o p e neared. H a p k e , 2 0 0 3 ) . In theory, this s h o u l d p r e s e n t a
T h e ten n e w m e m b e r s w h o j o i n e d in 2 0 0 4 greater o p p o r t u n i t y for r e f o r m in t h e U S t h a n
have substantial agricultural populations and exists i n m a n y o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a n d t h e a d v e n t
to include them within the CAP on the o f t h e 2 0 0 2 F a r m B i l l ( f o r m a l l y k n o w n as t h e
existing terms would significantly increase F a r m Security and R u r a l Investment Act) was
EU spending on farm support. T h e EU's greeted with speculation that significant
policy-making structure requires the unani- reforms could be introduced to a policy that
m o u s a g r e e m e n t o f m e m b e r states o n major w a s still e s s e n t i a l l y p r o d u c t i v i s t w i t h a h e a v y
reforms; thus, whilst some reformers have emphasis on subsidies and price supports.
called for N e w Zealand-style deregulation, The optimism stemmed in part from
t h i s is b l o c k e d as b e i n g p o l i t i c a l l y unaccept- the increasing pressure o n the U n i t e d States
a b l e i n c o u n t r i e s s u c h as F r a n c e a n d I r e l a n d , (and t h e E U ) t o r e d u c e subsidies a n d r e m o v e
with many small farmers who benefit tariffs as p a r t o f W T O negotiations on an
significantly from E U subsidies. T h e c o m p r o - agreement on free trade in agriculture.
mise, therefore, has b e e n to use E U funds H o w e v e r , i n t e r n a t i o n a l pressures w e r e in t h e
to e n c o u r a g e t h e diversification b o t h o f i n d i - event t r u m p e d by domestic political pressure
vidual farm businesses and of the wider f r o m t w o d i r e c t i o n s . First, a g r i - b u s i n e s s i n t e r -
rural economy. This has involved two key ests e x e r c i s e d i n f l u e n c e through their close
elements. connections with the Republican administra-
F i r s t , modulation progressively caps direct tion. Secondly, the mainstream farm groups
payments to larger farmers, in t h e o r y m a k i n g lobbied members of Congress through their
available funds t h a t c a n b e d i r e c t e d towards rural constituents. W i t h the 2002 congres-
rural development initiatives (Lowe et al., sional elections replicating the knife-edge
2002). Following the 2003 agreement o n C A P result o f t h e 2 0 0 0 presidential election, rural
reform, payments to larger farmers will be areas h a d a s s u m e d a g r e a t e r electoral signifi-
reduced by 5 per cent by 2007. Secondly, cance and legislators were mindful of the
decoupling ends the connection between farm potential c o n s e q u e n c e s o f r e f o r m i n g subsidies
subsidies and production, such that under or tariffs for their agricultural constituents
t h e 2 0 0 3 reforms farms will receive a single (see B o x 9 . 3 ) .
14 1
Box 9.3 The local impact of policy reform - Louisiana sugar
S u g a r c a n e h a s b e e n f a r m e d in L o u i s i a n a s i n c e t h e eighteent h century an d the

i n d u s t ry c u r r e n t ly e m p l o y s s o m e 2 7 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e a c r o s s 2 5 p a r i s h e s i n t h e s o u t h of
t h e s t a t e . In 2 0 0 2 , s u g a r g r o w e r s e a r n e d a r o u n d 4 6 c e n t s p e r k i l o g r a m ( 2 1 c p e r l b)
for their p r o d u c e - m o r e t h a n d o u b l e t h e w o r l d m a r k e t r a t e , a n d k e p t a r t i f i c i a l ly
high by a price-suppor t policy. U n d e r t h is policy, t h e US g o v e r n m e n t controls
deman d by a quot a syste m f o r domesti c production (Louisiana's allocatio n wa s
1. 4 m i l l i on t o n s in 2 0 0 4 ) , a n d l i m i ts o n i m p o r t s , w h i c h a r e a l s o s u b j e c t t o t a r i f f s.
T h e g o v e r n m e n t a l s o i n t e r v e n e s t o b u y s u g a r f r o m f a r m e r s a t 4 0 c e n t s p e r k i l o-
g r a m (1 8 p e r lb), w h e n t h e m a r k e t p r i ce f a l ls b e l o w t h is rate. However , unde r
N A F T A, t a r i f fs o n M e x i c a n s u g a r a r e d u e t o b e p h a s e d o u t b y 2 0 0 8 . W h e n t h is h a p -
p e n s , s u r p l u s s t o c k s o f M e x i c a n s u g a r t h a t a r e c u r r e n t ly t r a d e d o n t h e w o r l d mar-
k e t a r e l i k e ly t o b e e x p o r t e d i n s t e a d t o t h e US , w h e r e t h e y c o u l d e a r n m o r e whilst
s t i ll u n d e r c u t t i n g d o m e s t i c a l l y p r o d u c e d s u g a r . A s s u c h , i m p o r ts f r o m M e x i c o are
predicte d to accoun t for 16 pe r cen t o f US s u g a r c o n s u m p t i o n by 2011 , an d
t he p r i ce o f US s u g a r is f o r e c a s t t o h a l v e by 2012 . The i m p a c t o n area s suc h as
s o u t h e r n L o u i s i a n a , w h e r e s u g a r g r o w i n g is t h e m a i n e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y, c o u l d b e
s e v e r e , l e a d i n g t o t h e c l o s u r e o f f a r ms a n d p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s , u n e m p l o y m e n t an d
o u t - m i g r a t i o n . As s u c h , s u g a r w a s a m a j o r i s s u e in t h e 2 0 0 2 US S e n a t e electio n
in L o u i s i a n a .
Source: John M. Biers (2003) Bittersweet future. The Times-Picayune, 9 March, pages F1-2.
T h e o u t c o m e o f t h e 2 0 0 2 F a r m Bill was T a b le 9. 3 Subsidie s as a percentag e

hence to further entrench subsidies, with o f agricultural turnover, late 1990 s
s u p p o r t for agricultural p r o d u c t i o n actually Switzerlan d 76

Japa n 69
increasing. Taken together w i t h the contin-
Europea n U n i o n 42
ued imposition of tariffs on selected U n i t e d State s 16
i m p o r t e d foods (including the 100 per cent Australia 9
N e w Zealan d 3
increase i n t h e tariff o n R o q u e f o r t c h e e s e in
Source: The Guardian, 2 6 N o v e m b e r 199 9
1999 that provoked Bove's protest against
M c D o n a l d s in F r a n c e - see C h a p t e r 3), t h e
F a r m Bill suggests t h a t t h e U n i t e d States has
followed a policy of protectionism in W T O m o r e d i f f i c u l t as U S n e g o t i a t o r s w i l l
response t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f a g r i c u l t u r e . Yet, h a v e less r o o m for manoeuvre, developing
t h e agricultural interests p r o t e c t e d are those nations may follow the US's example and
of agri-business. Sixty per cent of the farm adopt protectionism, and the attentions of the
p a y m e n t s will g o t o just 10 p e r cent of farms, pro-free trade Cairns G r o u p will c o n t i n u e to
and family farmer groups had lobbied for be focused o n the U S rather than o n states
m o r e substantial reform. A t an international with higher subsidy levels such as the
level, S u m n e r (2003) argues that American m e m b e r s of the E U , Switzerland and Japan
protectionism will m a k e an a g r e e m e n t in the (Table 9.3).
14 2
Rural policy
Summary
T h e social a n d e c o n o m i c r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u n t r y s i d e has r e q u i r e d
changes in the rural policies o f g o v e r n m e n t s . T h e s e include n o t just reforms to the way in
w h i c h a g r i c u l t u r e is s u p p o r t e d a n d r e g u l a t e d b u t also, as s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r s w i l l i l l u s t r a t e ,
n e w strategies for rural e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d n e w initiatives t o c o n s e r v e t h e rural
e n v i r o n m e n t , a m o n g o t h e r s . As p a r t o f this p o l i c y review, t h e c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z i n g o f policies
for agriculture, c o n s e r v a t i o n , l a n d use p l a n n i n g , rural d e v e l o p m e n t a n d so o n , that h a d
b e e n a feature o f rural g o v e r n m e n t in m a n y c o u n t r i e s d u r i n g t h e t w e n t i e t h century, has
b e g u n t o b e dismantled in favour o f a n e w emphasis o n i n t e g r a t e d rural policy. A t t h e s a m e
t i m e , t h e c l o s e d p o l i c y c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t c o n t r o l l e d t h e s e s e g m e n t e d p o l i c y fields h a v e
d i s i n t e g r a t e d , w i t h a far w i d e r r a n g e o f i n t e r e s t g r o u p s n o w b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n r u r a l p o l i c y -
m a k i n g as p a r t o f m o r e o p e n , b u t also less s t a b l e a n d less c o h e r e n t , i s s u e n e t w o r k s . T h i s h a s i n
t u r n o p e n e d t h e d o o r for radical, f u n d a m e n t a l p o l i c y reforms t o b e c o n s i d e r e d , a n d
g o v e r n m e n t s a n d i n t e r e s t g r o u p s a l i k e a r e l e a r n i n g f r o m e a c h o t h e r as p a r t o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
p o l i c y t r a n s f e r o f i d e a s . Y e t , as t h e c a s e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y r e f o r m d e m o n s t r a t e s , e v e n i f
g o v e r n m e n t s i n different c o u n t r i e s face similar p r o b l e m s a n d share similar i d e o l o g i c a l
p o s i t i o n s , t h e r e s p o n s e s t h e y a d o p t m a y b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t as d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
intervene.
Further Reading
A c c o u n t s o f t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f rural polic y in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t he U K
r e s p e c t i v e l y a re p r o v i d e d b y W i l l i am P. B r o w n e , The Failure of National Rural Policy:
Institutions and Interests ( G e o r g e t o w n U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 2 0 0 1 ) , a n d M i c h a e l W i n t e r,
Rural Politics ( R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 6 ) . W i n t e r 's b o o k a l s o d i s c u s s e s t he different m o d e l s
o f p o l i c y - m a k i n g . T h e a g r i c u l t u r al polic y c o m m u n i t i e s in t he U K a n d t he U n i t e d S t a t e s
a re e x a m i n e d in detai l b y M a r t in J . S m i t h , Pressure, Power and Policy (Harveste r
W h e a t s h e a f , 1 9 9 3 ) . A b a c k g r o u n d to t he c o n t e m p o r a r y d e b a t e s o n a g r i c u l t u r al p o l i c y
r e f o rm is p r o v i d e d b y R i c h a rd Le H e r o n , Globalized Agriculture (Pergamon , 1993) , w h o
e x a m i n e s t he d e r e g u l a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u re in N e w Z e a l a n d a n d i s s u e s in a g r i c u l t u r al
polic y in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t he E u r o p e a n U n i o n , a s t h e y s t o o d in t he e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s .
Websites
I n f o r m a t i on a b o u t t he 2 0 0 2 U S F a rm Bill c a n b e f o u n d o n t he U S D A w e b s i t e , i n c l u d i ng
t he full tex t o f t he A c t ( w w w . u s d a . g o v / f a r m b i l l / i n d e x . h t m l ) . A d e t a i l e d bu t critical
s u m m a r y a n d c o m m e n t a r y is p r o v i d e d b y t he R u r al C o a l i t i o n , a p r e s s u r e g r o u p t h a t h a d
14 3
c a m p a i g n e d fo r m o r e radica l r e f o rm ( w w w . r u r a l c o . o r g / h t m l 2 / f a r m b i l l r e p o r t . h t m l .) D e t a i l s
o f t he r e f o r ms to t he E u r o p e a n U n i o n 's C o m m o n A g r i c u l t u r al Polic y a g r e e d in 2 0 0 3 a re
a v a i l a b l e o n t he w e b s i t e o f t he E U 's D i r e c t o r a t e - G e n e r a l fo r A g r i c u l t u re ( e u r o p a . e u . i n t /
c o m m / a g r i c u l t u r e / m t r / i n d e x _ e n . h t m l ) . A brief s u m m a r y is a l s o a v a i l a b l e f r om t he U K
D e p a r t m e n t o f t he E n v i r o n m e n t , F o o d a n d R u r al A f f a i rs ( w w w . d e f r a . g o v . u k / f a r m /
capreform/agreement-summary.htm) .
14 4
10
Rural Development and Regeneration
Introduction
G o v e r n m e n t s take a n interest in t h e e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f rural areas for a

n u m b e r o f p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e r e is t h e w e l f a r i s t r a t i o n a l e t h a t t h e s t a t e h a s a
d u t y t o s u p p o r t b a s i c levels o f s o c i a l w e l l - b e i n g a n d t o p r o m o t e e q u i t y b e t w e e n its
citizens. T h e state therefore intervenes t o i m p r o v e t h e living c o n d i t i o n s o f p e o p l e
i n r u r a l areas a n d invests i n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e t o p r o v i d e p u b l i c s e r v i c e s . It also acts t o
stimulate e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t w h e n the decline or withdrawal of established
e c o n o m i c activities p r o d u c e s significant u n e m p l o y m e n t o r poverty. Secondly, there
is a n e c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l e t h a t t h e c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e o p e r a t e s t o s u p p o r t b u s i n e s s i n t h e
a c c u m u l a t i o n o f capital. T h i s m i g h t involve p r o v i d i n g infrastructure that allows
businesses to develop in rural regions a n d to exploit rural resources, a n d absorbing
risk t h r o u g h , for e x a m p l e , p r o v i d i n g l o w interest loans to businesses and
i n v o l v e m e n t i n t r a i n i n g t h e w o r k f o r c e . T h i r d l y , t h e r e is a ' s t e w a r d s h i p ' r a t i o n a l e t h a t
t h e s t a t e a c t s i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f s o c i e t y as a w h o l e t o e n s u r e t h a t r u r a l l a n d and
r e s o u r c e s a r e p r o p e r l y m a i n t a i n e d a n d w i s e l y u s e d . F i n a l l y , t h e r e is a r a t i o n a l e of
t h e spatial c o n t r o l o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . T h e d e p o p u l a t i o n o f rural areas in t h e early
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n t o e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n is
for p e o p l e t o m o v e t o t h e places w h e r e t h e j o b s are. H o w e v e r , large-scale
p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t o f this k i n d creates instability a n d d e m a n d s o n t h e state for a
reconfiguration in the provision of public services. F r o m a managerial perspective,
i t is b e t t e r f o r t h e s t a t e t o i n v e s t i n e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n d e p r e s s e d r e g i o n s ,
h e n c e r e d u c i n g t h e 'push-factors' for out-migration.
T h i s l a s t r a t i o n a l e c o n f l a t e s rural development a n d regional development.

G o v e r n m e n t s u p p o r t for t h e e c o n o m y in rural areas c a n involve b o t h , b u t t h e y are
different w i t h different o b j e c t i v e s a n d cast at different scales. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e
E u r o p e a n U n i o n ' s S t r u c t u r a l F u n d s i n c l u d e b o t h s u p p o r t f o r rural development
t h r o u g h s c h e m e s s u c h as L E A D E R (see B o x 1 0 . 2 l a t e r i n this c h a p t e r ) , a i m e d at
helping the readjustment of rural e c o n o m i e s following the decline of agriculture,
a n d s u p p o r t for regional development t h r o u g h s c h e m e s s u c h as t h e O b j e c t i v e 1

p r o g r a m m e , a i m e d at i n c r e a s i n g t h e G D P o f t h e p o o r e s t r e g i o n s o f t h e E U , f o r
w h i c h a n u m b e r o f r u r a l r e g i o n s qualify ( a g a i n see s e c t i o n b e l o w ) .
A further terminological distinction can be m a d e b e t w e e n 'development' and
' r e g e n e r a t i o n ' . A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m s t e n d t o b e u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y , t h e y i n fact
i m p l y distinct processes. ' D e v e l o p m e n t ' suggests a process o f progressive c h a n g e o r
m o d e r n i z a t i o n . T h u s , t h e provision o f electricity t o rural parts o f t h e U n i t e d States,
for e x a m p l e , was clearly a rural d e v e l o p m e n t project. ' R e g e n e r a t i o n ' , o n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , suggests a m o r e cyclical process t h a t t h e r e has b e e n a b u o y a n t e c o n o m y
t h a t h a s fallen i n t o d e c l i n e a n d r e q u i r e s r e m e d i a l a c t i o n t o r e t u r n it t o its p r e v i o u s
c o n d i t i o n . Initiatives a i m e d at r e v e r s i n g t h e d e c l i n e o f r u r a l s m a l l t o w n s , o r at
r e p l a c i n g lost j o b s i n a g r i c u l t u r e o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g , m i g h t t h e r e f o r e b e m o r e
p r o p e r l y d e s c r i b e d as s t r a t e g i e s for r u r a l r e g e n e r a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , it c a n also b e
argued that the distinction b e t w e e n 'development' and 'regeneration' corresponds
w i t h a ' p a r a d i g m shift' i n p o l i c y t h a t h a s r e p l a c e d a n e m p h a s i s o n ' t o p - d o w n ' r u r a l
d e v e l o p m e n t , characterized b y large, state-led, infrastructure projects, w i t h an
emphasis o n ' b o t t o m - u p ' rural r e g e n e r a t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y small, c o m m u n i t y - l e d
initiatives d r a w i n g o n i n d i g e n o u s r e s o u r c e s . T h i s c h a p t e r e x p l o r e s b o t h sides o f t h i s
t r a n s i t i o n , first b r i e f l y d i s c u s s i n g s t a t e - l e d t o p - d o w n d e v e l o p m e n t b e f o r e m o r e
extensively e x a m i n i n g the b o t t o m - u p regeneration of rural e c o n o m i e s .
State Intervention and Top-down n e e d for t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f rural areas a n d

Development selected state i n v e s t m e n t in infrastructure as
T h e state has a l o n g h i s t o r y o f i n t e r v e n t i o n t h e p r i m a r y vehicle for delivery.
in rural development. In North America, O n e o f t h e earliest a n d l a r g e s t p r o j e c t s o f t h i s
Australia a n d N e w Z e a l a n d , state i n v o l v e m e n t k i n d w a s t h e T e n n e s s e e Valley A u t h o r i t y ( T V A )
in the creation of communications links in t h e s o u t h - w e s t e r n U n i t e d States. L a u n c h e d
and other infrastructure that supported the i n 1 9 3 3 as p a r t o f P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t ' s ' N e w
European settlement o f rural regions were Deal' to c o u n t e r the e c o n o m i c depression, the
de facto exercises i n rural d e v e l o p m e n t , often T V A i n v o l v e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a series o f
associated w i t h t h e facilitation o f r e s o u r c e c a p i - n i n e d a m s a l o n g 1 0 4 5 k m (650 miles) o f t h e
talism. Similarly, t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e L a n d Tennessee R i v e r b e t w e e n Knoxville, Tennessee
G r a n t C o l l e g e s in t h e U n i t e d States in the and Paducah, Kentucky, along with eight
1860s was part o f an early rural d e v e l o p m e n t p o w e r plants, t w o chemical plants a n d eleven
strategy based o n agriculture. M e a n w h i l e , in d a m s o n t r i b u t a r y rivers ( M a r t i n , 1956). As w e l l
E u r o p e , t h e U K g o v e r n m e n t set u p a R u r a l as p r o v i d i n g a s y s t e m f o r f l o o d c o n t r o l , t h e T V A
Development C o m m i s s i o n as e a r l y as 1910, project aimed to stimulate e c o n o m i c develop-
w i t h a n initial r e m i t o f s u p p o r t i n g t h e d e v e l - m e n t i n t h r e e m a i n w a y s . First, t h e p o w e r g e n -
o p m e n t o f s m a l l r u r a l i n d u s t r i e s . It is t h e r e f o r e erated by t h e T V A plants p r o v i d e d e n e r g y t o
unsurprising that when governments were support the industrialization of the region.
confronted w i t h rural e c o n o m i c change in the S e c o n d , t h e chemical plants p r o d u c e d nitrate
wake of decreasing farm employment, they fertilizers t o assist a g r i c u l t u r a l modernization.
c h o s e t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e p r o b l e m as b e i n g a Third, the construction projects and the
14 6
Rural development and regeneration
1 I Wes t of Ireland Res t o f Ireland

CO
CO
CD
1926-6 1 1961-7 1 1971-8 1
Figure 10. 1 Increas e in manufacturing employmen t in the Republic o f Ireland, 1926-198 1

Source: After Robinson , 199 0
m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e s c h e m e c r e a t e d a significant into t he h i n t e r l a n d, a n d in t h is manne r

n u m b e r of n e w j o b s in themselves. rural i n c o m e s s h o u l d rise a n d t he q u a l i ty
T h e s e o u t c o m e s h a d a significant i m p a c t in o f life s h o u l d b e e n h a n c e d . A l t h o u g h this

d id t a ke p l a c e (a t leas t to s o m e d e g r e e ) ,
a region w h e r e in m a n y counties over 50 per
t he r e g i o n a s a w h o l e r e m a i n e d p o o r a n d
c e n t o f families w e r e r e c e i v i n g welfare pay-
s u b j e c t to f u r t h er e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a -
m e n t s in 1933. S o m e 170,000 people in the
d a t i o n a n d e c o n o m i c d i s l o c a t i o n . ( L a p p i ng
region w h o were u n e m p l o y e d in 1940 had
e t al. , 1 9 8 9 , pp . 3 2 - 3 3 )
b e e n re-employed by 1950, w i t h over 20,000
new jobs created in the chemical industry Manufacturing industry also formed a
b e t w e e n 1939 a n d 1947, and 12,000 in the cornerstone of t o p - d o w n rural development
primary metals industry (Martin, 1956). in E u r o p e . In the R e p u b l i c of Ireland, for
O v e r a l l , t h e T V A p r o j e c t r e s u l t e d i n a shift i n instance, the Industrial D e v e l o p m e n t A u t h o r i t y
the employment structure of the region from ( I D A ) , set u p i n 1 9 4 9 , o p e r a t e d a s t r a t e g y o f
a g r i c u l t u r e t o industry, t r a d e a n d services. Yet, site a c q u i s i t i o n a n d a d v a n c e f a c t o r y building
as L a p p i n g e t al. n o t e , t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e T V A to stimulate the development of manufactur-
as a s t r a t e g y f o r r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t w a s m i x e d : ing industry in rural western Ireland. B e t w e e n
1972 a n d 1 9 8 1 , a r o u n d half o f the advance
T he citie s grew , a n d t he rural a r e a s p r o- f a c t o r y floor s p a c e b u i l t i n I r e l a n d w a s l o c a t e d
v i d e d t he n e c e s s a r y labo r a n d n a t u r al
i n 11 w e s t e r n rural c o u n t i e s , particularly in
r e s o u r c e s fo r f u r t h er u r b an d e v e l o p m e n t .
the 'growth poles' of Galway and Shannon
T V A, t h e n , a c t u a l i z e d ' g r o w th p o l e ' d e v e l -
Airport (Robinson, 1990). In consequence,
opmen t theories , wherei n developmen t
d u r i n g the 1960s and 1970s, manufacturing
w a s c o n c e n t r a t e d in t he large r c o m m u n i -
e m p l o y m e n t in the west of Ireland increased
tie s a n d t he rural a r e a s b e c a m e orga -
at a rate a r o u n d 4 5 p e r c e n t t h a t was s u b -
nize d aroun d thes e developmen t pole s
o r c e n t e r s . O p p o r t u n i t i es an d wealt h stantially higher than the rest of Ireland
s u p p o s e d l y 'trickled d o w n ' f r om t he citie s (Figure 10.1).
14 7
A similar strategy was followed in t h e UK relative prosperity brought to those towns

b y t h e D e v e l o p m e n t B o a r d for R u r a l Wales s e l e c t e d as ' g r o w t h p o l e s ' . H o w e v e r , t o p - d o w n
( D B R W ) (formed in 1976, replacing a p r e d e - r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t can also b e c r i t i q u e d on
cessor established in 1957), a n d t h e Highland two key grounds.
and Islands Development Board (HIDB) First, t o p - d o w n rural d e v e l o p m e n t t e n d s t o
( f o r m e d in 1965), t w o state-controlled agencies b e d e p e n d e n t o n e x t e r n a l i n v e s t m e n t . It rarely
r e s p o n s i b l e for p r o m o t i n g e c o n o m i c develop- seeks to nurture growth from within the
m e n t i n t h e p e r i p h e r a l r u r a l areas o f W a l e s a n d indigenous rural e c o n o m y and because exter-
S c o t l a n d respectively. B o t h bodies purchased nal investors w a n t a r e t u r n o n t h e i r invest-
land for industrial estates and constructed m e n t , profits g e n e r a t e d b y t h e n e w factories
advance factory units t o attract m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d o t h e r n e w employers are often exported
i n v e s t m e n t a n d , as i n I r e l a n d a n d t h e T e n n e s s e e o u t of t h e locality rather than kept w i t h i n t h e
Valley, m u c h o f t h e r e s u l t i n g e c o n o m i c g r o w t h local e c o n o m y . R u r a l areas m a y also b e left
was concentrated in 'growth poles', such as more vulnerable to corporate decision-
Newtown in Wales a n d Inverness and Fort m a k i n g informed by wider e c o n o m i c trends,
W i l l i a m in Scotland, whilst o t h e r parts o f t h e as t h e c o m p a n i e s t h a t h a d b e e n c o u r t e d by
region continued to experience problems of the d e v e l o p m e n t agencies m a y subsequently
economic decline and out-migration. To close t h e i r b r a n c h plants if m o r e favourable
some extent, D B R W and H I D B attempted conditions can be found elsewhere.
to compensate for t h i s effect by providing Secondly, t h e t o p - d o w n n a t u r e o f t h e strat-
grant support for smaller-scale rural enter- e g y c a n c r e a t e a d e m o c r a t i c deficit. A l t h o u g h
prises in t o u r i s m , fishing and craft indus- some programmes, such as the TVA, have
tries, b u t these activities essentially r e m a i n e d involved grassroots participation, m o r e g e n e r -
within a paradigm of top-down intervention ally t h e i n p u t o f l o c a l p e o p l e is p e r c e i v e d t o b e
rather than stimulating b o t t o m - u p initiatives limited. This can m e a n that the developments
(Robinson, 1990). i n t r o d u c e d a n d t h e j o b s created are n o t t h o s e
T h e strategy o f t o p - d o w n state interven- w a n t e d b y local p e o p l e . It c a n also c r e a t e a risk o f
tion in rural d e v e l o p m e n t did have n u m e r o u s c o r r u p t i o n , o r o f rural d e v e l o p m e n t funds b e i n g
successes, i n c l u d i n g t h e c r e a t i o n o f millions o f d i v e r t e d t o ' v a n i t y p r o j e c t s ' (see also B o x 1 0 . 1 ) .
n e w j o b s t o r e p l a c e t h o s e l o s t as p a r t o f a g r i - The European Union's Structural Funds for
cultural modernization; the slowing d o w n of, e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t w e r e restructured in t h e
a n d in s o m e r e g i o n s , reversal o f o u t - m i g r a t i o n late 1 9 8 0 s f o r p r e c i s e l y t h i s r e a s o n , f o l l o w i n g
f r o m rural areas; t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f c o m m u - c o n c e r n s that t h e funds ' w e r e actually financing
nications a n d utilities infrastructure; a n d the " t h e w r o n g a c t o r s ' " (Smith, 1998, p. 227).
Box 10.1 Rural development in Japan
One o f the k e y c o n c e r n s o f r u r al d e v e l o p m e n t p o l i c y in J a p a n ha s b e e n t h a t the

i n c r e a s i n g l y u r b a n i z e d p o p u l a t i o n is l o s i n g t o u c h w i t h its r u r al r o o t s . To c o u n t e r t h i s ,
t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t in t h e l a t e 1980 s g a v e e v e r y t o w n a n d v i l l a g e c o u n c i l a l u m p
s u m o f 1 0 0 m i l l i on y e n ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 5 m i l l i on o r US $ 0 . 8 m i l l i o n) w h i c h the y
w e r e i n s t r u c t e d t o us e ' c r e a t i v e l y ' o n p r o j e c t s t o r e v i t a l i ze t h e ' h o m e t o w n ' s p i r it o f
r u r al J a p a n . T h is w a s in essenc e a t o p - d o w n r u r al d e v e l o p m e n t s t r a t e g y , a n d r e s u l t e d in
14 8
n u m e r o u s e x p e n s i v e v a n i t y p r o j e c t s . In T s u n a o n t h e i s l a n d o f A w a j i, t h e m a y o r s p e n t
t h e m o n e y o n a 6 3 k g ( 1 3 9 l b) i n g o t o f g o l d - a t t h e t i m e t h e l a r g e s t b l o c k o f s o l i d g o l d
in t h e w o r l d - t o b e d i s p l a y e d in t h e t o w n a s a t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n. A n o t h e r t o w n c a s h e d
t h e m o n e y a n d c r e a t e d a p y r a m id o f b a n k n o t e s ; o t h e r s b u i lt t h e m e p a r ks a n d s o m e
p a i d f o r h o l i d a y s f o r r e s i d e n t s . T h e s t r a t e g y w a s m o d i f i e d in 2 0 0 1 w i t h a p r o p o s a l f o r
a ' v i l l a ge r e s t o r a t i o n ' p r o g r a m m e in w h i c h 6 0 0 b i l l i on y e n w o u l d b e u s e d t o s u p p o r t
p r o j e c ts t o p r o m o t e e x c h a n g e s b e t w e e n r u r al a n d u r b a n r e s i d e n t s .
Source: Jonathan Watts (2001) Rural Japan braced for new riches. Guardian, 27 September, p. 19.
Bottom-up Rural Regeneration c o m p o n e n t o f rural d e v e l o p m e n t , n o t j u s t so
T h e shift t o a b o t t o m - u p approach in rural t h a t c o m m u n i t i e s m a y b e able t o t a k e r e s p o n s i -
d e v e l o p m e n t has i n v o l v e d b o t h a c h a n g e i n t h e bility for r e g e n e r a t i o n w i t h o u t r e l y i n g o n the
w a y i n w h i c h r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t is m a n a g e d , state, b u t also i n o r d e r t h a t e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p -
a n d a c h a n g e i n t h e t y p e o f activities t h a t are m e n t d o e s n o t l e a d t o social p o l a r i z a t i o n w i t h i n
p r o m o t e d t h r o u g h d e v e l o p m e n t initiatives. I n r u r a l localities ( E d w a r d s , 1 9 9 8 ; L a p p i n g et al.,
contrast to t h e state-led m a n a g e m e n t o f t o p - 1989; Moseley, 2003).
d o w n strategies, b o t t o m - u p r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t Significantly, t h e b o t t o m - u p approach has
is l e d b y t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s themselves. r e c e i v e d s u p p o r t from b o t h r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t
C o m m u n i t i e s are e n c o u r a g e d t o assess t h e p r o b - professionals a n d n e o - l i b e r a l politicians s e e k i n g
l e m s t h a t t h e y face, t o i d e n t i f y a p p r o p r i a t e s o l u - t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e state. F o r t h e f o r m e r , the
tions, and to design and i m p l e m e n t regeneration b o t t o m - u p approach means the e m p o w e r m e n t
p r o j e c t s . T h e y usually h a v e t o a p p l y t o draw o f local c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
d o w n p u b l i c f u n d s for p r o j e c t s , o f t e n as p a r t o f r e g e n e r a t i o n strategies that are in t u n e with
a c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d are frequently required to local n e e d s a n d t h e local e n v i r o n m e n t . F o r t h e
p i e c e t o g e t h e r r e s o u r c e s from different s o u r c e s latter, t h e bottom-up approach means that
t h r o u g h " p a r t n e r s h i p w o r k i n g (see C h a p t e r 11 r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t is s h i f t e d
for further discussion). As such, t h e role o f t h e from t h e s t a t e t o its c i t i z e n s , i n l i n e w i t h t h e
state c h a n g e s from b e i n g t h e p r o v i d e r o f r u r a l broader-scale 'rolling b a c k o f t h e state' from
d e v e l o p m e n t t o b e i n g t h e facilitator o f r u r a l areas o f activity, a n d t h a t t h e s t a t e c a n r e d u c e its
regeneration (Edwards, 1998; Moseley, 2003). e x p e n d i t u r e o n rural d e v e l o p m e n t .
Similarly, t h e f o r m a n d f o c u s o f r u r a l d e v e l -
o p m e n t also c h a n g e s . I n m o s t cases, t h e e m p h a s i s EU rural development and
is n o l o n g e r o n a t t r a c t i n g e x t e r n a l i n v e s t m e n t , endogenous development
b u t r a t h e r o n e n h a n c i n g a n d e x p l o i t i n g local The most extensive programme of rural
e n d o g e n o u s resources - also k n o w n as endo- d e v e l o p m e n t is t h a t o p e r a t e d b y t h e E u r o p e a n
genous development (Ray, 1 9 9 7 ) . I n m a n y cases, U n i o n t h r o u g h its S t r u c t u r a l F u n d s . A s B o x
t h e i m m e d i a t e focus o f a project m a y n o t b e 10.2 shows, E U s u p p o r t for rural develop-
economic development, but c o m m u n i t y devel- ment is delivered through two different
o p m e n t - a i m i n g to build t h e capacity o f t h e m e c h a n i s m s . First, a n u m b e r o f rural r e g i o n s
community to regenerate its o w n economy. qualify for assistance u n d e r t h e objectives of
C o m m u n i t y d e v e l o p m e n t is s e e n as a n e c e s s a r y the EU's regional policy (Figure 10.2).These
14 9
i n c l u d e 'least f a v o u r e d ' r e g i o n s f u n d e d under no longer qualify for full level assistance

Objective 1, s u c h as s o u t h e r n Italy, w e s t e r n receive 'transitional support', including parts
Ireland, C o r n w a l l a n d west Wales in the U K , of rural Scotland and rural Ireland). F u n d i n g
and large parts o f rural Scandinavia; a n d ' c o n - under both objectives is also available to
verting' regions funded under Objective 2, urban regions and rural areas account for
i n c l u d i n g large parts o f rural F r a n c e , Italy a n d around 29 per cent of population covered by
England (additionally, some regions that Objective 2.
Box 10.2 EU programmes for rural and regional

development
Regiona l developmen t
Suppor t for regiona l developmen t is p r o v i d e d unde r the three objective s of the

S t r u c t u r al F u n d s :
Objective 1: to develop the least favoured regions of the European Union. To q u a l i f y,

r e g i o n s m u s t h a v e a G D P o f 7 5 p e r c e n t o r les s o f t h e EU a v e r a g e , o r a p o p u l a t i o n d e n -
sity o f f e w e r t h a n e i g h t p e o p l e p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t re ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y in S c a n d i n a v i a ) .
R e g i o n s e l i g i b l e f o r O b j e c t i v e 1 f u n d i n g in t h e 2 0 0 0 - 0 6 r o u n d i n c l u d e 2 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e
EU's p o p u l a t i o n a n d w i ll r e c e i v e assistanc e f r o m a t o t a l f u n d o f o v e r 13 5 b i l l i on e u r o .
Objective 2: to revitalize areas facing structural difficulties, including industrial,
rural, urban and fisheries-dependent regions. To q u a l i f y, r u r al a r e a s m u s t h a v e a
p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y o f f e w e r t h a n 1 0 0 i n h a b i t a n ts p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t re or a p r o -
p o r t i on o f t h e w o r k f o r ce e m p l o y e d in a g r i c u l t u re t h a t is a t l e a s t d o u b l e t h e EU
a v e r a g e , and a n u n e m p l o y m e n t r a te h i g h e r t h a n t h e EU a v e r a g e or a d e c l i n i n g p o p -
ulation. Region s eligible f o r Objective 2 f u n d i ng in t h e 2000-0 6 round include
1 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e EU's p o p u l a t i o n a n d a re s u p p o r t e d b y a t o t a l f u n d o f 2 0 b i l l i on e u r o .
Objective 3: supports education, training and employment. O b j e c t i v e 3 is n o t t e r r i-
t o r i a l ly l i m i t e d, e x c e p t t h a t O b j e c t i v e 1 r e g i o n s a r e n o t i n c l u d e d .
P r i or t o 2 0 0 0 , a s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e o f t h e s t r u c t u r al f u n d s ( O b j e c t i v e 5 b ) , s u p p o r t e d
r e s t r u c t u r i ng r u r al r e g i o n s . T h is w a s a b s o r b e d i n to t h e n e w O b j e c t i v e 2 f o r t h e 2 0 0 0 - 0 6
r o u nd o f f u n d i n g.
R u r al developmen t
LEADER + (Liaison entre actions de developpement de I'economie rurale) - on e o f four

' C o m m u n i ty I n i t i a t i v e s' ( t h e o t h e r s b e i n g INTERREG, E Q U A L a n d U R B A N ) . L E A D ER is
s p e c i f i c a l l y a i m e d a t s u p p o r t i n g r u r al d e v e l o p m e n t . Its t h r e e ' a c t i o n s ' i n c l u d e s u p p o r t
f o r b o t t o m - u p t e r r i t o r i al d e v e l o p m e n t , s u p p o r t f o r i n t e r - t e r r i t o r i al a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a l
c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d t h e n e t w o r k i n g o f a l l r u r al a r e a s .
O r i g i n a l ly e s t a b l i s h e d in 1 9 9 1 , L E A D ER is n o w in its t h i rd i n c a r n a t i o n ( L E A D E R +) a n d
is d e l i v e r e d t h r o u g h l o c a l a c t i o n g r o u p s w h i c h m a y b e e s t a b l i s h e d in a n y r u r al a r e a .
A t o t a l o f 2 , 1 0 5 m i l l i on e u r o a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n A g r i c u l t u r al G u a r a n t e e
a n d G u i d a n c e F u n d ( E A G G F) f o r 2 0 0 0 - 0 6 , w h i c h is e x p e c t e d t o b e m a t c h - f u n d e d by
2 , 9 4 1 m i l l i on e u r o f r o m o t h e r p u b l ic a n d p r i v a te s o u r c e s .
For more information see europa.euJnt/comm/regional_policy/index_en.htm (Objective 1 and Objective 2)

and europa.eu.int/comm/agriculture/rur/leaderplus/index_en.htm (LEADER+).
15 0
Regions eligible for

Objective 1 Funds
Regions eligible for
Transitional Support
1000 km
Figure 10. 2 Region s receivin g EU funding unde r Objective 1 o f the Structural

Funds , 2000-0 6
Source: Base d o n information from the Europea n Commissio n
S e c o n d , r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t is also s u p p o r t e d p r o g r a m m e is d i r e c t e d at ' i n t e g r a t e d t e r r i t o r i a l
b y t h e L E A D E R c o m m u n i t y initiative, w h i c h d e v e l o p m e n t strategies o f a pilot n a t u r e based
falls within the remit of the Directorate- on a bottom-up approach' (European Union,
General for A g r i c u l t u r e . N o w in its third 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e principles that guide the L E A D E R
incarnation, the LEADER programme is programme (and EU rural development
delivered through 938 local action groups policy more broadly) were articulated in
i n t h e E U s 2 5 m e m b e r states. W h e r e a s the the Cork Declaration issued by t h e parti-
r e g i o n a l p o l i c y p r o g r a m m e s still r e t a i n a n e l e - cipants in the E u r o p e a n C o n f e r e n c e o n R u r a l
m e n t o f t o p - d o w n d e v e l o p m e n t (for e x a m p l e Development held in the Irish Republic
by financing transport infrastructure), L E A D E R i n 1 9 9 6 ( B o x 10.3), w h i c h provides a clear
is f i r m l y r o o t e d i n t h e b o t t o m - u p approach. statement of the philosophy o f b o t t o m - u p rural
Over 86 per cent of expenditure in the regeneration.
15 1
Box 10.3 The Cork Declaration
S u p p o r t f o r d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l a c t i v i ty m u s t f o c u s o n p r o v i d i ng t h e
f r a m e w o rk f o r self-sustainin g p r i v a te a n d c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d initiatives: investment ,
t e c h n i c a l assistance , busines s services , a d e q u a t e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e, e d u c a t i o n , t r a i n i n g,
i n t e g r a t i ng a d v a n c e s in i n f o r m a t i on t e c h n o l o g y , s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e r o le o f s m a l l t o w n s
a s i n t e g r a l p a r ts o f r u r al a r e a s a n d k e y d e v e l o p m e n t f a c t o r s , a n d p r o m o t i n g t h e d e v e l -
o p m e n t o f v i a b l e r u r al c o m m u n i t i e s a n d r e n e w a l o f v i l l a g e s .. . P o l i c i e s s h o u l d p r o m o t e
r u r al d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h s u s t a i n s t h e q u a l i ty a n d a m e n i t y o f E u r o p e ' s r u r al l a n d s c a p e
( n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , b i o d i v e r s i t y a n d c u l t u r al i d e n t i t y ), s o t h a t t h e i r us e b y t o d a y ' s g e n -
e r a t i o n d o e s n o t p r e j u d i ce t h e o p t i o n s f o r f u t u re g e n e r a t i o n s .. . G i v e n t h e d i v e r s i t y o f
t he U n i o n 's r u r al a r e a s , r u r al d e v e l o p m e n t p o l i c y m u s t f o l l o w t h e p r i n c i p le o f s u b -
s i d i a r i t y. It m u s t b e a s d e c e n t r a l i z e d a s p o s s i b l e a n d b a s e d o n p a r t n e r s h i p a n d c o o p e r -
a t i o n b e t w e e n al l level s c o n c e r n e d ( l o c a l , r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l a n d E u r o p e a n ) . T h e e m p h a s i s
m u s t b e o n p a r t i c i p a t i on a n d a ' b o t t o m - u p ' a p p r o a c h , w h i c h h a r n e s s e s t h e c r e a t i v i ty
a n d s o l i d a r i ty o f r u r al c o m m u n i t i e s . R u r al d e v e l o p m e n t m u s t b e l o c a l a n d c o m m u n i t y -
d r i v e n w i t h in a c o h e r e n t E u r o p e a n f r a m e w o r k .
Extract from The Cork Declaration: A Living Countryside, issued by the European Conference on Rural
Development, November 1996.
Table 1 0 . 1 Main concern s o f LEADER I focused development that maximizes the

group s ' r e t e n t i o n o f benefits w i t h i n t h e local t e r r i t o r y
No . o f group s by valorizing a n d exploiting local resources
P r o m o t i ng rural t o u r i sm 71
p h y s i c a l a n d h u m a n ' (p. 1 6 6 ) . T h e consistency
Training a n d h u m a n 40
developmen t w i t h w h i c h this vision w a s delivered in practice
A d d i ng valu e t o agricultural 38 b y local L E A D E R g r o u p s has b e e n q u e s t i o n e d
p r o d u c t i on b y e m p i r i c a l studies. I n G e r m a n y , for e x a m p l e ,
S u p p o r t i ng smal l firms a n d 34
L E A D E R h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d as a c o n s e r v a t i v e
craft industries
Developin g a more balance d 34 force, m o d e r a t i n g m o r e radical rural d e v e l o p -
p o r t f o l io m e n t ideas ( B r u c k m e i e r , 2 0 0 0 ) ; whilst Storey
Source: After Moseley , 199 5 ( 1 9 9 9 ) raises c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e e x t e n t o f l o c a l
participation in L E A D E R schemes in Ireland.
Ray (2000) describes the LEADER pro- N o n e t h e less, i n g e n e r a l t h e t y p e o f p r o j e c t s
g r a m m e as a ' l a b o r a t o r y ' f o r e n d o g e n o u s r u r a l s u p p o r t e d by L E A D E R d o suggest a qualitative
development, as e a c h LEADER group was shift i n t h e n a t u r e o f r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h
i n t e n d e d ' t o search for innovative ideas that n o t m a n y focused o n capacity building and p r o d u c t
o n l y w o u l d assist s o c i o - e c o n o m i c v i a b i l i t y i n valorization (Table 10.1) (the s a m e applies t o
t h e l o c a l i t y b u t also s e r v e a d e m o n s t r a t i v e f u n c - projects funded by E U regional development
t i o n f o r o t h e r p a r t i c i p a t i n g t e r r i t o r i e s ' (p. 1 6 6 ) . p r o g r a m m e s , see W a r d a n d M c N i c h o l a s , 1998).
B y searching for i n n o v a t i o n in rural d e v e l o p - A s B o x 1 0 . 4 illustrates, m a n y p r o j e c t s h a v e a
m e n t t h r o u g h grassroots e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , t h e s t r o n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o m p o n e n t a n d as s u c h
LEADER p r o g r a m m e , argues Ray, encapsu- contribute not just to endogenous develop-
lated the core principles of endogenous m e n t b u t also t o s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t (see
d e v e l o p m e n t - c o m m u n i t y - d r i v e n , territorially also M o s e l e y , 1 9 9 5 ) .
15 2
Box 10.4 Examples of projects supported by LEADER
G a r f a g n a n a , I t a l y: I n t r o d u c t i on o f g r e e n f o r e s t r y e n g i n e e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s b a s e d o n
t h e us e o f e n d o g e n o u s r e s o u r c e s a n d n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s t o h e l p r e v i t a l i ze l o c a l f o r e s t r y
c o o p e r a t i v e s . S o m e 1 2 0 n e w j o b s w e r e c r e a t e d in f o r e s t r y c o o p e r a t i v e s in t h e regio n
b e t w e e n 199 5 a n d 1999 .
W a t e r f o r d, R e p u b l i c o f I r e l a n d : Us e o f c o n s t r u c t e d w e t l a n d s a s a m e a n s o f c l e a n s -
i ng d i r ty w a t e r f r o m f a r m y a r d s. T he lagoon s were p l a n t e d w i th vegetatio n an d
s t o c k e d w i t h f i s h a n d a re i n t e n d e d t o f o r m a t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i on a s w e l l a s h e l p i n g t o
reduc e p o l l u t i o n.
Les C o m b r a i l l e s , F r a n c e : D e v e l o p m e n t o f a housin g schem e t o m a t c h n e w resident s

in n e a r b y g r o w i n g e m p l o y m e n t a r e a s w i t h e m p t y p r o p e r t i e s in t h e Pay s d e Menat,
h e l p i n g t o r e s t r i ct d e m a n d s f o r n e w d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t o r e n o v a t e v a c a n t a n d a b a n -
done d buildings.
C a r m a r t h e n s h i r e , U K: P r o m o t i o n o f t o u r i s m t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n f o r m a -
t i o n b o a r d s a n d l i t e r a t u re o n t h e t h e m e o f t h e L a n d o f H i s t o ry a n d L e g e n d , w i t h i n p u t
f r om loca l p e o p l e .
Source: LEADER II Magazine, various issues 1999-2001.
Food tourism and farmers' markets vineyards and breweries, are additionally
A common theme of endogenous rural m a r k e t e d as t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n s , c r e a t i n g a s e c o n d
d e v e l o p m e n t is t o ' a d d v a l u e ' t o e x i s t i n g r u r a l i n c o m e stream (Figure 10.3).
landscapes, e n v i r o n m e n t s a n d products. T h i s m a y F a r m e r s ' m a r k e t s are an increasingly com-
involve the 'repackaging' o f a rural locality to monplace component of endogenous rural
attract tourists, p e r h a p s b y e m p h a s i z i n g local development, in part because they contribute
t r a d i t i o n s a n d h e r i t a g e , as is d i s c u s s e d i n m o r e t o w a r d s r e g e n e r a t i o n o n t h r e e levels. N o t o n l y
d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r 1 2 . It c a n also i n v o l v e a n e w do they contribute to food tourism, but they
approach to agriculture, seeking to promote also h e l p t o s u p p o r t l o c a l l y b a s e d s m a l l - s c a l e
economic development not through agricul- f o o d processing a n d can increase i n c o m e s for
tural m o d e r n i z a t i o n but rather through an farmers by removing the commission of
emphasis o n traditional food products and o n wholesalers a n d retailers. B a s e d o n t h e m o d e l
d i r e c t sales b y f a r m e r s a n d l o c a l p r o d u c e r s . A s of the 6,000 weekly markets in France, there
Bessiere (1998) observes, regional food and are n o w a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 f a r m e r s ' m a r k e t s in t h e
gastronomy have b e c o m e i m p o r t a n t elements U n i t e d States, whilst in t h e U K t h e number
i n r u r a l t o u r i s m . R u r a l areas m a r k e t them- of markets has e x p a n d e d rapidly from the
selves t o t o u r i s t s t h r o u g h t h e i r s p e c i a l i t y f o o d first, i n B a t h i n 1 9 9 7 , t o 2 0 0 i n 2 0 0 0 a n d 4 5 0
products, drawing on classifications such i n 2 0 0 2 . C o n s u m e r s p e n d i n g at U S farmers'
as t h e appellation d'origine controlee system in m a r k e t s e x c e e d s $ 1 billion p e r year, a n d in t h e
France to define themselves, and w i t h mar- UK amounted to 1 6 6 million in 2001/2
k e t i n g initiatives s u p p o r t e d b y rural d e v e l o p - ( H o l l o w a y a n d Kneafsey, 2 0 0 0 ; N F U , 2 0 0 2 ) .
m e n t f u n d s . M o r e o v e r , t h e sites o f l o c a l f o o d As H o l l o w a y a n d Kneafsey (2000) describe,
p r o d u c t i o n , s u c h as f a r m s , d a i r i e s , c h e e s e m a k e r s , t h e m a r k e t s appeal t o ideas o f localism, quality,
15 3
Holloway and Kneafsey's case study of

Stratford F a r m e r s ' M a r k e t in E n g l a n d suggests
W E S T W A L ES ' t h a t t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e o f t u r n o v e r i n
t h e stalls p r e s e n t a t t h e m a r k e t f r o m m o n t h t o
GOOD' month. Secondly, farmers'

certain products over others. Holloway
markets favour
and
TASTE Kneafsey (2000) record that the m o s t c o m m o n

p u r c h a s e s at Stratford w e r e o f vegetables, eggs,
apple juice, cheese and honey. Farmers'
TRAIL m a r k e t s o f f e r less o f a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r l i v e -
stock farmers, who predominate
m o r e depressed rural areas.Thirdly, a n d related
in many
t o t h e a b o v e , t h e r e is a c l e a r s p a t i a l c o n c e n t r a -
tion in t h e distribution of farmers' markets.
T h e m a j o r i t y o f m a r k e t s in t h e U n i t e d States
are located in o r n e a r m e t r o p o l i t a n regions
( F i g u r e 1 0 . 4 ) , i n c l u d i n g u r b a n m a r k e t s s u c h as
the U n i o n Square G r e e n m a r k e t in N e w York
(Figure 1 0 . 5 ) , at w h i c h p r o d u c e r s f r o m n e i g h -
b o u r i n g r u r a l d i s t r i c t s sell t o c i t y r e s i d e n t s . I n
c o n t r a s t , t h e m o r e r u r a l states o f M o n t a n a a n d
Georgia had just seven farmers' markets
apiece in 1998, and Wyoming had six.
Similarly, t h e g r o w t h o f f a r m e r s ' m a r k e t s in
the U K has o c c u r r e d p r i m a r i l y in southern
England rather than in the m o r e peripheral
rural regions o f Wales, Scotland and the n o r t h
of England. Thus, farmers' markets provide an
i l l u s t r a t i o n t h a t , w h i l s t t h e t r a n s f e r o f i d e a s is
i m p o r t a n t w i t h i n b o t t o m - u p rural regenera-
tion, endogenous development also means
F i g u re 10. 3 Tourist leafle t promoting
finding appropriate solutions to local prob-
visits to loca l foo d producers in wes t Wale s
lems a n d recognizing that t h e same strategies
will n o t w o r k everywhere.
Small Town Regeneration

authenticity and community, and thus can be T h e r e g e n e r a t i o n o f s m a l l t o w n s is a d i s t i n c t
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e a d as ' a l t e r n a t i v e s p a c e s ' t h a t and important challenge in rural development.
are c h a l l e n g i n g t h e d o m i n a n c e o f s u p e r m a r - Small t o w n s are key n o d e s in t h e rural e c o n -
kets a n d global agri-food corporations, and o m y . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r h i s t o r i c r o l e as s e r v i c e
'reactionary or nostalgic spaces' that represent centres for rural districts, t h e shift of rural
a n o t i o n o f t h e rural idyll. e m p l o y m e n t from land-based activity t o i n d u s -
H o w e v e r , t h r e e caveats m u s t b e a t t a c h e d t o trial a n d service s e c t o r w o r k has m a d e small
t h e a p p a r e n t success o f f a r m e r s ' m a r k e t s . First, t o w n s t h e m a i n sites o f e m p l o y m e n t i n r u r a l
15 4
Figure 10. 5 The Union Squar e Greenmarke t in Ne w York City

l a b o u r m a r k e t s (see C h a p t e r 5 ) . T h e y h a v e also This discourse was articulated in t h e UK

absorbed a disproportionate share o f p o p u l a - government's 'Rural White Paper' policy
tion growth and n e w housing development, document for England in 2000, which
a n d a r e t h e site o f s o c i a l i n v e s t m e n t i n the devoted an entire chapter to the regeneration of
c o u n t r y s i d e ( i n c l u d i n g p u b l i c s e r v i c e s s u c h as small, o r ' m a r k e t ' , t o w n s . As t h e document
e d u c a t i o n a n d h e a l t h , b u t also s u p p o r t f o r arts declared, ' m a r k e t t o w n s play a critical role in
and cultural facilities and events) (Edwards helping rural c o m m u n i t i e s to thrive and in
e t al., 2 0 0 3 ) . Y e t , m a n y s m a l l t o w n s h a v e also r e g e n e r a t i n g d e p r i v e d areas' (MAFF/DETR,
experienced considerable e c o n o m i c problems 2 0 0 0 , p. 74). Proposals t o h e l p small towns
w i t h the closure o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g plants a n d b e c o m e t h e focus for e c o n o m i c development
o t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l e m p l o y e r s , a n d m a n y a r e less a n d centres for m e e t i n g people's service n e e d s
prosperous than their n e i g h b o u r i n g rural c o m - were subsequently carried forward through a
m u n i t i e s . S h o p s a n d s e r v i c e s m a y also have bottom-up approach in the Countryside
b e e n lost t o o u t - o f - t o w n c o m m e r c i a l centres Agency's 'Market T o w n Healthcheck' initia-
or to nearby larger towns and cities (see tive, i n w h i c h t o w n s are i n v i t e d t o evaluate
C h a p t e r 7). As such, a small t o w n m a y need their o w n situation a n d agree 'action plans' for
t o b e r e g e n e r a t e d i n itself, b u t t h e r e is also r e g e n e r a t i o n ( E d w a r d s e t al., 2 0 0 3 ) .
p e r c e i v e d t o b e a ' t r i c k l e - o u t ' effect through Successful r e g e n e r a t i o n strategies for smaD
which the regeneration o f small t o w n s can t o w n s t e n d t o rely o n achieving an a p p r o p r i a t e
boost the e c o n o m y o f a w i d e r rural region. combination o f local resources a n d external
15 6
assistance. K e n y o n and Black (2001), in a r e h a b i l i t a t i o n p r o j e c t s ( L a p p i n g e t al., 1 9 8 9 ) .

handbook for small town regeneration in T h e initiative o p e r a t e d t h r o u g h project m a n -
A u s t r a l i a , a r g u e t h a t successful p r o j e c t s s h a r e a agers e m p l o y e d in each o f t h e participating
n u m b e r of key ingredients, including: timing, towns to work with stakeholders including
use o f c o m m u n i t y p l a n n i n g processes, e n t h u - m e r c h a n t s , b a n k s , civic g r o u p s , local g o v e r n -
siastic l o c a l l e a d e r s h i p , a p o s i t i v e b e l i e f i n t h e m e n t , the m e d i a a n d residents, in i m p l e m e n t -
town a n d its f u t u r e , l o c a l entrepreneurship, ing the three dimensions of the programme.
willingness b y locals t o c o n t r i b u t e financial T h e s e w e r e : first, t h e d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f d o w n -
resources, the smart use of outside resources, town areas, including the conversion of
n e w c o m m u n i t y n e t w o r k s that actively s u p - u n u s e d u p p e r storeys for residential accom-
p o r t n e w i d e a s a n d a f o c u s o n l o c a l y o u t h (see m o d a t i o n a n d offices, a n d t h e r e c r u i t m e n t of
B o x 1 0 . 5 ) (see also H e r b e r t - C h e s h i r e , 2 0 0 3 ) . n e w stores. S e c o n d , t h e physical r e n o v a t i o n o f
M a n y o f t h e Australian examples discussed by m a i n streets, a n d especially o f historic b u i l d -
K e n y o n and Black involve s o m e element of ings, t o g e t h e r w i t h the adoption of design
direct e c o n o m i c investment and j o b creation, policies for n e w b u i l d i n g s . T h i r d , activities t o
b u t , frequently, t h e simple refurbishment and p r o m o t e s m a l l t o w n c e n t r e s as p l a c e s t o s h o p ,
renovation o f a small town's built e n v i r o n m e n t w o r k a n d live: 'activities m a y v a r y f r o m dis-
is r e g a r d e d as a n e q u a l f o c u s f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n t r i b u t i n g s h o p p i n g bags w i t h a special d o w n -
schemes. T h e N a t i o n a l M a i n Street Program town logo to publishing a directory of
in t h e U n i t e d States s u p p o r t e d r e g e n e r a t i o n in downtown businesses or sponsoring special
over 2 0 0 small t o w n s b e t w e e n 1 9 7 9 a n d 1 9 8 9 , e v e n t s s u c h as craft fairs, f a r m e r s ' m a r k e t s , a n d
i n c l u d i n g over 6 5 0 facade renovations a n d 6 0 0 s i d e w a l k sales' ( L a p p i n g e t al., 1 9 8 9 , p . 2 9 3 ) .
Box 10.5 Small town regeneration - Deloraine, Tasmania
D e l o r a i n e is a s m a l l t o w n o f 2 , 1 0 0 r e s i d e n t s l o c a t e d in t h e n o r th w e s t o f t h e A u s t r a l i an
i s l a n d o f T a s m a n i a . L i ke m a n y s m a l l t o w n s , its e c o n o m y s u f f e r e d f r o m t h e d e c l i n e o f
a g r i c u l t u r e, w h i l s t t h e o p e n i n g o f a h i g h w a y b y - p a s s in 1 9 9 0 r e s u l t e d in t h e c l o s u r e o f
1 2 businesses . T h e t o w n ha s a l s o e x p e r i e n c e d c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n l o c a l r e s i d e n t s an d
i n - m i g r a n ts p u r s u i n g a l t e r n a t i ve l i f e s t y l e s . T h e r e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e t o w n i n v o l v e d a
n u m b e r o f c o m p o n e n t s , i n c l u d i ng t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a b u s i n e s s c e n t r e t o s u p p o r t l o c a l
b u s i n e s s d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t r a i n i n g; t h e c r e a t i o n o f a l a n d - f i ll a n d r e c y c l i n g s i t e ; c o m -
m u n i ty b e a u t i f i c a t i o n a n d p a r k p r o j e c t s ; s p o n s o r i n g h i g h w a y s i g n a g e t o a t t r a c t v i s i t o rs
t o t h e t o w n ; t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n a n n u a l T a s m a n i a n C r a ft Fair, a t t r a c t i ng ove r
3 0 , 0 0 0 v i s i t o r s ; a n d a c o m m u n i t y ' A r t w o rk in Silk' p r o j e c t , c r e a t i n g a p o r t r a it o f t h e
l o c a l a r e a o n a 5 7 s q u a r e m e t r e h a n g i n g t h a t n o w f o r ms a t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n. T h e s e p r o -
j e c t s h a v e d r a w n o n e x t e r n a l f u n d s w h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e , b u t h a v e b e e n i n i t i a t ed a n d l e d
b y t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i t y . K e n y o n a n d B l a c k ( 2 0 0 1 ) i d e n t i fy t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s t r o n g
sens e o f b e l i e f a n d e x p e c t a t i o n , t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d a s t r o n g f o c u s
o n y o u n g p e o p l e a s k e y e l e m e n t s in D e l o r a i n e ' s r e g e n e r a t i o n . T h e t o w n w a s name d
t h e ' A u s t r a l i an C o m m u n i t y o f t h e Y e a r ' in 1 9 9 7 in r e c o g n i t i o n o f its a c h i e v e m e n t s .
For more see Peter Kenyon and Alan Black (eds) (2001) Small Town Renewal: Overview and Case
Studies (Barton, Australia). Report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
Available at: www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/hcc.html
15 7
The Limits to Rural Development? Little, 2 0 0 0 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e are s o m e rural
Bottom-up endogenous development may communities that may b e near impossible to
have b e c o m e the fashionable approach for r e g e n e r a t e o n c e traditional e c o n o m i c activities
addressing the problems of the rural economy, have declined or disappeared. As Herbert-
b u t it is n o t free f r o m p r o b l e m s . McDonagh Cheshire (2000,2003) observes in an e x a m i n a -
(2001), in a study of rural d e v e l o p m e n t in tion o f Australian c o u n t r y t o w n s , t h e strategy
western Ireland, points to 'the frustration of n o t o n l y raises false h o p e s as t o w n s a t t e m p t t o
bottom-up d e v e l o p m e n t ' (p. 1 2 8 ) , i n c l u d i n g follow s u p p o s e d 'blueprints' for regeneration
difficulties i n v o l v e d i n c o o r d i n a t i n g a n d r e p - b u t fail t o r e a p t h e b e n e f i t s , b u t also s u g g e s t s
resenting t h e diverse interests o f local p e o p l e , t h a t t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r f a i l u r e rests w i t h t h e
and concerns that the 'core groups' that drive l o c a l c o m m u n i t y itself. It is o n l y a s m a l l s t e p
initiatives do not necessarily represent the from this logic t o a rationality t h a t justifies t h e
interests o f t h e w i d e r c o m m u n i t y . Issues of w i t h d r a w a l o f state aid for d e v e l o p m e n t from
accountability and power, and of the extent certain ' u n e c o n o m i c ' localities. T h i s prospect
t o w h i c h different sectors o f a ' c o m m u n i t y ' was floated by an Australian economist,
are e n g a g e d in active participation, have b e e n Gordon Forth, in 2000, following the logic
raised b y a n u m b e r o f o t h e r commentators that ' m a n y o f these t o w n s are g o i n g t o g o i n t o
(see E d w a r d s e t a l , 2 0 0 0 , 2 0 0 3 ; S t o r e y , 1 9 9 9 ) o n - g o i n g decline and the population will n o t
a n d are discussed further in t h e n e x t chapter. only b e c o m e smaller b u t p o o r e r a n d increas-
There a r e also s i g n s t h a t the shifting of ingly disadvantaged' (Gearing and B e h , 2000).
responsibility for rural d e v e l o p m e n t from the Although the comments provoked a fierce
state to local communities is creating an r e a c t i o n at t h e t i m e , t h e c o m p l e t e w i t h d r a w a l
uneven geography o f r e g e n e r a t i o n , as some o f t h e s t a t e from r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t r e s p o n s i -
c o m m u n i t i e s are b e t t e r able t o initiate projects b i l i t i e s i n t h e least f a v o u r a b l e r e g i o n s would
o r t o b i d c o m p e t i t i v e l y for g o v e r n m e n t funds not be too m u c h of a divergence from the
t h a n o t h e r s ( E d w a r d s e t al., 2 0 0 0 ; J o n e s and r e c e n t trajectory o f rural d e v e l o p m e n t policy.
Summary
A n e w p a r a d i g m h a s e m e r g e d i n r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d r e g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e last q u a r t e r -
century, that has replaced a previous emphasis o n t o p - d o w n , state-led, d e v e l o p m e n t t h r o u g h
large-scale infrastructure projects a n d industrialization, w i t h a b o t t o m - u p a p p r o a c h based o n
e n d o g e n o u s d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e n e w a p p r o a c h seeks t o r e g e n e r a t e rural areas b y e n h a n c i n g a n d
a d d i n g value to local resources, b o t h physical a n d h u m a n , according to t h e priorities a n d
p r e f e r e n c e s o f t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i t y . A s s u c h it h a s b e e n s t r o n g l y a d v o c a t e d as b o t h a f o r m o f
e m p o w e r m e n t o f rural c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d a step towards m o r e sustainable e c o n o m i c
d e v e l o p m e n t . H o w e v e r , b o t t o m - u p , o r e n d o g e n o u s , r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t is n o t a p a n a c e a f o r all
r u r a l ills. N o t all r u r a l l o c a l i t i e s a r e e q u a l l y a b l e t o r e g e n e r a t e t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h t h e
e n h a n c e m e n t o f t h e i r e n d o g e n o u s r e s o u r c e s , a n d n o t all r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s a r e e q u a l l y
e q u i p p e d t o c o m p e t e successfully for e x t e r n a l f u n d i n g a n d s u p p o r t . A s s u c h , t h e p a r a d i g m
shift i n r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t c a n , i n f a c t , b e a r g u e d t o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
a n e w geography of u n e v e n rural development.
15 8
Further Reading
An o v e r v i e w o f t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i ce in rural d e v e l o p m e n t , w i th E u r o p e a n c a s e s t u d i e s , is
p r o v i d e d b y M a l c o l m Moseley , Rural Development: Principles and Practice (Sage , 2003) .
Fo r m o re o n t he E U 's L E A D ER p r o g r a m m e s e e t he t h e m e d i s s u e o f Sociologia Ruralis
f r om A p r il 2 0 0 0 , w h i c h i n c l u d e s p a p e r s w i th s t u d i e s o f L E A D ER in Italy, S p a i n , F r a n c e ,
G e r m a n y a n d t he U K. F u r t h er m a t e r i a l o n f a r m e r s ' m a r k e ts in t he U K c a n b e f o u n d in
L e w is H o l l o w a y a n d M o y a K n e a f s e y , ' R e a d i n g t he s p a c e s o f t he f a r m e r s ' m a r k e t: a c a s e
s t u d y f r om t he U n i t e d K i n g d o m ', Sociologia Ruralis, volum e 40 , page s 2 8 5 - 2 8 9 (2000) .
T he q u e s t i o n o f s m a l l t o w n r e g e n e r a t i o n is d i s c u s s e d f r om a British p e r s p e c t i v e b y Bill
E d w a r d s , M a rk G o o d w i n a n d M i c h a e l W o o d s , ' C i t i z e n s h i p , c o m m u n i t y a n d p a r t i c i p a t i on
in s m a l l t o w n s : a c a s e s t u d y o f r e g e n e r a t i o n p a r t n e r s h i p s ' , in R. Imrie a n d M. R a c o ( e d s ) ,
Urban Renaissance: New Labour, Community and Urban Policy (Polic y P r e s s , 2 0 0 3 ) ;
a n d f r om a n A u s t r a l i an p e r s p e c t i v e b y L y n da H e r b e r t - C h e s h i r e , T r a n s l a t i ng policy :
p o w e r a n d a c t i o n in A u s t r a l i a 's c o u n t ry t o w n s ' , Sociologia Ruralis, volume 43 , page s
4 5 4 - 4 7 3 (2003) .
Websites
I n f o r m a t i on a b o u t t he E u r o p e a n U n i o n 's p r o g r a m m e s fo r r e g i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d rural
d e v e l o p m e n t c a n b e f o u n d o n t he E U 's w e b s i t e . D e t a i l s a b o u t O b j e c t i v e s 1 a n d 2 a re a t
e u r o p a . e u . i n t / c o m m / r e g i o n a l _ p o l i c y / i n d e x _ e n . h t m ; d e t a i l s a b o u t L E A D E R+ a re a t
e u r o p a . e u . i n t / c o m m / a g r i c u l t u r e / r u r / l e a d e r p l u s / i n d e x _ e n . h t m . W e b r e s o u r c e s a re a l s o
a v a i l a b l e fo r f a r m e r s ' m a r k e ts in t he U K ( w w w . f a r m e r s m a r k e t s . n e t ) a n d t he U S
( w w w . l o c a l h a r v e s t . c o m / f a r m e r s - m a r k e t s ) , a n d fo r t he N a t i o n a l M a in S t r e e t P r o g r a m
(www.mainst.org) .
15 9
11 '
Rural Governance
Introduction
T h e structures through w h i c h rural areas are governed vary b e t w e e n countries

depending on the constitutional framework, the d o m i n a n t political ideology and
historical precedent. T h e U n i t e d States and France, for instance, have strong
government institutions at the c o m m u n i t y scale that enjoy considerable a u t o n o m y
and authority to adopt policies that reflect local circumstances and local opinion.
In contrast, local government in N e w Zealand and the U K has far less a u t o n o m y
and far fewer responsibilities, and is m u c h m o r e strongly directed in its actions and
policies by the national-level central state. These differences are important to
students of rural societies, as they will inform decisions about at w h i c h scale to
examine policy-making and responses to rural change, and also d e t e r m i n e the
extent to w h i c h responses to restructuring are developed from within rural areas or
are imposed from outside.
Despite the different administrative structures, however, rural local
government has in most countries b e e n subject itself to significant change in recent
decades. T h e nature and timing of these changes will again vary w i t h the national
context, but in broad terms, rural government has moved t h r o u g h a transition from
a paternalist era in the early twentieth century, to a statist era in the m i d - t w e n t i e t h
century, to a n e w era of 'governance at the t u r n of the twenty-first century. This
transition has b o t h reflected and been part of rural restructuring, and has important
implications for the formulation and implementation of rural policy, the regulation
of rural societies, economies and environments, and the distribution of power
within the countryside. This chapter explores these themes by first briefly detailing
the transition and then focusing o n the n e w structure of rural governance, its
characteristics and the issues that it raises.
Rural governance
From Paternalism to Governance o n w e a l t h a n d p o s i t i o n . B e c a u s e illiteracy
Historically, t h e distribution o f p o w e r w i t h i n rate s w e r e h i g h c o m p a r e d to t o w n s a l o n g
rural societies has b e e n d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e t he c o a s t , m e n o b t a i n e d p o s i t i o n s o f pro-

m i n e n c e b a s e d o n thei r charismati c leader -
control o f resources, a n d particularly by t h e
shi p skills a n d e c o n o m i c i n f l u e n c e . T h u s ,
control o f land. In an e c o n o m y based on
l a r ge l a n d o w n e r s , loca l m e r c h a n t s a n d
primary production, land ownership was the
lan d s p e c u l a t o r s b e c a m e t he m a g i s t r a t e s ,
k e y t o e c o n o m i c w e a l t h , a n d also b r o u g h t i n
(p. 1 2 7 )
w o r k e r s a n d t e n a n t s , w h o i n m a n y cases w e r e
dependent on the landowner for both
employment and accommodation. Wealth, in Paternalism meant more than just the
turn, enabled landowners to purchase other concentration of power with an economic
s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s s u c h as t r a n s p o r t , a n d a l l o w e d elite, h o w e v e r . U n d e r paternalism t h e elite
t h e m time t o participate in public service a n d t o o k responsibility for discharging m a n y of
g o v e r n m e n t . L a n d a n d w e a l t h also afforded the conventional functions of government
status i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the popular dis- t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n private c h a n n e l s . It w a s t h e
courses that informally set the rules of l a n d o w n e r s a n d business o w n e r s w h o devel-
rural leadership. A n d status, t i m e a n d w e a l t h oped t h e local infrastructure and led eco-
all p e r m i t t e d access t o t h e exclusive clubs, nomic development. They provided housing
private parties a n d social n e t w o r k s through and employment, and the more benevolent
w h i c h politicking and patronage took place e n d o w e d schools a n d hospitals, a n d s u p p o r t e d
(Woods, 1997). local charities. T h e role o f t h e state, i n c l u d i n g
In Europe, t h e structure of land ownership that o f local government, was therefore
was t h e legacy o f feudalism. T h e families w h o limited.
o w n e d the majority of the land and formed By the mid-twentieth century, paternalism
the leadership class i n r u r a l s o c i e t y at t h e w a s b e c o m i n g m o r e difficult t o s u s t a i n . T h e
beginning of the twentieth century were pre- aristocratic elite in E u r o p e b e g a n t o decline
dominantly t h e aristocratic descendants of in b o t h n u m b e r a n d wealth a n d started to
feudal barons, together with a number of withdraw from their role in local political
industrial capitalists w h o h a d b o u g h t l a n d i n leadership (Woods, 1997). Elements of pater-
o r d e r t o a c q u i r e t h e s t a t u s a n d p o w e r t h a t it nalistic culture persisted and communities
brought. T h e European settlement o f rural t u r n e d t o large farmers t o provide leadership
N o r t h A m e r i c a , Australia a n d N e w Zealand, a n d a s s u m e t h e role o f ' s q u i r e ' ( N e w b y et al.,
in contrast, was supposed t o b e a m o r e egali- 1978). However, neither the new farming
tarian endeavour. Yet, h e r e too, the entre- elite n o r t h e m e r c h a n t s a n d professionals w h o
preneurs who developed the mines and already f o r m e d the dominant elite i n rural
established the largest farms and ranches small t o w n s , h a d t h e resources t o p r o v i d e t h e
rapidly c a m e t o d o m i n a t e . As M a t t s o n (1997) kind of private g o v e r n m e n t that h a d charac-
observes, in frontier regions terized paternalism. Instead they exercised

their p o w e r t h r o u g h t h e m a c h i n e r y o f local
a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u re o f loca l l e a d e r - government, whose offices they dominated

s h i p w a s t he a s c r i b e d i n f l u e n c e base d (see B o x 1 1 . 1 ) .
16 1
Box 11.1 The changing rural power structure in

Somerset, England
In 1 9 0 6 , t h e 6 7 m e m b e r s o f S o m e r s e t C o u n t y C o u n c i l , in s o u t h - w e s t E n g l a n d , i n c l u d e d
2 6 l a n d o w n e r s a n d a t leas t e i g h t f a r m e r s . O f t h e 2 2 c o u n t y a l d e r m e n , 15 w e r e s i g n i f i-
can t l a n d o w n e r s . The d o m i n a n c e o f t h is l a r g e l y a r i s t o c r a t i c , l a n d - o w n i n g e l i t e wa s
t y p i c a l o f m o s t o f r u r al E n g l a n d a t t h e t i m e , a n d r e s t e d o n t h r e e s o u r c e s o f p o w e r : t h e
c o n t r o l o f resources , m o s t n o t a b l y land; the exercis e o f patronag e an d influence
t h r o u g h a n e x c l u s i v e n e t w o r k b u i lt o n k i n, h u n t i n g a n d c o u n t r y h o u s e p a r t i e s ; a n d a
'discours e o f t h e c o u n t ry g e n t l e m a n ' w h i c h p o s i t i o n e d t h e g e n t r y as t h e superior s o f
t h e r u r al p o p u l a t i o n a n d h e n c e a s t h e n a t u r a l l e a d e r s o f r u r al s o c i e t y .
T he p o w e r o f t h e e l i t e , h o w e v e r , w a s e r o d e d a f t e r t h e First W o r ld W a r b y d e a t h
d u t i e s a n d r e c e s s i o n t h a t p r o m p t e d t h e s a l e o f l a n d a n d l e d t o a r i s t o c r a t ic families
w i t h d r a w i ng f r o m l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n s o r e v e n l e a v i n g t h e c o u n t y a l t o g e t h e r . T h e i r
p l a c e w a s t a k e n b y a n e w e l i t e o f s m a l l f a r m e r s , t r a d e rs a n d r u r al c o m m u n i t y l e a d e r s
s u c h a s p o s t m a s t e r s , c l e r g y a n d d o c t o r s , s u p p o r t e d b y t h e t w i n d i s c o u r s e s o f t h e ' a g r a r-
i a n c o m m u n i t y ' a n d t h e O r g a n i c c o m m u n i t y ' t h a t p o s i t i o n e d f a r m e rs a n d v i s i b l e c o m -
m u n i ty f i g u r e s r e s p e c t i v e l y a s t h e a p p r o p r i a te l e a d e r s o f r u r al g o v e r n m e n t . By 1 9 3 5 ,
t h e 7 4 c o u n t y councillors i n c l u d e d 1 2 smal l f a r m e r s , a t leas t 15 c o u n c i l l o rs f r om c o m -
m e r c i a l b a c k g r o u n d s , a n d a r e d u c e d g r o u p o f 1 7 s i g n i f i c a n t l a n d o w n e r s . F a r m e rs d o m -
i n a t e d p a r i s h c o u n c i l s a n d r u r al d i s t r i ct c o u n c i l s , w h i l s t m e r c h a n t s d o m i n a t e d t o w n a n d
b o r o u g h c o u n c i l s in t h e c o u n t y .
D u r i ng t h e las t q u a r t e r o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , S o m e r s e t a g a i n u n d e r w e n t s i g n i f i -
c a n t s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c r e s t r u c t u r i n g, i n c l u d i ng m o s t n o t a b l y t h e i n - m i g r a t i on o f a
l a r ge m i d d l e clas s p o p u l a t i o n w i t h l i t t le i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e i m a g i n e d O r g a n i c c o m -
m u n i t y' a n d m o t i v a t e d b y a v e r y d i f f e r e n t d i s c o u r s e o f p l a c e in t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
r u r a l i t y. As s u c h t h e n e w m i d d l e clas s r e s i d e n t s d i d n o t f e e l r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e e x i s t -
i n g e l i t e s a n d b e g a n t o c o m p e t e t h e m s e l v e s f o r p o s i t i o n s in l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t . In 1 9 9 5 ,
only t w o o f the 57 member s o f Somerse t Count y Counci l w e r e f r om t he 'lande d
g e n t r y ', f o u r m o r e w e r e f a r m e rs b u t n i n e w e r e t e a c h e r s o r e x - t e a c h e r s a n d t e n w e r e
o r h a d b e e n e m p l o y e d e l s e w h e r e in t h e p u b l ic s e c t o r . T h e o l d e r e l i t e s , h o w e v e r , c o n -
t i n u e d t o h a v e a g r e a t e r p r e s e n c e in a p p o i n t e d p o s i t i o n s i n l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t , i n c l u d -
i n g a s m a g i s t r a t e s a n d o n t h e l o c a l h e a l t h a u t h o r i ty a n d N a t i o n a l P a r k b o a r d s . As s u c h ,
t h e l o c a l p o w e r s t r u c t u re in S o m e r s e t h a d m o v e d f r o m d o m i n a n c e b y a s i n g l e , c l o s e d
a n d e x c l u s i v e e l i t e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t o a f r a g m e n t e d s t r u c t u re w i t h
c o m p e t i n g mini-elites a t t he end .
For more see Michael Woods (1997) Discourses of power and rurality: local politics in Somerset in the
20th century. Political Geography, 16, 453-478.
The state, m o s t notably in the shape of d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f r u r a l s o c i e t y after t h e e l i t i s m

l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t , t h u s e x p a n d e d its a c t i v i t y of paternalism. Oliveira Baptista (1995), for
i n r u r a l a r e a s . H o w e v e r , t h e n e w statist era example, notes that the introduction of
was characterized by a fundamental contra- democratic local government in Portugal
diction. O n the one hand, the expansion of f o l l o w i n g t h e e n d o f t h e Salazar d i c t a t o r s h i p i n
e l e c t e d l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t w a s r e p r e s e n t e d as a 1974 'gave citizens t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o o p p o s e
16 2
Rural governance
those holding economic control over the about the growing cost of state welfare
territories in t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f local areas' provision, public o p p o s i t i o n t o h i g h rates o f
(p. 3 1 9 ) , a n d h e l p e d t o c r e a t e a basis t h r o u g h taxation, the inefficiency of state-owned
w h i c h rural decline could b e addressed. In enterprises, and the p o w e r of public sector
c o u n t r i e s s u c h as t h e U K , F r a n c e a n d the trade unions; and the election of ' N e w R i g h t '
U n i t e d States, this a p p a r e n t democratization governments in the 1980s c o m m i t t e d to an
i n v o l v e d n o t j u s t l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t , b u t also ideology o f t h e ' m i n i m a l state', e m p o w e r i n g
the participation of elected farmer representa- individuals, active citizenship a n d t h e e n g a g e -
tives o n the various bodies responsible for ment of business knowledge. At a second
delivering agricultural policy. level, t h e processes o f social a n d economic
Y e t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e statist e r a a l s o r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n r u r a l areas also undermined
involved an unprecedented degree of central- e l e m e n t s o f t h e statist s t r u c t u r e a n d c r e a t e d a
ization, and reflected the n e e d of the state rationale for r e f o r m . T h i s has b e e n advanced
to intervene in rural areas in support of through five key changes (Woods and
capitalist economic activity. A s detailed in Goodwin, 2003):
earlier c h a p t e r s (see C h a p t e r s 4 , 9 a n d 10), this
included actions to guarantee agricultural T h e scaling b a c k o f state activities in rural
markets a n d prices; to absorb risk by subsi- government, including deregulation in
dizing agricultural investment and modern- s e c t o r s s u c h as a g r i c u l t u r e a n d t r a n s p o r t ,
ization; t o e n s u r e a stable supply o f e n e r g y the privatization of state-owned agencies
and resources through nationalized indus- and companies, and the engagement of
tries; to protect agricultural land through private and voluntary sector organizations
land use d e v e l o p m e n t controls; to promote in local g o v e r n m e n t functions.
leisure c o n s u m p t i o n b y regulating for rural T h e shifting o f responsibilities f r o m the
leisure use; a n d t o regulate p o p u l a t i o n m o v e - state t o 'active citizens' a n d t h e engage-
m e n t by investing in rural development. To m e n t of communities through partnership
deliver these objectives, new state bodies w o r k i n g o n a l o c a l scale.
were created - including agricultural inter- T h e greater coordination of rural policy
vention boards, national park and forestry delivery, i n c l u d i n g t h e a m a l g a m a t i o n of
services, conservation authorities, state- government departments and agencies
o w n e d utility c o m p a n i e s a n d rural d e v e l o p - and formation of partnerships between
m e n t agencies - that operated in rural space different tiers a n d sectors o f g o v e r n m e n t .
alongside the structure of elected local g o v - T h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f s o m e specifically r u r a l
e r n m e n t , b u t usually w i t h o u t the democratic institutions in favour o f regional bodies
participation o f local people. e n c o m p a s s i n g b o t h rural a n d u r b a n areas.
T h e statist e r a w a s i t s e l f b r o u g h t t o a c l o s e Reforms to elected local government,
by a combination o f pressures from within including changes to t h e powers, finances
and outside rural space. A t one level, the a n d territories o f local councils.
r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f rural g o v e r n m e n t has been

part of a more extensive process of state Collectively, these changes have b e e n a r g u e d
restructuring driven by economic and ideo- to represent a transition from a system of
logical factors. T h e s e i n c l u d e d t h e changing 'rural g o v e r n m e n t ' to o n e of'rural governance'
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f capitalist p r o d u c t i o n ; c o n c e r n s (see B o x 1 1 . 2 ) .
16 3
Box 11.2 Key term
G o v e r n a n c e : N e w style s o f g o v e r n i n g t h a t o p e r a t e n o t o n l y t h r o u g h t h e a p p a r a t u s e s
o f t h e s o v e r e i g n stat e b u t als o t h r o u g h a r a n g e o f i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s, a g e n -
cies , p a r t n e r s h i p s a n d i n i t i a t i v es in w h i c h t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e p u b l i c , p r i v a te
a n d v o l u n t a ry s e c t o r s b e c o m e b l u r r e d. T h e a c t o r s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s e n g a g e d in g o v -
e r n a n c e e x h i b i t d i f f e r i ng d e g r e e s o f s t a b i l i ty a n d l o n g e v i t y , t a k e a v a r i e t y o f f o r ms a n d
o p e r a t e a t a r a n g e o f scale s a b o v e , b e l o w a n d c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h a t o f t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e .
The Characteristics of Rural Governance T he s i g n s a re tha t t h e s e t a n g l e d hierar-

T h e c o n c e p t o f ' g o v e r n a n c e ' w a s first d e v e l - chie s which increasingl y gover n rural
o p e d by u r b a n researchers in the 1980s w h o area s in a c o m p l e x w e b o f i n t e r d e p e n -

d e n c e , a re n o w t he f a v o u r e d m e c h a n i s m s
observed h o w the authority of elected local
for rural polic y f o r m u l a t i on a n d servic e
g o v e r n m e n t was b e i n g c o m p r o m i s e d by the
deliver y a t e a c h leve l f r om t he loca l to t he
increasing involvement of the private sector
E u r o p e a n . Official polic y s t a t e m e n t s , a t all
in urban policy-making and delivery, and
levels , e m p h a s i z e t he role o f p a r t n e r s h i ps
the establishment of non-elected agencies
a n d n e t w o r ks b e y o n d t he formal structures
with responsibility for areas s u c h as eco- o f government . (Goodwin , 1 9 9 8 , p. 6 )
n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t (Jessop, 1995; R h o d e s ,
1996; Stoker, 2 0 0 0 ) . F o r a w h i l e , this system T h e shift f r o m g o v e r n m e n t t o g o v e r n a n c e ,
of 'new local governance' was implicitly however, implies m o r e than just a change in
t r e a t e d as a n i n t r i n s i c a l l y u r b a n phenome- t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k . It also involves a
non. Yet, almost unnoticed, the same c h a n g e in t h e style, r h e t o r i c a n d discourse o f
processes w e r e also at w o r k in r u r a l areas. B y g o v e r n i n g . T h e s t a t e is n o l o n g e r a s s u m e d t o
the mid-1990s, a landscape of rural gover- have a m o n o p o l y on governing, but rather
nance had e m e r g e d that included n o t only t h e r e is a b l u r r i n g o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of
the established institutions of government, t h e s t a t e a n d o t h e r s e c t o r s . T h e s t a t e is a l s o n o
b u t also a p l e t h o r a o f p a r t n e r s h i p s , c o m m u - l o n g e r p o s i t i o n e d as t h e p r o v i d e r o f p u b l i c
nity initiatives, i n t e r - g o v e r n m e n t a l organi- g o o d s , b u t is c a s t as a f a c i l i t a t o r t h a t e n a b l e s
zations, business forums and co-funding c o m m u n i t i e s t o g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s. Similarly,
arrangements, including, for example, t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f g o v e r n a n c e is p e r c e i v e d t o
LEADER action groups in Europe (see c o m e from the direct participation o f citizens
Chapter 10) and watershed management and stakeholders in governing activities,
partnerships in the United States. As rather than from the electoral m a n d a t e of tra-
Goodwin observed, d i t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t (see also B o x 1 1 . 3 ) .
Box 11.3 Five propositions about governance
1 G o v e r n a n c e r e f e r s t o a c o m p l e x s e t o f i n s t i t u t i o ns a n d a c t o r s t h a t a r e d r a w n f r o m
b u t als o b e y o n d g o v e r n m e n t .
2 G o v e r n a n c e i d e n t i f i e s t h e b l u r r i ng o f b o u n d a r i e s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r t a c k l i ng
s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c issues .
16 4
Rural governance
3 G o v e r n a n c e i d e n t i f i e s t h e p o w e r d e p e n d e n c e i n v o l v e d in t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
i n s t i t u t i o ns i n v o l v e d in c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n .
4 G o v e r n a n c e is a b o u t a u t o n o m o u s s e l f - g o v e r n i n g n e t w o r k s o f a c t o r s .
5 G o v e r n a n c e r e c o g n i z e s t h e c a p a c i t y t o g e t t h i n g s d o n e w h i c h d o e s n o t res t o n t h e
p o w e r o f g o v e r n m e n t t o c o m m a n d o r us e its a u t h o r i t y. It see s g o v e r n m e n t a s a b l e
t o us e n e w t o o l s t o s t e e r a n d g u i d e .
From Gerry Stoker (1996) Governance as theory: five propositions mimeo, quoted in Mark Goodwin
(1998) The governance of rural areas: some emerging research issues and agendas. Journal of Rural
Studies, 14, 5-12.
D r a w i n g t o g e t h e r these ideas, e v i d e n c e for in E n g l a n d o r W a l e s is likely to revea l

the e m e r g e n c e o f rural governance can be L E A D ER groups , Loca l Agend a 21
identified a r o u n d t w o key interlocking c o m - g r o u p s , t r a i n i ng p a r t n e r s h i p s , c o m m u n i t y

e n t e r p r i s e o r d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s , civic
ponents: partnership working, and commu-
f o r a, a n d rural d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s ,
nity e n g a g e m e n t a n d active citizenship.
a s w e l l a s a p l e t h o ra o f g r o u p s f o c u s e d
o n marketing, produc t valorization, sus -
Partnerships t a i n a b le development , transport or
P a r t n e r s h i p w o r k i n g is c o r e t o t h e i d e a of t o u r i sm - all c o n s t i t u t e d a s s o m e f o rm o f
governance and m a y b e manifest in a n u m b e r p a r t n e r s h i p, b r i n g i ng t o g e t h e r a r a n g e o f
of ways. ' W o r k i n g in partnership' can mean organizations , ofte n f r om acros s t he
that organizations h o l d liaison m e e t i n g s o r are public, p r i v a te an d v o l u n t a ry sectors .
i n v o l v e d i n c o n s u l t a t i v e f o r u m s , t h a t t h e r e is ( E d w a r ds e t a l . , 2 0 0 0 , p. 1 )
co-funding o f a n initiative, o r that t w o or
m o r e organizations are w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r o n a Three types of partnership in particular
specific p r o j e c t . A t t h e m o s t c o n c r e t e level are have gained p r o m i n e n c e w i t h i n rural gover-
'partnership organizations', defined by n a n c e . First, t h e r e are strategic partnerships
E d w a r d s e t al. ( 2 0 0 0 ) as 'a f o r m a l o r s e m i - f o r m a l t h a t a r e a i m e d at c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e p o l i c i e s a n d
b o d y consisting of t w o or m o r e partners but initiatives o f t h e v a r i o u s state agencies o p e r a t -
w i t h an identifiable financial a n d administra- i n g i n a rural area, i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o p e r a t i n g
tive s t r u c t u r e a n d a n i d e n t i t y distinct from at d i f f e r e n t scales o r i n d i f f e r e n t sectors. In
that o f its c o n s t i t u e n t partners, w h i c h has s o m e cases s t r a t e g i c p a r t n e r s h i p s also i n v o l v e
b e e n c r e a t e d t o c o m b i n e t h e r e s o u r c e s o f its other stakeholder groups, such as farmers'
constituent partners to achieve a capacity unions, business confederations and voluntary
to act w i t h regard to specified objectives' sector representatives. T h e National Rural
( p p . 2 - 3 ) . A r r a n g e m e n t s o f all t h e s e t y p e s h a v e Development Partnership (NRDP) in the
proliferated in rural areas, such that, as U n i t e d S t a t e s is a p r i m e e x a m p l e o f a s t r a t e g i c
E d w a r d s e t al. n o t e : p a r t n e r s h i p . F o r m e d i n 1 9 9 0 , t h e N P J D P is a
network of over 40 federal agencies and
C l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t he organization s national organizations with the aim of identi-
o p e r a t i n g in a n y s m a l l t o w n o r rural district fying programme duplication and gaps in
16 5
service t o rural areas, b u i l d i n g collaboration indeed, partnership working has b e c o m e a

and coordination b e t w e e n agencies, dissemi- requirement of many rural development
nating information and representing rural programmes. Westholm et al. (1999), for
interests in the policy-making process. It example, surveyed local rural development
o p e r a t e s o n t w o scales w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l p a r t - partnerships in E u r o p e , m a n y o f w h i c h are t h e
nership, the National Rural Development p r o d u c t of E U rural d e v e l o p m e n t initiatives
Council, supported by 36 State Rural (see C h a p t e r 1 0 ) . T h e y reveal t h e w i d e s p r e a d
D e v e l o p m e n t C o u n c i l s w h i c h are themselves application of the principle of partnership, but
partnerships o f state-level agencies a n d key significant variations in t h e f o r m a n d s t r u c -
private and not-for-profit sector stakeholders ture of partnership organizations that result
( R a d i n et al., 1 9 9 6 ) . from t h e different political c o n t e x t s a n d t r a d i -
Secondly, there are delivery partnerships t i o n s o f civil s o c i e t y in t h e m e m b e r states.
that are f o r m e d at a local level t o manage Furthermore, Westholm e t al. i l l u s t r a t e that
the implementation of a particular policy or whilst the E U has b e e n a d r i v i n g force in
initiative. Local g o v e r n m e n t will n o r m a l l y b e promoting partnership working in Europe,
a key partner, but other partners may include partnerships have increasingly become a
the appropriate funding body, the chamber of feature o f domestic rural d e v e l o p m e n t pro-
c o m m e r c e , local d e v e l o p m e n t or enterprise grammes (see B o x 11.4). As such, Edwards
agencies, civic a n d residents' associations a n d e t al. ( 2 0 0 0 ) r e c o r d e d t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f p a r t -
g r o u p s r e p r e s e n t i n g specific sections of the nerships w i t h a rural regeneration remit o p e r -
c o m m u n i t y , s u c h as y o u n g p e o p l e . D e l i v e r y ating in three neighbouring counties in the
partnerships are often involved with the U K increased from fewer than 20 in 1993 to
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f rural d e v e l o p m e n t projects; over 140 in 1999 (Figure 11.1).
Box 11.4 Rural Challenge
R u r al Challeng e wa s a regeneratio n i n i t i a t i ve r un by the R u r al Developmen t

C o m m i s s i o n in E n g l a n d w h i c h f u n d e d 2 4 l o c a l p r o j e c t s in f o u r a n n u a l f u n d i n g c o m p e -
t i t i o ns f r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 1 9 9 7 . T h e c o m p e t i t i o n h a d t w o s t a g e s , w i t h o n e s e l e c t e d t o go
f o r w a rd f r o m e a c h o f 1 6 c o u n t i e s e l i g i b l e t o p a r t i c i p a te in e a c h y e a r o f t h e pro-
g r a m m e , f r o m w h i c h si x p r o j e c t s w e r e f u n d e d a n n u a l l y . As J o n e s a n d L i t t le (2000 )
r e c o r d , t h e 1 8 p r o j e c t s f u n d e d in 1 9 9 4 - 7 r a n g e d in v a l u e f r o m a 1 . 5 m i l l i on i n i t i a t i ve
to p r o v i de mobile i n f o r m a t i o n, leisure an d t r a i n i ng f a c i l i t i es f o r r u r al y o u t h in
S o m e r s e t , t o a 1 3 m i l l i on d e v e l o p m e n t o f a b u s i n e s s p a r k a n d Ec o T e c h c e n t r e at
S w a f f h a m in N o r f o l k. T h e c o m p e t i t i o n r u l es s t i p u l a t e d t h a t a l l a p p l i c a t i o n s m u s t b e
m a d e b y p a r t n e r s h i p s i n v o l v i ng p u b l i c , p r i v a te a n d c o m m u n i t y s e c t o r p a r t n e r s . T h e
s t r e n g t h o f p a r t n e r s h i p w o r k i ng w a s a l s o p a r t o f t h e c r i t e r ia u s e d in e v a l u a t i n g the
a p p l i c a t i o n s , w i t h c r e d i t g i v e n f o r b i ds t h a t i n c l u d e d ' t he h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i on o f p r i v a te
secto r i n v e s t m e n t ' (p. 175) , a n d t h a t i n v o l v e d a b r o a d r a n g e o f p a r t n e r s . As the
p r o g r a m m e g u i d a n c e s t a t e d , R u r al C h a l l e n g e a i m e d ' to s t i m u l a t e o r g a n i s a t i o n s no t
n o r m a l ly i n v o l v e d in r u r al r e g e n e r a t i o n t o j o i n in t h e l o c a l p a r t n e r s h i p s . T h e b i d m u s t
s h o w t h a t a w i d e r a n g e o f i n t e r e s t s h a s b e e n c o n s u l t e d a n d t h a t t h e k e y p a r t n e rs f r o m
t he p r i v a t e , p u b l ic a n d v o l u n t a ry s e c t o r s , e . g . l o c a l e m p l o y e r s , t h e police , schools ,
c o l l e g e s , t h e h e a l t h a u t h o r i t y, w i t h a d i r e c t i n t e r e s t in t h e b i d a r e i n v o l v e d a s p a r t n e rs
a n d c o m m i t t e d t o t h e p r o p o s a l s ' ( q u o t e d in J o n e s a n d L i t t l e, p. 1 7 6 ) .
16 6
Rural governance
H o w e v e r , J o n e s a n d L i t t le d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f p a r t n e r s h i p b u i l d i ng w a s
f a r f r o m s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d. T h e l i m i t ed siz e o f t h e r u r al p r i v a te s e c t o r a n d h i g h d e p e n -
d e n c e o n s m a l l e n t e r p r i s e s m e a n t t h a t it w a s o f t e n d i f f i c u lt t o e n r o l p r i v a te s e c t o r p a r t-
n e r s , a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y, p r i v a te s e c t o r f i n a n c e . C o m m u n i t y g r o u p s a l s o f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d
t h a t t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i on w a s c o m p r o m i s e d b y a l a c k o f r e s o u r c e s . T h u s , m o s t p a r t n e r-
s h i p s in t h e p r o g r a m m e w e r e d o m i n a t e d b y p u b l ic s e c t o r i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n c l u d i ng t h e
l o c a l c o u n t y a n d d i s t r i ct c o u n c i l s . In a f e w cases , ' f a l s e p a r t n e r s h i p s ' w e r e c r e a t e d w i t h
s o m e ' p a r t n e r s' p a r t i c i p a t i ng in n a m e o n l y t o e n a b l e t h e b i d t o m e e t t h e programme
c r i t e r i a.
For more see Owain Jones and Jo Little (2000) Rural challenge(s): partnership and new rural
governance. Journal of Rural Studies, 16, 171-183.
16 0
199 2 199 3 199 4 199 5 199 6 199 7 199 8 199 9

Yea r
Figure 11. 1 Numbe r o f rural regeneratio n partnerships operating in Ceredigion , Powy s

an d Shrophire, England , 1992-199 9
Source: Edwards e t al. , 200 0
D e l i v e r y p a r t n e r s h i p s a r e also i n c r e a s i n g l y States (Swanson, 2001), and through the

employed in the implementation of environ- Landcare programme in Australia (Lockie,
mental management schemes. T h e involve- 1999b; Sobels e t a l . , 2 0 0 1 ) .
m e n t o f all s t a k e h o l d e r s , i n c l u d i n g g o v e r n m e n t Thirdly, consultative partnerships operate o n
agencies, environmental groups, resource a r a n g e o f scales as m e c h a n i s m s f o r e n g a g i n g
u s e r s a n d l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s , is s e e n as an communities in the governing process, as
i m p o r t a n t step in creating shared responsibil- discussed below.
ity a n d b u i l d i n g consensus in tackling envir-
o n m e n t p r o b l e m s . Partnerships for integrated Community engagement and active
ecosystem and watershed management have citizenship
b e e n established in n u m b e r o f parts o f rural T h e promotion of community participation
America, particularly in the western United as a c e n t r a l t e n e t o f g o v e r n a n c e h a s d e v e l o p e d
16 7
hand-in-hand with the rise o f community Y e t , e n g a g i n g ' t h e c o m m u n i t y ' is far from

engagement in rural development, as dis- straightforward in a n era w h e n rural c o m m u -
cussed in the previous chapter. Indeed, in nities have b e c o m e increasingly fragmented
b o t h cases, t h e d i r e c t i n v o l v e m e n t c a n b e s e e n (see Chapter 7). In some cases the local
b o t h as a n e m p o w e r m e n t o f l o c a l p e o p l e a n d c o u n c i l is e n g a g e d as t h e ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ' of
as t h e p a s s i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f r o m t h e s t a t e the community, but the wider thrust of c o m -
t o c i t i z e n s t h e m s e l v e s . T h i s is d o n e through m u n i t y e n g a g e m e n t as a p r a c t i c e m a y b e r e a d
enrolling community groups, such as resi- as a n i m p l i c i t c r i t i q u e o f t h e i n c l u s i v e n e s s o f
d e n t s ' associations, civic societies a n d village elected local government. Instead, partner-
amenity societies, in partnership organiza- ships are encouraged to enrol a range of
tions, a n d t h r o u g h t h e use o f surveys, appraisal community groups to represent a broader
exercises and public meetings to engage cross-section of the population, with some
directly w i t h local residents. p r o g r a m m e s specifically r e q u i r i n g t h a t part-
E d w a r d s (1998) traces t h e gradual a d o p t i o n ners are included that represent particular
of community engagement in the govern- g r o u p s , s u c h as y o u n g p e o p l e .
m e n t o f rural Britain f r o m t h e early 1980s Effective community engagement there-
o n w a r d s . It w a s n o t u n t i l t h e 1 9 9 0 s , h o w e v e r , fore relies on the active participation of
that the direct i n v o l v e m e n t o f local commu- members of the community. T h e promotion
n i t i e s w a s p o s i t i o n e d as a c o r e p r i n c i p l e of o f c o m m u n i t y e n g a g e m e n t is h e n c e closely
rural policy in landmark documents and l i n k e d t o t h e p r o m o t i o n o f active citizenship
e v e n t s s u c h as t h e B r i t i s h R u r a l W h i t e P a p e r s t h e d i s c o u r s e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e b o t h a right
in 1 9 9 5 / 6 (Edwards, 1998; M u r d o c h , 1997) to seek their o w n solutions to problems and a
a n d t h e Positive R u r a l Futures c o n f e r e n c e in responsibility t o b e actively involved in doing
Queensland, Australia, in 1998 (Herbert- so (Herbert-Cheshire, 2000; Parker, 2002;
Cheshire, 2000). As such, c o m m u n i t y involve- W o o d s 2 0 0 4 b ) . A t a m o d e s t level, active citi-
m e n t has b e c o m e a standard practice n o t o n l y zenship m i g h t simply m e a n voting in local
in rural d e v e l o p m e n t and regeneration initia- e l e c t i o n s o r filling i n c o m m u n i t y s u r v e y s , b u t
tives (Aigner et al., 2 0 0 1 ; E d w a r d s , 1998; it a l s o m e a n s t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f s o m e i n d i -
L a p p i n g e t al., 1 9 8 9 ) , b u t also across a r a n g e viduals to b e c o m e c o m m u n i t y leaders. T h i s
o f o t h e r areas o f rural g o v e r n a n c e including latter dimension is explicitly developed
education (Ribchester and Edwards, 1999), t h r o u g h l e a d e r s h i p t r a i n i n g s c h e m e s s u c h as
crime prevention (Yarwood and Edwards, the 'Building Rural Leaders' p r o g r a m m e in
1995), public access to the countryside Queensland and the W K . Kellogg Founda-
(Parker, 1999) a n d h o u s i n g a n d homelessness tion's R u r a l A m e r i c a Initiative in t h e U n i t e d
( C l o k e et a l . , 2 0 0 0 ) . States (see B o x 1 1 . 5 ) .
Box 11.5 Leadership training in Vermont
Environmental Partnerships in C o m m u n i t i e s (EPIC) is a regeneratio n i n i t i a t i ve in

V e r m o n t, in t h e north-easter n U n i t e d States . F o u n d e d a n d r un b y f a c u l t y a t the
U n i v e r s i t y o f V e r m o n t , t h e i n i t i a t i ve a i m s t o assis t c o m m u n i t i e s in d e v e l o p i n g s t r a t e -
gie s for sustainabl e r u r al development . Its work include s a leadershi p t r a i n i ng
16 8
Rural governance
p r o g r a m m e t h a t i n v o l v e s a t e n - w e e k serie s o f e v e n i n g m e e t i n g s a n d w e e k e n d r e t r e a t s .
In t h e w o r k s h o p s , ' p a r t i c i p a n ts r o le p l a y , p r a c t i c e c o p i n g w i t h t e n s i o n s o v e r l o c a l issue s
(suc h a s t h e s i t i n g o f a l a n d f i l l ), l e a r n h o w t o acces s r e s o u r c e s , l e a r n h o w t o g i v e a t e l e -
v i s i o n i n t e r v i e w , w r i te a pres s r e l e a s e , a n d p e r s u a d e a r e p o r t e r t o w r i te a b o u t t h e i r
w o r k' ( R i c h a r d s o n , 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 1 2 - 1 1 3 ) . T h e c o u r s e p a r t i c i p a n t s , w h o a r e n o m i n a t e d b y
e x i s t i n g l e a d e r s in r u r al c o m m u n i t i e s , a re e x p e c t e d t o r e t u rn t o t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s a n d
assum e leadershi p roles themselves .
For more see Jean Richardson (2000) Partnerships in Communities: Reweaving the Fabric of Rural
America (Island Press).
Issues Raised by Rural Governance S e c o n d l y , t h e legitimacy a n d accountability of
T h e ' n e w ' s y s t e m o f r u r a l g o v e r n a n c e is a still- n e w governance structures have b e e n ques-
evolving p h e n o m e n o n , yet researchers have tioned. Whereas elected g o v e r n m e n t institu-
already b e g u n t o raise a n u m b e r o f c o n c e r n s tions are accountable to citizens through
a b o u t its w o r k i n g s a n d its c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r elections and draw legitimacy from their
t h e distribution o f p o w e r i n rural societies. democratic mandate, the organs of gover-
T h e r e is n o t r o o m t o d i s c u s s all o f t h e issues n a n c e s u c h as p a r t n e r s h i p s d r a w legitimacy
raised i n detail h e r e , b u t six k e y issues m a y b e from the breadth of organizations involved
flagged up. and are accountable only to their partner
First, t h e r e a r e c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e exclusivity organizations a n d funders (Edwards et al.,
of t h e structures o f rural governance. Partner- 2000). Furthermore, the continuing institu-
ships a n d c o m m u n i t y e n g a g e m e n t m a y s u p e r - tions o f traditional, elected, local g o v e r n m e n t
ficially use the language o f inclusion, b u t must find n e w ways of maintaining their
t h e y c a n c o n c e n t r a t e p o w e r i n a small g r o u p legitimacy. W e l c h (2002) demonstrates t h r o u g h
o f established organizations a n d individuals. case studies o f rural local government in
M o r e marginal sections o f t h e c o m m u n i t y can A u s t r a l i a a n d N e w Z e a l a n d t h a t l e g i t i m a c y is
find themselves e x c l u d e d , e v e n if t h e y are t h e a major c o n c e r n for those involved, a n d that
i n t e n d e d f o c u s o f t h e i n i t i a t i v e . C l o k e e t al. to some extent it n o w derives from the
(2000), for e x a m p l e , describe h o w o n e p a r t - i n v o l v e m e n t o f local councils i n partnerships

and with other community groups.
n e r s h i p a i m e d at tackling homelessness i n a
rural t o w n excluded homeless people from Thirdly, the rhetoric of partnership is
participation. T h e w o r k i n g culture o f rural f r e q u e n t l y u n d e r m i n e d b y t h e unequal resources
g o v e r n a n c e c a n also b e e x c l u s i o n a r y . L i t t l e a n d o f different p a r t n e r s . C o m m u n i t y sector p a r t -
J o n e s (2000) argue that t h e emphasis o n c o m - ners often have n o t h i n g t o c o n t r i b u t e other
petition a n d private sector e n g a g e m e n t within than their time a n d opinion, whilst finding
rural governance, a n d decisions about the p r i v a t e s e c t o r i n p u t s i n r u r a l areas c a n b e
types o f initiative t o s u p p o r t w i t h i n r e g e n e r a - difficult (Edwards et al., 2 0 0 0 ; J o n e s and
tion programmes s u c h as R u r a l Challenge, Little, 2 0 0 0 ; W e l c h , 2 0 0 2 ) . Accordingly, p u b l i c
reflect and reinforce particular masculine sector partners tend to dominate. C o m m u n i t y
w o r k i n g practices a n d values. i n p u t s c a n also b e m o d e r a t e d b y t h e n e e d t o
16 9
reach consensus among partners and the partnerships o p e r a t i n g over differently defined
principle o f collective responsibility (Edwards territories, and the accountability of gover-
e t al., 2 0 0 0 ; W e s t h o l m e t a l . , 1 9 9 9 ) . n a n c e bodies t o local p e o p l e b e c o m e s further
Fourthly, partnerships and other initiatives c o n f u s e d ( E d w a r d s e t al., 2 0 0 1 ; W e l c h , 2 0 0 2 ) .
linked to particular p r o g r a m m e s or funding Finally, as t h e s t a t e h a s d i s s i p a t e d its r e s p o n -
competitions may have very short lifespans. sibilities t o ' c o m m u n i t i e s ' , s o t h e n o t i o n of
Partnerships that d o achieve greater longevity universal state p r o v i s i o n has b e e n d e n u d e d . T h e
often spend considerable time and energy on p r o v i s i o n o f c e r t a i n facilities w i t h i n a c o m m u -
simply securing their existence. As such, the nity, o r t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f u n d s f o r economic
institutional framework o f rural governance can development, may depend u p o n the capacity
b e v e r y u n s t a b l e ( E d w a r d s e t al., 2 0 0 0 , 2 0 0 1 ) . of that community to organize appropriate
Fifthly, new territories and scales of rural gover- partnerships a n d c o m p e t e for resources. T h u s ,
nance h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e e s t a b - it h a s b e e n a r g u e d , r u r a l g o v e r n a n c e is c r e a t i n g
lishment o f n e w partnerships and, in some geographical unevenness between 'partnership-
places, the restructuring of elected local rich' and 'partnership-poor' communities that
government. Problems of cooperation can can be strongly pronounced in rural areas
arise between overlapping institutions and ( E d w a r d s e t al., 2 0 0 0 , 2 0 0 1 ) .
Summary
T h e s t r u c t u r e s t h r o u g h w h i c h r u r a l areas are g o v e r n e d h a v e c h a n g e d significantly o v e r t h e

past c e n t u r y , reflecting b o t h t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f rural r e s t r u c t u r i n g a n d t h e p a t t e r n s o f state
r e s t r u c t u r i n g m o r e b r o a d l y . A n e s s e n t i a l l y p a t e r n a l i s t s y s t e m at t h e s t a r t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h
century was gradually replaced by a m o r e centralized and m o r e comprehensive structure of
local g o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h state institutions, w h i c h in t u r n has b e e n r e w o r k e d d u r i n g t h e past
t w o d e c a d e s as r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d a u t h o r i t y h a v e b e e n d i s p e r s e d t o a w i d e r n e t w o r k o f a c t o r s
f r o m b o t h w i t h i n a n d o u t s i d e t h e state in a n e w system o f rural g o v e r n a n c e . T h i s transition
has i m p a c t e d o n t h e p o w e r s t r u c t u r e o f r u r a l areas, w i t h different elites b e i n g f a v o u r e d at
different times. I n d e e d , despite t h e d e m o c r a t i c f r a m e w o r k o f elected local g o v e r n m e n t a n d
t h e l a n g u a g e o f i n c l u s i o n i n g o v e r n a n c e , all w a y s o f g o v e r n i n g i m p l i c i t l y f a v o u r s o m e v o i c e s
over others and p r o d u c e a concentration of p o w e r in line w i t h the distribution of valued
resources. T h u s , l a n d o w n e r s f o r m e d t h e elite in rural E u r o p e u n d e r paternalism, whilst w i t h
t h e n e w s t r u c t u r e o f r u r a l g o v e r n a n c e it is t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t p r o v i d e f u n d i n g a n d t h e
m a n a g e r s w h o sit o n p a r t n e r s h i p b o a r d s w h o e n j o y d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e i n f l u e n c e . T h e emerging
s y s t e m o f r u r a l g o v e r n a n c e i n p a r t i c u l a r has raised c o n c e r n s a b o u t issues o f p o w e r a n d
accountability. T h e difficulty e x p e r i e n c e d b y m a n y c o m m u n i t y a n d v o l u n t a r y s e c t o r p a r t n e r s
in participating equally w i t h public sector partners, a n d t h e absence o f a strong rural private
s e c t o r , h a v e l e d s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s t o s u g g e s t t h a t g o v e r n a n c e is l i t t l e m o r e t h a n t h e
c o n t i n u a t i o n o f o l d - s t y l e g o v e r n m e n t b y a d i f f e r e n t n a m e ( E d w a r d s e t al., 2 0 0 1 ) . Y e t , i f p o w e r
has n o t b e e n transferred u n d e r g o v e r n a n c e , responsibility certainly has b e e n . W o r k i n g in
combination with the emphasis placed o n ' b o t t o m - u p ' endogenous development
( C h a p t e r 10), t h e principles o f t h e n e w rural g o v e r n a n c e suggest that responsibility for
s h a p i n g t h e f u t u r e o f r u r a l areas has b e e n shifted f r o m t h e state t o c o m m u n i t i e s t h e m s e l v e s .
17 0
Rural governance
F o r m a n y c o m m u n i t i e s t h i s shift h a s b e e n e m p o w e r i n g , b u t , as H e r b e r t - C h e s h i r e ( 2 0 0 0 ) ,
n o t e s , c o m m u n i t i e s ' c o u l d b e (unfairly) h e l d responsible for a n y failure t o i m p r o v e t h e i r o w n
c o n d i t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e r e g a r d e d as d e f i c i e n t i n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l skills o r b e c a u s e t h e y
w e r e r e l u c t a n t t o " s e l f c h a n g e " ' (p. 2 1 0 ) .
Further Reading
A t h e m e d i s s u e o f t he Journal of Rural Studies p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 9 8 ( v o l u m e 14 , i s s u e 1) ,
is a g o o d s t a r t i ng point, w i th a n u m b e r o f p a p e r s a d d r e s s i n g c o n c e r n a s s o c i a t e d w i th
rural g o v e r n a n c e , i n c l u d i ng p a p e r s b y M a rk G o o d w i n o n T h e g o v e r n a n c e o f rural a r e a s :
s o m e e m e r g i n g r e s e a r c h i s s u e s a n d a g e n d a s ' ( p a g e s 5 - 1 2 ) , a n d Bill E d w a r d s o n
' C h a r t i ng t he d i s c o u r s e o f c o m m u n i t y a c t i o n : p e r s p e c t i v e s f r om p r a c t i ce in rural W a l e s '
( p a g e s 6 3 - 7 8 ) . T h e p a p e r s in t he j o u r n al a re p r i m a r i ly f o c u s e d o n t he U K, bu t
p e r s p e c t i v e s f r om A u s t r a l i a, N e w Z e a l a n d a n d t he U n i t e d S t a t e s r e s p e c t i v e l y c a n b e
f o u n d in L y n da H e r b e r t - C h e s h i r e , ' C o n t e m p o r a ry s t r a t e g i e s f o r rural c o m m u n i t y
d e v e l o p m e n t in A u s t r a l i a: a g o v e r n m e n t a l i t y p e r s p e c t i v e ' , Journal of Rural Studies,
v o l u m e 16 , p a g e s 2 0 3 - 2 1 5 ( 2 0 0 0 ) ; R i c h a rd W e l c h , ' L e g i t i m a cy o f rural loca l g o v e r n m e n t
in t he n e w g o v e r n a n c e e n v i r o n m e n t ' , Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 18 , p a g e s
4 4 3 - 4 5 9 ( 2 0 0 2 ) ; a n d B e r y l R a d i n e t a l . , New Governance for Rural America ( U n i v e r s i ty
of Kansa s Press , 1996) .
17 1
12
Selling the Countryside
Introduction
O n e of the most significant elements of rural restructuring has been the transition
from an economy based on production to an economy based on consumption
(Chapter 5 ) . T h e consumption-based rural economy is broad-ranging and includes
many diverse activities, from financial services through to retailing, but its
most visible component is tourism. Accurate statistics for rural tourism and its
contribution to the rural economy are difficult to find, particularly at a comparative
level. However, the significance of rural tourism can be indicated by a few
'snapshot' facts and figures:
O f all overnight domestic tourism trips in the U K in 2 0 0 1 , 23 per cent were to

countryside or village locations.
Rural tourist operations in Galway, Republic o f Ireland, received 659,000
visitors in 1999, and those in neighbouring County Clare, 310,000 visitors.
Rural tourism operators in Galway received revenues o f Irish 1 0 1 million, and
those in Clare, Irish 1 2 2 million.
T h e 81,000 visitors to rural Cochise County, Arizona, spent close to $1 million
dollars in 1994.
Over 200,000 overnight stays were made by tourists in rural areas o f Andalucia,
Spain, in 2002. T h e number of rural tourism companies in the region increased
by 50 per cent between 1999 and 2002.
There are between 15,000 and 18,000 rural tourism-related businesses in
N e w Zealand.
Whilst these figures provide a useful glimpse at the contribution of tourism in

particular rural localities, it should also be noted that the type and significance of
rural tourism varies considerably between different regions. S o m e areas, such as the
Selling the countryside
national parks o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , the E u r o p e a n Alps, the English Lake District

and the Scottish Highlands, have a l o n g history of t o u r i s m e x t e n d i n g back to the
nineteenth century. In other, m o r e traditional agricultural regions, tourism o n
a n o t i c e a b l e scale is a relatively r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e t y p e s o f
activities e n g a g e d i n b y d a y - t r i p p e r s t o r e c r e a t i o n a l sites i n t h e u r b a n - r u r a l f r i n g e
w i l l b e v e r y different f r o m t h o s e o f ' a d v e n t u r e t o u r i s t s ' i n t h e m o r e r e m o t e r e g i o n s
o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , Australia from N e w Zealand.
T h e g r o w t h o f r u r a l t o u r i s m reflects b o t h a g e n e r a l e x p a n s i o n o f t o u r i s m o f
all t y p e s , a n d a shift i n p o p u l a r i t y f r o m ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' seaside r e s o r t h o l i d a y s t o
a b r o a d e r r a n g e o f t o u r i s t e x p e r i e n c e s , w h i c h W a l m s l e y ( 2 0 0 3 ) identifies w i t h t h e
rise o f a lifestyle-led a n d l e i s u r e - o r i e n t e d society. T h e s e s o c i e t a l t r e n d s h a v e c r e a t e d
o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t r u r a l localities h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o r e s p o n d t o . I n m a n y r e g i o n s ,
t o u r i s m has b e e n p r o m o t e d as p a r t o f e n d o g e n o u s r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t s t r a t e g i e s (see
C h a p t e r 1 0 ) , s u c h t h a t W a l m s l e y o b s e r v e s t h a t t o u r i s m has c o m e t o b e s e e n as a
p a n a c e a for d e c l i n i n g r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s . T o u r i s m has also b e e n p r o m o t e d as p a r t
o f f a r m diversification ( C h a p t e r 4). S h a w a n d Williams (2002) estimate that 2 0 p e r
c e n t o f f a r m s i n t h e U K w e r e i n v o l v e d i n t o u r i s m i n s o m e f o r m i n 1 9 9 0 , a n d this
figure is n o w l i k e l y t o b e n o t a b l y h i g h e r . N e a r l y t w o - t h i r d s o f f a r m t o u r o p e r a t o r s
in N e w York State e x p a n d e d their business b e t w e e n 1986 a n d 1991 (Hilchey,
1 9 9 3 ) , w h i l s t six f a r m a c c o m m o d a t i o n m a r k e t i n g c o o p e r a t i v e s i n t h e E a s t
o f E n g l a n d T o u r i s t B o a r d r e g i o n c o l l e c t i v e l y g e n e r a t e a n a n n u a l gross i n c o m e
o f 1.6 m i l l i o n .
R u r a l t o u r i s m , therefore, e m b r a c e s a w i d e r a n g e o f activities. B u t l e r (1998)
d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n ' t r a d i t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ' s u c h as d r i v i n g , w a l k i n g , v i s i t i n g
h i s t o r i c sites, p i c n i c k i n g , s i g h t s e e i n g a n d f i s h i n g , a n d ' n e w a c t i v i t i e s ' i n c l u d i n g
s n o w m o b i l i n g , m o u n t a i n biking, off-road vehicles a n d e n d u r a n c e sports. A m o r e
useful classification, h o w e v e r , m i g h t b e b e t w e e n t h o s e t o u r i s m a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a r e
l o c a t e d i n r u r a l areas b u t are n o t d i s t i n c t i v e l y r u r a l i n c h a r a c t e r , a n d t h o s e
activities t h a t a c t i v e l y e n g a g e w i t h t h e r u r a l l a n d s c a p e , e n v i r o n m e n t , c u l t u r e o r
traditions. T h e f o r m e r m i g h t include t h e m e parks and self-contained holiday
c e n t r e s s u c h as C e n t e r P a r e s , as w e l l , a r g u a b l y , as m a n y ' a c t i v i t y - b a s e d ' h o l i d a y s a n d
courses. T h e latter category, m e a n w h i l e , variously includes m o u n t a i n walking,
f a r m h o l i d a y s , ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' craft a t t r a c t i o n s , a n d m o r e e m b o d i e d , t h r i l l - b a s e d , f o r m s
o f e n g a g e m e n t w i t h n a t u r e t h r o u g h a d v e n t u r e t o u r i s m . W h a t c o n n e c t s this s e c o n d
g r o u p is t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f ' t h e r u r a l ' t o t h e ' t o u r i s t g a z e ' ( U r r y , 2 0 0 2 ) . B y t a l k i n g
a b o u t t h e ' t o u r i s t g a z e ' , U r r y f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n o n t o u r i s m as a p r o c e s s o f s e e i n g ,
e x p e r i e n c i n g , u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d r e p r e s e n t i n g p l a c e as d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e e v e r y d a y
a n d m u n d a n e . T h e t o u r i s t g a z e h e n c e has a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e effect. T o u r i s t s
t r a n s f o r m t h e r u r a l p l a c e t h a t is g a z e d u p o n t o m e e t t h e i r p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d
expectations; a n d rural places are themselves p a c k a g e d , m a r k e t e d a n d e v e n in
s o m e cases p h y s i c a l l y c h a n g e d , i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e t o u r i s t g a z e a n d i n o r d e r t o
d i r e c t a n d e x p l o i t it.
17 3
The Commodification of the Rural aspects o f t h e rural e n v i r o n m e n t has c h a n g e d .
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e search for experience R u r a l l a n d is i n c r e a s i n g l y v a l u e d less f o r its p r o -
t h a t is i n t r i n s i c t o t h e ' t o u r i s t g a z e ' s u g g e s t s t h a t ductive potential, a n d m o r e for t h e o p p o r t u n i -
a further step can b e taken b e y o n d stating that ties t h a t it offers f o r t o u r i s m a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f
t h e c o u n t r y s i d e h a s m o v e d from a p r o d u c t i o n - a e s t h e t i c c o n s u m p t i o n , s u c h as u s e as a f i l m set.
based e c o n o m y to a consumption-based e c o n - In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e c o u n t r y s i d e has become
omy, t o p r o p o s i n g that t h e rural e c o n o m y has a c o m m o d i t y (see B o x 1 2 . 1 ) , t o b e ' b o u g h t ' a n d
changed from o n e based on exploiting the 'sold' t h r o u g h the consumptive practices of
physical e n v i r o n m e n t t o o n e based o n exploit- tourism, property investment by in-migrants,
i n g the aesthetic appeal o f the countryside. As a t h e m a r k e t i n g o f r u r a l crafts a n d p r o d u c t s , a n d
consequence, the relative value of different t h e u s e o f r u r a l i m a g e s t o sell o t h e r p r o d u c t s .
Box 12.1 Key terms
C o m m o d i t y : A n o b j e c t t h a t is p r o d u c e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f b e i n g e x c h a n g e d ( t h a t is ,
b o u g h t a n d sold) .
C o m m o d i f i c a t i o n : W h e n t h e v a l u e a t w h i c h a n o b j e c t c a n b e s o l d (its 'exchang e
v a l u e ' ) e x c e e d s its ' u s e v a l u e ' . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e o b j e c t is v a l u e d f o r s o m e c u l t u r al o r
a e s t h e t i c r e a s o n a b o v e its a c t u a l u s e f u l n e s s . W h e n a n o b j e c t is c o m m o d i f i e d it b e c o m e s
r e m o v e d ( ' a b s t r a c t e d ' ) f r o m its us e a n d f r o m d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t t h e n e e d f o r it.
C l o k e (1992) demonstrates that the c o r n - t he c o u n t r y s i d e a s a n e x c l u s i v e p l a c e to

m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e has resulted b e live d in; rural c o m m u n i t i e s a s a c o n -
from multiple factors, i n c l u d i n g n o t o n l y t h e tex t to b e b o u g h t a n d s o l d ; rural lifestyle s
declining economic fortunes of agriculture w h i c h c a n b e c o l o n i z e d ; i c o n s o f rural

c u l t u re w h i c h c a n b e c r a f t e d , p a c k e d a n d
and forestry compared with the growing
m a r k e t e d ; rural l a n d s c a p e s w i th a ne w
significance o f t o u r i s m , b u t also t h e rise of
range of potentia l f r om 'pay-as-you -
a society in which brands and signs and
enter ' nationa l p a r ks to site s for t he
symbols are fundamental t o t h e w a y in w h i c h
t h e m e p a r k e x p l o s i o n ; rural p r o d u c t i o n
we understand the world, and the pressures
r a n g i ng f r om n e w l y c o m m o d i f i e d f o o d to
placed on companies to extract maximum t he output o f i n d u s t r i al p l a n ts whos e
v a l u e f r o m t h e i r assets. T h u s a p i e c e o f r u r a l p o t e n t i a l o r a c t u a l p o l l u t i ve e x t e r n a l i t i e s
l a n d m i g h t b e e x p l o i t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f o r its h a v e d r i v en t h e m f r om m o r e u r b a n l o c a l -
p r o d u c t i o n v a l u e a n d its e x c h a n g e v a l u e (see ities . ( C l o k e , 1 9 9 2 , p. 2 9 3 )
for e x a m p l e t h e section b e l o w o n t h e mar-
k e t i n g o f h y d r o - p o w e r stations, reservoirs a n d In common with all commodities, the
f o r e s t s as t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n s ) . A s s u c h , c o r n - countryside is packaged and marketed in
m o d i f i c a t i o n is p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t a w a y d e s i g n e d t o appeal t o t h e largest n u m -
economy in rural areas and, as Cloke b e r o f potential customers. In a rural context, t h e
describes, has o c c u r r e d i n a n u m b e r o f differ- landscapes, environments, traditions a n d p r a c -
ent ways, including: tices t h a t h a v e greatest e x c h a n g e v a l u e are
17 4
those that c o n f o r m m o s t closely t o t h e ideal T h e s e include t h e logos o f attractions, most o f

o f t h e rural idyll. T h e r e f o r e , t h e m a r k e t i n g o f which symbolize nature or the environment
rural places frequently m e a n s r e p a c k i n g a n d i n s o m e f o r m , s u c h as t h i s l o g o f o r a f a m i l y
re-presenting rural areas and features to camping ground:
emphasize characteristics associated w i t h t h e
r u r a l idyll (see C h a p t e r 1). A n o t h e r f o r e s t a n i m a l - t h is t i me a bright-
T h r o u g h a study o f publicity material for e y e d , s m i l i ng ' t e d d y' b e a r - is d e p i c t e d

s t a n d i n g u p r i g ht r o a s t i n g a h o t d o g o n
rural tourist attractions in Wales a n d s o u t h -
t he e n d o f a stic k o v e r a c a m p f i r e . M y t hs
west England, Cloke (1993) identifies five
o f ' i n n o c e n c e ' , ' c h i l d h o o d ', ' n o u r i s h m e n t '
r e c u r r i n g t h e m e s that illustrate this emphasis.
a n d ' n a t u re d o m e s t i c a t e d ' a re s y m b o l -
F i r s t , t h e r u r a l landscape as a s e t t i n g is c o m -
ize d o n c e a g a i n .. . Still, t h e re a re o t h e r
m o n l y referred to, particularly b y attractions
m y t hs c o n n o t e d h e r e b y t h e c a m p f i r e :
t h a t a r e d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e s u c h as ' r o m a n t i c ', 'socializing' , 'summertime',
the O a k w o o d T h e m e Park in Wales, w h i c h ' t i me i m m o r t a l' a n d ' w i l d e r n e s s ' . T h is is a
n o t e s its l o c a t i o n i n ' e i g h t y a c r e s o f b e a u t i f u l visually simple log o which effectivel y
P e m b r o k e s h i r e c o u n t r y s i d e ' (p. 6 2 ) . S e c o n d l y , c a p t u r e s t h e n a t u r al j o y s , p e r h a p s t he
nature is e m p h a s i z e d through reference to p r i m al p l e a s u r e s , o f c a m p i n g in s e c l u d e d
animals a n d plants that f o r m part o f t h e visitor w o o d l a n d . ( H o p k i n s , 1 9 9 8 , p. 7 6 )
e x p e r i e n c e , as a t t h e ' M i l k y W a y a n d N o r t h
D e v o n Bird o f Prey Centre', w h i c h promises, T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t e r is w r i t t e n
'a f u n , h a n d s - o n farming experience. Milk a r o u n d a series o f case studies t h a t illustrate
a cow! Bottle feed and cuddle the baby five p r o m i n e n t e l e m e n t s i n t h e c o m m o d i f i c a -
a n i m a l s ! ' (p. 6 2 ) . T h i r d l y , history is s t r o n g l y p r e - tion of the countryside: the marketing of

sented as a n i m p o r t a n t component in the rural p r o d u c t i o n sites as t o u r i s t attractions;
s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , as is, the repackaging o f rural heritage; t h e p r o m o -
f o u r t h l y , t h e family. Finally, t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t i o n o f ' f i c t i o n a l ' r u r a l l a n d s c a p e s ; t h e r u r a l as
r u r a l craft p r o d u c t s a n d c o u n t r y ' f a y r e ' is p r o - a site f o r e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e s t h r o u g h a d v e n -
m o t e d , ' i n a l m o s t all cases t h e c o m m o d i f i c a - t u r e t o u r i s m ; a n d t h e u s e o f t h e r u r a l as a
t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e ' b r a n d ' t o sell g o o d s a n d p r o d u c t s t o u r b a n
b r o c h u r e s creates t h e impression that certain consumers.
craft i t e m s a n d t y p e s o f r e f r e s h m e n t a r e s o m e -
h o w part o f t h e total packaging o f a c o u n t r y - Rural Production Sites as
side e x p e r i e n c e ' (p. 6 3 ) . Tourist Attractions
Similar t h e m e s are identified b y H o p k i n s T h e shift from a n e c o n o m y b a s e d o n p r o d u c -
(1998) in an e x a m i n a t i o n of the 'symbolic tion t o o n e based o n c o n s u m p t i o n has taken
countryside' constructed by promotional p l a c e n o t j u s t a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as
material for rural tourist attractions in a w h o l e , b u t also i n t h e b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s o f
s o u t h e r n O n t a r i o , C a n a d a . N a t u r e is a g a i n o f t e n individual enterprises. Many farms have
emphasized, including references t o specific branched into tourism in order to diversify
a n i m a l s , as a r e t h e a m e n i t y v a l u e o f t h e e n v i - their sources o f i n c o m e away from a d e p e n -
ronment a n d t h e m e s o f family, community dence o n agriculture. M o s t commonly this
a n d history. H o p k i n s n o t e s that these messages involves t h e provision o f o n - f a r m accommo-
are conveyed t h r o u g h t h e publicity material d a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g b e d a n d b r e a k f a s t r o o m s , self-
in a n u m b e r o f ways, b o t h textual a n d visual. catering cottages and camping sites. Farm
17 5
s h o p s , n a t u r e trails, h o r s e - r i d i n g facilities and b e c a u s e their landscape has a h i g h value w i t h i n

fishing lakes have also been experimented p o p u l a r discourses o f t h e rural. U n t i l recently,
w i t h , b u t i n all t h e s e cases t h e f a r m t e n d s t o forests w e r e p l a n t e d a n d m a n a g e d as c o m m e r c i a l
remain primarily a w o r k i n g agricultural enter- enterprises for t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f timber, with
prise. A f u r t h e r level o f a b s t r a c t i o n has b e e n v e r y l i m i t e d p u b l i c access. Increasingly, h o w e v e r ,
reached, however, by a n u m b e r o f farms that forest m a n a g e r s h a v e r e a l i z e d t h a t forests h a v e
have reinvented themselves as ' f a r m parks', n o t only a use value in terms of the harvested
replacing the landscape and practices of a w o o d , b u t also a n e x c h a n g e v a l u e t h a t c a n b e
w o r k i n g f a r m w i t h t h o s e t h a t reflect i d y l l i z e d e x p l o i t e d t h r o u g h r e c r e a t i o n a l activity. I n the
p o p u l a r images o f f a r m i n g (Figure 12.1). T h e U K , for e x a m p l e , Forest E n t e r p r i s e t h e s e m i -
' F a r m e r Giles' attraction in Wiltshire, England, c o m m e r c i a l b o d y t h a t is n o w r e s p o n s i b l e for
f o r e x a m p l e , is d e s c r i b e d i n its p u b l i c i t y leaflet managing Britain's state-owned woodland -
as a safe e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e f a m i l i e s 'enjoy actively p r o m o t e s its p r o p e r t i e s as t o u r i s t a t t r a c -
themselves whilst learning about farming tions and has developed facilities including
m e t h o d s o f past a n d present. Y o u c a n c u d d l e , v i s i t o r c e n t r e s , p i c n i c sites, w a y m a r k e d w a l k s , a r t
g r o o m , bottle or h a n d feed a variety o f animals installations a n d m o u n t a i n b i k e trails.
in t h e m a n y paddocks a n d enclosures'. Significantly, F o r e s t E n t e r p r i s e ' s promotion
I n t h e s a m e w a y that f a r m parks play t o t h e o f its forests c o m b i n e s t h e c o m m o n t h e m e s o f
i m p o r t a n c e o f sanitized images o f f a r m i n g in t h e nature, landscape, tranquillity and wilderness
r u r a l idyll, forests h a v e also b e e n commodified w i t h an educational c o m p o n e n t that attempts
17 6
Figure 12. 2 Interpretative noticeboard s in the Seymou r Demonstratio n Forest , Vancouve r

to inform the public about nature conservation, environment and landscape that are core
forest m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e t i m b e r t r a d e . T h i s e l e m e n t s i n social c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e rural
e d u c a t i o n a l a g e n d a is also a p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e i d y l l . A f u r t h e r f e a t u r e o f t h e ' r u r a l i d y l l ' is
o f t h e S e y m o u r D e m o n s t r a t i o n Forest o n t h e nostalgia a n d t h e sense that t h e c o u n t r y s i d e
northern fringe of Vancouver, Canada. has been less changed and corrupted by
Originally a closed part of the Greater m o d e r n i t y t h a n t h e city. I t is t h i s b e l i e f t h a t is
V a n c o u v e r W a t e r Districts w a t e r s h e d lands, t h e a p p e a l e d t o b y sites t h a t s e e k t o commodify
forest w a s o p e n e d i n 1 9 8 7 ' t o p r o v i d e e d u c a - rural heritage in attracting tourists. These
tional and recreational opportunities to the include places w h e r e t h e c o m m e m o r a t i o n o f
p u b l i c ' ( p u b l i c i t y leaflet). Its a t t r a c t i o n s i n c l u d e t h e p a s t h a s b e e n e m p l o y e d as a s t r a t e g y f o r
a 1.6 k i l o m e t r e ' I n t e g r a t e d R e s o u r c e M a n a g e - regeneration following t h e collapse of the
m e n t Trail' w i t h interpretative b r o c h u r e s a n d traditional e c o n o m i c base, o f w h i c h t h e m o s t
signs ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 2 ) , t h a t ' p r o v i d e s a g o o d o v e r - n o t a b l e e x a m p l e is C h e m a i n u s o n V a n c o u v e r
v i e w o f t h e c y c l e o f forest m a n a g e m e n t ' (leaflet). Island in C a n a d a . W h e n the town's sawmill
closed in 1 9 8 3 w i t h t h e loss o f 6 5 4 j o b s ,
The Commodification of Rural Heritage the various regeneration schemes attempted
T h e examples above translated t h e rural into i n c l u d e d a s m a l l p r o j e c t t o p a i n t five m u r a l s
a c o m m o d i t y b y stressing t h e motifs o f nature, depicting scenes from local history. T h e
17 7
F i g u re 12. 3 Murals depicting rural heritage in Chemainus , Vancouve r Island

unexpected response to the project stimulated o l d m o u n t a i n s a n d r i v e r valleys h a v e i n t h e p a s t

a m u c h larger initiative t o create a 'Festival o f sixty years w i t n e s s e d t h e collision o f a distinct
t h e M u r a l s ' , w i t h 3 2 m u r a l s a n d six s c u l p t u r e s a n d isolated regional culture w i t h t h e relendess
c o m p l e t e d b y 1 9 9 2 , all p o r t r a y i n g r e p r e s e n t a - p r o j e c t o f m o d e r n d e v e l o p m e n t ' (p. 2 0 6 ) . O f
tions of the district's a g r a r i a n and pioneer t h e f o u r sites, t w o - D o l l y w o o d a n d H e r i t a g e
heritage (Figure 12.3). T h e murals b e c a m e a U S A are overtly c o m m e r c i a l enterprises in
significant tourist attraction, w i t h over a q u a r - w h i c h ' r u r a l h e r i t a g e ' is p a r t o f t h e p a c k a g e s o l d
ter o f a million visitors each year (Barnes a n d to visitors. Dollywood, at Pigeon Forge,
Hayter, 1992), and the initiative has been T e n n e s s e e , is a t h e m e park owned by and
c o p i e d b y o t h e r t o w n s , s u c h as S h e f f i e l d in themed around the country singer Dolly
Tasmania (Walmsley, 2 0 0 3 ) . P a r t o n , t h e p u b l i c i t y m a t e r i a l for w h i c h invites
T h e C h e m a i n u s murals necessarily involve visitors to 'experience the only place in
a distanced consumption of representations A m e r i c a w h e r e the tradition and pride of the
of the past. O t h e r ventures, however, have Smokies [Mountains] are brought to life
attempted to 'reconstruct' an historic rural in t h r o u g h o l d - t i m e crafts, b r e a t h t a k i n g scenery,
o r d e r t o give visitors t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o d i r e c d y f o o d , f u n a n d f r i e n d l y folks, a n d D o l l y ' s k i n d o f
' e x p e r i e n c e ' t h e past. W i l s o n ( 1 9 9 2 ) discusses upbeat music!' (Dollywood brochure). As
f o u r e x a m p l e s o f this i n s o u t h e r n A p p a l a c h i a , Wilson describes, the mountain heritage is
o n e o f t h e m o s t deprived rural regions o f the reproduced in Dollywood through material
U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h i c h W i l s o n s u g g e s t s p r o v i d e s 'a representation of buildings, looms, farm
s t e r l i n g e x a m p l e o f a g e o g r a p h y i n crisis, f o r its implements, banjos, c o r n - c o b pipes, washboards
17 8
a n d Bibles - a n d symbolically portrayed o n t h e these have been artificially arranged and

T - s h i r t s , m u g s a n d p o s t e r s o n sale i n t h e gift furnished in t h e m u s e u m t o convey 'the "lived-
shop. B e y o n d t h e materiality, W i l s o n argues i n " l o o k , s t r i v i n g for, a b o v e all else a u t h e n t i c i t y '
t h a t D o l l y w o o d also c o m m o d i f i e s t h e i d e a o f ( m u s e u m b r o c h u r e ) (see F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 ) . A s w i t h
t h e w h o l e s o m e , simplistic, rural h o m e : Dollywood, the material representations on
display a r e t h e r e t o signify a d e e p e r m e s s a g e ,
Peopl e live d like this o n c e ; it w a s simpl e articulated in the m u s e u m founder s statement
ou t her e in t he b u s h , but it w a s w h o l e s o m e . that 'the true breed of diminishing m o u n t a i n
T he fac t tha t Dolly d o e s n ' t live this w a y
folk o f S o u t h e r n A p p a l a c h i a are a m o n g the
a n y m o re s e e m s irrelevant. It is the ver y
m o s t admirable people in the world' ( m u s e u m
artificiality tha t fascinate s .. . Dollywoo d
b r o c h u r e ) . Yet, W i l s o n p o i n t s t o t h e s e l e c t i v i t y
m a k e s s u r e tha t ou r relation to w h a t migh t
of the representation:
o r migh t no t b e left o f m o u n t a i n culture is
full o f irony. (Wilson , 1992 , p. 2 1 1 )
T he storie s a re m e a n t to t a ke visitors b a c k
The moral agenda that is implicit in to a n earlie r day : t he y e a r s o f v i c t o ry ove r
Dollywood's representation of rural heritage w i l d e r n e s s a n d s a v a g e s . I loo k bu t can' t

find documentatio n o f t he subsequen t
w a s e x p l i c i t at H e r i t a g e U S A , a now-closed
y e a r s o f loss : los s o f l a n d to e r o s i o n , to
Christian real-estate development near
i n u n d a t i on b y reservoirs , to p o v e r t y a n d
Charlotte, North Carolina. Heritage USA
all t he d i s p l a c e m e n t s o f m o d e r n life. T h e re
e m p l o y e d tradition t o g u i d e a n d justify a m o r a l
a re n o t r a c e s h e r e o f w h a t h a p p e n e d to
vision for t h e present, w h i c h has a material
t h e s e p l a c e s , to thei r d i s a p p e a r a n c e in
m a n i f e s t a t i o n i n t h e l a n d s c a p e o f t h e site. Yet, t he m id t w e n t i e t h century . N o r is t h e re a n y
Wilson comments, 'it's hard to describe s e n s e o f a culture tha t p r e d a t e d t he w h i te
Heritage U S A without using quotation marks o n e . S o w e ' re left w o n d e r i n g ho w ou r
e v e r y f e w w o r d s . T h e r e is a " s t e a m " t r a i n , a n p r e s e n t c o n n e c t s to t h e s e t o o l s a n d build-
" o l d " farm w i t h " l o g " houses, a " M a i n Street" ings . ( W i l s o n , 1 9 9 2 , p. 2 0 7 )
mall w i t h " G e o r g i a n " architecture. Inside m o s t
o f t h e b u i l d i n g s w e a r e e n v e l o p e d b y air c o n d i - T h e final site, C a d e s C o v e , h a s p e r h a p s t h e
tioning, perfume, and discreet music "from s t r o n g e s t c l a i m t o a u t h e n t i c i t y . It w a s o n c e a
y e s t e r d a y a n d t o d a y ' " (p. 2 1 4 ) . T h i s included lived-in c o m m u n i t y , b u t the population was
Farmland USA, described in the publicity m o v e d out following the creation of the Great
m a t e r i a l as 'a g l i m p s e i n t o t h e country life Smoky Mountains National Park in 1934
of the 19th century', but which embodied (see also B o x 1 3 . 1 ) . M o s t b u i l d i n g s w e r e d e m o l -
t h e a m b i g u o u s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f time a n d p l a c e i s h e d , b u t s o m e w e r e left s t a n d i n g as a r e p r e s e n -
in its s t e r e o t y p e d collection of a Victorian t a t i o n o f t h e f o r m e r w a y o f life a n d n o w s t a n d
farmhouse and barn, a petting zoo, horse and i n i s o l a t i o n as s t o p s o n a c i r c u l a r d r i v i n g t o u r
carriage rides, a w i n d m i l l , a rustic w o r k s h o p a n d e m p t y cabins a n d barns, a school, a church, a
a c o u n t r y chapel. blacksmith s h o p a n d a mill (Figure 12.5). T h e
I n c o n t r a s t , t h e M u s e u m o f A p p a l a c h i a at structures are u n f u r n i s h e d a n d t h e r e are no
N o r r i s , T e n n e s s e e , m a r k e t s itself as ' t h e most attendants or interpretative boards. For Wilson,
a u t h e n t i c a n d c o m p l e t e r e p l i c a o f p i o n e e r life this absence of additional materials makes
i n t h e w o r l d ' . T h e o p e n - a i r site c o n t a i n s o v e r Cades Cove m o r e authentic than the other
t w e n t y 'authentic' cabins a n d o t h e r structures, sites, b u t t h i s c o n c l u s i o n is o p e n t o c o n t e s t . A s
relocated f r o m different parts o f t h e r e g i o n , b u t e m p t y structures, reasonably well maintained by
17 9
Figure 12. 4 Representatio n o f a mountain cabi n interior a t the Museu m o f Appalachi a

Figure 12. 5 Remnant s of the former communit y a t Cade s Cov e in the Grea t Smok y
Mountains
18 0
the National Park Service, t h e buildings of s u c c e s s f u l films o r t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m m e s c a n

C a d e s C o v e c o n v e y little a b o u t t h e p e o p l e w h o also l o o k forward to increased tourism as
o n c e lived t h e r e , t h e p r a c t i c e s t h e y a c t e d o u t d e v o t e e s travel t o see t h e places r e p r e s e n t e d i n
a n d t h e hardships t h e y faced. Instead, t h e b u i l d - 'real life'. M o r d u e (1999), for example, dis-
i n g s a r e n e u t r a l vessels i n t o w h i c h visitors c a n cusses t h e e x a m p l e o f G o a t h l a n d , a village o f
p o u r their o w n idyllized perceptions o f historic 4 5 0 residents in t h e N o r t h Yorkshire M o o r s o f
mountain life w i t h o u t being challenged by E n g l a n d that since 1 9 9 1 has b e e n t h e filming
counternarratives. location for a popular British television
T h e sites d i s c u s s e d b y W i l s o n a r e m a r k e t e d drama, Heartbeat. As a result of the pro-
as r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s n o t j u s t o f r u r a l heritage gramme, tourist visits to Goathland have
b u t , m o r e specifically, o f t h e m o u n t a i n her- increased f r o m a r o u n d 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 a year, t o o v e r
itage o f rural A p p a l a c h i a . T h e spatial r e f e r e n c e 1.2 m i l l i o n . T h e s e r i e s d e p i c t s t h e life o f a
is i m p o r t a n t as i t p o s i t i o n s r u r a l h e r i t a g e sites country policeman in the fictional village o f
a n d t h e c o m m o d i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m as Aidensfield in t h e 1960s. T h u s , whilst many
symbols o f regional distinctiveness against a visitors t o G o a t h l a n d m a y have b e e n attracted
b a c k g r o u n d o f globalization a n d h o m o g e n i z - by the landscape s h o w n in t h e p r o g r a m m e ,
a t i o n (see C h a p t e r 3 ) . T h i s u s e o f r u r a l h e r - o t h e r s w i l l also b e s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e r o m a n t i -
i t a g e as a n e x p r e s s i o n o f l o c a l i d e n t i t y c a n also c i z e d , s i m p l e a n d s l o w - p a c e d r u r a l life that
be observed elsewhere. In the Darlana region the p r o g r a m m e represents.
of central Sweden numerous villages have T h e t o u r i s t g a z e t h a t is fixed o n r u r a l l o c a l -
a preserved heritage site, o r hembygdsgard, ities t h a t p r o v i d e t h e s e t t i n g s f o r fictional tales
usually focused o n a n a b a n d o n e d farm. T h e s e c o m m o n l y blurs t h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e
sites, w h i c h C r a n g ( 1 9 9 9 ) d e m o n s t r a t e s a r e as r e a l a n d fictional l a n d s c a p e a n d , o v e r t i m e , t h i s
a b s t r a c t e d f r o m t h e r e a l i t y o f p a s t r u r a l life as c a n c o m e t o h a v e a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e effect o n
the historic parks of Appalachia, are cherished the physical e n v i r o n m e n t s o f t h e 'real' locali-
as r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e r u r a l f o u n d a t i o n of ties. I n G o a t h l a n d , f o r e x a m p l e , e l e m e n t s o f
D a r l a n a c u l t u r e , w h i c h i n t u r n is r e g a r d e d as t h e film s e t f o r Heartbeat have b e e n retained in
the iconic culture of Swedishness. t h e p e r m a n e n t villagescape, m o s t notably t h e
frontage o f t h e village shop, a n d b e c o m e focal
Fictional Rural Landscapes points for tourists providing a connection
Nostalgic ideas o f rural heritage p r o v i d e o n e w i t h t h e fictional p l a c e t h e y a r e s e a r c h i n g for.
f r a m e w o r k for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e tourist A m o r e d e v e l o p e d c a s e is f o u n d i n C a v e n d i s h
gaze o n t h e countryside, b u t t h e tourist gaze o n P r i n c e E d w a r d I s l a n d i n C a n a d a , w h i c h is
is a l s o i n f o r m e d b y f i c t i o n a l representations the setting for L . M . M o n t g o m e r y ' s popular
o f r u r a l life a n d l a n d s c a p e i n f i l m , t e l e v i s i o n c h i l d r e n ' s n o v e l Anne of Green Gables. The
p r o g r a m m e s a n d literature. Indeed, t h e use o f novel, published in 1908, told t h e story o f an
r u r a l p l a c e s as l o c a t i o n s f o r f i l m i n g is i n i t s e l f o r p h a n a d o p t e d b y a f a r m e r a n d his wife a n d
a form of commodification, providing an t h e r u r a l c h i l d h o o d s h e e n j o y s . H e n c e , as w i t h
additional source o f i n c o m e for l a n d o w n e r s - Heartbeat and Goathland, the visitors to
a C D database of some 4 0 0 British farms C a v e n d i s h are in part searching for a r o m a n -
offering 'quiet, traditional and spectacular' ticized rural past. As S q u i r e (1992) observes,
locations for filming was launched at t h e M o n t g o m e r y ' s particularly evocative imagery
Cannes Film Festival in 1999. As well as helped to create a prototype o f t h e Canadian
l o c a t i o n fees, r u r a l p l a c e s u s e d as t h e sets f o r pastoral idyll (see B o x 12.2).
18 1
Box 12.2 Anne of Green Gables
A h u g e c h e r r y - t r ee g r e w o u t s i d e , s o c l o s e t h a t its b o u g h s t a p p e d a g a i n s t t h e house ,
a n d it w a s s o t h i c k - s e t w i t h b l o s s o m s t h a t h a r d ly a l e a f w a s t o b e s e e n . O n b o t h side s
o f t h e hous e w a s a b ig o r c h a r d, o n e o f a p p l e tree s a n d o n e o f cherry trees , a n d s h o w -
e r e d w i t h b l o s s o m s .. . In t h e g a r d e n b e l o w w e r e lilac t r e e s p u r p le w i t h f l o w e r s , a n d
t h e i r d i z z i l y s w e e t f r a g r a n c e d r i f t ed u p t o t h e w i n d o w o n t h e m o r n i n g w i n d .
B e l o w t he g a r d e n a g r e e n f i e ld lus h w i th clove r slope d d o w n t o t he h o l l o w w h e r e
t h e b r o o k r a n a n d w h e r e s c o r e s o f w h i t e b i r c h e s g r e w , u p s p r i n g i n g a i r i ly o u t o f a n
u n d e r g r o w t h s u g g e s t i v e o f d e l i g h t f u l p o s s i b i l i t i e s in f e r n s a n d m o s s e s a n d woods y
t h i n gs generally .
Extract from L.M. Montgomery, 1968 edition, Anne of Green Gables, Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson
p. 33-34.
A l t h o u g h Cavendish has b e c o m e identified Montgomery into her novels, the tourist

as t h e m o d e l f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y o f A v o n l e a i n industry has inverted t h e process, 'giving that
t h e novel, s o m e aspects o f t h e fictional land- w h i c h was fictional a factual identity t h r o u g h
scape are i m a g i n e d o r a m e n d e d , s u c h that t h e a n u m b e r o f t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n s ' (p. 1 4 3 ) .
real g e o g r a p h y o f C a v e n d i s h a n d t h e fictional
geography o f Avonlea d o n o t directly c o r r e - Embodied Experiences of Rural Adventure
spond. Faced with a disjuncture b e t w e e n the R u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t s are increasingly becom-
two, literary tourists to Cavendish opt to i n g t h e l o c a t i o n for tourist e x p e r i e n c e s that
prioritize the fictional a c c o u n t , as d o e s , s i g n i - seek to g o b e y o n d the conventional practices
ficantly, the Parks Canada agency in its of holidaymakers in a quest for adventure.
m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e ' G r e e n G a b l e s ' site i n t h e This includes n o t only participation in tradi-
Prince Edward Island National Park. As tional ' o u t d o o r pursuits' such as canoeing,
Squire notes: t r e k k i n g a n d s k i - i n g , b u t also i n a r a n g e of

newer adventure tourism experiences includ-
P a r ks C a n a d a ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i ve polic y a t ing jet-boating, bungy jumping, snowboard-
G r e e n G a b l e s recognize s that historica l ing and canyoning. These activities require
a u t h e n t i c i ty mus t sometime s be com - a different f o r m o f tourist e n g a g e m e n t with
promise d w i th l i t e r a ry accuracy . Site the rural e n v i r o n m e n t than that involved in
r e d e v e l o p m e n t h a s b e e n g u i d e d b y detail s
the more traditional 'sightseeing' activities
f r om t he novels , an d only if thes e
described in t h e sections above. As C l o k e a n d
s o u r c e s p r o v e d i n c o n c l u s i v e w o u l d 'infor-
Perkins (1998) argue, adventure t o u r i s m goes
m a t i o n a b o u t t he a c t u a l f a rm t h a t e x i s t e d
beyond the m e t a p h o r of the 'tourist gaze' to a
o n t he site' , o r a c o m p a r a b l e nineteent h
m o r e e m b o d i e d experience based o n 'being,
century farmstea d be used . (Squire , 1992 ,
p. 1 4 3 ) d o i n g , t o u c h i n g and s e e i n g ' (p. 1 8 9 ) .
A d v e n t u r e t o u r i s m has b e c o m e a signifi-
Thus, Squire argues, whilst elements of cant recreational a n d e c o n o m i c activity in
Prince Edward Island were transferred by a number of rural regions, including the
18 2
Rocky Mountains, British Columbia, New adrenaline r u s h o f past explorers; traveling t h e

England, California and, perhaps most untravelable; seeing the unseeable; generally
notably, t h e S o u t h Island o f N e w Zealand. pitting adventurousness, personal bravery,
Estimates suggest that each year some and technological expertise against natural
1 5 0 , 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 visitors to N e w Z e a l a n d g o b a r r i e r s - a n d w i n n i n g ' (p. 2 0 4 ) .
jet-boating, and 50,000-100,000 participate I n t h e s e w a y s , a d v e n t u r e t o u r i s m also c o n -
in bungy j u m p i n g , climbing/caving, mountain tributes to a c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f rural places,
b i k i n g a n d rafting ( C l o k e a n d Perkins, 1998; b u t d o e s so b y r e p r o d u c i n g a different but
S w a r b r o o k e e t al., 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e c e n t r e f o r m a n y equally historic social c o n s t r u c t o f t h e rural
o f t h e s e activities is Q u e e n s t o w n i n t h e i n t e r i o r n o t as a p a s t o r a l i d y l l , b u t as a w i l d e r n e s s a n d
o f t h e island, a t o w n that has b e e n a w i n t e r a place of adventure.
sports resort since the 1950s b u t w h i c h has
seen its economy and population rapidly The Rural as a Marketing Device
e x p a n d w i t h the b o o m in adventure tourism All t h e p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e s have involved the
(Cater and Smith, 2003). As Cloke and c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e rural for c o n s u m p t i o n
Perkins observe, the natural setting and the practices that have taken place w i t h i n rural
opportunities for adventure are drawn s p a c e . H o w e v e r , as a c o m m o d i t y , ' r u r a l i t y ' h a s
together in the commodification of Q u e e n s - a m o b i l i t y t h a t e n a b l e s it t o b e a t t a c h e d to
t o w n : ' a d v e n t u r e a n d e x c i t e m e n t set a m o n g s t o t h e r c o m m o d i t i e s that are b o u g h t a n d sold i n
scenic natural landscapes characterizes the an urban environment. Moreover, the value o f
tourist experience and thereby fuels the t h e s e o t h e r c o m m o d i t i e s is e n h a n c e d b e c a u s e
p l a c e - m y t h s o f s o c i a l s p a t i a l i z a t i o n ' (p. 2 0 1 ) . o f their association w i t h t h e perceived quali-
Projected onto individual tourist activities, ties o f r u r a l i t y . A n o b v i o u s e x a m p l e o f t h i s is
the location of adventure experiences in a the use of 'rural' brands a n d symbols in the
d e e p r u r a l n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t is i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t i n g o f p r e m i u m f o o d a n d craft prod-
in two r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , it p r o m i s e s to take ucts. H i n r i c h s ( 1 9 9 6 ) , for e x a m p l e , discusses
tourists 'off t h e b e a t e n track' t o places that are t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f V e r m o n t as a d i s t i n c t i v e
accessible o n l y in a d v e n t u r o u s ways: rural place that subsequently allows t h e t a g -
ging of products with the ' M a d e in Vermont'
C o m b i n e s k i i n g , rafting, m o u n t a i n b i k i ng label t o i m p l y 'certain standards o f quality,
an d kayaking w i th unspoil t scenery , clearly l i n k e d t o t h e positive aspects o f l a n d -
excellen t foo d an d K i wi hospitality. scape, tradition a n d place reinforced b y m o r e
S e e t he a t t r a c t i o ns fo r w h i c h t h is c o u n t ry g e n e r a l p r o m o t i o n o f V e r m o n t ' (p. 2 6 9 ) .
is f a m o u s , t h e n h e a d off t he b e a t e n t r a ck
H o w e v e r , t h e p r o d u c t s that are marketed
to e n c o u n t e r t he Aotearo a that only
w i t h a rural association n e e d n o t necessarily
t he local s know. ( A l p i ne Excellenc e
b r o c h u r e , q u o t e d b y C l o ke a n d P e r k i n s , h a v e a r u r a l o r i g i n . T h e y n e e d o n l y t o signify
1 9 9 8 , p. 2 0 2 ) a lifestyle t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h u r b a n a s p i r a -
t i o n s f o r m i d d l e class r u r a l c u l t u r e . A s T h r i f t
Secondly, adventure tourism is presented (1989) notes, 'the countryside and heritage
as an embodied experience that involves have m e t and blended w i t h c o n s u m e r culture.
overcoming the challenges of nature. The C o u n t r y s i d e a n d h e r i t a g e sell p r o d u c t s , a n d i n
adventure 'involves exploration o f u n c h a r t e d t u r n these products strengthen the hold of
territory; experiencing the danger and these t r a d i t i o n s ' (p. 3 0 ; o r i g i n a l emphasis).
18 3
Among the most notable examples of this advertisement for Land Rover in the late
are c l o t h e s , i n c l u d i n g w a x e d B a r b o u r j a c k e t s 1990s, for e x a m p l e , s h o w e d t h e car perched
and Gore-tex outdoor wear, and cars - on a hillside with a people-less moorland
particularly f o u r - w h e e l drive a n d sports utility landscape stretching out behind it a n d the
v e h i c l e s - w h e r e r u r a l i m a g e r y is f r e q u e n t l y s t r a p l i n e , ' S u n d a y , all t h i s c o u l d b e y o u r s '
used to suggest a particular m a c h o , masculine, e x p l i c i t l y p o s i t i o n i n g t h e c a r as t h e k e y to
e n g a g e m e n t w i t h the rural that promises the weekend consumption o f t h e rural idyll by
conquest of nature and wilderness. One urban dwellers.
Summary
T h e c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e is p a r t o f t h e o n g o i n g e c o n o m i c restructuring
o f rural areas. As traditional, p r o d u c t i o n - b a s e d e c o n o m i c activities have d e c l i n e d so
the 'use value' o f rural e n v i r o n m e n t s a n d landscapes has b e g u n t o b e e x c e e d e d b y
t h e ' e x c h a n g e value'. P a c k a g e d t o c o n f o r m t o p o p u l a r social c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f rurality, t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e as a c o m m o d i t y h a s m a n y b u y e r s . T h e s e i n c l u d e n o t o n l y t o u r i s t s , b u t a l s o
i n - m i g r a n t s , r e l o c a t i n g businesses, film p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s , a d v e n t u r e seekers,
r e c r e a t i o n i s t s , c o n s u m e r s o f p r e m i u m r u r a l f o o d a n d craft p r o d u c t s , a n d u r b a n d w e l l e r s
w h o w e a r G o r e - t e x c l o t h i n g , d r i v e S U V s a n d install c o u n t r y - s t y l e k i t c h e n s .
H o w e v e r , t h e process o f c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n changes rural places a n d generates conflict.
I n o r d e r t o m a r k e t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as c o m m o d i t y , r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e r u r a l a r e f i x e d
t h a t b e l i e t h e d y n a m i s m a n d d i v e r s i t y o f r u r a l s o c i e t y a n d s p a c e . M o r e o v e r , as m a r k e t i n g
i m a g e s are selected t o c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s o f c o n s u m e r s ,
t h e representations e m p l o y e d frequently o w e m o r e to m y t h t h a n t o t h e everyday lived
e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e place c o n c e r n e d , d r a w i n g o n nostalgic ideas o f t h e rural idyll o r o n
references t o film, television o r literature. As s u c h , conflicts c a n e m e r g e o v e r t h e w a y i n
w h i c h a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e is r e p r e s e n t e d - a n d o v e r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n .
Large-scale t o u r i s m can create social, e c o n o m i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s , i n c l u d i n g
traffic c o n g e s t i o n , f o o t p a t h e r o s i o n , i n c r e a s e d p r o p e r t y p r i c e s , a n o v e r - d e p e n d e n c e on
seasonal e m p l o y m e n t a n d t h e tailoring o f shops a n d services towards tourists' rather
t h a n r e s i d e n t s ' n e e d s . L o c a l r e s i d e n t s m a y also feel t h a t t h e y are l o s i n g c o n t r o l o v e r t h e
identity o f the place, and those involved in m o r e traditional e c o n o m i c sectors such
as f a r m i n g m a y find t h a t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a r e c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h o s e o f t o u r i s m o r o t h e r
c o n s u m p t i v e p r a c t i c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n c e a r u r a l l a n d s c a p e is v a l u e d m o r e f o r its
a e s t h e t i c a p p e a l t h a n f o r its p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l , t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f t h e v i s u a l a p p e a r a n c e
o f the landscape has m o r e e c o n o m i c w e i g h t t h a n agricultural m o d e r n i z a t i o n practices
t h a t m i g h t a l t e r it, s u c h as t h e r e m o v a l o f h e d g e s . R u r a l c o n f l i c t s a r e e x p l o r e d f u r t h e r
in C h a p t e r 14, whilst t h e n e x t c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h e b r o a d e r issue o f c o u n t r y s i d e
conservation.
18 4
Further Reading
T he c o n c e p t o f t he c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t he c o u n t r y s i d e is m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y
i n t r o d u c e d b y Pau l C l o ke in S u e Glyptis's e d i t e d c o l l e c t i o n , Leisure and the
Environment ( B e l h a v e n , 1 9 9 3 ) , a b o o k tha t is u n f o r t u n a t e ly no t w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e . Briefe r
a c c o u n t s a re g i v e n in m a n y o f t he o t h e r p a p e r s c i t e d in this c h a p t e r . T h e c a s e s t u d i e s
d i s c u s s e d in t h is c h a p t e r c a n b e f o l l o w e d u p in t he b o o k s a n d p a p e r s in w h i c h t h e y
w e r e o r i g i n a l ly p u b l i s h e d . Fo r m o re o n t he r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f rural h e r i t a g e in A p p a l a c h i a
s e e A l e x a n d e r W i l s o n , The Culture of Nature: North American Landscape from Disney
to the Exxon Valdez ( B l a c k w e l l , 1 9 9 2 ) ; fo r m o re o n T V - i n s p i r ed t o u r i sm in t he N o r th
Y o r k s h i re M o o r s , s e e T o m M o r d u e, ' H e a r t b e a t c o u n t r y: c o n f l i c t i ng v a l u e s , c o i n c i d i n g
v i s i o n s ' , Environment and Planning A, v o l u m e 3 1 , p a g e s 6 2 9 - 6 4 6 ( 1 9 9 9 ) ; a n d fo r m o re
o n A n n e o f G r e e n G a b l e s a n d P r i n ce E d w a rd Islan d s e e S h e e l a g h S q u i r e ' s c h a p t e r
' W a ys o f s e e i n g , w a y s o f b e i n g : literature, p l a c e a n d t o u r i s m in L . M. M o n t g o m e r y 's
P r i n ce E d w a r d I s l a n d ', in P. S i m p s o n - H o u s l e y a n d G . Norcliffe ( e d s ) , A Few Acres of
Snow: Literary and Artistic Images of Canada ( D u n d u rn P r e s s , 1 9 9 2 ) . A d v e n t u re
t o u r i sm in N e w Z e a l a n d is d i s c u s s e d f u r t h er b y Pau l C l o ke a n d H a r v e y P e r k i ns in
' C r a c k i ng t he c a n y o n w i th t he a w e s o m e f o u r s o m e : r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f a d v e n t u r e t o u r i sm
in N e w Z e a l a n d ' , Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, v o l u m e 16 , p a g e s
1 8 5 - 2 1 8 ( 1 9 9 8 ) , a n d b y C a rl C a t e r a n d L o u i s e S m i t h in ' N e w c o u n t ry v i s i o n s :
a d v e n t u r o u s b o d i e s in rural t o u r i s m ', in P. C l o ke (ed.) , Country Visions (Pearson , 2003) .
Websites
A n u m b e r o f t he t o u r i st a t t r a c t i o ns m e n t i o n e d in this c h a p t e r h a v e thei r o w n w e b s i t e s ,
w h i c h a l s o c o n v e y thei r p a r t i c u l ar r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f rurality. T h e s e i n c l u d e :
F a r m e r G i l e s W o r k i ng F a rm P a r k www.farmergiles.co.u k
R a y s F a rm www.virtual-shropshire.co.uk/rays-farm/
U m b e r s l a d e C h i l d r e n 's F a rm www.umbersladefarm.co.u k
S e y m o u r Demonstratio n Fores t w w w . g v r d. be . c a / L S C R/
C h e m a i n u s m u r a ls www.chemainus.co m
Dollywoo d w w w . do l lyw o o d . c o m
Museu m of Appalachia www.museumofappalachia.co m
Cade s Cov e www.cadescove.net/auto_tour.ht m
Gree n Gable s Park www.annesociety.org/anne /
Queenstown , Ne w Zealan d www.queenstown-nz.co.n z
18 5
13
Protecting the Countryside
Introduction
T h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e rural e n v i r o n m e n t has b e e n an i m p o r t a n t c h a l l e n g e for c a m p a i g n e r s
a n d g o v e r n m e n t s a l i k e f o r o v e r a h u n d r e d a n d fifty y e a r s . A s e a r l y as t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h
century, American writers, including R a l p h Waldo E m e r s o n and H e n r y Thoreau, were
advocating the n e e d to protect the spectacular natural 'wilderness' of N o r t h A m e r i c a from
t h e i m p a c t o f s e t t l e m e n t , cultivation a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . Similarly, in B r i t a i n , w r i t e r s in t h e
R o m a n t i c movement, including William Wordsworth, J o h n Ruskin and William Morris,
p r o m o t e d an appreciation of the aesthetic value o f the countryside that led eventually to
the formation in 1895 of the National Trust, a charity that acquired valued landscapes and
h i s t o r i c sites t o p r e s e r v e t h e m f o r t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , t h u s i n i t i a t i n g a p r a c t i c e o f r u r a l
c o n s e r v a t i o n t h r o u g h p r i v a t e p h i l a n t h r o p y . T h e role o f t h e state in t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e
r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , m e a n w h i l e , w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e first n a t i o n a l p a r k ,
Y e l l o w s t o n e , i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d t h e p i o n e e r i n g w o r k o f G i f f o r d P i n c h o t as t h e first h e a d o f t h e
U S Forestry Service, f o u n d e d in 1909, in w h i c h h e d e v e l o p e d a utilitarian m o d e l o f
conservation, c o m b i n i n g the protection of the environment w i t h the stewardship of
e c o n o m i c resources.
T h e early advocates o f c o u n t r y s i d e preservation t e n d e d t o b e m o t i v a t e d b y a c o n c e r n

for t h e aesthetic v a l u e o f pastoral o r w i l d e r n e s s l a n d s c a p e s , o f t e n i n f o r m e d b y religious
beliefs o r b y p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t t h e significance o f s u c h l a n d s c a p e s t o n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y a n d
c u l t u r e ( B u n c e , 1 9 9 4 ; G r e e n , 1996). P i n c h o t differed f r o m this a p p r o a c h in e m p h a s i z i n g t h e
material benefits o f conservation t o t h e rural e c o n o m y , seeking m a x i m u m sustained yields
from agriculture, forestry a n d fishing t h r o u g h t h e controlled exploitation a n d m a n a g e m e n t
o f biological resources. M o r e recently, t h e rise o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o v e m e n t has
c o n t r i b u t e d t o a f u r t h e r ' g r e e n i n g ' o f rural policy, b a s e d o n scientific analysis o f d a m a g e t o
t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t (see C h a p t e r 8 ) , s o m e t i m e s c o m b i n e d w i t h e t h i c a l m o t i v a t i o n s
r o o t e d in a ' d e e p e c o l o g y ' p h i l o s o p h y ( G r e e n , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e s e different rationales for t h e
p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e rural e n v i r o n m e n t led t o different objectives for e n v i r o n m e n t a l initiatives.
A e s t h e t i c m o t i v a t i o n s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h preservation i n i t i a t i v e s a i m e d at m a i n t a i n i n g a r u r a l
Protecting the countryside
l a n d s c a p e in a relatively u n c h a n g e d state. U t i l i t a r i a n m o t i v a t i o n s b a s e d o n m a t e r i a l benefits,

i n c o n t r a s t , s u p p o r t conservation projects, w h i c h implies stewardship, m a n a g e d c h a n g e and
t h e a v o i d a n c e o f o v e r - e x p l o i t a t i o n . W h i l s t b o t h these a p p r o a c h e s essentially follow a
m o d e r n i s t c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z i n g o f n a t u r e a n d c u l t u r e (see C h a p t e r 3) i n i m p l y i n g t h a t
nature can b e protected alongside the broader d e v e l o p m e n t o f rural space (either by
d e s i g n a t i n g specific ' p r o t e c t e d landscapes' o r b y m a n a g i n g r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n ) , t h e r e c e n t
w a v e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m has m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y c h a l l e n g e d rural policy b y d e m a n d i n g
t h a t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s h o u l d b e g i v e n p r i o r i t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n all p o l i c y a r e a s
f o r e x a m p l e , b y c r e a t i n g a b i a s a g a i n s t n e w r o a d b u i l d i n g w h i c h w a s o n c e r e g a r d e d as a
staple e l e m e n t in rural d e v e l o p m e n t .
T h e d i f f e r e n t m o t i v a t i o n s f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e also r e f l e c t t h e
i m p o r t a n c e p l a c e d o n d i f f e r e n t t h r e a t s t o t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d
in different places. T o t h e early preservationist m o v e m e n t , t h e threat c a m e f r o m
i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d t h e s p r e a d o f u r b a n s p r a w l . Y e t , as C h a p t e r 8 d e t a i l e d , e n v i r o n m e n t a l
c h a n g e in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e over t h e c o u r s e o f t h e past c e n t u r y has b e e n c a u s e d b y a m u c h
w i d e r r a n g e o f factors, i n c l u d i n g i n d i g e n o u s d e v e l o p m e n t i n rural areas t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e
impact of m o d e r n agricultural practices.
A s s u c h , efforts t o p r o t e c t t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t c o n s i s t o f a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t
strategies, a i m e d at addressing different p r o b l e m s a n d f o l l o w i n g different rationales. T h i s
c h a p t e r discusses t h r e e s u c h a p p r o a c h e s . First, t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f ' p r o t e c t e d areas' w i t h i n
r u r a l a r e a s , i n w h i c h l a n d u s e a n d m a n a g e m e n t is t i g h t l y c o n t r o l l e d . S e c o n d l y , t h e u s e o f
land use p l a n n i n g policies t o regulate t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e m o r e generally.
A n d thirdly, t h e p r o m o t i o n o f a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c h e m e s t o r e d u c e t h e d e t r i m e n t a l
i m p a c t o f m o d e r n a g r i c u l t u r e a n d t o e n c o u r a g e c o n s e r v a t i o n t h r o u g h f a r m i n g . Finally, t h e
c h a p t e r shifts its a t t e n t i o n f r o m l a n d s c a p e t o a n i m a l s , e x a m i n i n g i n i t i a t i v e s t o p r e s e r v e r a r e
breeds o f livestock a n d t o r e i n t r o d u c e extinct native wildlife.
Protected Areas k n o w n as I U C N ) , p r o t e c t e d areas r a n g e f r o m

T h e p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d p r o t e c t e d areas is t h a t scientific reserves w h i c h are v e r y strictly m a n -
t h e r e are particular rural landscapes o r rural a g e d for scientific p u r p o s e s w i t h little h u m a n
e n v i r o n m e n t a l sites t h a t a r e o f s u c h a e s t h e t i c , access, t o ' m a n a g e d r e s o u r c e p r o t e c t e d areas'
cultural or scientific importance that they in w h i c h resource e x p l o i t a t i o n takes place b u t
w a r r a n t specific p r o t e c t i o n f r o m detrimental is m a n a g e d f o r s u s t a i n a b l e u s e ( T a b l e 1 3 . 1 ) . A s
h u m a n activity. T h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f p r o t e c t e d w e l l as v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e l e v e l o f r e g u l a t i o n a n d
areas h e n c e s e e k s t o p r e s e r v e t h e m o s t v a l u e d p r o t e c t i o n , p r o t e c t e d areas also differ i n t h e i r
natural features of the rural environment size - r a n g i n g f r o m small n a t u r e reserves u p
whilst permitting the development of the t o n a t i o n a l parks c o v e r i n g several thousand
w i d e r countryside. T h e best k n o w n type of square kilometres - and in the degree of
p r o t e c t e d area are n a t i o n a l parks, b u t t h e s e are human a c t i v i t y t h a t is p e r m i t t e d . T h e most
i n fact j u s t o n e l e v e l o f d e s i g n a t i o n . A s classi- s t r i n g e n t p r o t e c t e d areas a r e u n i n h a b i t e d a n d
fied by the World Conservation U n i o n (also access m a y b e t i g h t l y r e s t r i c t e d b u t o t h e r t y p e s
18 7
T a b le 1 3 . 1 IUCN classificatio n o f p r o t e c t e d area s

T y pe Note s
1 Strict Nature Reserve/Wildernes s Very strictly m a n a g e d f o r scienc e o r
wildernes s p r o t e c t i o n
II Nationa l Parks Largely u n i n h a b i t e d , m a n a g e d f o r
ecosyste m p r o t e c t i o n a n d recreatio n
III Natural M o n u m e n t M a n a g e d f o r conservatio n o f specifi c
feature s
IV Habitat/Specie s M a n a g e m e n t Area Areas o f conservatio n t h r o u g h
m a n a g e m e n t i n t e r v e n t i on
V Protecte d Landscap e o r Seascap e A im a t balanc e b e t w e e n human s
a n d n a t u re
VI M a n a g e d Resourc e Protecte d Area M a n a g e d f o r t he sustainabl e us e o f
n a t u r al ecosystem s
Source: IUCN websit e w w w . i u c n . o r g
of protected areas, m o s t l y notably level V cultural heritage ( R u n t e , 1 9 9 7 ) . It w a s not

'protected landscapes' in t h e I U C N classifica- until later that national parks b e c a m e appreci-
t i o n , are i n h a b i t e d a n d m u s t b a l a n c e t h e i n t e r e s t s a t e d as sites o f w i l d e r n e s s p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d t h e
o f t h e local p o p u l a t i o n a n d n a t u r e c o n s e r v a t i o n . fact t h a t Y e l l o w s t o n e h a p p e n e d t o o f f e r pro-
tection to a large expanse o f wilderness makes
National parks it a n a c c i d e n t a l r o l e m o d e l .
T h e w o r l d ' s first n a t i o n a l p a r k w a s e s t a b l i s h e d Indeed, two other precedents set at
at Y e l l o w s t o n e , W y o m i n g , i n 1 8 7 2 . T h e d e s i g - Y e l l o w s t o n e w e r e also a c c i d e n t a l t h e i n c l u -
nation of the park followed decades of lobby- sion o f an expansive t e r r i t o r y (legislators w e r e
i n g b y a g r o u p w h o w e r e less immediately unsure that all of Yellowstone's treasures
motivated by environmental concerns than by had b e e n discovered) and o w n e r s h i p by the
t h e c o n v i c t i o n that t h e U n i t e d States n e e d e d U S federal g o v e r n m e n t (there was n o state
t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t it p o s s e s s e d n a t u r a l w o n - g o v e r n m e n t i n W y o m i n g at t h e t i m e ) . T h e s e
d e r s t o rival t h o s e o f E u r o p e a n d t h a t such accidental origins notwithstanding,Yellowstone
places s h o u l d b e t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e people b e c a m e t h e m o d e l for future national parks:
not sites of private profit (Runte, 1997; they w o u l d be focused o n outstanding natural
Sellars, 1 9 9 7 ) . I n 1 8 6 4 , c o n c e r n s t h a t t h e o u t - or cultural p h e n o m e n a , cover extensive terri-
s t a n d i n g l a n d s c a p e o f t h e Y o s e m i t e Valley in tories, b e entirely publicly o w n e d , uninhab-
California might b e abused by private entre- ited, free f r o m c o m m e r c i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n and
preneurs had led President A b r a h a m Lincoln managed by the government on behalf of
to c e d e o w n e r s h i p a n d responsibility for t h e the nation. Whilst the designation of further
area t o t h e State o f California, t h u s establish- n a t i o n a l parks in t h e U n i t e d States o c c u r r e d
ing a prototype national park (Yosemite was o n l y slowly, t h e idea q u i c k l y spread t o the
later designated as a full national park in dominions of the British Empire, with
1890). At Yellowstone it w a s t h e discovery national parks established in Australia (1879),
o f a r e m a r k a b l e array o f geysers, waterfalls, C a n a d a ( 1 8 8 5 ) a n d N e w Z e a l a n d ( 1 8 8 7 ) - all
c a n y o n s a n d artefacts that suggested t h e r e m - on the Yellowstone model.
n a n t s o f a n earlier lost civilization that m a r k e d The model did not, however, translate
it o u t as a p l a c e i n w h i c h t h e U n i t e d States c o u l d easily b a c k t o E u r o p e , w h e r e t h e r e w e r e f e w
d e m o n s t r a t e its c o m m i t m e n t t o p r o t e c t i n g its areas of extensive uninhabited countryside
18 8
left, b u t w h e r e c o n c e r n s m o u n t e d d u r i n g t h e t h e w e s t w e r e inspired t o c a m p a i g n for the

early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a b o u t t h e threat to c r e a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l p a r k s i n t h e east, m o s t
the rural landscape from urbanization. W h e n notably in the Great S m o k y M o u n t a i n s (see
national parks w e r e established in the mid- Box 13.1). T h e establishment of such parks
twentieth century, o n e of t w o compromise in t h e already settled eastern U S proved m o r e
approaches was adopted. Countries such as complex, involving difficult land purchase
Ireland, Italy a n d S w i t z e r l a n d r e m a i n e d true negotiations and the resettlement of c o m m u n i -
to the principles of the Yellowstone model ties, a n d relatively f e w n a t i o n a l p a r k s h a v e b e e n
(level II in the IUCN classification), that d e s i g n a t e d east o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 ) .
national parks are publicly o w n e d , u n i n h a b i t e d Thirdly, t h e Alaska Lands A c t o f 1 9 8 0 facili-
a n d strictly m a n a g e d , b u t w e r e restricted to tated the creation of seven n e w national parks
d e s i g n a t i n g relatively small areas o f l a n d as in t h e state a n d t h e e n l a r g e m e n t a n d r e n a m -
national parks. In the U K and Germany, in ing of the Mount McKinley nation park
c o n t r a s t , l a r g e r t e r r i t o r i e s w e r e d e s i g n a t e d as (originally established in 1917) ( R u n t e , 1997).
national parks, b u t these included privately T h e Alaskan national parks encompass vast
o w n e d land and were inhabited, and offered areas o f b o t h scenic a n d scientific i m p o r t a n c e ,
a m u c h lesser d e g r e e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l pro- collectively covering an area larger than
t e c t i o n (level V i n t h e I U C N classification). E n g l a n d . Finally, a h a n d f u l o f n e w p a r k s h a v e
France innovated a mixed approach, with a been designated since 1990 - D e a t h Valley
core national park conforming to IUCN and Joshua Tree in California (both created
l e v e l II s t a n d a r d s , s u r r o u n d e d b y a p e r i p h e r a l by the Desert Protection Act of 1994), Black
z o n e t h a t is i n h a b i t e d a n d m o r e a k i n t o t h e C a n y o n of the Gunisson in C o l o r a d o (1999),
UK model. Consequently, whilst the term C u y a h o g a Valley i n O h i o ( 2 0 0 0 ) , G r e a t S a n d
' n a t i o n a l p a r k ' is u s e d a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , its D u n e s in C o l o r a d o (2000) a n d C o n g a r e e in
m e a n i n g varies significantly b e t w e e n c o u n t r i e s South Carolina (2003).
(see T a b l e 1 3 . 2 ) . T h e m a n a g e m e n t strategies a d o p t e d b y t h e
These differences can be illustrated by N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e h a v e also e v o l v e d in
e x a m i n i n g in m o r e detail t h e national park line w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y concerns and conser-
systems o f t h e U n i t e d States a n d t h e U K . B y v a t i o n practice. I n t h e 1920s, for e x a m p l e , t h e
2 0 0 3 , 56 national parks had b e e n designated Park Service eradicated grey wolves from
in t h e U n i t e d States, m a n y o f w h i c h h a d b e e n Y e l l o w s t o n e n a t i o n a l p a r k as p a r t o f a p r e d a -
o r i g i n a l l y a w a r d e d t h e less p r o t e c t e d s t a t u s o f t o r c o n t r o l strategy, o n l y t o r e i n t r o d u c e t h e m
'national m o n u m e n t ' before later elevation. i n 1 9 9 5 (Sellars, 1 9 9 7 ) . C h a l l e n g e s also c o m e
The expansion of the national park system from the need to balance conservation and
occurred i n f o u r phases. First, t h e r e w a s a recreation, the public use of national parks
c o n t i n u e d d e s i g n a t i o n o f parks in t h e relative having b e e n part of their rationale from the
wilderness regions of the western states outset even i f it w a s decades before mass
following the precedent of Yellowstone and tourism reached Yosemite and Yellowstone.
Yosemite, including Grand Canyon (1919), The provision of camping grounds, visitor
Sequoia (1890) a n d R o c k y M o u n t a i n (1915), c e n t r e s a n d w a l k i n g trails is a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t
b u t also s m a l l e r sites s u c h as H o t Springs, o f t h e N a t i o n a l Park Service's w o r k , b u t t h e
Arkansas (1921), designed to protect thermal demand for recreation has b e g u n to clash
springs, and W i n d Cave, S o u t h D a k o t a (1903). w i t h c o n s e r v a t i o n interests, particularly in t h e
S e c o n d l y , t r a v e l l e r s f r o m t h e e a s t e r n states t o m o s t u n t o u c h e d p a r k s , s u c h as t h e A l a s k a n
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n a t i o n a l parks. Similarly, w h i l s t commercially changed the landscape and damaged wildlife

valuable land was historically e x c l u d e d from h a b i t a t s (see C h a p t e r s 4 a n d 8 ) , s p a r k i n g c o n -
national parks, the creation o f t h e large parks flicts i n a n u m b e r o f n a t i o n a l p a r k s , p a r t i c u l a r
in Alaska w a s fiercely c o n t e s t e d b y business Exmoor where the conversion of heather
interests w h o identified t h e p o t e n t i a l for oil moorland to agricultural grassland led to
extraction and mining, and conflicts have a s p e c i a l i n q u i r y ( L o w e e t al., 1 9 8 6 ; W i n t e r ,
persisted over the d e v e l o p m e n t o f roads and 1996). Similarly, mining, hydro-electric
pipelines across t h e parks a n d o v e r access for power, reservoirs, military training and the
h u n t i n g a n d c o m m e r c i a l fishing. construction o f h i g h w a y s w e r e all theoreti-
I n t h e U K t h e g r o u n d w o r k for t h e c r e a t i o n cally p e r m i t t e d i n n a t i o n a l p a r k s , a l t h o u g h t h e
of national parks was provided by t w o g o v e r n - D o w e r R e p o r t had r e c o m m e n d e d that 'these
m e n t reports during the Second World W a r s h o u l d b e p e r m i t t e d o n l y u p o n clear p r o o f o f
t h e Scott R e p o r t o n L a n d Utilisation in R u r a l r e q u i r e m e n t in the national interest and that
Areas (1942), w h i c h identified the n e e d to p r o - n o satisfactory a l t e r n a t i v e site c o u l d b e f o u n d '
tect valued rural landscapes from u r b a n and (Williams, 1985, p. 360). In practice, the
industrial development, a n d the D o w e r R e p o r t failure of the national park authorities to
on National Parks in England and Wales prevent large-scale military training in
(1945), w h i c h p r o p o s e d t h e f r a m e w o r k for t h e the Brecon Beacons, Northumberland and
establishment of national parks. T h e s e were Dartmoor national parks, the routing of
followed b y the N a t i o n a l Parks a n d Access to the Okehampton by-pass through part of
the C o u n t r y s i d e Act 1949, eventually leading the D a r t m o o r park, or the construction of the
t o t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e first p a r k s , t h e P e a k Trawsfynydd nuclear power station in the
District a n d the Lake District, in April and S n o w d o n i a n a t i o n a l p a r k (see B o x 1 3 . 1 ) , a r e
May 1951 respectively. B e t w e e n 1951 and all c i t e d b y c r i t i c s as e v i d e n c e o f t h e w e a k n e s s
1957 a further eight national parks were estab- of the British system (MacEwen and
l i s h e d , m a i n l y i n u p l a n d areas o f w e s t e r n and M a c E w e n , 1982).
n o r t h e r n E n g l a n d a n d Wales, a l t h o u g h several T h e designation of long-settled and culti-
w e r e o f close proximity to major u r b a n centres v a t e d a r e a s as n a t i o n a l p a r k s p r o h i b i t e d the
(notably the Peak District,Yorkshire Dales and UK from following the American model,
N o r t h u m b e r l a n d ) (Figure 13.2). either in resettling residents or in acquiring
B o t h the Scott and the D o w e r reports had l a n d in n a t i o n a l parks for p u b l i c ownership.
perceived urbanization and industrialization T h r e e - q u a r t e r s of the land in national parks
to b e the major threats to t h e countryside, a n d in England a n d Wales is p r i v a t e l y owned,
accordingly the primary function of the n e w 4 0 p e r c e n t as f a r m l a n d . A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s ,
national parks was to i m p o s e strict controls the d o m i n a n c e of private landownership has
o n l a n d u s e d e v e l o p m e n t . Significantly, f a r m - shaped the nature of the recreational use of
ing was seen to b e part of the conservation national parks. A l t h o u g h they have become
process, s u c h t h a t n o specific c o n t r o l s were major tourist attractions, public access has,
placed o n agricultural practice in the national until the Countryside and Rights of Way Act
parks. As MacEwen and MacEwen (1982) 2000, b e e n restricted to designated 'rights of
h a v e o b s e r v e d , t h i s p r o v e d t o b e ' t h e fatal c o n - way' footpaths and to land o w n e d and o p e n e d
t r a d i c t i o n ' (p. 10) o f t h e s y s t e m , as m o d e r n , by philanthropic organizations such as the
productivist, farming practices dramatically N a t i o n a l Trust. D e s p i t e t h e respect for private
19 2
Figure 13. 2 Establishe d an d propose d nationa l parks in Grea t Britain, 200 3
19 3
property, landowners strongly resisted the that local economic interests and property
creation of many of the national parks. rights are o v e r - r i d d e n b y outside appointees.
Landowner opposition precluded any move to The second cross-cutting issue is recre-
establish n a t i o n a l parks in S c o t l a n d d u r i n g t h e ational use. As rural t o u r i s m has g r o w n (see
1950s, w h i l s t successful l a n d o w n e r o p p o s i t i o n Chapter 12), national parks have emerged
to a proposed Cambrian Mountains national as k e y sites t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e c o u n t r y s i d e is
park in mid-Wales b r o u g h t the p r o g r a m m e of c o n s u m e d , particularly t h r o u g h activities that
national park designations in England and seek some kind of 'outdoor adventure' or
W a l e s t o a n a b r u p t h a l t i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s . It w a s 'reconnection w i t h nature'.Traditionally these
n o t until the 1990s that further national parks have included camping, hiking and sightseeing
were created, including the formal recognition b y car (the m a i n visitor activities in British
o f t h e B r o a d s as a n a t i o n a l p a r k , t h e e s t a b l i s h - national parks according to a 1994 survey), but
ment of the first two national parks in increasingly they also include 'adventure
S c o t l a n d , a n d proposals for t w o national parks tourism', such as long-distance treks and
i n s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d (see F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 ) . helicopter trips. T h e majority o f visits are
N a t i o n a l parks in t h e U n i t e d States a n d t h e m a d e t o n a t i o n a l parks w i t h i n relatively easy
UK conform to very different models, but reach o f u r b a n centres, o r w i t h an established
t h e r e a r e t w o issues t h a t c r o s s - c u t b o t h s y s t e m s , history of tourism, but increasingly even
a n d t h o s e o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . T h e first is t h e r e m o t e p a r k s s u c h as t h e D e n a l i a n d G a t e s o f
balance b e t w e e n national a n d local interests. Arctic parks in Alaska are b e c o m i n g tourist
T h e very n o t i o n o f a 'national park' implies destinations. O n l y t h e m o s t inaccessible national
t h a t t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e site s h o u l d t r a n - parks are i m m u n e - the extremely remote
s c e n d local interests a n d b e a national r e s p o n - I w a v i k national p a r k in arctic C a n a d a received
sibility. T h u s , i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , C a n a d a a n d j u s t 1 7 0 visitors in 1 9 9 5 . R e c r e a t i o n has h e n c e
N e w Z e a l a n d , m a n a g e m e n t is u n d e r t a k e n b y b e c o m e a major part of the mission of national
a n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y w i t h little l o c a l parks, w i t h great e c o n o m i c importance for
i n p u t . W h i l s t m o s t parks in these c o u n t r i e s are nearby communities. Indeed, the creation of
u n i n h a b i t e d , there are n e i g h b o u r i n g commu- n e w national parks in Australia, t h e U K and
nities w i t h particular e c o n o m i c a n d cultural Canada during t h e past 2 0 years has been
interests in t h e parks, a n d in a n u m b e r o f parks driven as much by anticipated economic
t h e r e a r e s m a l l first n a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n s w h o s e b e n e f i t s as b y c o n s e r v a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t o u r i s m
welfare a n d cultural interests (notably h u n t i n g ) has created pressures o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t of
m a y conflict w i t h conservation priorities. In national parks, t h r o u g h pollution, erosion and
countries with more substantially populated t h e d e m a n d for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f roads, car
n a t i o n a l p a r k s t h e r e is g r e a t e r l o c a l involve- parks a n d facilities.The desire t o balance recre-
m e n t in park governance. National parks in ation a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n has led t h e F e d e r a t i o n
Germany are m a n a g e d through the normal o f N a t u r e a n d National Parks o f E u r o p e to
local g o v e r n m e n t system, whilst in t h e U K a n d promote sustainable tourism, encouraging
F r a n c e g o v e r n a n c e is u n d e r t a k e n b y i n d e p e n - a c t i v i t i e s s u c h as w a l k i n g , c l i m b i n g , c y c l i n g ,
d e n t boards o n w h i c h elected local politicians p h o t o g r a p h y , s c h o o l visits a n d n a t u r e camps,
are r e p r e s e n t e d alongside the appointees of whilst discouraging large hotels, leisure parks
national government. This does not, however, a n d h o l i d a y v i l l a g e s , l a r g e g r o u p visits, s k i i n g
prevent protests from local residents that and the use o f m o t o r i z e d boats and off-road
national p a r k authorities are u n d e m o c r a t i c or vehicles.
19 4
Box 13.1 Comparison - the Great Smoky

Mountains and Snowdonia national parks
T he d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n n a t i o n a l p a r ks in t h e U n i t e d State s a n d t h e U K c a n b e e x p l o r e d
f u r t h er b y c o m p a r i n g t w o p a r ks o f s i m i l a r siz e - t h e G r e a t S m o k y M o u n t a i ns n a t i o n a l p a rk
o n t h e b o r d e r o f N o r th C a r o l i na a n d Tennesse e (2,11 0 k m ) a n d S n o w d o n i a n a t i o n a l p a r k
2
in n o r t h - w e s t W a l e s (2,14 2 k m ) . T he G r e a t S m o k y M o u n t a i ns n a t i o n a l p a r k w a s e s t a b -
2
lishe d in 1 9 3 4 f o l l o w i n g a c a m p a i g n i n i t i a t ed b y M rs W i l l is P. Davi s o f n e a r b y K n o x v i l l e,
w h o h a d b e e n i n s p i r e d b y t h e n a t i o n a l p a r ks o f t h e w e s t e r n states . T he S m o k y M o u n t a i ns
( t he ' G r e a t' w a s a d d e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l Par k C o m m i s s i o n ) , h o w e v e r , w e r e a l r e a d y s e t t l e d
a n d c u l t i v a t e d , w i th a significan t l o g g i n g o p e r a t i o n . Creating t h e p a rk m e a n t purchasin g
l a n d f r om p r i v a te o w n e r s , w i th f u n d s largel y g e n e r a t e d b y p u b l ic appeal s a n d b y a $ 5 m i l l i on
d o n a t i o n f r o m t h e R o c k e f e l l e r f a m i l y. S o m e o w n e r s resiste d s e l l i n g a n d a n u n u s u a l c o m -
p r o m i s e a l l o w e d a n u m b e r o f f a m i l i e s in Cade s C o v e ( n o w a t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i on - se e
C h a p t e r 12 ) t o r e m a i n o n a l i f e - t i me leas e a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e p a r k. G e n e r a l l y ,
h o w e v e r , r e s i d e n t s w e r e r e s e t t l e d (ironically, E u r o p e a n s e t t l e m e n t h a d b e e n e n a b l e d b y
t h e e a r l i e r r e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e C h e r o k e e n a t i o n in t h e 1830s) .
T o d a y t h e l a n d s c a p e o f t h e G r e a t S m o k y M o u n t a i n s is d o m i n a t e d b y f o r e s t s w h i c h
a re h o m e t o 1 3 0 specie s o f t r e e s , 4 , 0 0 0 o t h e r p l a n t species , a n d w i l d l i fe i n c l u d i ng
t h e b l a c k bear , e l k a n d r e d w o l v e s - r e i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k Servic e in 1 9 9 1 .
It is r e c o g n i z e d a s a n I n t e r n a t i o n al B i o s p h e r e Reserv e a n d a W o r ld H e r i t a g e S i t e . T h e
n a t i o n a l p a r k is c r o s s e d b y j u s t o n e m a j o r r o a d ( b u i lt a s p a r t o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k 's
e s t a b l i s h m e n t ) a n d m u c h o f t h e a r e a is accessibl e o n l y b y u n p a v e d r o a d s o r w a l k i n g
t r a i l s. It is , h o w e v e r , t h e m o s t - v i s i t e d n a t i o n a l p a r k in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w i t h ove r
9 m i l l i on visits e a c h year , m o s t l y b e t w e e n J u n e a n d O c t o b e r . Facilities o p e r a t e d b y t h e
N a t i o n a l P a r k Servic e i n c l u d e n i n e c a m p i n g g r o u n d s , f i ve r i d i ng s t a b l e s , p i c n ic a r e a s ,
n a t u re t r a i l s, t h r e e v i s i t o r c e n t r e s a n d a l o o k o u t t o w e r o n t h e p a r k 's h i g h e s t p e a k ,
C l i n g m a n 's Dom e (2,02 3 m ) . E n v i r o n m e n t a l problems include w a t e r p o l l u t i on an d
p l a n t a n d a n i m a l d i s e a s e , a s w e l l a s a i r p o l l u t i o n t h a t d r i f ts in f r o m a s f a r a s C l e v e l a n d ,
O h i o a n d B i r m i n g h a m , A l a b a m a . A v e r a g e v i s i b i l i ty a t t h e N e w f o u n d l a n d G a p v i e w -
p o i n t ha s d e c l i n e d f r o m 14 5 k m ( 9 0 m i l e s ) t o 3 5 k m (2 2 m i l e s ) in 5 0 y e a r s a n d d a m a g e
t o p l a n t s ha s b e e n r e c o r d e d f r o m s u l p h a t e a n d o z o n e p o l l u t i o n .
T he S n o w d o n i a n a t i o n a l p a r k w a s t h e t h i rd t o b e c r e a t e d in t h e UK, in O c t o b e r 1 9 5 1 .
C o v e r i n g a p r e d o m i n a n t l y u p l a n d l a n d s c a p e , it i n c l u d e s t h e f i r st a n d t h i rd h i g h e s t s u m -
m i ts in W a l e s - S n o w d o n ( 1 0 8 4 m ) a n d C a d e r Idris ( 8 9 2 m ) . Parts o f t h e p a r k a re d e s i g -
n a t e d a s a W o r ld B i o s p h e r e Sit e a n d a s a W o r ld H e r i t a g e Site . L i ke al l U K n a t i o n a l p a r k s ,
S n o w d o n i a is p o p u l a t e d a n d m o s t l y p r i v a t e ly o w n e d . P r i v a te l a n d c o n s t i t u t e s 6 9 . 9 p e r
c e n t o f S n o w d o n i a , w i t h 15. 8 p e r c e n t o w n e d b y t h e F o r e s t r y C o m m i s s i o n , 8. 9 p e r c e n t
b y t h e N a t i o n a l T r u st c h a r i t y, 1. 7 p e r c e n t b y t h e C o u n t r y s i d e C o u n c i l f o r W a l e s , a n d j u s t
1.2 p e r c e n t b y t h e N a t i o n a l Par k A u t h o r i ty itself . T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f 2 6 , 2 6 7 is l a r g e l y
c o n c e n t r a t e d in t o w n s a n d v i l l a g e s , i n c l u d i ng D o l g e l l a u a n d B a l a , w i t h developmen t
t i g h t ly r e s t r i c t e d o u t s i d e t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s . T h e f o r m e r s l a t e - m i n i n g t o w n o f B l a e n a u
F f e s t i n i o g is e x c l u d e d f r o m , b u t e n t i r e l y e n c i r c l e d by, t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k.
T he c r e a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k w a s o p p o s e d b y l a n d o w n e r s a n d l o c a l r e s i s t a n c e
f o r c e d p r o p o s a l s f o r a n i n d e p e n d e n t p l a n n i n g b o a r d o n t h e m o d e l u s e d in t h e L a ke
D i s t r i ct a n d t h e P e a k D i s t r i ct t o b e d r o p p e d a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o b e v e s t e d in a j o i nt
committe e o f the electe d c o u n t y councils . T he n a t i o n a l p a r k a u t h o r i ty eventuall y
g a i n e d i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t u s in 1 9 9 5 a n d p r e s e n t l y c o m p r i s e s a m i x o f l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a n d m e m b e r s a p p o i n t e d b y t h e W e l s h A s s e m b l y . T h e a u t h o r i ty ha s a
b u d g e t o f a r o u n d 5 m i l l i on a n d e m p l o y s 1 2 0 s t a f f .
(Continued)
19 5
A g r i c u l t u r al l a n d use s p r e d o m i n a t e . N e a r l y 4 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k is o p e n
c o u n t r y, m o s t l y g r a z e d m o o r l a n d , t o w h i c h t h e p u b l ic h a s r e c e n t l y g a i n e d a r i g ht o f
access . A f u r t h e r 3 1 p e r c e n t is e n c l o s e d f a r m l a n d ( a g a i n m o s t l y g r a z i n g ) a n d 1 5 p e r
c e n t is f o r e s t e d . A g r i c u l t u re r e m a i n s s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h e l o c a l e c o n o m y b u t a g r i c u l t u r al
m o d e r n i z a t i o n ha s b e e n o n e o f t h e k e y e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a l l e n g e s f a c e d b y t h e p a rk -
a d d r e s s e d in r e c e n t y e a r s t h r o u g h a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c h e m e s . A m o r e controversia l
sourc e o f loca l e m p l o y m e n t w a s t h e T r a w s f y n y d d n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n , t h e c o n s t r u c -
t i o n o f w h i c h in t h e h e a r t o f t h e p a r k in 1 9 5 9 - 6 5 w a s r e g a r d e d b y e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s
a s a n i n d i c t m e n t o f t h e p a r k 's a b i l i ty t o c o n t r o l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e p o w e r s t a t i o n c l o s e d
in 1 9 9 3 a n d is u n d e r g o i n g d e c o m m i s s i o n i n g .
S n o w d o n i a is t h e t h i rd m o s t v i s i t e d n a t i o n a l p a r k in B r i t a i n, w i t h a r o u n d 1 0 m i l l i on
v i s i t o r d a y s a n n u a l l y . Jus t u n d e r h a l f o f visits a re d a y t r i ps a n d r e c r e a t i o n in t h e n a t i o n a l
p a rk successfull y c o m b i n e s t r a d i t i o n al a c t i v i t i e s s u c h a s s i g h t s e e i n g w i t h m o r e a d v e n t u r -
o u s O u t d o o r p u r s u i t s '. B o t h t y p e s o f a c t i v i t y, h o w e v e r , h a v e p u t p r e s s u r e s o n t h e p a r k 's
environment . In p a r t i c u l a r, problems o f t r a f f ic congestio n a n d associate d p o l l u t i on
p r o m p t e d t h e m o o t i n g o f a ' c o n g e s t i o n c h a r g e ' in 2 0 0 3 w h i c h w o u l d c h a r g e v i s i t o rs t o
e n t e r t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k b y ca r o r p r i v a te c o a c h a n d e n c o u r a g e us e o f p u b l ic t r a n s p o r t.
For more see www.greatsmoky.mountains.national-park.com/info.htm and www.snowdonia-npa.gov.uk .
Other protected areas m e m o r i a l s a n d n a t i o n a l h i s t o r i c sites t h a t a r e

N a t i o n a l parks represent just o n e fraction of p r o t e c t e d for t h e i r historical a n d cultural sig-
t h e m a t r i x o f p r o t e c t e d areas t h a t h a v e b e e n nificance, a n d n a t i o n a l r e c r e a t i o n areas, n a t i o n a l
designated to p r o m o t e countryside conserva- s c e n i c trails a n d n a t i o n a l p a r k w a y s w h i c h h a v e
t i o n . I n t h e U K , for e x a m p l e , n a t i o n a l parks are a stronger recreational emphasis. Secondly, p r o -
complemented by Areas of Outstanding t e c t e d areas m a y r e c o g n i z e areas o f s c e n i c o r
Natural Beauty, National S c e n i c A r e a s , Sites c u l t u r a l i m p o r t a n c e b u t afford a lesser level o f
of Special Scientific Interest and Nature protection o r regulation than national parks.
Reserves (Table 13.3), whilst Australia's Areas o f O u t s t a n d i n g N a t u r a l B e a u t y ( A O N B )
national parks comprise only a r o u n d 4 3 per in E n g l a n d a n d Wales, for e x a m p l e , are offi-
cent of the 604,000 k m 2 of designated pro- cially c o n s i d e r e d t o b e o f e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e t o
t e c t e d areas i n t h e c o u n t r y . T h e o b j e c t i v e s of n a t i o n a l p a r k s , a n d involve specific m e a s u r e s t o
these other protected areas generally differ p r o t e c t natural features, b u t until recently did
from those of national parks in o n e of three n o t have i n d e p e n d e n t m a n a g e m e n t structures
w a y s . First, s o m e designations apply similar a n d are n o t c h a r g e d w i t h t h e s a m e c o n s e r v a -
conditions to those of a national park to a tion and recreation functions as national
s i n g l e n a t u r a l f e a t u r e o r t o a specific t y p e o f parks (Green, 1996; Winter, 1996). Thirdly,
landscape. T h e U S N a t i o n a l Parks Service, for s o m e types o f p r o t e c t e d area have a stronger
e x a m p l e , is also r e s p o n s i b l e for 70 national scientific r a t i o n a l e t h a n n a t i o n a l p a r k s in t h e i r
m o n u m e n t s f o c u s e d o n specific n a t u r a l o r h e r - protection o f habitats and wildlife. Sites of
i t a g e sites, t e n n a t i o n a l s e a s h o r e s , f o u r n a t i o n a l S p e c i a l S c i e n t i f i c I n t e r e s t (SSSI) i n t h e U K , f o r
l a k e s h o r e s , six n a t i o n a l r i v e r s a n d n i n e n a t i o n a l instance, protect vulnerable habitats ranging
w i l d a n d s c e n i c r i v e r s , as w e l l as n a t i o n a l h i s - from individual wildlife colonies to whole
torical parks, national battlefields, national e c o s y s t e m s s u c h as w o o d l a n d s o r b o g s . S S S I s
19 6
Table 1 3 . 3 Protecte d area s in t he UK, 200 2

Designatio n No . Total are a ( k m ) 2
Note s
Area o f O u t s t a n d i n g 50 24,08 7 England , Wale s a n d N o r t h e rn Ireland only.
Natural Beaut y (AONB) Require conservatio n o f f l o r a, f a u n a a n d
landscap e feature s
Nationa l Sceni c Area 40 10,01 8 Scotlan d only. Equivalen t t o AONBs
Site o f Specia l Scientifi c 6,57 8 22,86 3 Scientificall y i m p o r t a nt site s w i th r e g u l a t i o n
Interes t (SSSI ) o f certai n activities
Nationa l Nature Reserv e 39 6 2,40 5 Site s designate d f o r t he p r o t e c t i o n an d
stud y o f f l o ra a n d f a u n a . M a n a g e d by
nationa l conservatio n agencie s
Local Nature Reserv e 80 7 45 5 Site s o f nature preservatio n m a n a g e d by
loca l authorities a n d conservatio n trusts
Source: Whitaker's Almanack 2003
r e c e i v e specific p r o t e c t i o n f r o m development only a small proportion of rural space.

i n t h e p l a n n i n g s y s t e m , b u t also r e g u l a t e a g r i - O u t s i d e t h e s e areas, t h e c h a r a c t e r , a p p e a r a n c e
cultural usage. L a n d o w n e r s are restricted in and environment of the Everyday country-
t h e activities t h a t t h e y c a n u n d e r t a k e a n d a r e side' are threatened b y land use c h a n g e a n d
required t o notify conservation authorities o f development (see C h a p t e r 8). Attempts to
operations that m a y impact o n t h e site. I n c o u n t e r these threats b y regulating rural land
practice, however, t h e reliance o n voluntary use a n d d e v e l o p m e n t have b e e n introduced in
cooperation by landowners means that the m a n y countries t h r o u g h systems o f land use
S S S I r e g u l a t i o n s c a n b e difficult t o e n f o r c e a n d p l a n n i n g . L a n d u s e p l a n n i n g is n o t j u s t a b o u t
a r o u n d a q u a r t e r o f SSSIs suffered s o m e d a m - development control, and m a y b e used p r o -
age b e t w e e n 1982 a n d 1989 (Winter, 1996). actively t o e n c o u r a g e e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t
In t h e U n i t e d States, additional p r o t e c t i o n for a n d t o p r o v i d e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , b u t it is t h e
wildlife a n d sensitive habitats has b e e n i n t r o - d e v e l o p m e n t c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n t h a t is g e n e r -
duced through t h e designation of national ally m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t i n a r u r a l c o n t e x t ( s e e
p r e s e r v e s , w i l d l i f e r e f u g e s a n d w i l d e r n e s s areas, C l o k e , 1 9 8 8 ; Hall, 2 0 0 2 ; L a p p i n g et al., 1 9 8 9 ) .
m a n y o f w h i c h overlap w i t h national parks. Y e t t h e r e a r e also s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n
T h e s e areas s h o u l d i n t h e o r y e x p e r i e n c e m i n - countries in the form and scope of the plan-
imal human activity, i n c l u d i n g prohibitions ning system a n d in the degree o f protection
o n t h e u s e o f a n y m o t o r i z e d m e a n s o f access o r t h a t is a f f o r d e d t o t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . I n
e q u i p m e n t i n w i l d e r n e s s areas ( R u n t e , 1 9 9 7 ) , Western Europe the development of rural
b u t t h e t h r e a t s t h a t c a n still a r i s e from t h e clash locations tends to b e subject to quite strict
o f conservation a n d e c o n o m i c interests w e r e controls a n d regulation within a c o m p r e h e n -
demonstrated in 2001 w h e n the U S adminis- sive national planning framework. In the
tration floated plans t o p e r m i t drilling for oil U n i t e d States a n d Australia, i n contrast, t h e
in t h e Alaska Wildlife R e f u g e . r e g u l a t i o n o f l a n d u s e o u t s i d e p r o t e c t e d areas
is m o r e l i b e r a l a n d s u c h d e v e l o p m e n t con-
Land Use Planning and t r o l s as e x i s t t e n d t o b e i n i t i a t e d a t a l o c a l
Development Control level w i t h n o o v e r a r c h i n g n a t i o n a l strategy.
Protected areas h e l p t o c o n s e r v e t h e most Accordingly, this section c o m p a r e s t h e h i g h l y
highly valued rural environments, b u t cover regulated planning system in Britain with t h e
19 7
m o r e fragmented approach to development of the structure plan and the local plan.
c o n t r o l in t h e U n i t e d States. N a t i o n a l p a r k a u t h o r i t i e s are also r e s p o n s i b l e
for p r o d u c i n g specific plans for t h e i r t e r r i t o -
The planning system in ries. O n c e agreed, these plans f o r m t h e r e g u -
England and Wales lations against w h i c h applications t o develop
The introduction of the modern planning l a n d a r e assessed. A l a n d o w n e r o r b u i l d e r w i s h -
system in England and Wales by the 1947 i n g to d e v e l o p a p i e c e o f land (or alter an
Town and Country Planning Act was a existing building) m u s t apply t o t h e local p l a n -
v i c t o r y for rural preservationists w h o h a d c a m - ning authority (usually t h e district council)
paigned for t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e rural l a n d - f o r p l a n n i n g p e r m i s s i o n . T h i s is g r a n t e d o n l y
scape and environment from urban and i f t h e l a n d is w i t h i n a n a r e a d e s i g n a t e d f o r t h a t
industrial development. As Hall (2002) t y p e o f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d if t h e p r o p o s a l m e e t s
o b s e r v e s , t h e 1 9 4 7 A c t effectively n a t i o n a l i z e d other criteria relating, for example, to the
the development rights o f land in England p r o p o s e d b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s o r t o t h e safety o f
a n d Wales, s u c h that t h e state - in t h e f o r m o f v e h i c u l a r access.
local p l a n n i n g authorities decides which The separation of urban and rural space
land may and may not b e developed and that has been a fundamental principle of the
landowners d o n o t have a right to develop British planning system from the beginning
their land w i t h o u t obtaining permission from (Murdoch and Lowe, 2003). This was most
t h e p l a n n i n g a u t h o r i t y . T h i s enables t h e state notably enforced through the creation of
t o e x e r c i s e c o n t r o l o v e r w h a t is b u i l t where 'greenbelts' around metropolitan areas in
a n d t o p r o t e c t areas f r o m development. w h i c h t h e r e is a s t r o n g p r e s u m p t i o n against
T h e system operates in a t o p - d o w n manner. a n y d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e first g r e e n b e l t , a r o u n d
P l a n n i n g l a w is f o r m u l a t e d at a n a t i o n a l l e v e l L o n d o n , was designated in 1947 and later
a n d g u i d a n c e o n its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is i s s u e d e x t e n d e d s u c h t h a t it n o w f o r m s a r i n g up
by the planning ministers in England and t o 8 0 k i l o m e t r e s (30 miles) w i d e (Hall, 2 0 0 2 ) .
Wales. Additional guidance m a y b e issued o n Further greenbelts were subsequently estab-
a r e g i o n a l basis, a n d r e g i o n a l p l a n n i n g c o n f e r - lished a r o u n d the o t h e r major British cities
ences made up o f local authorities in the and conurbations. They have proved to be
region have a role in agreeing quotas for highly effective in meeting their original
housing development in England. The o b j e c t i v e o f l i m i t i n g u r b a n s p r a w l as w e l l as
national a n d regional policies i n f o r m the p r o - in protecting agricultural land and in provid-
d u c t i o n by c o u n t y councils o f structure plans i n g areas for c o u n t r y s i d e r e c r e a t i o n close t o
that o u t l i n e t h e f r a m e w o r k for land use a n d urban populations. However, greenbelts have
development control in a locality, a n d by also c o n t r i b u t e d t o c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n (see
district councils o f local plans that designate C h a p t e r 6) b y r e s t r i c t i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for
particular plots o f land for d e v e l o p m e n t o n a suburban expansion and thus encouraging
c o m m u n i t y - b y - c o m m u n i t y basis (see M u r d o c h migrants from the city to 'leapfrog' i n t o rural
and Abram, 2002; and M u r d o c h and Marsden, areas b e y o n d t h e r i n g ( M u r d o c h a n d M a r s d e n ,
1 9 9 4 for an e x a m p l e o f Buckinghamshire). 1 9 9 4 ) . S u c h is t h e p r e s s u r e t h a t h a s a c c u m u -
W h e r e t h e c o u n t y a n d district councils have lated o n t h e s e adjacent rural areas t h a t in t h e
been merged into a single tier of local late 1990s proposals w e r e m o o t e d t o p e r m i t
g o v e r n m e n t (as i n W a l e s ) , a s i n g l e d e v e l o p m e n t new housing development within greenbelts
p l a n is p r o d u c e d t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e p u r p o s e s in Bradford, Newcastle and Hertfordshire
19 8
(see C h a p t e r 1 4 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , r e s t r i c t i o n s o n building materials. Secondly, agriculture is

development within greenbelts have had the largely exempt from the planning system.
consequence of inflating property prices, Agricultural buildings may be erected outside
effectively turning them into exclusive development envelopes without requiring
m i d d l e class e n c l a v e s ( M u r d o c h a n d M a r s d e n , planning permission and planning authorities
1994). have n o powers to regulate farming practices
T h e separation of rural and urban space s u c h as t h e r e m o v a l o f h e d g e r o w s , w h i c h c a n
is a l s o p r a c t i s e d i n t h e l o c a l p l a n n i n g p o l i c i e s dramatically change the appearance o f a land-
o f b r o a d l y r u r a l r e g i o n s , as n e w d e v e l o p m e n t scape. Thirdly, t h e p l a n n i n g system has b e e n
tends t o b e c o n c e n t r a t e d in small t o w n s a n d less e f f e c t i v e a t c o n t r o l l i n g l a r g e - s c a l e infra-
large villages. Different planning authorities structure developments in rural space.
have a d o p t e d different strategies for a c h i e v i n g Proposals for n e w roads, p o w e r stations, air-
this. M o s t commonly, structure plans have ports a n d similar projects generate consider-
employed a 'key settlements' policy of identi- able o p p o s i t i o n a n d t e n d t o b e d e c i d e d by
fying p a r t i c u l a r t o w n s a n d villages that are a public inquiry, yet t h e y are rarely rejected.
e a r m a r k e d for e x p a n s i o n whilst d e v e l o p m e n t P u b l i c inquiries are expensive a n d can take
in other settlements is tightly restricted a n u m b e r o f years t o c o m p l e t e , w h i c h led t h e
(Cloke, 1 9 8 3 ; C l o k e a n d Little, 1990). O t h e r government to propose n e w procedures in
authorities have policies o f market t o w n c o n - 2002 aimed at speeding up the planning
c e n t r a t i o n o r o f t h e severe restraint o f devel- process for large projects, b u t which rural
o p m e n t across t h e w h o l e district ( C l o k e a n d c a m p a i g n g r o u p s have a r g u e d will result in
L i t t l e , 1 9 9 0 ) . I n all c a s e s , h o w e v e r , l o c a l p l a n s e v e n less p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e c o u n t r y s i d e .
draw 'development envelopes' around towns Fourthly, t h e p l a n n i n g process favours the
a n d v i l l a g e s t o w h i c h n e w b u i l d is g e n e r a l l y i n t e r e s t s o f t h e m i d d l e classes. T h e p r o d u c t i o n
constrained, thus prohibiting building in o p e n o f s t r u c t u r e p l a n s a n d l o c a l p l a n s is i n t h e o r y
countryside. subject to consultation and democratic
Overall, the planning system in England and accountability. H o w e v e r , the groups that have
Wales has b e e n successful in r e g u l a t i n g the t h e greatest i n f l u e n c e in this process are t h e
development of rural land in a rational and m i d d l e classes w h o d o m i n a t e local govern-
systematic manner, in generally preventing m e n t in r u r a l areas a n d are m o s t able t o m o b i -
r a n d o m and unsightly structures from blight- lize resources t o l o b b y p l a n n e r s a n d t o m a k e
ing the rural landscape, in preserving the rural representations in the appropriate technical
character o f small villages, in c o n t a i n i n g u r b a n language. T h e c o n s e q u e n c e is t h a t develop-
growth, in safeguarding agricultural land, and ment tends to be restricted in the more
i n p r o t e c t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s e n s i t i v e sites. exclusive, m i d d l e class v i l l a g e s , a n d instead
Y e t , it c a n also b e c r i t i c i z e d o n a n u m b e r o f concentrated in towns a n d villages w i t h a
grounds. First, p l a n n i n g policies are more more mixed population. This tendency becomes
c o n c e r n e d w i t h where things are built than s e l f - r e p r o d u c i n g as s h o r t a g e o f s u p p l y f o r c e s
w i t h what is b u i l t . E v e n l o w - i m p a c t d e v e l o p - up property prices in the villages where
m e n t s crafted i n t o t h e landscape a n d using d e v e l o p m e n t is m o s t r e s t r i c t e d , l i m i t i n g the
natural materials will b e prohibited in open r a n g e o f p e o p l e w h o c a n afford t o p u r c h a s e
countryside, whilst new buildings within housing in those c o m m u n i t i e s . M u r d o c h and
d e v e l o p m e n t envelopes are usually n o t obliged M a r s d e n ( 1 9 9 4 ) d e s c r i b e t h i s as t h e p r o d u c -
to conform to local architectural styles or t i o n o f a m i d d l e class s p a c e , as t h e y d e s c r i b e
19 9
for B u c k i n g h a m s h i r e , t o t h e n o r t h - w e s t of the establishment of planning commissions

London: for a number of urban regions, including
N e w York, Calgary a n d E d m o n t o n (Hall, 2 0 0 2 ) .
T h e resul t is a d e l i g h t f ul s t r e t c h o f c o u n - R e g i o n a l plans are n o t j u s t c o n c e r n e d with
t r y s i de in t he m i d s t o f a n u r b an r e g i o n .
development control, but m a n y have included
W i th M i l t on K e y n e s to t he n o r t h, g r e e n
measures to preserve agricultural land or o p e n
bel t a n d L o n d o n to t he s o u t h , t he s t r u g -
land for recreation. H o w e v e r , such plans t e n d
g l e to h o l d o n t o t he rural in A y l e s b u r y
to be advisory rather than statutory and do
V a le is b y n o m e a n s easy . B u t t he s o c i a l
n o t i n t h e m s e l v e s offer p r o t e c t i o n for rural
m a k e - u p o f t he p l a c e m e a n s t h a t a for-
m i d a b le a r r ay o f a c t o r s c a n u s u a l l y b e space.
a s s e m b l e d to o r c h e s t r a t e o p p o s i t i o n to A l t h o u g h p l a n n i n g b o a r d s d o exist w i t h i n
unwelcom e development . As its posi - A m e r i c a n local g o v e r n m e n t , they are generally
t i o n a l s t a t u s g r o w s , t he a r e a will b e c o m e u n d e r - r e s o u r c e d a n d lack p o w e r s o f e n f o r c e -
e v e n m o r e a t t r a c t i ve to t h o s e would-be m e n t . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s l a n d u s e is m o r e
resident s who a re trapped on t he significantly regulated through the zoning
O u t s i d e ' . T h u s , c o m p e t i t i o n fo r r e s o u r - process, w h i c h operates in parallel t o b u t s e p -
ces , notably h o u s i n g , will c o n t i n u e to
arately from the planning process, adminis-
i n c r e a s e , m a k i n g it m o r e a n d m o re diffi-
tered by separate zoning authorities and
cult fo r t h o s e o n l o w i n c o m e s to e i t h e r
enforced using laws c o n c e r n e d w i t h public
s t a y i n, o r m o v e to , s u c h a r e a s . T h e
health (Hall, 2002). Z o n i n g designates differ-
m i d d l e - c l a s s c o m p l e x i o n o f t he locality is
e n t areas o f l a n d for different types o f use,
t h us a s s u r e d . ( M u r d o ch a n d Marsden ,
1 9 9 4 , p. 2 2 9 ) s u c h as h o u s i n g , i n d u s t r y , c o m m e r c e a n d so
on. However, the use of z o n i n g to protect
Finally, t h e t o p - d o w n n a t u r e o f t h e plan- o p e n rural l a n d has b e e n limited. O n l y t h r e e
n i n g system m e a n s that local level planning states - H a w a i i , O r e g o n a n d W i s c o n s i n - h a v e
policies are essentially responsive to wider i n t r o d u c e d s t a t e - w i d e z o n i n g laws that per-
trends. As will b e discussed in t h e n e x t chapter, m i t l a n d t o b e z o n e d for exclusive a g r i c u l t u r a l
this became markedly evident in the late use (Lapping et al., 1989; Rome, 2001).
1990s w h e n local authorities w e r e asked to Additionally, s o m e municipalities have z o n e d
produce plans that would accommodate a a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d as v e r y l a r g e b u i l d i n g l o t s ,
projected 2.2 million n e w dwellings in rural thus reducing the impact of any development
E n g l a n d , sparking w i d e s p r e a d conflict. ( H a l l , 2 0 0 2 ) .Yet, t h e z o n i n g s y s t e m as a w h o l e

is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e o n l y s e m i - e f f i c i e n t i n r e g -
Development control in North America ulating d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h developers usually
T h e r e is n o c o m p r e h e n s i v e n a t i o n a l frame- a b l e t o g e t t h e i r w a y e v e n t u a l l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y as
w o r k for d e v e l o p m e n t c o n t r o l i n e i t h e r the the right of landowners to develop their land
U n i t e d States o r C a n a d a . R e s p o n s i b i l i t y for is p e r c e i v e d t o b e p r o t e c t e d b y t h e U S con-
land use planning rests with states and stitution (Hall, 2 0 0 2 ; R o m e , 2001).
provinces a n d w i t h local g o v e r n m e n t a n d the In the absence of an equivalent of the

fragmentation of authority between different British Town and Country Planning Act,
agencies a n d authorities has severely restric- which nationalized development rights,
t e d t h e effectiveness o f t h e p l a n n i n g system. authorities in the U n i t e d States w i s h i n g to
Attempts to engender a more integrated control development have introduced
approach to planning have b e e n m a d e through schemes to purchase the development rights
20 0
T a b le 1 3 . 4 Farmland preserve d by 4 6 easemen t programme s in 15 US state s

Scal e o f F a r m l a nd p r e s e r v e d Cos t o f
programme(s ) Hectare s Acres p r o g r a m me ($m )
Maryland County an d loca l 105,01 9 259,30 7 464.6+ *
Pennsylvani a County an d loca l 60,28 6 148,86 1 394. 0
Vermont State-wid e 40,76 3 100,65 1 56. 8
California County an d loca l 34,18 9 84,41 8 102. 4
Delawar e State-wid e 26,47 8 65,37 7 69. 5
Massachusett s State-wid e 21,38 4 52,80 0 135. 0
Colorad o County an d loca l 20,58 9 50,78 8 75. 1
Ne w Jerse y County an d loca l 20,15 3 49,76 1 254. 3
Connecticu t State-wid e 11,68 4 28,85 0 84. 2
Washingto n County an d loca l 6,69 3 16,52 7 62. 1
Ne w York County an d loca l 3,66 9 9,06 0 68. 3
Virginia Loca l 2,57 0 6,34 6 13. 5
Wisconsi n Loca l 83 6 2,06 4 3.3 8
Michigan Local 75 2 1,85 6 6. 0
N o r th Carolina County 50 8 1,25 5 2. 6
*Figures n o t availabl e f o r t w o programme s in M a r y l a n d.
Source: Sokolo w a n d Z u r b r u g g, 200 3
of agricultural land. Farmland preservation Farmland Protection P r o g r a m was introduced

s c h e m e s are e m p l o y e d b y a n u m b e r o f states, in 1996 a n d has c o n t r i b u t e d t o a m o r e t h a n
counties and municipalities, mostly in the three-fold increase in the a m o u n t of farmland
n o r t h - e a s t e r n U n i t e d States, a n d have c o l l e c - protected between 1996 and 2003. A further
tively protected over 730,000 hectares $1 billion o f federal funds w e r e c o m m i t t e d to
( 1 . 8 m i l l i o n acres) at a c o s t o f m o r e than the programme by the Farm Security and
$2 billion (Sokolow and Zurbrugg, 2003). R u r a l Investment Act, 2002.
T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e c o v e r a g e is i n M a r y l a n d , Elsewhere, tax incentives have been
Pennsylvania and Vermont, although finan- employed to encourage landowners to keep
cially t h e l a r g e s t p r o g r a m m e s a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d f a r m l a n d in agricultural use. S c h e m e s o f this
by Howard County, Maryland, which has k i n d o p e r a t e in every U S state a n d C a n a d i a n
spent $193 million o n acquiring development province, including notably California and
rights, a n d t h e state o f Massachusetts, w h i c h N e w York, w h e r e l a n d o w n e r s are offered tax
has s p e n t $ 1 3 5 . 9 m i l l i o n , w i t h o t h e r signifi- concessions in r e t u r n for a g r e e i n g t o m a i n t a i n
c a n t initiatives e l s e w h e r e in M a r y l a n d a n d in l a n d as f a r m l a n d f o r a s p e c i f i e d p e r i o d o f t i m e
Pennsylvania, California and V e r m o n t (Table (Beesley, 1999; Hall, 2002), a n d Michigan,
13.4). T h e payments made to landowners, Wisconsin and Alberta, w h e r e lower taxes
known as ' e a s e m e n t s ' , a r e g e n e r a l l y f o r the a r e o f f e r e d t o f a r m o p e r a t o r s (Beesley, 1 9 9 9 ) .
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e v a l u e o f t h e l a n d as A g r i c u l t u r a l d i s t r i c t i n g has also b e e n devel-
f a r m l a n d a n d its v a l u e as l a n d f o r develop- oped as an alternative incentive-driven
m e n t , and average a r o u n d $ 8 1 0 p e r hectare approach, involving t h e collective, voluntary
($2,000 p e r acre), a l t h o u g h t h e a m o u n t can agreement of farmers to maintain agricultural
vary significantly depending on location. l a n d uses w i t h i n a defined a g r i c u l t u r a l district
F u n d i n g is d r a w n f r o m l o c a l t a x e s , b o n d issues i n r e t u r n for benefits i n c l u d i n g tax deferrals
a n d grants f r o m federal, state a n d local g o v - a n d e x e m p t i o n s f r o m n u i s a n c e l a w s (Beesley,
ernments. Federal funding as p a r t of the 1 9 9 9 ; L a p p i n g e t al., 1 9 8 9 ) . A l t h o u g h o v e r a
20 1
third of farmland in N e w York State was strictest f o r m s o f p r o t e c t e d landscapes, s u c h

i n c l u d e d i n agricultural districts i n t h e 1970s, as n a t i o n a l p a r k s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a
t h e a p p r o a c h h a s p r o v e d t o b e less effective i n and N e w Z e a l a n d , have also p r o h i b i t e d the
r u r a l areas w i t h i m m e d i a t e d e v e l o p m e n t p r e s - farming of the land, m o r e generally agricul-
s u r e s t h a n i n areas w h e r e t h e p r o s p e c t o f d e v e l - t u r e w a s r e g a r d e d e i t h e r as n o t p a r t o f t h e
o p m e n t is less c r i t i c a l ( L a p p i n g e t al., 1 9 8 9 ) . p r o b l e m , o r e v e n as a n ally o f c o n s e r v a t i o n .
A final a p p r o a c h t o c o n t r o l l i n g d e v e l o p m e n t Development control policies in particular
o n rural l a n d in N o r t h A m e r i c a has b e e n for h a v e b e e n d r i v e n as m u c h b y a d e s i r e t o p r o -
p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s t o p u r c h a s e l a n d itself a n d t e c t l a n d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e as f o r its environ-
m a n a g e it f o r p u b l i c u s e . T h i s is t h e m o d e l u s e d m e n t a l v a l u e . S i n c e t h e 1 9 5 0 s , h o w e v e r , it h a s
in US national parks b u t it h a s also been been widely acknowledged that modern
e m p l o y e d o n a s m a l l e r scale b y c o u n t y and f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s are also d a m a g i n g t o the
municipal authorities to protect vulnerable r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t (see C h a p t e r 7 ) , a n d that
land from urban development. San Francisco, agri-environmental programmes are also
for e x a m p l e , established a de facto greenbelt n e e d e d that seek to change the c o n d u c t of
a r o u n d t h e city in t h e 1960s a n d 1970s b y this agriculture.
m e t h o d , b u t by t h e 1970s m a n y local a u t h o r i - As agri-environmental schemes involve the
ties h a d f o u n d t h a t p r o p e r t y p r i c e s h a d b e c o m e extensification of farming, they have fortu-
t o o h i g h to p e r m i t large-scale acquisitions o f itously combined with pressures to reduce
undeveloped land ( R o m e , 2001). Private and agricultural production in the post-productivist
community land trusts have also purchased t r a n s i t i o n (see C h a p t e r 4 ) . A g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l
o p e n l a n d t o p r o t e c t it from d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h p o l i c i e s w e r e first i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e E u r o p e a n
more than 900 land trusts managing over Union as part of attempts to reform the
8 1 0 , 0 0 0 h e c t a r e s (2 m i l l i o n acres) o f f a r m l a n d C o m m o n Agricultural Policy in the 1980s, a n d
i n t h e l a t e 1 9 8 0 s (Beesley, 1 9 9 9 ) . in the U n i t e d States following l o b b y i n g by
O v e r a l l , assessments o f t h e effectiveness of conservation groups in advance of the 1985
development control strategies in North Farm Security Act. Having gained purchase
America have b e e n mixed. Individual pro- during the wave of popular environmental
g r a m m e s have h a d a significant local i m p a c t awareness in the 1980s, agri-environmental
by safeguarding land that w o u l d otherwise have schemes have b e e n e x t e n d e d a n d reinforced in
been developed, but the majority of undevel- subsequent reforms of agricultural policy
oped rural land remains unprotected. The (Potter, 1 9 9 8 ; S w a n s o n , 1 9 9 3 ; W i n t e r , 1996).
variety o f a p p r o a c h e s in o p e r a t i o n , t h e costs Agri-environmental schemes may be tar-
involved in m a n y o f t h e m a n d t h e lack o f statu- g e t e d at a n y o f a w i d e r a n g e o f objectives,
tory enforcement p o w e r s h a v e all militated including reducing chemical use, pollution
against t h e e m e r g e n c e o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e , i n t e g - control, c o n v e r t i n g arable land to grassland,
rated planning a n d w e a k e n e d the degree of t a c k l i n g soil e r o s i o n , r e d u c i n g l i v e s t o c k d e n s i -
protection that can b e maintained. ties, e n c o u r a g i n g o r g a n i c f a r m i n g a n d main-
taining and replanting woodland (see also
Agri-environmental Schemes Box 13.2). Some schemes are specifically
T h e primary objective of countryside conser- tailored to addressing o n e o f these objectives,
vation policy during m u c h of the twentieth whilst others aim to develop a m o r e integrated
c e n t u r y was to protect the rural e n v i r o n m e n t a p p r o a c h w i t h i n a particular designated area.
from urban-style development. Whilst the O n e o f t h e first s c h e m e s t o b e i n t r o d u c e d i n
20 2
Britain, for e x a m p l e , involved t h e designation acreage-based p a y m e n t in r e t u r n for signing

o f 2 8 E n v i r o n m e n t a l l y Sensitive Areas (ESAs), u p to a m a n a g e m e n t a g r e e m e n t that typically
collectively c o m p r i s i n g 16,889 k m , selected 2 includes restrictions o n fertilizer use a n d stock
o n t h e basis o f t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t a l signifi- densities, prohibitions o n herbicide a n d pesti-
c a n c e a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l for a p r o m o t i o n of cide use a n d o n t h e installation o f n e w drain-
traditional farming practices to prevent further ing and fencing, and commitments to
damage to the e n v i r o n m e n t (Winter, 1996). m a i n t a i n l a n d s c a p e f e a t u r e s s u c h as h e d g e s ,
F a r m e r s in E S A s are eligible to receive an ditches, w o o d s , walls a n d b a r n s .
Box 13.2 Re-foresting the countryside
T he n a t u r a l s t a t e o f m u c h o f r u r al E u r o p e is w o o d l a n d , y e t c e n t u r i e s o f c u l t i v a t i on
h a v e c l e a r e d t h e f o r e s t s t o a l l o w f o r a g r i c u l t u re a n d , l a t e r, u r b a n i z a t i o n . H o w e v e r , in
r e c e n t d e c a d e s i n i t i a t i v es h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d t o i n c r e a s e n a t i v e w o o d l a n d cove r
b y p l a n t i ng surplus f a r m l a nd w i th trees . In England , wher e the p r o p o r t i on of
f o r e s t e d l a n d h a d f a l l e n f r o m 1 5 p e r c e n t in 1 0 8 6 t o j u s t 4 . 8 p e r c e n t in 1 8 9 0 b e f o r e
r e c o v e r i n g w i t h t h e p l a n t i ng o f i n d u s t r i al c o n i f e r o u s f o r e s t s in t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r y , p o l i c i e s t o r e p l a n t b r o a d l e a v e d w o o d l a n d s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d in t h e 1980s . T he
Farm W o o d l a n d Schem e (late r t h e Farm W o o d l a n d P r e m i u m Schem e - FWPS) , o p e r a t e d as
p a rt o f t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n 's A g r i - E n v i r o n m e nt P r o g r a m m e , p a i d u p t o 1 9 5 p e r h e c t a r e
t o f a r m e rs t o r e p l a n t b r o a d l e a v e d w o o d l a n d . In r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e long timescal e
i n v o l v e d in b r o a d l e a f a f f o r e s t a t i o n , p a y m e n t s w e r e g u a r a n t e e d f o r 4 0 y e a r s f o r o a k a n d
b e e c h , 3 0 year s f o r o t h e r b r o a d l e a v e s a n d 2 0 y e a r s f o r o t h e r w o o d l a n d ( M a t h e r, 1998) . In
1 9 9 5 - 6 a t o t a l o f 3. 6 m i l l i on in g r a n ts w a s p a i d u n d e r t h e FWPS , w i th a f u r t h er 16. 1 m i l l i on
paid unde r the W o o d l a n d G r a nt Schem e administere d by t he Forestr y Commission .
A f f o r e s t a t i o n ha s a l s o b e e n p r o m o t e d t h r o u g h l a r g e - s c a l e p r o j e c t s i n c l u d i ng the
N a t i o n a l F o r e s t , d e s i g n a t e d in 1 9 9 1 in t h e f o r m e r r u r al c o a l f i e l d a r e a o f t h e Englis h
M i d l a n ds a n d s i m i l a r s c h e m e s in L a n c a s h i r e a n d a r o u n d B r i s t o l. T h e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t
p r o j e c t a i m e d t o p l a n t 3 0 m i l l i on t r e e s o v e r o n e - t h i r d o f its 5 0 0 k m 2 are a through
a m i x e d s t r a t e g y o f l a n d p u r c h a s e s b y F o r e s t E n t e r p r i se ( t h e c o m m e r c i a l a r m o f t h e
F o r e s t r y C o m m i s s i o n ) a n d t h e W o o d l a n d T r u st (a c h a r i t y ), t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o m -
m u n i ty w o o d l a n d s an d incentive s to encourag e v o l u n t a ry p l a n t i ng on f a r m l a n d,
i n c l u d i ng s u p p o r t f r om t he FWPS ( C l o ke e t a l . , 1 9 9 6 ) . As w e l l a s environmenta l
e n h a n c e m e n t , p r o j e c t s s u c h a s t h e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t a l s o a i m t o c r e a t e space s f o r r e c r e -
ation an d to stimulate tourism an d economi c regeneration .
A s i m i l a r s c h e m e in t h e R e p u b l i c o f I r e l a nd - w h i c h ha s a l s o e x p e r i e n c e d s u b s t a n t i a l
h i s t o r ic d e f o r e s t a t i o n - c e l e b r a t e d t h e M i l l e n n i um b y p l a n t i ng t h e P e o p l e ' s M i l l e n n i um
Forests . U s i n g f u n d s f r o m p r i v a te s p o n s o r s h i p , t h e p r o j e c t p l a n t e d a t r e e f o r e v e r y
h o u s e h o l d in I r e l a nd a t 1 6 site s a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y . Eac h h o u s e h o l d w a s g i v e n a c e r t i f i-
c a t e w i t h d e t a i l s o f t h e l o c a t i o n o f ' i t s' t r e e , w h i c h t h e y c o u l d v i s i t u s i n g t h e g r id m a p s
a t t h e w o o d l a n d site s ( F i g u re 1 3 . 3 ) .
B o t h t h e E n g l i s h N a t i o n a l F o r e s t a n d t h e P e o p l e ' s M i l l e n n i um Forest s p r o j e c t s h a v e
a t t e m p t e d t o i n v o l v e l o c a l p e o p l e in t h e r e f o r e s t a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . H o w e v e r , a s
C l o ke e t a l . ( 1 9 9 6 ) d e m o n s t r a t e , p u b l ic a t t i t u d e s t o f o r e s t s a re m i x e d a n d d r a w on
d e e p - r o o t e d c u l t u r al a s s o c i a t i o n s . W h i l s t s o m e p e o p l e p e r c e i v e f o r e s t s t o b e 'a l i v i n g,
b r e a t h i n g , p e a c e f u l p l a c e in w h i c h h u m a n s a n d w i l d l i fe c a n c o h a b i t in t r a n q u i l i ty a n d
(Continued)
20 3
happiness ' (p. 569) , others i d e n t i fy forest s w i th fea r an d bein g 'close d in' an d
' o v e r p o w e r e d ' b y t r e e s . S i m i l a r ly v a r i e d representation s o f forest s - an d v a r i a b le
u s a g e s o f w o o d l a n d as , a l t e r n a t e l y , p l a c e s o f r e f u g e a n d p l a c e s b e y o n d s u r v e i l l a n c e -
a re a l s o f o u n d in c o m m u n i t i e s c l o s e t o m o r e e s t a b l i s h e d w o o d l a n d s a n d c o m m e r c i a l
forest s ( M a r s d e n e t al. , 2003) .
A l t h o u g h s o m e s c e p t i c i s m ha s b e e n e x p r e s s e d a b o u t t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f t h e F a rm
W o o d l a n d S c h e m e (se e M a t h e r, 1998) , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l pro-
gramme p a y m e n t s , large-scal e f o r e s t ry projects a n d n a t u r al g r o w t h o n abandone d
f a r m l a nd h a d i n c r e a s e d w o o d l a n d c o v e r in E n g l a n d t o 8 . 4 p e r c e n t in 2 0 0 0 .
For more on the National Forest and public perceptions of woodland see Paul Cloke, Paul Milbourne
and Chris Thomas (1996) The English National Forest: local reactions to plans for renegotiated
nature-society relations in the countryside. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 21,
552-571. For more on rural forestry in general see the chapter by Alexander Mather in Brian llbery
(ed.) (1998) The Geography of Rural Change (Longman). More information on the English National
Forest is also available at www.nationalforest.org and on the Irish People's Millennium Forests at
www. millenniumforests. com
Figure 13. 3 Map of tree planting in the People' s Millennium Fores t a t Cullentra Wood ,
County Sligo , Ireland
20 4
Whilst the ESA programme in the UK Swanson, 1993). Farmers not i m p l e m e n t i n g a

t a r g e t e d a b r o a d r a n g e o f c o n s e r v a t i o n issues, plan b y 1 J a n u a r y 1995 forfeited their eligibil-
the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) ity for federal subsidies, i n c l u d i n g c o m m o d i t y
i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e 1 9 8 5 F a r m Bill in t h e U n i t e d p a y m e n t s , c r o p i n s u r a n c e a n d disaster relief
States w a s initially f o c u s e d o n t h e single p r o b - f u n d s . S o m e s t a t e s , s u c h as I o w a , h a v e t a k e n
l e m o f soil e r o s i o n . U n d e r t h e programme, the negative sanctions approach further by
farmers were paid around $60 per hectare d r a f t i n g s t r i c t l a w s t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t soil e r o -
t o p r o t e c t l a n d h i g h l y p r o n e t o e r o s i o n , for sion and water pollution, w i t h the threat of
e x a m p l e b y p l a n t i n g trees o r grassland (Potter, p r o s e c u t i o n f o r f a r m e r s w h o fail t o comply
1998; Swanson, 1993). Like many agri- (Simon, 2002).
environmental schemes, the rationale behind Production c o n t r o l is n o t t h e o n l y side-
the CRP was as m u c h about production benefit of agri-environmental schemes. T h e
c o n t r o l as a b o u t e n v i r o n m e n t a l g a i n a n d c r i t - Landcare programme in Australia combines
ics h a v e c l a i m e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e first w a v e o f conservation with the promotion of public
the C R P the U S D A was keener o n the for- participation in environmental management.
m e r than t h e latter a n d h a d targeted the p r o - L a n d o w n e r s a n d f a r m businesses are e n c o u r -
g r a m m e at l a n d w h e r e t h e g r e a t e s t r e d u c t i o n s aged to participate with other community
i n p r o d u c t i o n c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d , n o t at t h e actors in Landcare g r o u p s to address p r o b l e m s
l a n d m o s t at r i s k f r o m e r o s i o n ( P o t t e r , 1 9 9 8 ) . of land degradation through the principles
N o n e t h e less, b y 1 9 9 2 a t o t a l o f 1 4 . 5 m i l l i o n o f self-help, c o o p e r a t i o n a n d localized action
h e c t a r e s ( 1 1 p e r c e n t o f all U S c r o p l a n d ) h a d ( L o c k i e , 1 9 9 9 a , 1 9 9 9 b ) . T h e Tir Cymen scheme
b e e n enrolled into the C R P and an estimated in Wales, m e a n w h i l e , and its s u c c e s s o r , T i r
2 2 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n i n soil e r o s i o n - 700 Gofal, have positioned agri-environmental
million tons per year - had been achieved a c t i o n as p a r t o f b r o a d e r r u r a l development
(Potter, 1998). M o r e o v e r , in 1991 t h e scope o f goals. B y paying farmers who enter into
t h e C R P w a s e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e filter s t r i p s agreements to maintain environmental fea-
t o w a t e r c o u r s e s , w e l l h e a d p r o t e c t i o n areas a n d tures o n their land, the schemes aimed to
state w a t e r quality and conservation areas, s u p p o r t t h e sustainability o f traditional forms
whilst two parallel schemes, the Wetlands of agriculture in the rural e c o n o m y a n d to
Reserve Program and the Agricultural Water create n e w e m p l o y m e n t opportunities. Overall,
Q u a l i t y P r o t e c t i o n P r o g r a m , w e r e also i n t r o - it w a s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t T i r C y m e n generated
duced (Green, 1996). 2 9 d a y s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l w o r k p e r y e a r i n its
T h e C R P a n d its o f f s p r i n g c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h r e e pilot areas, w h i c h translated i n t o l o n g e r
m o s t initiatives in t h e E U agri-environmental p e r i o d s o f e m p l o y m e n t for casual w o r k e r s o n
programme in u s i n g financial incentives to farms (Banks and M a r s d e n , 2000).
promote conservation through farming. In A g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c h e m e s are based on

contrast, the Cons er vat i on C o m p l i a n c e policy the voluntary participation of farmers and
i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s at t h e s a m e h e n c e t h e i r effectiveness d e p e n d s u p o n f a r m e r s '
t i m e as t h e C R P e m p l o y e d t h e t h r e a t o f n e g - evaluations of the incentives and benefits
ative sanctions. Conservation Compliance promised by agri-environmental schemes
required farmers to i m p l e m e n t an approved a g a i n s t t h e c o s t s a n d effort i n v o l v e d , i n c l u d i n g
c o n s e r v a t i o n p l a n for t h e i r farms t h a t w o u l d t h e loss o f p r o d u c t i v i t y . A l t h o u g h t h e u p t a k e
demonstrate that their operations did n o t seri- o f s o m e early s c h e m e s was m o d e s t , a n d t h e r e
o u s l y c o n t r i b u t e t o soil e r o s i o n ( P o t t e r , 1 9 9 8 ; remain significant geographical variations,
20 5
agri-environmental schemes are now argues that Landcare in Australia actually

implemented by a significant minority of contributes to the intensification o f farming.
farms. A r o u n d 2 0 per cent of farmland in the M o r e positively, studies in t h e U K have s u g -
E u r o p e a n U n i o n was estimated to have b e e n gested that agri-environmental schemes have
enrolled into schemes in the EU's agri- contributed to a revival in populations of
environmental programme by 2000, and butterflies, insects a n d birds.
3 0 p e r c e n t o f farms in Australia participate i n
the Landcare p r o g r a m m e (Juntti and Potter, Animals and the Rural Environment
2 0 0 2 ; L o c k i e , 1 9 9 9 a ) . P a r t i c i p a t i o n is g r e a t e r Initiatives t o p r o t e c t t h e rural environment
a m o n g younger farmers and m o r e entrepre- have largely b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e preser-
neurial farmers, a n d t h e principal factors cited vation of current landscapes and habitats
by farmers as r e a s o n s for participation are against f u r t h e r d e g r a d a t i o n a n d w i t h relatively
varied. However, whilst Wilson and Hart's m o d e s t projects to reverse t h e decline o f plant
(2001) study of two agri-environmental o r wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s o r to restore neglected
schemes in the U K f o u n d that a r o u n d half of l a n d s c a p e features. I n o n l y a m i n o r i t y o f cases
p a r t i c i p a n t s said t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t c o n t i n u e has action b e e n taken o n a m o r e ambitious
with conservation m e a s u r e s if t h e scheme's scale t o r e c o n s t r u c t past r u r a l environments.
funding was withdrawn, they also reported These include the retreat from agricultural
i n d i c a t i o n s o f a shift i n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s m o r e cultivation in a n u m b e r of national parks and
environmental thinking among participating a f f o r e s t a t i o n s c h e m e s , as w e l l as i n i t i a t i v e s t o
farmers. As such, W i l s o n and H a r t reiterated reintroduce once native animal species.
the findings o f previous studies in suggesting A n i m a l s are i m p o r t a n t b o t h t o natural e n v i r o n -
that participants in agri-environmental groups mental systems a n d to discursive representa-
c a n b e classified as ' a c t i v e a d o p t e r s ' m o t i v a t e d tions of the countryside. As such, the protection
by environmental imperatives and 'passive o f wildlife has b e e n a key objective in m a n y
a d o p t e r s ' for w h o m financial incentives are c o n s e r v a t i o n initiatives, w i t h a c t i o n focused
i m p o r t a n t a n d w h e r e little c h a n g e is r e q u i r e d t o o n habitat protection informed by scientific
existing farm m a n a g e m e n t practice, whilst n o n - knowledge and supported by popular sympathy
participants can b e divided into 'conditional for the vulnerability of high-recognition
n o n - a d o p t e r s ' w h o m i g h t j o i n if t h e c o n d i t i o n s fauna such as b i r d s , b u t t e r f l i e s and brown
of the scheme were different, a n d 'resistant b e a r s . N o t a b l y , less p o p u l a r a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n
non-adopters' w h o are strongly o p p o s e d to directed to t h e significance o f livestock to the
participation (Wilson and Hart, 2001). countryside and to the homogenization of
M i x e d c o n c l u s i o n s h a v e also b e e n r e a c h e d livestock t h r o u g h selective b r e e d i n g a n d the
a b o u t t h e effectiveness o f a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l predominance of the most productive vari-
schemes in protecting the rural environment. eties u n d e r p r o d u c t i v i s t a g r i c u l t u r e ( Y a r w o o d
Specific objectives are often m e t , b u t n o t n e c e s - and Evans, 2000). Although conservation
sarily w i t h a wider impact. W i n t e r (1996) projects have b e e n l a u n c h e d to protect rare
n o t e s c o n c e r n s a b o u t a ' h a l o effect' w h e r e b y b r e e d s o f cattle, sheep, pigs a n d so o n , s u c h
farmers entering into agri-environmental s c h e m e s h a v e little p u b l i c profile compared
agreements w i t h respect to o n e e l e m e n t of w i t h wildlife preservation (Evans a n d Y a r w o o d ,
their activities (for example, stocking on 2000).
r o u g h grazing land) c o m p e n s a t e b y intensifying M o r e controversial are initiatives t o r e i n t r o -

production elsewhere, whilst Lockie (1999b) d u c e animal species that h a d b e e n consciously
20 6
eradicated or reduced in n u m b e r by a previous the metaphor has developed its own life,
generation because of their perceived i n c o m - reproduced in different ways by the many
patibility w i t h m o d e r n farming. Perhaps the p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e initiative in t h e r e g i o n , b u t
most ambitious scheme o f t h i s k i n d is t h e also b y its o p p o n e n t s , i n c l u d i n g landowners
'Buffalo Commons' project in the Great a n d r a n c h e r s w h o fear t h e loss o f p r o p e r t y
Plains o f t h e United States t o restore the rights and the marginalization o f their c o m -
native population o f bison, w h i c h was virtu- m e r c i a l activity.
ally eradicated in the nineteenth century, F u r t h e r o p p o s i t i o n a g a i n is g e n e r a t e d by
partly for sport, partly for t h e trade in h i d e , s c h e m e s to r e i n t r o d u c e animals that are p e r -
b u t also p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e b i s o n ' s e x t i n c t i o n ceived to be a direct pest to agriculture.
w a s s e e n as a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h - O p p o s i t i o n from l a n d o w n e r s was b l a m e d for
ment of commercial cattle ranching t h e stalling o f plans t o r e i n t r o d u c e t h e b e a v e r
(Manning, 1997). In recent decades, bison to Scotland, a n d projects to r e i n t r o d u c e large
herds have b e e n re-established in a n u m b e r carnivores such as wolves have provoked
o f small pockets o n t h e plains, b u t t h e Buffalo fierce resistance in a number of localities.
Commons idea w o u l d see b i s o n r e t u r n to B r o w n l o w (2000), for e x a m p l e , describes h o w
r o a m a c r o s s a vast r e g i o n f r o m M o n t a n a a n d proposals to reintroduce the grey w o l f to the
N o r t h D a k o t a s o u t h to Texas. As envisaged Adirondack Mountains of N e w York State
b y its p r o p o n e n t s , F r a n k a n d D e b o r a h P o p p e r , clashed w i t h local cultural constructions of
t h e i n i t i a t i v e is b a s e d o n a p r o j e c t i o n o f c o n - t h e w o l f as ' v e r m i n ' , o u t o f p l a c e i n t h e s e t t l e d
tinuing depopulation and agricultural decline c o u n t r y s i d e , w h e r e it p r e y e d o n l i v e s t o c k a n d
o n t h e plains, w h i c h w o u l d create t h e o p p o r - m o r e v a l u e d w i l d l i f e s u c h as d e e r . M o r e o v e r ,
t u n i t y for cultivated f a r m l a n d t o b e restored t h e p r o p o s a l s w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d as a n a t t e m p t
to an u n f e n c e d grassland c o m m o n . As P o p p e r by urban-based conservationists to impose
and Popper (1999) describe, the 'Buffalo their ideological values o n t h e rural e n v i r o n -
C o m m o n s ' is a m e t a p h o r as m u c h as a d e t a i l e d ment. This resonates w i t h the idea of the
proposal, representing an idea of a new 'globalization o f values' discussed in C h a p t e r 3 ,
regional e c o n o m y based o n tourism, hunting, in w h i c h an increasingly globalized environ-
bison meat and leather and the exploitation of m e n t a l i d e o l o g y has p r o m o t e d conservation
n a t i v e p l a n t s (see a l s o M a n n i n g , 1 9 9 7 ; P o p p e r s t a n d a r d s t h a t c o n f l i c t w i t h l o c a l lay k n o w l -
and Popper, 1 9 8 7 ) . Yet, as they observe, e d g e o f n a t u r e a n d rurality.
Summary
T h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e natural e n v i r o n m e n t has b e c o m e a m a j o r influence o n t h e w a y in
w h i c h r u r a l s p a c e is m a n a g e d . T h i s g r e e n i n g o f r u r a l p o l i c y h a s b e e n a r e s p o n s e t o a
n u m b e r o f factors associated w i t h r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g . First, t h e r e has b e e n g r o w i n g
recognition of the d a m a g e caused to the rural e n v i r o n m e n t by m o d e r n agriculture a n d by
u r b a n i z a t i o n a n d p h y s i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t (see C h a p t e r 7 ) , w h i c h t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e b r o a d e r
spread o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m , has g e n e r a t e d p u b l i c s u p p o r t for c o u n t r y s i d e c o n s e r v a t i o n .
S e c o n d l y , as a g r i c u l t u r a l o v e r p r o d u c t i o n h a s b e c o m e a m a j o r p o l i c y p r o b l e m ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 ) ,
t h e rationale p r o v i d e d b y c o n s e r v a t i o n interests for r e d u c i n g t h e intensity o f a g r i c u l t u r e
has b e c o m e increasingly attractive t o p o l i c y - m a k e r s . Thirdly, t h e e c o n o m i c r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f
20 7
r u r a l s p a c e h a s i n v o l v e d t h e c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as a s p a c e o f c o n s u m p t i o n
m o r e t h a n a s p a c e o f p r o d u c t i o n (see C h a p t e r 1 2 ) , s u c h t h a t t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f a e s t h e t i c a l l y
valued landscapes makes m o r e e c o n o m i c sense t h a n t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t
through resource exploitation. T h e s e various imperatives have coalesced to form a coalition
o f interests that collectively have achieved t h e g r e e n i n g o f rural p o l i c y
W i t h i n t h e scope o f c o u n t r y s i d e p r o t e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e r e are a w i d e r a n g e o f different
s c h e m e s a n d initiatives, a d d r e s s i n g m a n y specific p r o b l e m s , t h a t h a v e a d o p t e d different
strategies a n d approaches. S o m e rely o n v o l u n t a r y participation, others have c o m p u l s o r y
m e a s u r e s b a c k e d b y law. S o m e u s e f i n a n c i a l a n d o t h e r p o s i t i v e i n c e n t i v e s t o e n c o u r a g e
c o n s e r v a t i o n , o t h e r s e m p l o y n e g a t i v e s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o fail t o c o m p l y . S o m e w o r k
w i t h farmers, l a n d o w n e r s a n d o t h e r traditional users o f rural space, others seek a m o r e
f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e in t h e use o f rural land. E v e n w i t h i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l o b b y t h e r e are
d i f f e r e n c e s a b o u t o b j e c t i v e s a n d m e t h o d s . A l t h o u g h ' c o n s e r v a t i o n ' is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d as a n
o v e r a r c h i n g t e r m f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n , it i n f a c t i m p l i e s a n a c c e p t a n c e o f m o d e r a t e
c h a n g e t h a t is a b s e n t f r o m t h e m o r e d r a m a t i c g o a l o f ' p r e s e r v a t i o n ' . B o t h c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d
p r e s e r v a t i o n , m e a n w h i l e , t a k e t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t ,
a n d t h u s differ f r o m s c h e m e s t h a t a i m t o r e c o n s t r u c t p a s t e n v i r o n m e n t s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , a n y i n i t i a t i v e t o p r o t e c t t h e r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t m i g h t still e n c o u n t e r
o p p o s i t i o n from f a r m e r s , l a n d o w n e r s , d e v e l o p e r s , h u n t e r s , l o g g i n g c o m p a n i e s , oil a n d m i n e r a l
exploiters, and o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l operations, w h o m a y c o n t e n d that their e c o n o m i c interests,
their welfare a n d their rights are b e i n g s u b o r d i n a t e d to c o n c e r n s for plants a n d animals.
T h e scientific a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l rationale o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l projects m a y b e c o n t e s t e d , w i t h
l o c a l lay d i s c o u r s e s o f n a t u r e a s s e r t e d i n d e f e n c e o f t h e s t a t u s q u o . R e s i s t a n c e m a y a l s o b e
organized a r o u n d the perceived i m p o s i t i o n of alien, u r b a n - b a s e d , e n v i r o n m e n t a l values
o n r u r a l p e o p l e . As s u c h , e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues h a v e p r o v e d t o b e fertile g r o u n d for t h e
e m e r g e n c e o f r u r a l c o n f l i c t s , as is d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r .
Further Reading
Fairly c o m p r e h e n s i v e a c c o u n t s o f m e a s u r e s to p r o t e c t t he rural e n v i r o n m e n t , i n c l u d i ng
p r o t e c t e d l a n d s c a p e s a n d a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c h e m e s , a re p r o v i d e d f r om a
p r e d o m i n a n t ly British p e r s p e c t i v e b y B r yn G r e e n in Countryside Conservation (Spon ,
1 9 9 6 ) a n d M i c h a e l W i n t er in Rural Politics: Policies for Agriculture, Forestry and the
Environment ( R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e s t o r y o f n a t i o n a l p a r ks in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s is
a u t h o r a t i v e ly t o ld b y A l f r ed R u n te in National Parks: The American Experience
( U n i v e r s i ty o f N e b r a s k a P r e s s , 1 9 9 7 ) . A d a m R o m e , in The Bulldozer in the Countryside
( C a m b r i d ge U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 2 0 0 1 ) , d i s c u s s e s t he h i s t o ry o f a t t e m p t s to restrict u r b an
e x p a n s i o n into t he A m e r i c a n c o u n t r y s i d e . D e v e l o p m e n t c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s a n d f a r m l a nd
p r e s e r v a t i o n s c h e m e s a re a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y a n u m b e r o f c o n t r i b u t o rs to O w e n F u r u s e t h
a n d M a rk L a p p i n g 's e d i t e d v o l u m e Contested Countryside: The Rural Urban Fringe in
North America ( A s h g a t e , 1 9 9 9 ) . Fo r m o r e o n t he A u s t r a l i an L a n d c a r e p r o g r a m m e s e e
w o rk b y S t e w a r t L o c k i e , w h i l s t t he w o r k o f C l i ve Potte r e x p l o r e s m a n y a s p e c t s o f
20 8
a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l polic y in E u r o p e . R e c o m m e n d e d r e a d i n g s include S . Lockie , T h e

state , rural e n v i r o n m e n t s a n d g l o b a l i s a t i o n : "action a t a d i s t a n c e " v ia t he A u s t r a l i an
L a n d c a re p r o g r a m ', Environment and Planning A, v o l u m e 3 1 , p a g e s 5 9 7 - 6 1 1 ( 1 9 9 9 ) ;
C. Potter, ' C o n s e r v i n g nature : a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l polic y d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c h a n g e ' , in
B. llbery (ed.) , The Geography of Rural Change (Addiso n Wesle y L o n g m a n , 1998) ; an d
C. Morris a n d C . Potter, ' R e c r u i t i ng t he n e w c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t s : f a r m e r s ' a d o p t i o n o f
a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c h e m e s in t he UK', Journal of Rural Studies, volume 11 ,
page s 5 1 - 6 3 (1995) .
Websites
M o re i n f o r m a t i on o n n a t i o n a l p a r ks c a n b e f o u n d o n a n u m b e r o f official n a t i o n a l
w e b s i t e s , i n c l u d i ng t he British C o u n c i l fo r N a t i o n a l P a r ks ( w w w . c n p . o r g . u k ) , British
A s s o c i a t i o n o f N a t i o n a l Par k A u t h o r i t i es ( w w w . a n p a . g o v . u k ) , P a r ks C a n a d a
( w w w . p c . g c . c a ) , t he Irish N a t i o n a l H e r i t a ge S e r v i c e (www.duchas.ie/en/NaturalHeritage /
N a t i o n a l P a r k s ) , t he N e w Z e a l a n d D e p a r t m e n t o f C o n s e r v a t i o n ( w w w . d o c . g o v t . n z ) a n d
t he U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l Par k S e r v i c e ( w w w . n p s . g o v ) , a s w e l l a s o n a g o o d unofficial
sit e fo r A m e r i c a n n a t i o n a l p a r ks ( w w w . u s - n a t i o n a l - p a r k s . n e t ) . T h e w e b s i t e o f t he U K
D e p a r t m e n t fo r t he E n v i r o n m e n t, F o o d a n d R u r al Affairs ( w w w . d e f r a . g o v . u k ) p r o v i d e s
d e t a i l s o f b o t h p l a n n i n g polic y a n d a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c h e m e s in B r i t a i n, w h i l s t t he
w e b s i t e o f t he A m e r i c a n F a r m l a n d Trust ( w w w . f a r m l a n d . o r g ) i n c l u d e s i n f o r m a t i on o n
b o t h f a r m l a nd p r e s e r v a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s a n d a g r i - e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c h e m e s in t he U n i t e d
S t a t e s . Fo r m o re o n t he A u s t r a l i an L a n d c a re p r o g r a m m e s e e t he w e b s i t e s o f L a n d c a re
A u s t r a l ia ( w w w . l a n d c a r e a u s t r a l i a . c o m . a u ) a n d t he N a t i o n a l L a n d c a r e P r o g r a m
(www.landcare.gov.au) .
20 9
14
Rural Conflicts
Introduction
Social a n d e c o n o m i c r e s t r u c t u r i n g has t u r n e d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e i n t o a far more

c o m p l e x s p a c e t h a n it o n c e w a s . I n t h e p a s t t h e e c o n o m i c d o m i n a n c e of
agriculture a n d o t h e r r e s o u r c e - e x p l o i t a t i o n industries a n d t h e relative stability of
r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s m e a n t t h a t h e g e m o n i c d i s c o u r s e s c o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e r u r a l as a
h o m o g e n e o u s s p a c e a n d t h a t s u c h h o m o g e n i z i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s w e r e t a k e n as t h e
basis f o r r u r a l p o l i c y a n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f r u r a l life. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e powerful
identification o f the rural w i t h agriculture m e a n t that agricultural interests were
p r i o r i t i z e d i n r u r a l p o l i c y (see C h a p t e r 9) a n d m a i n s t r e a m r u r a l life w a s organized
a r o u n d farming. T h e processes of restructuring, however, have e x p l o d e d such simple
representations ( M o r m o n t , 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e r e are n o w m a n y different representations of
t h e rural m a p p e d over the s a m e physical space, i n f o r m e d b y different social
c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f r u r a l i t y ( s e e C h a p t e r 1) a n d b y d i f f e r e n t e c o n o m i c a n d ideological
interests. In s o m e cases, different r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f rural space c a n c o - e x i s t , b u t
often t h e implications that follow for t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f rural space prove to b e
i n c o m p a t i b l e . T h e r e is, f o r e x a m p l e , a n i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n a
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r u r a l as a w o r k i n g c o m m u n i t y i n w h i c h e m p l o y m e n t n e e d s to
be provided by the exploitation of natural resources, and a representation of the
r u r a l as a p l e a s a n t p l a c e t o l i v e , w h o s e a t t r a c t i o n r e s t s o n t h e a b s e n c e o f i n d u s t r y and
t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e l a n d s c a p e ; o r b e t w e e n a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a field as a p i e c e of
l a n d t o b e g r a z e d as a p a r t o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a field
as a h a b i t a t o f r a r e p l a n t s a n d i n s e c t s w h i c h m u s t b e p r o t e c t e d . T e n s i o n s o f t h i s k i n d
have g i v e n rise t o w h a t M o r m o n t ( 1 9 9 0 ) d e s c r i b e s as ' t h e s y m b o l i c b a t t l e o v e r
r u r a l i t y ' (p. 3 5 ) , i n w h i c h a m u l t i t u d e o f c o n f l i c t s h a v e e r u p t e d a b o u t t h e legitimacy
o r appropriateness o f different d e v e l o p m e n t s , initiatives a n d policies in 'rural' space.
R u r a l conflicts range from disputes over relatively parochial matters such

as n o i s e a n d s m e l l s f r o m f a r m s , a c c e s s t o f o o t p a t h s a n d t h e p r o v i s i o n of
Rural conflicts
s t r e e t - l i g h t i n g , t o p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t d e v e l o p m e n t s o f n e w h o u s i n g , i n d u s t r i a l sites,
roads, waste d u m p s a n d p o w e r stations, t o debates over t h e designation a n d
m a n a g e m e n t o f p r o t e c t e d areas, a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s a n d t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f ' r u r a l '
activities s u c h as h u n t i n g . I n t h e w a k e o f social a n d e c o n o m i c r e s t r u c t u r i n g , r u r a l
conflicts t e n d e d t o e m e r g e first o n a l o c a l scale t h e level at w h i c h e v e r y d a y life
w a s m o s t d i r e c t l y i m p i n g e d u p o n . H o w e v e r , i n m a n y cases t h e conflicts i n v o l v e d
n o t just local actors, b u t individuals, pressure groups, c o m p a n i e s a n d agencies
l o c a t e d o u t s i d e t h e i m m e d i a t e r u r a l area. A s s u c h t h e r e h a s b e e n a n ' u p - s c a l i n g ' o f
r u r a l conflicts, as c a m p a i g n e r s h a v e b e e n f o r c e d t o e n g a g e i n l o c a l , r e g i o n a l a n d
n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s i n a t t e m p t s t o c h a n g e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s (see for e x a m p l e s M u r d o c h
and Marsden, 1995; W o o d s , 1998b, 1998c). At the same time, rural campaigners
h a v e also m o b i l i z e d i n r e s p o n s e t o p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t s t o r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s ,
l a n d s c a p e s a n d c u l t u r e f r o m n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y initiatives t o r e f o r m
agriculture, i n t r o d u c e n e w conservation measures, restructure public services,
r e g u l a t e h u n t i n g a n d p r o m o t e p u b l i c access t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e ( W o o d s , 2 0 0 3 a ) .
I n this way, r u r a l issues h a v e s i n c e t h e 1 9 8 0 s m o v e d f r o m t h e m a r g i n s t o t h e
m a i n s t r e a m o f political debate in a n u m b e r o f c o u n t r i e s . T h e r e has, o f course,
always b e e n a d e g r e e o f p o l i t i c a l d e b a t e a b o u t r u r a l p o l i c y , b u t as C h a p t e r 9
d i s c u s s e d , m u c h o f this w a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y c h a n n e l l e d i n t o relatively c l o s e d , p r i v a t e ,
p o l i c y n e t w o r k s . S u c h r u r a l p r o t e s t s as d i d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e o c c u r t e n d e d t o
c o n c e r n issues o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y i n t e r e s t s , e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n , o r s e c t o r -
specific d i s p u t e s , m o s t n o t a b l y w i t h r e g a r d t o a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y (see B o x 1 4 . 1 ) .
T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t has t a k e n p l a c e o v e r t h e past t w o d e c a d e s is t h a t s u c h
'rural politics' have b e e n replaced by a n e w 'politics o f t h e rural' in w h i c h t h e very
m e a n i n g a n d r e g u l a t i o n o f r u r a l s p a c e is t h e d e f i n i n g issue ( W o o d s , 2 0 0 3 a ) . O r , as
M o r m o n t p u t it:
if w h a t c o u l d b e t e r m e d a rural q u e s t i o n e x i s t s it n o l o n g e r c o n c e r n s i s s u e s o f a g r i c u l t u re
o r o f a p a r t i c u l ar a s p e c t o f living c o n d i t i o n s in a rural e n v i r o n m e n t , bu t q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n -
i ng t he s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o ns o f rural s p a c e a n d t he t y pe o f d e v e l o p m e n t to e n c o u r a g e w i t h in
it. ( M o r m o n t, 1987 , p. 5 6 2 )
T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h r e e t y p e s o f r u r a l c o n f l i c t t h a t are t y p i c a l o f t h e n e w
' p o l i t i c s o f t h e r u r a l ' . T h e first c o n c e r n s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r u r a l s p a c e a n d
c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n p l a n n i n g r a t i o n a l e s t h a t p r o m o t e t h e n e e d for d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
c o n c e r n s a b o u t e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t a n d t h e loss o f ' r u r a l c h a r a c t e r ' . T h e s e c o n d
case s t u d y is a b o u t c o n f l i c t o v e r t h e u s e o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n r u r a l s p a c e , a n d t h e
b a l a n c e b e t w e e n a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n i n t e r e s t s . T h e t h i r d c o n f l i c t is a b o u t
t h e p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t t o a ' r u r a l w a y o f life' f r o m a t t e m p t s t o p r o h i b i t o r r e g u l a t e t h e
h u n t i n g o f wild animals. T h e chapter concludes by discussing t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a
b r o a d e r ' r u r a l m o v e m e n t ' c o m p r i s i n g g r o u p s c o n c e r n e d w i t h c a m p a i g n i n g across
a r a n g e o f different issues i n o r d e r t o d e f e n d o r p r o m o t e p a r t i c u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
o f rural identity.
21 1
Box 14.1 Farmers'protests
T he p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n o f f a r m e rs ha s p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t in s h a p i n g the
h i s t o r i c a l t r a j e c t o ry o f r u r al p o l i t i cs a n d p o l i c y . T h e u n i o n i z a t i o n o f f a r m e rs in t h e l a t e
n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s h e l p e d t o r e i n f o r ce t h e p o s i t i o n o f a g r i c u l -
t u re a t t h e h e a r t o f r u r al p o l i c y . Y e t , e v e n a s f a r m u n i o n s w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n to a g r i -
c u l t u r al p o l i c y c o m m u n i t i e s (se e C h a p t e r 9 ) , p r o t e s t s a n d d e m o n s t r a t i o n s b y f a r m e rs
c o n t i n u e d in m a n y c o u n t r i e s , e i t h e r t o e x e r t f u r t h e r p r e s s u r e o n p o l i t i c i a n s , o r a s a n
e x p r e s s i o n o f d i s c o n t e n t b y d i s s i d e n t f a r m g r o u p s w i t h t h e w a y in w h i c h a g r i c u l t u r al
interest s were represente d by the mainstrea m unions . T he latter motivation wa s
b e h i n d p r o t e s t s b y t h e A m e r i c a n A g r i c u l t u r al M o v e m e n t ( A A M) in t h e 1970s . A l o o s e
alliance of smal l farmers, the A AM organize d two 'tractorcade' protest s in
W a s h i n g t o n , D C t o d e m a n d i n c r e a s e s in p r i ce s u p p o r t f o r a g r i c u l t u r al c o m m o d i t i e s a n d
a c t i o n t o t a c k l e f a r m d e b t . T h e f i r st t r a c t o r c a d e , in J a n u a r y 1 9 7 8 , b r o u g h t 3 , 0 0 0 f a r m -
er s t o t h e c a p i t a l , w h i l s t t h e s e c o n d , in F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 9 , c a u s e d t r a f f ic c o n g e s t i o n w i t h a
4 0 k m ( 2 5 m i l e ) l o n g l i ne o f t r a c t o rs ( S t o c k , 1 9 9 6 ) .
D i s c o n t e n t w i t h t h e m a i n s t r e a m f a r m u n i o n s a l s o f u e l l e d p e r i o d i c p r o t e s t s b y m i l i-
t a n t f a r m e rs in F r a n c e f r o m t h e 1950 s o n w a r d s , u s u a l l y d i r e c t e d a t t r a de p o l i c i e s a n d
p r o p o s e d r e f o r ms o f t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n 's C o m m o n A g r i c u l t u r al P o l i c y (CAP ) w h i c h
t h r e a t e n e d t o c u t f a r m i n c o m e s . B l o c k a d e s o f r o a d s , r a i l w a ys a n d p o r t s , mas s d e m o n -
s t r a t i o n s , g r a f f i ti a n d t h e h i j a c k i ng o f l o r r i es c a r r y i ng i m p o r t e d m e a t h a v e a l l f o r m e d
p a r t o f F r e n c h f a r m e r s ' p r o t e s t s , a s h a s o c c a s i o n a l v i o l e n c e ( N a y l o r, 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e t r a d i t i on
is m o s t v i s i b l y c o n t i n u e d b y t h e Confederation Paysanne (se e a l s o B o x 3.3) , t h o u g h
w i th a m o r e progressive , a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n spin .
In t h e 1990s , f a l l i ng f a r m p r i c e s a n d t h e c o l l a p s e o f t r a d i t i o n al a g r i c u l t u r al p o l i c y
c o m m u n i t i e s p r o v o k e d t h e a d o p t i o n o f p r o t e s t t a c t i c s b y f a r m e rs in t h e U K, I r e l a nd
a n d A u s t r a l i a. T h e f i r st p r o t e s t s in t h e U K t a r g e t e d i m p o r ts f r o m I r e l a n d, w i t h an
i m p r o m p tu b l o c k a d e o f f e r ry p o r ts in t h e w i n t e r o f 1 9 9 7 - 8 . S u b s e q u e n t p r o t e s t s c o o r -
dinate d by t he r a d i c a l g r a s s r o o t s F a r m e rs f o r A c t i o n g r o u p h a v e b e e n d i r e c t e d at
s u p e r m a r k e t s , f o o d p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s , d a i r i e s a n d c r e a m e r i e s a s r e c e s s i o n s p r e a d acros s
a g r i c u l t u r al s e c t o r s ( W o o d s , 2 0 0 4 a ) . M o s t n o t o r i o u s l y , f a r m e rs j o i n e d w i t h h a u l i e r s in
S e p t e m b e r 200 0 t o blockad e oil refineries a n d f u e l d e p o t s as p a rt o f a Europe-wide
serie s o f p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t t h e l e v e l o f f u e l t a x e s .
For more on farmers'protests in the US, France and the UK, respectively, see Catherine McNicol Stock
(1996) Rural Radicals (Cornell University Press); Eric Naylor (1994) Unionism, peasant protest and the
reform of French agriculture. Journal of Rural Studies, 10, 263-273; and Michael Woods (2004) Politics
and protest in the contemporary countryside, in L Holloway and M. Kneafsey (eds), Geographies of
Rural Societies and Cultures (Ashgate).
Contesting Development in the Countryside t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y affect a n u m b e r o f p e o p l e i n

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e built e n v i r o n m e n t has t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a a n d also p r e s e n t a clear,
b e c o m e a f r e q u e n t focus for rural conflicts for tangible object around w h i c h protest can be
a n u m b e r o f reasons. B u i l d i n g projects involve m o b i l i z e d . T h e y also raise issues t h a t a r e signif-
h i g h l y visible c h a n g e s in t h e rural landscape icant for several different discourses o f rurality.
21 2
Rural conflicts
F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f g o v e r n m e n t officials disturb the tranquillity of the countryside w i t h

and p l a n n e r s , for example, the location of noise or light pollution, c o m p r o m i s e the 'rural
large-scale d e v e l o p m e n t s in the countryside character' o f small settlements, o r introduce
has been conventionally regarded as both l a n d uses that are p e r c e i v e d t o b e ' u r b a n ' or, at
a c c e p t a b l e a n d a p p r o p r i a t e . T h e availability o f least, ' n o n - r u r a l ' .
l a n d a n d t h e relatively sparse p o p u l a t i o n have The emergence of conflicts organized
m a d e rural areas attractive l o c a t i o n s for l a r g e - a l o n g these lines has b e e n frequently associ-
s c a l e o r n o x i o u s d e v e l o p m e n t s s u c h as p o w e r a t e d w i t h c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n a n d , as s u c h ,
stations, airports a n d waste d u m p s that w o u l d t h e r e is a t e m p t a t i o n to represent t h e m as
be unacceptable in densely populated urban conflicts b e t w e e n locals a n d i n - m i g r a n t s . S p a i n
a r e a s . S i m i l a r l y , it w a s t h e r e c e i v e d wisdom (1993), for e x a m p l e , identifies conflict over
that rural spaces n e e d e d t o b e traversed by d e v e l o p m e n t i n L a n c a s t e r C o u n t y , V i r g i n i a , as
highways and railways connecting major a struggle between 'come-heres', or in-
cities; t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f reservoirs a n d migrants, w h o place a higher value o n envir-
dams was part of a rural e c o n o m y based on o n m e n t a l quality and preservation and longer
resource exploitation; and that housing and resident ' b e e n - h e r e s ' , w h o are m o r e accom-
industrial developments were necessary as modating of growth that brings economic
part of regional d e v e l o p m e n t strategies. benefits. Similar distinctions have been
Support for development h a s also come r e c o r d e d as v o i c e d b y l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s i n r u r a l
from r u r a l local g o v e r n m e n t a n d r u r a l businesses southern England (Woods, 1998b).
for w h o m t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f infrastructure H o w e v e r , closer e x a m i n a t i o n reveals that

is a n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n of t h e s i t u a t i o n is o f t e n m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n t h e
rural areas. T h u s , n e w h o u s e s are n e e d e d to l o c a l / i n c o m e r d i c h o t o m y suggests. M a n y i n -
a c c o m m o d a t e in-migrants and to replace s u b - m i g r a n t s d o , as S p a i n o b s e r v e s , h a v e greater
standard existing housing; industrial plants access t o r e s o u r c e s t h a n l o n g e r - t e r m residents
and tourism sites are needed to create a n d are m o r e able t o m o b i l i z e politically. B u t
e m p l o y m e n t as a g r i c u l t u r e d e c l i n e s ; a n d n e w t h i s is u s u a l l y a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e class c o m p o -
roads, railways a n d airports are n e e d e d t o ease sition of counterurbanization, and conflicts
the e c o n o m i c disadvantages of peripherality. that are p u r e l y expressed in t e r m s o f differen-
These pro-development discourses domi- tial r e s o u r c e s m i g h t b e m o r e a c c u r a t e l y p o r -
n a t e d in rural policy until t h e closing years o f t r a y e d as class c o n f l i c t s t h a n as l o c a l / i n c o m e r
the twentieth century, since w h e n they have conflicts. In-migrants do have a particular
been challenged by anti-development cam- m o t i v a t i o n t o o p p o s e d e v e l o p m e n t s if t h e y
paigners. Protests against d e v e l o p m e n t s have perceive that their financial and emotional
often mobilized c o n c e r n s about the environ- i n v e s t m e n t i n a r u r a l l o c a t i o n is u n d e r t h r e a t ,
m e n t a l i m p a c t , i n c l u d i n g d a m a g e t o sensitive b u t this m o t i v a t i o n m a y b e shared b y l o n g e r -
landscapes and habitats; b u t they have also term residents who have made property
b e e n motivated by concerns about the aes- investments or w h o have strong emotional
t h e t i c q u a l i t y o f r u r a l s p a c e , as r e p r e s e n t e d b y a t t a c h m e n t s t o p l a c e . T h e r e a r e also s i g n i f i -
t h e i d e a l o f t h e ' r u r a l i d y l l ' (see C h a p t e r 1). cant cleavages w i t h i n b o t h t h e i n - m i g r a n t a n d
Proposals to develop rural land have therefore locally raised c o m m u n i t i e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e
been opposed on the grounds that the introduction of street-lighting may b e pro-
n e w structures w o u l d disfigure t h e landscape, posed by one group of in-migrants used to
21 3
i l l u m i n a t e d u r b a n s t r e e t s o n safety grounds, controversial. Population projections based o n

but opposed by others who regard the the trend of counterurbanization and antici-
absence o f artificial l i g h t i n g as p a r t of the pated c h a n g e s in social b e h a v i o u r estimated
r u r a l c h a r a c t e r o f a c o m m u n i t y . It is h e n c e that p r o p e r t i e s for a n a d d i t i o n a l 4 . 4 million
more useful to think of attitudes towards n e w households w o u l d be required in England
d e v e l o p m e n t s as s t e m m i n g f r o m d i f f e r e n t d i s - b e t w e e n 1991 and 2006, a n d that half w o u l d
courses o f rurality that m a y c u t across cat- n e e d to b e built o n u n d e v e l o p e d land in rural
e g o r i e s o f class, l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e , a g e a n d areas. T h e s e figures w e r e a g r e e d b y t h e n a t i o n a l
so o n , a n d o f conflicts o v e r d e v e l o p m e n t as g o v e r n m e n t , a n d allocated b e t w e e n counties
involving ad h o c coalitions of actors moti- by regional planning conferences, before they
vated b y a r a n g e o f different rationales. a t t r a c t e d p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n as c o u n t y councils

s o u g h t t o build t h e m i n t o local structure plans.
Housing development in rural Britain The multi-scalar conflicts that followed are
T h e c o m p l e x i t i e s involved in conflicts over illustrated b y the case o f S o m e r s e t , a rural
d e v e l o p m e n t in rural space are d e m o n s t r a t e d c o u n t y in south-west England, w h i c h was allo-
by t h e e x a m p l e o f conflicts over t h e d e v e l o p - cated a quota of 50,000 n e w houses b e t w e e n
m e n t o f n e w h o u s i n g i n r u r a l areas o f the 1991 and 2016 (Woods, 1998b).
U K . N e w h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t is c o n t r o v e r - The conflict over the proposed housing

sial in all developed countries because it d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r e s s e d o n t h r e e scales. First, a
implies an increase in p o p u l a t i o n w i t h spin- c a m p a i g n w a s l a u n c h e d at t h e c o u n t y c o u n c i l
off r e q u i r e m e n t s for m o r e infrastructure, a n d to challenge the target of 50,000 n e w houses.
is easily regarded as 'urbanization' (see The campaigners, w h o included both locals
C h a p t e r s 9 a n d 13). As detailed in C h a p t e r 13, and in-migrants, conservation organizations
as a r e s u l t o f s u c h concerns, n e w housing and environmental groups, emphasized con-
development in rural Britain is regulated cerns about the environmental impact and
through the planning process w h i c h deter- t h e loss o f r u r a l c h a r a c t e r . T h e l o c a l branch
mines both the quantity and the location of chair o f t h e t h e n C o u n c i l for t h e P r o t e c t i o n o f
n e w building. P e r i o d i c plans are p r o d u c e d b y Rural England (now the Campaign to Protect
democratically elected local councils t h r o u g h Rural England - C P R E ) , for e x a m p l e , told
a process that involves consultation with a local newspaper that 'the way of rural
s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d t h e p u b l i c (see M u r d o c h a n d v i l l a g e life w h i c h h a s s l o w l y e v o l v e d o v e r t h e
Abram, 2002; M u r d o c h and Marsden, 1994). c e n t u r i e s is g o i n g t o b e w i p e d a w a y a t a s t r o k e '
Campaign groups representing both devel- (quoted by W o o d s , 1998b, p. 20). S u c h repre-
opers and conservationists have sought to sentations reflected typically i n - m i g r a n t and
influence t h e o u t c o m e s o f this process t h r o u g h m i d d l e class d i s c o u r s e s o f r u r a l i t y , b u t t h e c a m -
representations to public inquiries and lobby- paign was also supported by councillors
ing of decision-makers, but up to the 1990s a l i g n e d w i t h l o c a l w o r k i n g class i n t e r e s t s w h o
there was a general consensus that outside o p p o s e d b u i l d i n g houses for i n - m i g r a n t s w h e n
greenbelts and national parks a degree of t h e r e w a s a s h o r t a g e o f affordable h o u s i n g f o r
n e w housing development was necessary and local p e o p l e .
c o u l d b e a c c o m m o d a t e d w i t h o u t significantly Secondly, the debate about medium-term
impairing the rural environment. housing development highlighted a number
The preparation of new plans in the of localized conflicts in the county where
mid-1990s, however, proved much more protesters w e r e o p p o s i n g m o r e i m m e d i a t e plans
21 4
Rural conflicts
for housing developments. In these cases, means that t h e appropriate use o f resources
opposition was mobilized around the per- h a s r e t u r n e d as a n e x p l o s i v e p o l i t i c a l i s s u e t h a t
ceived threat o f t h e developments to views o f b r i n g s different representations o f rural space
rural landscapes, t o village character a n d t o i n t o conflict. Flashpoints for resource-related
n a t u r a l habitats. A t least o n e c o r r e s p o n d e n t t o conflicts include the management of agri-
t h e local n e w s p a p e r was explicit a b o u t their cultural land a n d forestry. T h e G r e a t Bear
motivation o f defending their investment in Rainforest along the coast of British
t h e rural idyll: C o l u m b i a , for example, has b e e n t h e focus o f

conflict b e t w e e n l o g g i n g c o m p a n i e s a n d c o n -
We o b j e c t to a n y d e v e l o p m e n t a t all. servationists over t h e i m p a c t o f clear-cutting
W e c a m e h e r e f r om a n e s t a t e in T a u n t o n operations o n t h e natural ecosystem o f t h e
[ S o m e r s e t ' s l a r g e s t t o w n ] f o r t he v i e w s region, which the Wilderness Committee
a n d t he p r i v a cy a n d t h a t d i d n 't com e c a m p a i g n g r o u p r e p r e s e n t s s t a r k l y as a c h o i c e
c h e a p . ( Q u o t e d b y W o o d s , 1 9 9 8 b , p. 2 0 )
b e t w e e n c o m m e r c i a l forestry a n d wildlife.
O n e o f t h e highest profile rural resource

Within Somerset, the number of pro-
c o n f l i c t s i n r e c e n t y e a r s , h o w e v e r , is l o c a t e d
development representations was limited. T h o s e
further down the west coast of North
prepared to speak publicly suggested that
America, in t h e Klamath Basin of southern
d e v e l o p m e n t was n e e d e d in order t o create
O r e g o n a n d n o r t h e r n California. T h e region
h o u s i n g for local p e o p l e , t o prevent e c o n o m i c
is n a t u r a l l y h i g h d e s e r t , b u t b i s e c t e d b y t h e
o p p o r t u n i t i e s b e i n g lost t o o t h e r parts o f t h e
Klamath River a n d associated wetlands. I n
c o u n t r y a n d simply in t h e n a m e o f 'progress'.
1905 the Bureau of Reclamation embarked
This minority did, however, have the inertia o f
o n an ambitious project to support agricul-
the planning system o n t h e i r side. D e s p i t e
ture in t h e basin b y reclaiming wetlands a n d
t h e p o p u l a r c a m p a i g n t h e r e w a s i n effect v e r y
irrigating desert land through a constructed
litde that t h e c o u n t y council could do to
network that n o w includes seven dams, 4 5
c h a n g e t h e plans w i t h o u t a significant c h a n g e
p u m p i n g stations, nearly 3 0 0 k m ( 1 8 5 miles)
of policy at a n a t i o n a l level. T h u s , thirdly,
o f canals a n d 8 3 0 k m ( 5 1 6 miles) o f i r r i g a t i o n
t h e c a m p a i g n i n S o m e r s e t fed alongside others
channels (LaDuke, 2002). Almost 100,000
into a national campaign orchestrated by the
hectares o f f a r m a n d r a n c h l a n d n o r m a l l y rely
C P R E against t h e target o f 2.2 million n e w
o n water from the project, diverting around
h o u s e s a c r o s s r u r a l E n g l a n d as a w h o l e , w h i c h
2 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e r i v e r ' s m e a n a n n u a l flow.
p o r t r a y e d t h e p l a n s as t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e
T h e r e g i o n h a s b e e n h e r a l d e d as a m o d e l o f
E n g l i s h c o u n t r y s i d e . O n l y this national-scale
watershed restoration a n d biodiversity preser-
campaign met with a n y success, eventually
vation, b u t tensions between the different
achieving a modest reduction in the a m o u n t
users o f t h e limited w a t e r supply i n c l u d i n g
o f n e w b u i l d a l l o c a t e d t o r u r a l sites.
farmers a n d ranchers, the indigenous Klamath
tribe a n d t h e basin s wildlife - are d e e p - s e a t e d
Rural Resource Conflicts (Doremus andTarlock, 2003).
R u r a l resource conflicts have a l o n g history, b u t In t h e s u m m e r o f 2 0 0 1 , however, a severe

the increasing emphasis placed o n nature c o n - d r o u g h t dramatically r e d u c e d t h e w a t e r level
servation c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e declining eco- in U p p e r Klamath Lake, threatening stocks
nomic significance of resource-exploitation o f suckerfish a n d C o h o salmon. U n d e r the
i n d u s t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g a g r i c u l t u r e a n d forestry, provisions of the Endangered Species Act,
21 5
project managers closed the headgates of for e x a m p l e , i n conflicts over a n i m a l welfare

the irrigation system, maintaining the flow o f in farming, including t h e use of battery pens
w a t e r t o t h e lake b u t c u t t i n g t h e supply for a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t o f live a n i m a l s ( B u l l e r a n d
irrigation by 90 per cent. As crops failed, M o r r i s , 2 0 0 3 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e issue t h a t has g e n -
f a r m i n c o m e s p l u m m e t e d a n d several faced e r a t e d t h e m o s t n o t a b l e c o n f l i c t is h u n t i n g .
bankruptcy. In response, farmers, ranchers and H u n t i n g is a h i g h l y s y m b o l i c a c t i v i t y for
supporters mounted a campaign of civil many traditional discourses of rurality. It
disobedience, including an unauthorized r e p r e s e n t s a r u r a l w a y o f life t h a t is c l o s e l y
attempt to reopen the headgates by flag-waving e n t w i n e d w i t h nature, in w h i c h h u m a n s m u s t
protesters o n 4 t h July. pit their wits against n a t u r e t o survive, b u t are
An above-average snowmelt helped to ultimately able to exert their p o w e r a n d c o n -
a v o i d a r e p e a t o f t h e crisis i n 2 0 0 2 , b u t the trol over n a t u r e . Yet, f r o m t h e perspective of
conflict b e t w e e n farmers a n d conservationists t h e g l o b a l v a l u e s o f a n i m a l r i g h t s , h u n t i n g is
c o n t i n u e d , w i t h farmers resentful that their r e p r e s e n t e d as a c r u e l a n d b a r b a r i c activity.
i n t e r e s t s h a d b e e n p l a c e d b e l o w t h o s e o f fish. T h e g r o w i n g influence o f t h e latter position
T e n s i o n s h a v e also e m e r g e d w i t h i n t h e f a r m - w i t h i n s o c i e t y as a w h o l e h a s l e d t o t h e a d o p -
ing community, between those w h o want to t i o n o f n e w l a w s a n d m e a s u r e s a i m e d at r e g -
sell up and others who believe that any ulating or prohibiting h u n t i n g in a n u m b e r of
further decline in farming w o u l d threaten a countries including France, Belgium and,
s u p p o r t e c o n o m y o f tractor dealers, fertilizer m o s t controversially, t h e U K .
suppliers a n d seed distributors, thus under- T h e d e b a t e in t h e U K has focused o n t h e
m i n i n g a w h o l e rural c o m m u n i t y . h u n t i n g o f w i l d m a m m a l s , i n c l u d i n g foxes a n d
deer, w i t h h o u n d s . This quintessentially British
Hunting and the Rural Way of Life f o r m o f h u n t i n g is u n d e r t a k e n b y organized
I n C h a p t e r 3 it w a s o b s e r v e d t h a t o n e o f t h e g r o u p s , w i t h specially trained h o u n d s chasing
m o s t significant processes o f globalization to the scent of the quarry, followed by the
i m p a c t o n r u r a l areas w a s t h e ' g l o b a l i z a t i o n o f hunters, usually mounted on horseback.
values'. In particular, t h e late t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y H u n t s , a n d t h e rituals associated w i t h them,
witnessed the global spread and popularization have b e e n an i m p o r t a n t part of rural culture
o f a set o f v a l u e s c o n c e r n i n g h u m a n i n t e r a c - s i n c e a t least t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d
tions with nature, which introduced new were traditionally both an element in the
standards for environmental protection and m a i n t e n a n c e o f elitist r u r a l p o w e r structures
p r o m o t e d ideas o f animal rights. T h e s e values ( W o o d s , 1997) a n d a focal p o i n t for commu-
w h i c h are f o u n d e d o n a m i x t u r e o f e n v i r o n - n i t y a c t i v i t y ( C o x e t al., 1 9 9 4 ; C o x a n d W i n t e r ,
mental philosophy, green ideology, scientific 1997). A l t h o u g h h u n t i n g r e m a i n s a significant
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d lay k n o w l e d g e of benign activity for particular sections of the rural
n a t u r e - a r e o f t e n at v a r i a n c e w i t h t h e u n d e r - population, and within particular localities
standings o f nature that f o r m part o f traditional ( M i l b o u r n e , 2 0 0 3 a , 2 0 0 3 b ) , its p r e s e n c e w i t h i n
r u r a l folk culture and k n o w l e d g e . As such, t h e B r i t i s h c o u n t r y s i d e as a w h o l e h a s b e e n
c o n f l i c t s h a v e d e v e l o p e d as g o v e r n m e n t s and diluted by in-migration, the decline of agri-
agencies have a t t e m p t e d t o i n t r o d u c e n e w laws c u l t u r e a n d c h a n g e s i n social attitudes.
and regulatory frameworks based o n the new, Opposition to hunting also has a long
globalized, e n v i r o n m e n t a l values that relate t o history in t h e U K , fuelled b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f
traditional rural activities. T h e s e are manifest, c o n c e r n f o r a n i m a l r i g h t s a n d class p o l i t i c s .
21 6
Rural conflicts
From 1945 onwards a n u m b e r of attempts r e c a s t as a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e r u r a l a n d t h e

w e r e m a d e to i n t r o d u c e legislation to b a n t h e u r b a n i n w h i c h t h e r u r a l is p o r t r a y e d as t h e
hunting of wild mammals with hounds, gain- u n d e r d o g , d e f e n d i n g civil l i b e r t i e s a n d r i g h t s .
i n g m o m e n t u m d u r i n g t h e 1980s a n d 1990s. The association of hunting and rurality
In 1997 the general election produced both w a s r e p r o d u c e d i n t h e tactics a d o p t e d b y p r o -
a Labour g o v e r n m e n t w i t h a manifesto com- h u n t i n g campaigners. J u d g i n g that the issue
m i t m e n t t o h o l d i n g a free v o t e o n hunting, o f h u n t i n g alone w o u l d n o t attract sufficient
and a perceived a n t i - h u n t i n g majority in the public s u p p o r t to halt legislation, campaigners
H o u s e o f C o m m o n s . A Bill t o o u t l a w h u n t i n g formed the Countryside Alliance pressure
w a s q u i c k l y i n t r o d u c e d , b u t fell f o u l o f p a r l i a - group and positioned hunting as j u s t one
m e n t a r y procedure. O t h e r attempts followed, area o f rural c o n c e r n i n w h i c h , t h e y a r g u e d ,
but the strength of opposition mobilized by t h e r u r a l w a y o f life w a s u n d e r a t t a c k from
the pro-hunting lobby tempered the enthusi- a misguided urban government. This message
a s m o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t for a b a n a n d led to was conveyed t h r o u g h a range o f protest events,
a series o f stalemates a n d stand-offs. D e m a n d s i n c l u d i n g t h r e e mass d e m o n s t r a t i o n s i n L o n d o n -
for m o r e objective e v i d e n c e resulted in the t h e C o u n t r y s i d e R a l l y (July 1 9 9 7 ) , t h e C o u n t r y -
establishment of an independent C o m m i s s i o n side M a r c h ( M a r c h 1 9 9 8 ) a n d t h e L i b e r t y a n d
i n t o t h e likely i m p a c t o f a b a n o n t h e rural Livelihood M a r c h (September 2002).The p u b -
economy and society (the B u r n s Inquiry), licity for the demonstrations emphasized a
whilst the newly devolved parliament in n u m b e r o f issues, i n c l u d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l r e c e s -
S c o t l a n d p r e - e m p t e d t h e rest o f t h e U K by sion, h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e closure o f
legislating for a b a n in D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 1 . rural services, b u t the defence of hunting
Whereas the anti-hunting argument is remained the core motivation for b o t h the
mainly g r o u n d e d in animal rights, p r o - h u n t i n g organizers and the majority of participants
campaigners have advanced their case by (Woods, 2004a). References to hunting pre-
identifying h u n t i n g w i t h rurality, s u c h that a n d o m i n a t e d o n t h e b a n n e r s a n d placards carried
attack o n h u n t i n g b e c o m e s an attack o n the b y m a r c h e r s , whilst m a n y slogans played u p t h e
rural. T h e r e are t h r e e e l e m e n t s t o this strategy. n o t i o n s o f a r u r a l - u r b a n conflict a n d o f t h e
F i r s t , h u n t i n g is r e p r e s e n t e d as b e i n g c o r e t o c o u n t r y s i d e b e i n g u n d e r siege (Figure 14.1).
t h e r u r a l w a y o f life. A b a n o n h u n t i n g , it is T h e strategy o f t h e C o u n t r y s i d e Alliance has

a r g u e d , w o u l d cost j o b s , r e m o v e a focal p o i n t b e e n to represent the British countryside rising
o f c o m m u n i t y life a n d i n c r e a s e s o c i a l e x c l u - u p as o n e i n s u p p o r t o f h u n t i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e
s i o n (see W o o d s , 1 9 9 8 c ) . S e c o n d l y , t h e s c i e n - realities o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r e d c o u n t r y s i d e a r e far
tific a n d e t h i c a l basis o f a b a n a r e c h a l l e n g e d m o r e c o m p l e x . E v e n w i t h i n r u r a l areas t h e r e is
by the assertion of rural representations of a significant m i n o r i t y o p p o s e d t o h u n t i n g a n d
nature which h o l d t h a t h u n t i n g is entirely d i s c o u r s e s o f r u r a l i t y a r e also d r a w n o n t o s u p -
natural, that hunted animals do not suffer p o r t a b a n . H u n t i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , is p o r t r a y e d
unnecessary cruelty, and that hunting is as a n i n f r i n g e m e n t o f t h e r u r a l as a s p a c e o f
n e e d e d as a f o r m o f p e s t c o n t r o l f o r f a r m e r s n a t u r e , a n d as a n a c t i v i t y t h a t is offensive to
(Woods, 2000). To ban hunting would there- o t h e r u s e r s o f r u r a l s p a c e s u c h as w a l k e r s a n d
fore b e t o i g n o r e t h e w i s d o m o f rural society. picnickers (Woods, 1998c, 2000). As such, c o n -
Thirdly, the right o f an u r b a n - c e n t r e d society flict o v e r h u n t i n g is as m u c h an intra-rural
t o i m p o s e its v a l u e s o n the countryside is c o n f l i c t as a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n r u r a l a n d u r b a n
c o n t e s t e d . T h u s t h e c o n f l i c t o v e r h u n t i n g is society.
21 7
Figure 14. 1 Hunting associate d with civil liberties in the 200 2 Liberty an d Livelihood
March in London
Summary
T h e case studies discussed i n this c h a p t e r p r o v i d e a n i n d i c a t i v e illustration o f t h e t y p e s o f issue
a r o u n d w h i c h rural conflicts have d e v e l o p e d in r e c e n t years. T h e a r g u m e n t s m o b i l i z e d , t h e
a c t o r s i n v o l v e d a n d t h e p r e c i s e w a y i n w h i c h t h e m e a n i n g a n d r e g u l a t i o n o f r u r a l i t y is
c o n t e s t e d in e a c h case will d e p e n d o n t h e c o n t e x t . H o w e v e r , t h e r e are c o m m o n t h e m e s a n d
regularities t h a t e m e r g e across different specific conflicts a n d w h i c h reflect t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
b r o a d e r discourses o f rurality. T h e C o u n t r y s i d e Alliance i n B r i t a i n , for e x a m p l e , has
d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e p o t e n t i a l for a r a n g e o f issues t o b e c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r u n d e r a n u m b r e l l a
t h e m e o f ' d e f e n d i n g ' t h e rural f r o m u r b a n interference. Yet, t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e rural that
is m o b i l i z e d a n d d e f e n d e d b y t h e C o u n t r y s i d e A l l i a n c e is b a s e d o n a v e r y p a r t i c u l a r d i s c o u r s e
t h a t associates t h e rural w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e , p r i v a t e l a n d o w n e r s h i p , h o m o g e n e o u s communities
a n d ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' a c t i v i t i e s s u c h as h u n t i n g . T h i s is a d i s c o u r s e t h a t is i n i t s e l f e x c l u s i o n a r y a n d
w h i c h is n o t s u b s c r i b e d t o b y m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y r e s i d e n t s o f t h e B r i t i s h c o u n t r y s i d e . It is
h e n c e l i t t l e s u r p r i s e t h a t a d h e r e n t s t o t h i s d i s c o u r s e w i l l find t h e m s e l v e s e n g a g e d i n n u m e r o u s
c o n f l i c t s as its a s s u m p t i o n s a r e c h a l l e n g e d i n t h e m o r e c o m p l e x r u r a l w o r l d c r e a t e d b y
r e s t r u c t u r i n g . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e are o t h e r c a m p a i g n g r o u p s t h a t h a v e also s o u g h t t o m a k e
c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n rural conflicts, b u t f r o m v e r y different perspectives. T h e Confederation
paysanne i n F r a n c e , for e x a m p l e , has m a d e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e e c o n o m i c interests o f
small f a r m e r s , e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues a n d c o u n t e r - g l o b a l i z a t i o n ( W o o d s , 2 0 0 4 a ) . T h e R u r a l
21 8
Rural conflicts
C o a l i t i o n in t h e U n i t e d States, m e a n w h i l e , d r a w s similar links b e t w e e n sustainable f a r m i n g ,

e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n , social j u s t i c e issues, i n d i g e n o u s a n d m i n o r i t y r i g h t s a n d c o m m u n i t y
d e v e l o p m e n t . A progressive politics o f rurality o f this t y p e has also b e e n p i o n e e r e d b y g r o u p s
s e e k i n g t o f o l l o w a l t e r n a t i v e r u r a l lifestyles, s u c h as l o w - i m p a c t h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s , as
discussed in C h a p t e r 2 1 .
Collectively, these various rural c a m p a i g n g r o u p s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m u l t i t u d e o f small-scale,
i n f o r m a l protests focused o n localized conflicts, represent a substantial political m o b i l i z a t i o n
o f individuals a r o u n d t h e issue o f rural identity. Increasingly, t h e s e g r o u p s are t a k i n g t h e f o r m
o f a n e w s o c i a l m o v e m e n t ( W o o d s , 2 0 0 3 a ) . L i k e all s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s , t h e e m e r g e n t r u r a l
m o v e m e n t is a l o o s e l y s t r u c t u r e d c o l l e c t i o n o f a u t o n o m o u s g r o u p s , w i t h n o o r g a n i z i n g c e n t r e ,
i d e n t i f i e d l e a d e r s o r e v e n a c o h e r e n t i d e o l o g y , a n d is u n i t e d o n l y b y t h e c e n t r a l i t y p l a c e d o n
r u r a l i d e n t i t y . Y e t t h e r e is e v e n d i s a g r e e m e n t a b o u t w h a t r u r a l i t y m e a n s , w i t h a t l e a s t t h r e e
strands identifiable ( W o o d s , 2003a):
Reactive ruralism i n v o l v i n g t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f a s e l f - d e f i n e d ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n i n

d e f e n c e o f p u r p o r t e d l y h i s t o r i c , n a t u r a l a n d a g r a r i a n - c e n t r e d r u r a l 'ways o f life'.
Progressive ruralism t h a t o p p o s e s a c t i v i t i e s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t c o n f l i c t w i t h a d i s c o u r s e o f
a simple, c l o s e - t o - n a t u r e , localized a n d self-sufficient rural society.
Aspirational ruralism, w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f i n - m i g r a n t a n d l i k e - m i n d e d a c t o r s
t o d e f e n d t h e i r fiscal a n d e m o t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t i n r u r a l l o c a l i t i e s b y s e e k i n g t o p r o m o t e
initiatives that f u r t h e r t h e realization o f a n i m a g i n e d 'rural idyll', a n d resisting
d e v e l o p m e n t s that t h r e a t e n o r distract f r o m this i m a g i n e d ideal rural.
E a c h strand o f ruralism m a y p r o v i d e m o t i v a t i o n for c a m p a i g n e r s t o m o b i l i z e against

p e r c e i v e d e x t e r n a l threats t o rurality. I n s o m e cases, alliances a n d coalitions are b u i l t b e t w e e n
g r o u p s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e different strands, for e x a m p l e t o protest against t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
n e w roads. B u t , t h e s e different strands o f r u r a l i s m also i n f o r m t h e d i s a g r e e m e n t s a r o u n d w h i c h
c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n t h e r u r a l d e v e l o p , p r o v i d i n g t h e o p p o s i n g sides i n M o r m o n t ' s ' s y m b o l i c b a t t l e
over rurality'.
Further Reading
Fo r m o re o n t he e m e r g e n c e o f a politics o f t he rural a n d o f t he rural m o v e m e n t , s e e
M a rc M o r m o n t, T h e e m e r g e n c e o f rural s t r u g g l e s a n d t h e i r i d e o l o g i c a l effects' ,
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, volume 7, page s 5 5 9 - 5 7 5
( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d M i c h a e l W o o d s , ' D e c o n s t r u c t i n g rural protest : t he e m e r g e n c e o f a n e w
socia l m o v e m e n t ' , Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 19 , p a g e s 3 0 9 - 3 2 5 ( 2 0 0 3 ) - t wo
p a p e r s p u b l i s h e d 1 6 y e a r s a p a r t a t different s t a g e s o f t he politicization o f t he rural.
A n u m b e r o f j o u r n al p a p e r s a n d b o o k c h a p t e r s p r o v i de m o r e i n f o r m a t i on o n v a r i o us
a s p e c t s o f t he h u n t i ng d e b a t e in B r i t a i n, i n c l u d i ng t wo p a p e r s b y Pau l M i l b o u r n e: T h e
c o m p l e x i t i e s o f h u n t i ng in rural E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s ' , Sociologia Ruralis, volum e 43 ,
21 9
p a g e s 2 8 9 - 3 0 8 ( 2 0 0 3 b ) a n d ' H u n t i ng ruralities: n a t u r e , s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u re in " h u nt

c o u n t r i e s " o f E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s ' , Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 19 , p a g e s 157-17 1
( 2 0 0 3 a ) - b o t h o f w h i c h r e p o rt r e s e a r c h u n d e r t a k e n f o r t he B u r ns I n q u i ry o n h u n t i n g.
M i c h a e l W o o d s , ' R e s e a r c h i n g rural c o n f l i c t s : h u n t i n g, loca l p o l i t i cs a n d a c t o r - n e t w o r k s ' ,
Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 14 , p a g e s 3 2 1 - 3 4 0 ( 1 9 9 8 ) , e x a m i n e s a n a t t e m p t to
b a n s t a g - h u n t i n g in p a rt o f s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d , w h i l s t W o o d s ' s c o n t r i b u t i on ' F a n t a s t i c
Mr F o x ? R e p r e s e n t i n g a n i m a l s in t he h u n t i ng d e b a t e ' , in C . P h i lo a n d C . W i l b e rt ( e d s ) ,
Animal Spaces, Beastly Places ( R o u t l e d g e , 2 0 0 0 ) a n a l y s e s t he u s e o f l a n g u a g e a n d
i m a g e r y in t he h u n t i ng d e b a t e . Fo r m o r e o n t he c a s e s t u d y o f t he politics o f h o u s i n g
d e v e l o p m e n t in rural E n g l a n d s e e M. W o o d s , ' A d v o c a t i ng r u r a l i t y? T h e r e p o s i t i o n i n g o f
rural l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t ' , Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 14 , p a g e s 1 3 - 2 6 (1998) . Fo r
m o re o n t he c o n f l i c t o v e r w a t e r r e g u l a t i o n in t he K l a m a th r e g i o n , s e e H. D o r e m u s a n d
A . D. Tarlock, ' F i s h , f a r m s , a n d t he c l a s h o f c u l t u r es in t he K l a m a th b a s i n ' , Ecology Law
Quarterly, volum e 30 , page s 2 7 9 - 3 5 0 (2003) .
Websites
T h e re a re a l a r ge n u m b e r o f w e b s i t e s w i th i n f o r m a t i on r e l a t i ng to t he c o n f l i c ts d i s c u s s e d
in t h is c h a p t e r , m a n y o f t h e m m a i n t a i n e d b y c a m p a i g n g r o u p s o n e i t h e r s i d e o f t he
d e b a t e s . Fo r m o r e o n h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t in B r i t a in s e e t he w e b s i t e s o f t he C a m p a i g n
to P r o t e c t R u r al E n g l a n d ( w w w . c p r e . o r g . u k ) a n d t he H o u s e B u i l d e r s ' F e d e r a t i o n
( w w w . h b f . c o . u k ) . Fo r t he K l a m a th c o n f l i c t s e e w w w . k l a m a t h b a s i n i n c r i s i s . o r g fo r a
p r o - f a r m er p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d t he K l a m a th B a s i n C o a l i t i o n ( w w w . k l a m a t h b a s i n . i n f o ) f o r
t he c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t a r g u m e n t . T h e m a i n p r o - h u n t i ng o r g a n i z a t i o n in B r i t a in is t he
C o u n t r y s i de A l l i a n ce ( w w w . c o u n t r y s i d e - a l l i a n c e . o r g ) , w h i l s t t he m a i n a n t i - h u n t i ng g r o u p
is t he L e a g u e A g a i n s t C r u e l S p o r t s ( w w w . l e a g u e . u k . c o m ) . T h e W i l d l i fe N e t w o r k
( h o t . v i r t u a l - p c . c o m / w i l d n e t / w i l d n e t . s h t m l ) a d v o c a t e s a ' m i d d le w a y ' o f r e g u l a t e d h u n t i n g .
T h e r e p o rt o f t he g o v e r n m e n t - c o m m i s s i o n e d i n q u i ry into t he i m p a c t o f b a n n i n g h u n t i ng
w i th h o u n d s o n t he rural e c o n o m y a n d society , t o g e t h e r w i th r e s e a r c h a n d s u p p o r t i n g
m a t e r i a l, c a n a l s o b e f o u n d o n t he w e b a t w w w . h u n t i n g i n q u i r y . g o v . uk
22 0
Part 4
EXPERIENCES
OF RURAL
RESTRUCTURING
Changing Rural Lifestyles
Introduction
T h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s i n t h i s b o o k h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h e p r o c e s s e s o f social a n d
e c o n o m i c c h a n g e t h a t h a v e i m p a c t e d o n r u r a l areas o v e r t h e past c e n t u r y , a n d t h e
responses that have b e e n a d o p t e d by c o m m u n i t i e s , g o v e r n m e n t s a n d o t h e r policy-
m a k e r s . Inevitably, m u c h o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n has f o c u s e d o n s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s ,
i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d p o l i c i e s . T h i s final p a r t o f t h e b o o k shifts a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p e o p l e
w h o live a n d w o r k i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s o f r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g
a n d its c o n s e q u e n c e s . A s n o t e d i n C h a p t e r 3 , H o g g a r t a n d P a n i a g u a ( 2 0 0 1 ) h a v e
a r g u e d t h a t r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n v o l v e s q u a l i t a t i v e as w e l l as q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a n g e .
B y e x a m i n i n g t h e c h a n g i n g n a t u r e o f r u r a l lifestyles, a n d b y l i s t e n i n g t o p e o p l e s
o w n p e r s o n a l n a r r a t i v e s o f t h o s e c h a n g e s , e v i d e n c e c a n b e f o u n d for t h e q u a l i t a t i v e
aspects o f r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g t o c o m p l e m e n t t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t has
b e e n d e s c r i b e d in a n u m b e r o f earlier chapters.
T h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e lifestyles o f r u r a l p e o p l e t o d a y a n d t h o s e a c e n t u r y
a g o is stark. I n t h e early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , r u r a l lifestyles w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y
insularity, a l a c k o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l a p p l i a n c e s , a s t r o n g social h i e r a r c h y a n d m o r a l
f r a m e w o r k for c o m m u n i t y life, a n d a d e e p i n v o l v e m e n t i n a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k a n d
c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d . H u m p h r i e s a n d H o p w o o d ( 2 0 0 0 ) , for e x a m p l e ,
relate t h e m e m o r i e s o f residents o f rural E n g l a n d in t h e 1920s a n d 1930s, in w h i c h
hard w o r k a n d isolation feature p r o m i n e n t l y :
I'd w o rk o n S a t u r d a y s , e v e n i n g s , d o i n g all t he m e n i a l t a s k s o n a f a rm a t a v e r y e a r l y a g e ,
m u c h e a r l i e r t h a n m o s t o t h e r b o y s h a d to. E v e n a s a s m a l l b o y o f five y e a r s o l d I w o u l d h a v e
to g o o u t into t he f i e l ds a t c e r t a i n s e a s o n s . I r e m e m b e r m y f a t h e r w o u l d b e d i g g i n g p o t a -
t o e s w i th a fork, m y m o t h e r w o u l d b e p i c k i ng t h e m u p a n d I w o u l d b e b e h i n d w i th a big
b a s k e t - a s big a s m y s e l f - picking u p w h a t w e c a l l e d 'the c h a t s ' , w h i c h w e r e s m a l l p o t a t o e s
for t he pigs . ( A l b e rt Gillett, rural child, q u o t e d in H u m p h r i es a n d H o p w o o d , 2 0 0 0 , pp . 3 4 - 3 5 )
W e w e r e a b s o l u t e l y i s o l a t e d . W e h a d n o o t h e r f a rm r o u nd u s fo r a t leas t t h r ee to f o u r miles .
A nd t he n e a r e s t b u i l d i n g, B i g l a n d Hall, w a s a b o u t a mile a n d a hal f f r om us . O h , w e h a d n o
Experiences of rural restructuring
n e w s o f t he o u t s i d e w o r ld b e c a u s e t h e re w a s n o w i r e l e s s [radio] a n d w e n e v e r h a d a
n e w s p a p e r ; w e w o u l d h a v e h a d to w a l k t w o a n d a hal f m i l e s to p i c k o n e u p a n d w e
c o u l d n ' t a f f o rd o n e in a n y c a s e . I j u s t live d f r om d a y to d a y b y w h a t m y h u s b a n d c a m e a n d
t o ld m e . H e ' d tel l m e w h o h a d d i e d , w h o ' d b o u g h t a f a rm a n d w h o w a s m o v i n g : little titbits
o f n e w s . ( M a r i an A t k i n s o n , f a r m e r 's w i f e , q u o t e d in H u m p h r i es a n d H o p w o o d , 2 0 0 0 , p. 1 3 0 )
E l e m e n t s o f t h i s lifestyle h a v e b e e n r o m a n t i c i z e d as p a r t o f t h e r u r a l i d y l l
m y t h (see C h a p t e r 1 ) . F o r t h o s e w h o l i v e d t h e m , h o w e v e r , t h e y w e r e lives o f
poverty, ill-health and limited opportunities. T h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f rural society
w a s f o r m a n y r u r a l p e o p l e a n e m a n c i p a t i o n . T h e s t o r y o f r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g is
h e n c e a c o m p l e x o n e t h a t c a n n o t b e r e p r e s e n t e d as w h o l l y p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e .
S u c h m i x e d e x p e r i e n c e s a n d e m o t i o n s are also e v i d e n t i n n a r r a t i v e s o f m o r e r e c e n t
r u r a l c h a n g e . T h e case s t u d i e s t h a t f o l l o w r e c o u n t p e r s o n a l s t o r i e s o f c h a n g e from
t w o different c o m m u n i t i e s t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f N e w Z e a l a n d i n t h e
c o n t e x t o f t h e liberalization o f a g r i c u l t u r e in t h e 1980s a n d 1990s; a n d a village in
s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d in the c o n t e x t of c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n a n d gentrification. In each
c a s e t h e s t o r i e s c o n v e y a p r o f o u n d s e n s e o f c h a n g e t h a t is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d e e p
c o n n e c t i o n t o p l a c e a n d t o r u r a l i d e n t i t y , y e t t h e y also r e v e a l t h e c o n t i n g e n c y i n
individuals' attitudes to change and in the responses that they adopt.
Farmers' Tales of Agricultural about their own personal experiences,

Restructuring in New Zealand farmers frequently told a different story that
T h e N e w Zealand farming community experi- emphasized t h e 'pain' involved a n d t h e u n -
enced o n e o f t h e sharpest a n d m o s t severe equal ability o f f a r m families t o r e s p o n d t o t h e
episodes o f e c o n o m i c restructuring of any challenge.
rural industry following reforms introduced I m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s in t h e painfulness of
by the N e w Zealand government in the m i d - the experience for farmers who struggled
1980s to deregulate agriculture, removing in t h e n e w e c o n o m i c circumstances included
subsidies a n d forcing farmers t o c o m p e t e i n t h e s e n s e o f a b s o r p t i o n i n f a r m i n g as a t r a d i -
a n u n f e t t e r e d free m a r k e t ( s e e C h a p t e r 9 f o r t i o n a n d a w a y o f life a n d o f a t t a c h m e n t t o a
more details). As Sarah Johnsen (2003) particular rural place:
observes, m o s t accounts o f t h e deregulation
and subsequent restructuring of the farming Tradition k e e p s u s h e r e . A n d jus t familiar-
sector have b e e n written from a macro-level ity. It's really difficult to .. . To leav e f a r m i ng
e c o n o m i c perspective based o n national-scale w o u l d b e really s t e p p i n g o u t s i d e o u r c o m -
statistical e v i d e n c e . I n c o n t r a s t , J o h n s e n e x p l o r e s fort z o n e in s o m e w a y s . It's really h a rd to
f a r m families' o w n narratives o f t h e e x p e r i - m a k e a b r e a k w i th w h a t y o u k n o w a n d
e n c e o f r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h r o u g h a case s t u d y o f l a u n c h o u t into t he u n k n o w n a l t h o u g h a t
Waihemo, South Island. She found that t i m e s I w i s h w e c o u l d d o it. ( M a le f a r m e r

q u o t e d b y J o h n s e n , 2 0 0 3 , p. 1 4 0 )
t h e f a r m e r s w o u l d initially reiterate t h e c o n -
ventionally received rhetoric that deregulation I r e m e m b e r o n e y e a r p r i c e s w e r e p a r t i c-
had b e e n a ' g o o d thing' that h a d strengthened u l a r ly b a d . A n d it w a s h a r d ly w o r th it
New Zealand agriculture. Yet w h e n asked o n a n e c o n o m i c b a s i s .. . It w a s w o r th it
22 4
Changing rural lifestyles
for t he healt h an d wellbein g o f you r t h a n w e d i d. It's a l w a y s n i c e to leav e t he

s h e e p , bu t it w a s h a r d ly w o r th it e c o n o m - l a n d in a b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n t h a n w h e n y o u
ically to d r e n c h t h e m , to s h e a r t h e m . f o u n d it fo r t he nex t g e n e r a t i o n . It's n i c e
B e c a u s e t h e re w a s j u s t n o r e t u rn fo r y o u r to s e e a p l a c e b e i n g f a r m e d to its full
m o n e y . B y t he t i me y o u p a i d y o u r w a g e s p o t e n t i a l . W e j u s t h a v e n ' t b e e n a b l e to
a n d t he p r i c e s o f y o u r i n p u ts a n d that. It d o that. ( F a r m e r, quote d by Johnsen ,
w a s j u s t crazy . It's v e r y s a d d e n i n g , d i s - 2 0 0 3 , p. 1 4 4 )
h e a r t e n i n g , to w o r k h a rd all y e a r o n a
p l a c e y o u c a r e a b o u t a n d m a k e a loss . S u c h f e e l i n g s w e r e i n f o r m e d b y t h e official
(Femal e farmer quote d by Johnsen , discourse w h i c h implied that 'good farmers'
2 0 0 3 , p. 1 4 1 ) prospered in the deregulated agricultural
system, whilst 'bad farmers' floundered.
For many farmers the commitment to
However, Johnsen found that farmers them-
p l a c e h a d its o w n n a r r a t i v e , a s t o r y a b o u t h o w selves r e j e c t e d t h i s s i m p l i s t i c r e a d i n g , p o i n t i n g
the farm had been built u p t h r o u g h hard instead t o t h e variability o f i m p a c t s at a f a r m
work. Thus l i v e l i h o o d , lifestyle, life history level. R a t h e r , J o h n s e n argues, f a r m e r s ' e x p e r i -
a n d l o c a t i o n w e r e all e n t w i n e d t o g e t h e r : ences a n d responses w e r e mediated at t h e
f a r m e n t e r p r i s e , h o u s e h o l d a n d p r o p e r t y level
W e a c t u a l l y g o t t he l o a n s a n d b o u g h t t he
b y factors i n c l u d i n g t h e level o f f a r m enter-
w h o l e t h i ng lock , s t o c k a n d b a r r e l. S o w e
prise debt, t h e division of labour in the
h a d t h a t b ig i n v e s t m e n t . W e w e r e n ' t like
h o u s e h o l d a n d t h e stage i n t h e family life-
a lot o f o t h e r f a m i l i es w h e r e provisio n
c y c l e , a n d t h e size a n d l a n d q u a l i t y o f t h e
h a d b e e n m a d e fo r t he s o n to c o m e i n.
p r o p e r t y ; as w e l l as b y t h e g e n d e r , k n o w l e d g e
All o u r s a v i n g s w e n t into it a n d w e b o u g h t
it b e f o r e w e g o t m a r r i ed .. . At t h a t s t a g e a n d e x p e r i e n c e , values a n d attitudes, goals a n d
w e p u t s o m u c h into it t h a t it w a s o u r s . sense of place of the individual farmer
W e p u t o u r m o n e y into it a n d d id al l t he a n d b y t h e w i d e r c o n t e x t including t h e local

u p g r a d e s o f f e n c e s a n d t h i n g s . A n d t he biophysical conditions, characteristics o f t h e
girls [ o u r d a u g h t e r s ] a re c l o s e l y a l i g n e d local e c o n o m y a n d local f a r m culture.
w i th t he f a rm t o o I s u p p o s e . T h e y a l w a y s
c a m e o u t w i th u s .. . A n d I s u p p o s e t h e re
w e r e n i c e f e e l i n g s a s s o c i a t e d w i th it. To Villagers' Tales of Community Change in
w a l k a w a y f r om i t . . . I s u p p o s e I'll h a v e to Southern England
d o it o n e day . B u t I t h i nk I'd f i nd it q u i te
T h e v i l l a g e o f ' C h i l d e r l e y ' (a p s e u d o n y m ) is
h a rd to d o . ( F e m a l e f a r m e r, q u o t e d b y
typical o f m a n y in s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d . M i c h a e l
J o h n s e n , 2 0 0 3 , p. 1 4 2 )
Bell, w h o s p e n t six m o n t h s living i n t h e village
for a n e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d y i n t h e early 1990s,
T h e loss o f a f a r m , o r a n i n a b i l i t y t o f a r m
observes t h a t it d o e s n o t h a v e a n y particularly
l a n d t o its 'full p o t e n t i a l ' , o f t e n p r o d u c e d f e e l -
outstanding views or noteworthy buildings,
ings o f d i s a p p o i n t m e n t , failure a n d guilt:
b u t n o r has it b e e n s u b j e c t e d t o substantial
n e w h o u s e b u i l d i n g (Bell, 1 9 9 4 ) . A s discussed
P e r s o n a l l y I've b e e n d i s a p p o i n t e d that
i n C h a p t e r 1, C h i l d e r l e y is s m a l l a n d h i s t o r i c
we h a v e n ' t b e e n a b l e to m a i n t a in t he
enough to be understood b y residents as
f a rm to t he s t a n d a r d .. . Yo u k n o w , s o m e
f a r ms a re just, t h e y ' re lovely . T h e y ' re like 'rural', a n d for m a n y residents t h e rurality o f
s h o w p i e c e s , a r e n ' t t h e y ? I w o u l d like to t h e v i l l a g e is r e i n f o r c e d b y a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t
h a v e b e e n a b l e to p u t m o re into o u r f a rm it offers a c o n n e c t i o n t o a p a s t w a y o f life.
22 5
Yet, as Bell also notes, Childerley, like Yo u w e r e m o r e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t . E v e r y o n e

many communities on the edge of London's k n e w e a c h other . N o w y o u r n e i g h b o u r s
c o m m u t e r belt, has u n d e r g o n e considerable d o n 't k n o w y o u . It's n o t t he s a m e any -
s o c i a l c h a n g e o v e r t h e p a s t f o u r d e c a d e s as more . (Long-term residen t quote d by

B e l l , 1 9 9 4 , p. 9 8 )
new, wealthier migrants have m o v e d in (see
also C h a p t e r 6). T h e narratives o f r u r a l life
Even newer in-migrants reproduced the
t o l d b y t h e villagers t o Bell are h e n c e strongly
r h e t o r i c o f t h e loss o f c o m m u n i t y , w i t h s o m e
c o l o u r e d b y a sense o f c h a n g e in t h e village
a c k n o w l e d g i n g that the perceived decline of
that has b o t h physical a n d social manifestations:
c o m m u n i t y i n t e r a c t i o n w a s a r e s u l t o f t h e dif-
ferent lifestyle that they follow compared
It's b e c o m e sterile . T h e s o r t o f nitty-gritty
ha s gon e o u t o f it. N o w e v e r y t h i n g is w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l lifestyles:
bein g preserve d an d washe d an d

p a i n t e d , bu t t h e , w h a t I m e a n , t he h e a r t I t h i nk it h a s s o m e t h i n g to d o w i th o u r
o f it h a s g o n e . T h e b u i l d i n gs h a v e b e e n character s .. . I s u p p o s e som e peopl e
p r e s e r v e d bu t t he c h a r a c t e r h a s bee n m a k e f r i e n ds w i th t h e i r n e x t d o o r n e i g h -
lost . b o u rs b e c a u s e it's t h e i r n e x t d o o r n e i g h -
b o u r s . I t h i nk w e t e n d to o n l y m a k e f r i e n ds
T h e b ig p r o b l e m is t h a t t he community w i th t h e m if t h e y w e r e s i m i l a r s o r t s of
spirit is g o n e , o r a t l e a s t m u c h d e c l i n e d . p e o p l e to o u r s e l v e s anyway . ( M a n a g e m e n t
There's n o longe r an y c o m m o n p u r p o s e , c o n s u l t a n t a n d n e w c o m e r , q u o t e d b y Bell ,
n o c o m m o n g o a l . T h a t 's w h a t is n e e d e d 1 9 9 4 , p. 9 8 )
to h o l d a p l a c e t o g e t h e r . I c a n ' t really s e e
w h e r e it's all l e a d i n g t o . ( C h i l d e r l e y r e s i - However, changes in lifestyle were also
d e n t s q u o t e d b y Bell , 1 9 9 4 , pp . 9 5 - 9 6 )
attributed to economic and social changes
within the established village, n o t a b l y the
T h e i d e a o f loss o f c o m m u n i t y s p i r i t is a n
decline in agricultural m a n u a l labour and t h e
i m p o r t a n t feature o f t h e villagers' stories, p r o -
weakening of paternalistic class structures.
viding a device for describing the way in
E v e n t h o u g h m e m o r i e s o f t h e old era t e n d e d
which the pattern o f social i n t e r a c t i o n has
t o e m p h a s i z e t h e h a r d s h i p o f life, s o m e o l d e r
changed from inward-looking, collective
villagers such as a former estate worker
activity w i t h i n t h e parish, to m o r e expansive,
q u o t e d by Bell, l o o k e d b a c k o n t h e period
o u t w a r d - l o o k i n g a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c lifestyles.
with nostalgia, arguing that 'it was better'
As Bell reports, for m a n y o l d e r residents this
(Bell, 1 9 9 4 , p. 1 1 6 , e m p h a s i s i n t h e o r i g i n a l ) .
c h a n g e is r e c o u n t e d w i t h a s e n s e o f r e g r e t :
I p r e f e r r ed t he o l d v i l l a ge life. It w a s rea l
Neglected Rural Geographies
friendly, like o n e b ig family. W e alway s
T h e stories told by the individuals q u o t e d by
u s e d to g o o u t v i s i t i n g. Yo u d i d n 't n e e d a
J o h n s e n a n d Bell are h i g h l y personal a n d are
t e l e v i s i o n . You just wen t an d aske d
shaped by t h e particular characteristics, cir-
s o m e o n e . If a n y t h i ng h a p p e n e d , if s o m e -
cumstances and experiences of the people
on e wa s sic k o r s o m e t h i n g , everyon e
k n e w it s o o n e n o u g h . W h e n I w a s a girl, involved. T h e y are 'situated knowledges',
y o u m a d e y o u r o w n e n t e r t a i n m e n t . Yo u constructed from particular personal posi-

read , t he wome n sewed , we playe d tions and perspectives (Hanson, 1992). T h e
c a r d s . W e w o u l d liste n to t he wireless . same observation can be made about the
22 6
stories told by rural researchers in the (say ) religious belie f o r political affiliation.
a c a d e m i c b o o k s a n d articles that w e w r i t e . W e (Philo , 1 9 9 2 , p. 2 0 0 )
a p p r o a c h t h e rural f r o m p a r t i c u l a r social a n d
educational backgrounds and bring with us In response, Philo issued a challenge to
particular interests, biases a n d p r e c o n c e p t i o n s rural geographers and allied researchers to
that inform the research that w e d o and the take seriously the 'others' w h o also occupy
a n a l y s i s w e u n d e r t a k e . I t is n o coincidence rural space:
that in the mainstream of rural studies

w h y s h o u l d rural g e o g r a p h e r s n o t i n v e s -
throughout the twentieth century a bunch of
t i g a te t he s o c i a l r e l a t i o ns o f h e a l t h a n d
rural researchers who were predominantly
illnes s o r o f ability a n d disability, a n d in
w h i t e , m i d d l e class, m i d d l e a g e d m e n con-
s o d o i n g i n q u i re m o re specificall y into
c e n t r a t e d almost exclusively o n t h o s e aspects t he g e o g r a p h i e s i m p l i c a t e d in t he 'other-
of rural activity that also involved white, n e s s ' o f s i c k n e s s , p h y s i c a l disability a n d
middle class, m i d d l e aged m e n - farming, m e n t a l disability a s spu n o u t in rural
industry, resource exploitation, p o l i c y - m a k i n g s u r r o u n d i n g s ? A n d w h y s h o u l d rural g e o -
and planning. g r a p h e r s n o t reflec t u p o n t he s o c i a l r e l a -
This point was forcibly made by Chris t i o ns o f sexuality , a n d w h y d o t h e y n o t

c o n s i d e r t he possibilit y t h a t t h e i r (a s it
P h i l o i n a p a p e r p u b l i s h e d i n t h e Journal of
w e r e ) e q u i v a l e n t to t he g a y a n d l e s b i a n
Rural Studies in 1992. T h e paper,'Neglected
'ghettos ' an d networks describe d by
rural geographies', was itself inspired by
u r b an g e o g r a p h e r s is a c t u a l l y t he lac k o f
P h i l o s r e a d i n g o f a b o o k , The Child in the
suc h phenomen a becaus e tightly knit
Country, by the environmental writer Colin
rural c o m m u n i t i e s a re s u c h u n f o r g i v i ng
W a r d (Ward, 1990). As Philo (1992) describes, site s fo r t he expressio n of a l t e r n a t i ve
W a r d investigates t h e c o n d i t i o n a n d experi- s e x u a l i t i e s ? A n d w h y t o o s h o u l d t h e y no t
ences of children in the British countryside, t h i nk a b o u t a m u l t i t u de o f o t h e r O t h e r s ' :
p r o v i d i n g a n i n s i g h t i n t o r u r a l life t h a t w a s g y p s i e s a n d travellers o f all s o r t s , ' N e w
virtually absent from academic rural research A g e hippies ' an d companio n seeker s o f
a t t h e t i m e (see C h a p t e r 17 for later work ' a l t e r n a t i ve lifestyles' , h o m e l e s s peopl e
o n rural children). For Philo, the neglect of a n d t r a m p s , all o f w h o m t r a ce o u t c o m -

plicate d geographie s both acros s rea l
children in rural studies highlighted by Ward's
'rural s p a c e ' a n d in t he s p a c e s o f t h e i r
b o o k revealed a w i d e r neglect o f ' o t h e r ' rural
o w n i m a g i n a t i o n s . (Philo , 1 9 9 2 , p. 2 0 2 )
experiences in mainstream rural research
w h i c h led to a troubling misrepresentation of
T h e challenge resulted in a wave of research
the rural experience:
d u r i n g the 1990s that sought to recognize and
e n g a g e w i t h t h e diversity o f e x p e r i e n c e in t h e
t h e re remains a dange r of p o r t r a y i ng
countryside, m u c h of w h i c h employed quali-
British rural p e o p l e (o r a t leas t t he o n e s
t a t i v e m e t h o d o l o g i e s t h a t a i m e d , as M i l b o u r n e
t h a t s e e m to b e i m p o r t a nt in shapin g
(1997a) c o m m e n t s q u o t i n g D u n c a n a n d Ley
an d feelin g t he locality) as all bein g
( 1 9 9 3 ) , t o d e c e n t r e t h e ' p r i v i l e g e d sites f r o m
' Mr A v e r a g e s ' : a s b e i n g m e n in e m p l o y -
w h i c h representations emanate' (Duncan and
m e n t , e a r n i n g e n o u g h to live , w h i te a n d
p r o b a b ly E n g l i s h , s t r a i g h t a n d s o m e h o w Ley, 1 9 9 3 , p . 2) a n d t o e n a b l e a ' p o l y p h o n y o f
w i t h o ut sexuality , a b l e in b o d y a n d s o u n d v o i c e s ' (p. 8) f r o m t h e r u r a l (see a l s o Cloke

in m i n d, a n d d e v o i d o f a n y o t h e r q u i r ks o f a n d Little, 1997).
22 7
S o m e o f these studies are discussed in t h e attention afforded to women in traditional

following chapters, providing an insight into rural research was in a few sociological studies
t h e rural g e o g r a p h i e s o f c h i l d r e n , t h e elderly, o f farm households in w h i c h w o m e n appeared
migrant workers, indigenous peoples, ethnic only in a preconceived supporting role u n d e r -
m i n o r i t i e s , gay a n d lesbian c o m m u n i t i e s and taking duties of household management or
t r a v e l l e r s , a m o n g o t h e r s . T h e r e is l i t t l e d o u b t c h i l d c a r e , o r s e c o n d a r y e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y (this
that research o f this n a t u r e has contributed stereotype has persisted in m a n y m e d i a r e p r e -
t o a fuller, m o r e s e n s i t i v e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g of sentations of farm w o m e n - see M o r r i s and
c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l life, b u t it h a s n o t been Evans, 2 0 0 1 ) . As W h a t m o r e et al. (1994)
immune from criticism. Little (1999), for o b s e r v e d , t h e f a r m ' f a m i l y ' w a s ' t r e a t e d as a n
i n s t a n c e , raises c o n c e r n s about the lack of organic entity accessed t h r o u g h , a n d repre-
theoretical discussion o f t h e t e r m s 'the o t h e r ' s e n t e d by, a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l t h e f a r m e r , o r
and 'the same', arguing that, head of household, both masculine-defined
t e r m s ' (p. 3 ) , c o n t r i b u t i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e i n v i s -
Too man y studie s hav e rather g l i b ly ibility of w o m e n in academic accounts of
l a b e l l e d g r o u p s o r i n d i v i d u a ls a s 'other' r u r a l life.
w i th s e e m i n g l y little r e c o g n i t i o n o f t he
Despite the popularization of feminist
p o w e r r e l a t i o ns a n d p r o c e s s e s o f t r a n s -
t h e o r y i n h u m a n g e o g r a p h y a n d r e l a t e d social
g r e s s i o n i n v o l v e d in s u c h c a t e g o r i z a t i o n .
sciences in the 1980s, its application in
Studie s o f t he rural o t h e r c a n n o t an d
rural studies r e m a i n e d limited. Feminist per-
s h o u l d no t b e u n d e r t a k e n w i t h o ut s o m e
spectives were introduced into studies of
r e f e r e n c e to t he b a s i s o f a p a r t i c u l ar f o rm
of othering; wh y a re certain i d e n t i t i es farm w o m e n (Gasson, 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 9 2 ; Sachs, 1 9 8 3 ,
o t h e r e d , w h o g a i n s o r b e n e f i t s f r om s u c h 1991; W h a t m o r e , 1990, 1991), labour markets

p o s i t i o n i n g a n d w h o a re t h o s e w h o a re ( L i t d e , 1 9 9 1 ) , c o m m u n i t y life ( M i d d l e t o n , 1 9 8 6 ;
' t he s a m e ' . (Little, 1 9 9 9 , p. 4 3 8 ) Stebbing, 1984), and environmental activism
(Sachs, 1 9 9 4 ) , b u t t h e s e r e m a i n e d , in Friedland's
T o d o this, Little suggests that rural research (1991) p h r a s e , 'a f u g i t i v e l i t e r a t u r e ' (p. 3 1 5 ) .
needs to engage w i t h the role of broader c o n - Such studies did, however, d e m o n s t r a t e the
f i g u r a t i o n s o f p o w e r s u c h as r a c i s m , p a t r i a r c h y n e c e s s i t y o f b u i l d i n g g e n d e r i n t o analysis of
and homophobia. Similarly, Little critiques r u r a l c h a n g e , as n o t e d b y W h a t m o r e e t al:
studies o f t h e r u r a l o t h e r for t h e i r static t r e a t -
m e n t o f g r o u p a n d individual identity, u n d e r -
T h e i n t e r e s t s c o n t e s t i n g rural r e s t r u c t u r-
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h identities are
i ng b u i ld o n a n d , in t u r n, r e s h a p e g e n d e r
u n c e r t a i n a n d s u b j e c t t o c h a n g e . T h u s , t h e r e is
relations ; e m p o w e r i n g a n d disempower -
further for research o n ' n e g l e c t e d rural g e o -
i ng w o m e n ( a n d m e n ) in d i f f e r e nt w a y s in
g r a p h i e s ' t o g o if it is t o b e m o r e t h a n s i m p l y p a r t i c u l ar localities , c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e i r
a form of 'academic tourism' through the intersectio n w i th othe r axe s of socia l
experiences of a catalogue of uncritically p o w e r relations , notabl y class , 'race ' a n d
defined 'othered' groups. ethnicity. ( W h a t m o re e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 , p. 2 )
Gender and the Rural Little and Austin (1996) explored one
T h e most numerous 'other' group to be mar- a s p e c t o f this, b y e x a m i n i n g t h r o u g h a case s t u d y
ginalized in conventional mainstream rural o f t h e village o f East H a r p t r e e , in s o u t h - w e s t
studies were women. Practically the only England, h o w the ideal of the rural idyll
22 8
i m p a c t s o n t h e e v e r y d a y life o f w o m e n . In T h u s , Little a n d A u s t i n a r g u e that aspects o f

particular, they focused on the importance t h e rural idyll serve t o reinforce traditional
p l a c e d in t h e rural idyll o n ' c o m m u n i t y ' a n d g e n d e r relations a n d roles, i n c l u d i n g m o t h e r -
'the family'. T h e sense o f c o m m u n i t y was hood and the centrality of w o m e n in the
strongly expressed b y w o m e n in t h e village, c o m m u n i t y . As t h e y c o n c l u d e , 'those aspects
especially in-migrants, but maintaining a o f t h e r u r a l w a y o f life m o s t h i g h l y v a l u e d b y
f u n c t i o n i n g c o m m u n i t y also p l a c e d e x p e c t a - w o m e n a p p e a r t o b e t h o s e t h a t offer them
tions o n w o m e n , w i t h o n e resident observing least o p p o r t u n i t y t o m a k e c h o i c e s (for e x a m p l e ,
that, a b o u t e m p l o y m e n t o r d o m e s t i c responsibilities)
o u t s i d e t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n a l r o l e s ' (p. 1 1 0 ) .
L o ts o f t he organizatio n is don e by L i t t l e a n d A u s t i n ' s s t u d y is also i m p o r t a n t i n
women , bu t n o t exclusively . Men ge t m a r k i n g a transition from w o r k that focused
i n v o l v e d w i th v i l l a ge f o o t b a l l. D u r i ng t he
o n t h e s t r u c t u r a l d i m e n s i o n s o f g e n d e r differ-
w e e k t he w o m e n r un t he v i l l a g e . ( Q u o t e d
e n c e in rural societies t o w o r k c o n c e r n e d w i t h
b y Little a n d A u s t i n, 1 9 9 6 , p. 108 )
e x p l o r i n g h o w g e n d e r identities a n d ruralities
can b e mutually constituted. T h i s latter aspect
S i m i l a r l y , t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e is
has b e c o m e m o r e significant as r e s e a r c h on
a ' b e t t e r ' e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h t o raise a f a m i l y
g e n d e r a n d t h e rural has increased since t h e
w a s also c o m m o n l y s t a t e d b y w o m e n i n t h e
mid-1990s. One recent review of gender
village, e v e n if t h e practicalities o f looking
research in rural studies, for instance, n o t e d n o t
after a n d p r o v i d i n g t r a n s p o r t f o r c h i l d r e n c r e -
o n l y that g e n d e r research has b e g u n to flour-
a t e d difficulties, e s p e c i a l l y f o r w o m e n i n f u l l -
ish, b u t t h a t t h e r u r a l itself h a s s t a r t e d t o s t i m -
t i m e e m p l o y m e n t . As such, Little a n d Austin
u l a t e n e w p e r s p e c t i v e s o n g e n d e r , as ' m e a n i n g s
noted the high proportion of w o m e n who
associated w i t h rural places a n d cultures p r o -
h a d effectively b e c o m e f u l l - t i m e m o t h e r s a n d
vide n e w insights i n t o t h e study o f sexual i d e n -
that several w o m e n w e r e c o n s c i o u s t h a t t h e i r
tity, f o r e x a m p l e , a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
lives a n d i d e n t i t i e s i n t h e v i l l a g e h a d b e c o m e
gender identity and the body' (Little and
o r i e n t e d a r o u n d t h e i r r o l e as m o t h e r s . B y t h e
Panelli, 2 0 0 3 , p. 286). A n appreciation o f g e n -
same token, there was awareness that w o m e n
der dimensions is i n c r e a s i n g l y demonstrated
without children c o u l d feel e x c l u d e d from
in research across a diverse range of rural
c o m m u n i t y activities:
t o p i c s . A s s u c h , t h e r e is c o n s c i o u s l y n o specific
c h a p t e r o n g e n d e r in this b o o k , b u t rather
It w o u l d b e a bit isolatin g h e r e w i t h o ut
in a d d i t i o n t o this s h o r t i n t r o d u c t o r y section,
kids . E v e r y t h i ng is organise d t h r o u gh
g e n d e r is also d i s c u s s e d i n l a t e r c h a p t e r s i n t h e
kids .. . C h i l d r en g i v e y o u a l e g i t i m a te
context of youth lifestyles and sexualities,
p r e s e n c e in t he v i l l a g e . ( Y o u n g mothe r
q u o t e d b y Little a n d A u s t i n, 1 9 9 6 , p. 1 0 6 ) e m p l o y m e n t a n d a l t e r n a t i v e r u r a l lifestyles.
Summary
Understanding the nature and dynamics of the c o n t e m p o r a r y countryside requires n o t just a
k n o w l e d g e o f s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s a n d t h e i r statistical e x p r e s s i o n , a n d o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d p o l i c y
responses, b u t also a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f h o w rural r e s t r u c t u r i n g has b e e n e x p e r i e n c e d b y p e o p l e
22 9
l i v i n g a n d w o r k i n g i n r u r a l a r e a s a n d h o w r u r a l lifestyles t h e m s e l v e s h a v e c h a n g e d . T h e
c h a p t e r s i n t h i s final p a r t o f t h e b o o k c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g .
T h e y f o c u s o n s o m e o f t h e k e y a s p e c t s o f r u r a l life - t h e q u a l i t y o f r u r a l h o u s i n g a n d h e a l t h ,
a n d fear o f c r i m e i n r u r a l a r e a s ( C h a p t e r 1 6 ) ; t h e lifestyles o f c h i l d r e n , y o u n g p e o p l e a n d t h e
e l d e r l y i n r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s ( C h a p t e r 1 7 ) ; e m p l o y m e n t a n d w o r k i n g life ( C h a p t e r 1 8 ) ;
poverty, d e p r i v a t i o n a n d homelessness ( C h a p t e r 19); t h e situation o f e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s a n d
i n d i g e n o u s c o m m u n i t i e s i n r u r a l areas ( C h a p t e r 2 0 ) ; a n d a t t e m p t s t o p u r s u e ' a l t e r n a t i v e ' r u r a l
lifestyles o u t s i d e t h e m a i n s t r e a m ( C h a p t e r 2 1 ) . I n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n t e x t , t h e s e c h a p t e r s
d o d e s c r i b e s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s , c i t i n g statistical e v i d e n c e w h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e , a n d discuss policy,
b u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y s p a c e is a l s o g i v e n t o t h e v o i c e s o f r u r a l p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e i r
experiences.
Further Reading
M o re o n t he t w o c a s e s t u d i e s o f f a r m e rs in N e w Z e a l a n d a n d o f t he E n g l i s h v i l l a ge o f
C h i l d e r l ey r e s p e c t i v e l y c a n b e f o u n d in S a r a h J o h n s e n , ' C o n t i n g e n c y r e v e a l e d :
N e w Z e a l a n d f a r m e r s ' e x p e r i e n c e s o f a g r i c u l t u r al r e s t r u c t u r i n g ', Sociologia Ruralis,
v o l u m e 4 3 , p a g e s 1 2 8 - 1 5 3 ( 2 0 0 3 ) a n d M i c h a e l B e l l , Childerley: Nature and Morality in a
Country Village ( U n i v e r s i ty o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 9 4 ) . C h r is P h i l o 's p a p e r ' N e g l e c t e d rural
g e o g r a p h i e s : a r e v i e w ' , in t he Journal of Rural Studies, volume 8, page s 193-20 7
( 1 9 9 2 ) , is still e s s e n t i a l r e a d i n g fo r s t u d e n t s o f rural society , w h i l s t d i s c u s s i o n s o f t he
b r o a d e n i n g o f c o n c e r n in rural r e s e a r c h to e m b r a c e O t h e r e d ' g r o u p s c a n b e f o u n d in t he
i n t r o d u c t i o ns to t he e d i t e d v o l u m e s b y P a u l C l o k e a n d J o Little, Contested Countryside
Cultures ( R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 7 ) a n d b y P a u l M i l b o u r n e, Revealing Rural Others':
Representation, Power and Identity in the British Countryside (Pinter, 1 9 9 7 ) . Fo r m o r e
o n g e n d e r a n d t he r u r a l, s e e r e c e n t w r i t i ng b y J o Little a n d c o - a u t h o r s , i n c l u d i n g :
J . Little, Gender and Rural Geography ( P r e n t i c e H a l l, 2 0 0 2 ) ; J . Little a n d P. A u s t i n,
' W o m e n a n d t he rural idyll', Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 12 , p a g e s 1 0 1 - 1 1 1
( 1 9 9 6 ) ; J . Little a n d R. Panelli , ' G e n d e r r e s e a r c h in rural g e o g r a p h y ' , Gender, Place
and Culture, v o l u m e 10 , p a g e s 2 8 1 - 2 8 9 (2003) .
23 0
Living in the Countryside: Housing
Health and Crime
Introduction
Is life b e t t e r i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e ? M a n y p e o p l e a p p a r e n t l y t h i n k so. A B r i t i s h
o p i n i o n p o l l i n t h e late 1 9 9 0 s f o u n d t h a t 7 1 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n t s b e l i e v e d t h a t
t h e q u a l i t y o f life is b e t t e r i n r u r a l areas, a n d t h a t 6 6 p e r c e n t w o u l d live i n t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e if t h e r e w e r e n o b a r r i e r s t o d o i n g so ( C a b i n e t Office, 2 0 0 0 ) . Similarly,
59 per cent of Canadians living in urban centres told a 1989 survey that they
w o u l d p r e f e r t o live s o m e w h e r e ' m o r e r u r a l ' , w h e r e a s 8 5 p e r c e n t o f r u r a l f a r m
residents w e r e c o n t e n t w i t h their c u r r e n t location (Bollman a n d Briggs, 1992).
B e h i n d t h e p r e f e r e n c e s for r u r a l l i v i n g lie a c o m p a r i s o n o f s t e r e o t y p i c a l i m a g e s o f
t h e city a n d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . Significantly these i n c l u d e p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t t h e
relative q u a l i t y o f h o u s i n g a n d h e a l t h a n d t h e level o f c r i m e - staple f a c t o r s i n t h e
q u a l i t y o f life. Typically, a n i m a g e o f p i c t u r e s q u e , s p a c i o u s r u r a l h o u s i n g , set i n a
p l e a s a n t , h e a l t h y a n d p o l l u t i o n - f r e e e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h a n a b s e n c e o f c r i m e , is
contrasted w i t h images of crowded, sub-standard or m o n o t o n o u s urban housing in
a p o l l u t e d a n d u n h e a l t h y e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h c r i m e is rife a n d t h e streets are
unsafe. T h i s c h a p t e r c r i t i q u e s this simplistic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b y e x p l o r i n g i n t u r n t h e
a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s o f r u r a l h o u s i n g , h e a l t h a n d h e a l t h c a r e , a n d c r i m e levels.
Rural Housing First, t h e standard of housing is generally

O n e of the most powerful elements of the lower in smaller towns than larger settle-
rural idyll m y t h is t h e i m a g e o f t h e rose- m e n t s . Secondly, t h e cost o f c o n s t r u c t i o n in
c o v e r e d c o t t a g e as t h e i d e a l c o u n t r y p r o p e r t y rural areas is h i g h e r than in urban areas,
However, few rural residents live in such a l t h o u g h l a n d p r i c e s a r e o f t e n less. T h i r d l y ,
h o m e s , a n d t h e r e a l i t y o f r u r a l h o u s i n g is far t h e r e is a g r e a t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h e a p e r , o l d e r ,
m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n t h e stereotype suggests. h o u s i n g in rural areas, b u t properties may
J o n e s a n d T o n t s ( 2 0 0 3 ) q u o t e five f e a t u r e s o f b e p o o r e r q u a l i t y a n d less easily accessible
rural h o u s i n g d e s c r i b e d b y earlier research for than their urban equivalents. Fourthly, the
the Australian Housing Research Council. costs o f h o u s i n g m a i n t e n a n c e are significantly
T a b le 1 6 . 1 Characteristic s o f housin g o w n e d by ' p e r m a n e n t ' resident s

a n d 'converters ' in t w o rural Canadia n localitie s
R i d e a u L a k e s ( O n t a r i o) C u l t u s L a ke (B C o l u m b i a )
P e r m a n e n t (%) C o n v e r t e r (%) P e r m a n e n t (%) C o n v e r t e r (%)
Lot siz e >1000 0 s q ft 75. 8 80. 5 75. 7 5. 0
Hous e siz e <150 0 s q ft 39. 0 48. 4 45. 9 81. 8
Single-store y house s 39. 5 62. 6 57. 8 62. 2
Three room s o r les s 2. 4 10. 5 10. 5 22. 2
Seve n room s o r m o re 40. 0 30. 3 31. 6 8. 9
T wo o r m o re b a t h r o o m s 52. 0 63. 2 63. 2 44. 4
Source: A f t er Halset h a n d Rosenberg , 199 5
h i g h e r i n r u r a l areas. Finally, s u p p l y o f r e n t a l j u n c t i o n a n d is n o w a r e g i o n a l s e r v i c e and

a c c o m m o d a t i o n i n r u r a l a r e a s is o f t e n l i m i t e d . administrative centre. T h e local h o u s i n g stock
At the same time, Halseth and Rosenberg is d o m i n a t e d b y o w n e r - o c c u p i e d properties
(1995) w a r n against generalizing a b o u t the (64 p e r c e n t ) , b u t also i n c l u d e s b o t h private
nature o f rural housing. W i t h particular refer- r e n t e d (22 p e r cent) a n d public r e n t e d (10 p e r
e n c e to rural C a n a d a , t h e y argue that t h e r e are cent) a c c o m m o d a t i o n t h e latter including
significant regional differences in t h e prevail- property constructed by the state housing
ing type of housing and the dynamics o f rural a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e s t a t e - o w n e d railway com-
housing markets. Locations within w h a t they p a n y i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s , as w e l l as m o r e
label the 'rural-recreational countryside' recent developments. Some older public
a r o u n d u r b a n centres are often characterized h o u s i n g h a d b e e n sold to tenants, a n d much
by small-lot, space-intensive developments of what remains is c o n s i d e r e d to be in a
t h a t a r e easily d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m the more deteriorating condition. T h e population of
expansive properties in surrounding rural Narrogin is h i g h l y mobile and includes a
areas. M o r e o v e r , t h e i r case s t u d y research s u g - significant g r o u p o f 'spiralists', y o u n g public
gests t h a t t h e r e are n o t a b l e differences i n size sector w o r k e r s w h o s p e n d t w o t o t h r e e years in
and facilities of housing between different Narrogin before m o v i n g to m o r e senior posi-
localities a n d b e t w e e n t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f different tions. As Jones a n d T o n t s report,'spiralists' t e n d
t y p e s o f o w n e r s w i t h i n t h e s a m e locality. F o r not to buy property but depend on private
e x a m p l e , in t h e C u l t u s Lake area o f British rented accommodation, creating a pool of
Columbia, the houses o w n e d by 'converters' d e m a n d for a limited supply that has inflated
w h o h a d recently c o n v e r t e d seasonal homes rents and marginalized lower income local
into permanent residences were generally residents into poorer-quality property. At the
s m a l l e r w i t h f e w e r r o o m s a n d facilities than s a m e t i m e , N a r r o g i n , like m a n y small t o w n s ,
those o w n e d by m o r e permanent residents has d r a w n in e m p l o y m e n t , services a n d p o p -
(Table 16.1). ulation from the surrounding rural area,
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f local factors in shaping increasing the value of property in the town
t h e d y n a m i c s o f r u r a l h o u s i n g is a l s o i l l u s - significantly. T h e double exclusion of low
t r a t e d b y J o n e s a n d Tonts's (2003) case s t u d y income households from both the private
o f N a r r o g i n , W e s t e r n Australia. A town of rented and owner-occupied housing markets
4,500 population, located 190 k m south-east is particularly discriminating against the
of Perth, Narrogin developed as a railway indigenous Noongar community, which has
23 2
Housing, health and crime
been gradually absorbed into mainstream t h e relative r e m o t e n e s s a n d isolation o f m a n y

h o u s i n g provision in t h e past forty years, b u t rural communities limited the opportunity
w h i c h remains heavily concentrated in p o o r for rural h o u s i n g t o b e c o n n e c t e d t o infra-
quality public h o u s i n g . All these trends c o m - s t r u c t u r e that was t a k e n for g r a n t e d in u r b a n
b i n e d have, Jones a n d T o n t s (2003) note, p r o - areas, i n c l u d i n g m a i n s electricity, w a t e r and
duced reduced demand for the traditional sewerage. Fourthly, old rural properties have
'three-bedroom detached h o m e on a quarter become valued for aesthetic and heritage
a c r e b l o c k ' (p. 5 7 ) , a n d i n c r e a s e d d e m a n d f o r a reasons and measures have b e e n taken to p r e -
w i d e r range of h o u s i n g options, particularly serve their appearance a n d integrity. As such,
r e n t a l s t o c k . A s s u c h , t h e y a r g u e , t h e r e is n o w p l a n n i n g r e g u l a t i o n s i n c o u n t r i e s s u c h as t h e
a m i s m a t c h b e t w e e n t h e characteristics of the U K c a n m a k e it difficult t o d e m o l i s h , e x t e n d
population and the type of housing stock in or carry o u t i m p r o v e m e n t s to old rural p r o p -
Narrogin. erties that w o u l d c h a n g e t h e o u t w a r d a p p e a r -
Although the papers by Halseth and ance, especially in national parks a n d village
R o s e n b e r g a n d b y J o n e s a n d Tonts are d e r i v e d c o n s e r v a t i o n a r e a s (see also C h a p t e r 1 3 ) .
from specific case studies, t h e observations Significant i m p r o v e m e n t s have b e e n m a d e ,

that they m a k e about the complexity of rural however, to the quality of rural h o u s i n g over-
h o u s i n g h a v e a far w i d e r c u r r e n c y . I n p a r t i c u l a r , all. I n t h e 1 9 4 0 s , o n e i n n i n e h o u s e s i n r u r a l
t h e r e are t h r e e key d i m e n s i o n s that emerge B r i t a i n w e r e d e e m e d t o b e 'unfit for o c c u p a -
from these studies that are central to any tion', and o n e in three 'in n e e d of repair'. B y
understanding of rural housing: housing qual- the 1980s, the p r o p o r t i o n considered 'unfit'
ity, a f f o r d a b i l i t y a n d t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p u b l i c h a d fallen t o a r o u n d o n e i n 2 0 (Robinson,
rented housing. 1992), although some commentators have

argued that the n u m b e r of sub-standard p r o p -
The quality of rural housing erties increased again in t h e 1980s (Rogers,
T h e p r o m o t i o n o f large, w e l l - m a i n t a i n e d a n d 1 9 8 7 ) . Similarly, t h e n u m b e r o f s u b - s t a n d a r d
expensive rural real estate b y agents m a r k e t i n g h o u s i n g units in t h e rural U n i t e d States was
to middle class in-migrants disguises the reduced from over 3 million in 1970 to 1.8
p e r s i s t e n c e o f p o o r h o u s i n g c o n d i t i o n s as t h e million in 1997 (Furuseth, 1998). However,
e x p e r i e n c e of m a n y rural residents. T h e p r o b - s u b - s t a n d a r d h o u s i n g i n t h e U S is d e f i n e d as
l e m o f r u r a l h o u s i n g i n r u r a l areas results f r o m either lacking complete plumbing, or being
a n u m b e r o f factors. First, m u c h r u r a l h o u s i n g o v e r c r o w d e d , w i t h m o r e t h a n 1.1 p e r s o n p e r
is o l d e r t h a n u r b a n h o u s i n g a n d its c o n d i t i o n r o o m - t h e a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g is
has simply d e t e r i o r a t e d over time. As rural n o t c o n s i d e r e d . I f it w e r e , t h e p r o p o r t i o n of
areas d i d n o t e x p e r i e n c e s l u m c l e a r a n c e p r o - s u b - s t a n d a r d h o u s i n g is l i k e l y t o b e signifi-
grammes in the mid-twentieth century to the cantly h i g h e r . R e s e a r c h i n f o u r areas o f r u r a l
s a m e e x t e n t as u r b a n a r e a s , o l d e r s u b - s t a n d a r d Wales in t h e 1990s, for instance, f o u n d that
h o u s i n g was often not demolished but still 12.4 per cent of households w e r e in p r o p e r -
remains. Secondly, a lot of older rural housing ties w i t h s t r u c t u r a l d e f e c t s i n c l u d i n g damp-
was originally tied to j o b s in agriculture or ness, leaking roofs, loose brickwork and
o t h e r d o m i n a n t local industries. As employ- plasterwork and problems with doors and
m e n t i n t h e s e s e c t o r s fell a n d r u r a l a r e a s e x p e - w i n d o w s ( C l o k e e t al., 1 9 9 7 ) .
rienced depopulation, large amounts of T h e r e are notable geographical variations

h o u s i n g fell i n t o d i s u s e a n d d i s r e p a i r . T h i r d l y , in the condition of rural housing. O v e r a
23 3
T a b le 1 6 . 2 Household s w i t h o u t basi c amenitie s in f o u r area s o f rural Wale s

Betws-y - D e v i l 's Tana t T e i fi
Household s w i t h o u t Coed(% ) B r i d ge (%) Valle y (%) Valle y (%) A ll (%)
Mains electricity 0. 0 1.8 3. 2 0. 8 1.4
Mains ga s 68. 0 99. 1 97. 6 98. 0 90. 7
Mains w a t e r 3. 2 16. 4 10. 8 3. 9 8. 6
Mains drainag e 9. 2 59. 5 22. 0 14. 7 26. 3
Sol e us e o f flus h WC 2. 0 3. 1 2. 1 1.2 2. 1
Sin k a n d col d w a t e r t a p 0. 4 0. 9 1.7 1.2 1.0
Running h o t w a t e r 2. 0 4. 5 3. 0 1.6 2. 6
Fixe d b a t h o r showe r 3. 2 4. 1 3. 4 1.6 3. 0
Gas o r electri c cooke r 1.6 1.4 3. 4 2. 3 2. 2
Central h e a t i n g 27. 6 26. 2 30. 7 13. 7 24. 4
Household s w i th structural 6. 8 19. 6 12. 1 12. 0 12. 4

defect s
Source: A f t er Cloke e t al. , 199 7
q u a r t e r o f all s u b - s t a n d a r d r u r a l h o u s i n g in for renovation. Thus, the quality of rural

t h e U n i t e d States in 1 9 9 0 was c o n c e n t r a t e d in h o u s i n g has b e e n i m p r o v e d in p a r t through
t h e t h r e e states o f Alaska, A r i z o n a a n d New g e n t r i f i c a t i o n (see C h a p t e r 6 ) , b u t t h e c o n s e -
Mexico states which also have above- q u e n c e has b e e n to increase t h e value o f t h e
a v e r a g e levels o f r u r a l p o v e r t y ( F u r u s e t h , 1 9 9 8 ) . property beyond the reach o f local lower
At a more local level, C l o k e e t al. (1997) i n c o m e households, exasperating problems of
report variations in the p r o p o r t i o n of house- t h e availability o f affordable h o u s i n g .
h o l d s w i t h o u t b a s i c a m e n i t i e s i n f o u r case s t u d y
areas in rural Wales (Table 16.2). All f o u r case
studies w e r e in districts w i t h above-average Affordability of rural housing
levels o f s u b - s t a n d a r d h o u s i n g . P o o r housing Despite the trend of counterurbanization
conditions are also more prevalent among d u r i n g the late t w e n t i e t h century, t h e con-
p a r t i c u l a r social g r o u p s a n d types o f h o u s i n g . struction of n e w housing generally progressed
Elderly and low income groups are more at a s l o w e r r a t e i n r u r a l a r e a s t h a n i n urban
likely t o live i n sub-standard housing, and areas. T h e result has b e e n t o increase pressure
r e n t e d p r o p e r t y is m o r e l i k e l y t o b e o f p o o r o n existing h o u s i n g stocks, inflating p r o p e r t y
quality than o w n e r - o c c u p i e d property. p r i c e s a n d r e n t s . M i d d l e class i n - m i g r a n t s a r e
Fitchen (1991) observes that local a u t h o r i - naturally better placed to c o m p e t e in such
ties are often reluctant to condemn sub- pressurized rural h o u s i n g markets than local
standard housing because of the lack of residents in low wage employment, thus
affordable alternatives. Affordability a n d h o u s - m a k i n g t h e shortage of 'affordable' housing
i n g quality are closely related p r o b l e m s . P o o r o n e o f t h e k e y issues for r u r a l policy. O v e r
q u a l i t y h o u s i n g g e t s u s e d b e c a u s e it is c h e a p , 60 per cent of rural households in Canada
y e t residents f r e q u e n t l y h a v e little capacity t o have r e p o r t e d t h a t h o u s i n g affordability is a
improve the property. Cheap, sub-standard p r o b l e m ( F u r u s e t h , 1 9 9 8 ) . I n t h e U n i t e d States,
h o u s i n g is also a t t r a c t i v e , h o w e v e r , t o i n - m i g r a n t meanwhile, 70 per cent of p o o r rural h o u s e -
m i d d l e class b u y e r s , l o o k i n g t o p u r c h a s e p r o p e r t y holds s p e n d in excess o f 3 0 p e r c e n t o f their
23 4
Figure 16. 1 Mea n residentia l property prices in five Englis h rural districts, 199 8 an d 200 3
Source: Base d o n data from the Land Registr y
gross income on housing costs, compared t h e rate o f increase w a s s l o w e r i n areas of

w i t h 2 4 p e r c e n t o f r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s as a longer-term intensive in-migration, such as
w h o l e ( W h i t e n e r , 1 9 9 7 ) . W h e n difficulty w i t h A y l e s b u r y Vale a n d t h e N e w Forest, average
m e e t i n g h o u s i n g c o s t s is a d d e d t o i n a d e q u a t e prices in these localities had reached
amenities and overcrowding, more than a 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 b y 2 0 0 3 . A s F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 also s h o w s ,
quarter of rural households in the U S are property at the lower end of the market
j u d g e d to have major housing problems. attracted s o m e o f t h e sharpest increases, w i t h
Some of the most dramatic increases in t h e a v e r a g e p r i c e o f flats a n d m a i s o n e t t e s i n
rural property prices have b e e n experienced r u r a l d i s t r i c t s m o r e t h a n d o u b l i n g i n t h e five
in t h e U K . Fuelled by a c o m b i n a t i o n o f sig- years. T h i s rate o f inflation has not been
nificant u r b a n to rural m i g r a t i o n , tight p l a n - m a t c h e d by average i n c o m e , thus exacerbating
n i n g restrictions o n n e w house building and t h e p r o b l e m o f affordability. I n m o s t o f s o u t h -
the liberalization o f m o r t g a g e lending, p r o p - e r n E n g l a n d average p r o p e r t y prices are n o w
e r t y p r i c e s i n r u r a l areas i n c r e a s e d exponen- at least 4 . 5 t i m e s t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l house-
tially f r o m t h e 1 9 8 0 s o n w a r d s . B e t w e e n 1998 h o l d i n c o m e , a n d are m o r e t h a n eight times
a n d 2 0 0 3 , average residential p r o p e r t y prices t h e average i n c o m e i n a n u m b e r o f h i g h - d e m a n d
i n m o s t r u r a l d i s t r i c t s i n c r e a s e d b y at least localities i n c l u d i n g E x m o o r , South Devon,
70 per cent, with t h e greatest increases in t h e C o t s w o l d s a n d p a r t s o f S u s s e x as w e l l as i n
m o r e p e r i p h e r a l a r e a s , s u c h as B r o a d l a n d in parts of the Lake District. T h e affordability
Norfolk, S o u t h H o l l a n d in Lincolnshire and g a p is p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e f o r y o u n g p e o p l e o n
South Shropshire (Figure 16.1). Although lower incomes. Research by Wilcox (2003)
23 5
identified 11 districts in rural southern J u s t r e c e n t l y y o u c o u l d g e t l a n d fo r a

E n g l a n d w h e r e the price of starter h o m e s was trailer fo r o n l y $ 2 0 0 o r $ 3 0 0 . N o w it's u p
more than 4.76 times the average annual to $ 1 , 0 0 0 - j u s t fo r a trailer s p a c e . ( R u r al
income of households aged under 40 - a N e w York r e s i d e n t , q u o t e d b y F i t c h e n ,

1 9 9 1 , p. 1 0 6 )
greater margin than in the most expensive
parts of L o n d o n .
Initiatives t o p r o v i d e affordable h o u s i n g in
In t h e U n i t e d States, rural p r o p e r t y prices
the U K have included planning regulations
have been inflated by increased demand
that require builders t o i n c l u d e a provision for
generated by counterurbanization combined
l o w cost h o u s i n g in n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s and
w i t h limited supply d u e to stricter land use
' h o m e b u y ' s c h e m e s that p r o v i d e assistance t o
regulations and building ordinances and the
households w i t h l o w i n c o m e s or in key o c c u -
reluctance of developers to build low cost
pations to purchase property. However, whilst
housing. H o w e v e r , Fitchen (1991) n o t e d that
these strategies reflect the preference for
rising costs w e r e particularly a c u t e for rental
o w n e r - o c c u p a t i o n , m a n y lower i n c o m e rural
property, thus hitting lower i n c o m e house-
h o u s e h o l d s are d e p e n d e n t o n r e n t e d p r o p e r t y
h o l d s m o s t severely. S h e r e p o r t s t h a t i n one
a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f h o u s i n g affordability in
rural N e w York c o u n t y in 1989 two-thirds of
rural Britain has been intensified by the
welfare recipients were paying rents that
d w i n d l i n g social h o u s i n g rental stock.
exceeded their shelter allowance by more
t h a n $ 1 0 0 p e r m o n t h . O n e response has b e e n
the rapid expansion of mobile home resi- Rural social housing
d e n c e s as a c h e a p e r a l t e r n a t i v e . T h e number Britain, in c o m m o n w i t h a n u m b e r of other
of m o b i l e h o m e s in the rural U S increased countries, responded to the challenge of p o o r
by 61 per cent d u r i n g the 1980s such that by quality rural h o u s i n g and the decline of tied
1990 they h o u s e d 16.5 per cent of the rural rural a c c o m m o d a t i o n in the mid-twentieth
population (Furuseth, 1998). In 17 states, century with an extensive programme of
mainly in the south and west, m o b i l e homes b u i l d i n g p u b l i c o r social h o u s i n g for rent b y
c o m p r i s e d m o r e t h a n a fifth o f t h e r u r a l h o u s - local authorities. A l t h o u g h rural authorities
i n g stock.Yet, Fitchen (1991) observes that t h e w e r e reportedly m o r e m o d e s t in their provi-
costs o f m o b i l e homes h a v e also increased sion o f ' c o u n c i l housing' than urban c o u n t e r -
markedly and involve numerous hidden parts and an immediate stigma was often
payments, for example for electricity and introduced b y physically separating council
kerosene. T h u s , she quotes o n e rural resident housing from private stock in locations o n the
discussing t h e p r o b l e m o f h o u s i n g affordability: e d g e o f villages, t h e p r o g r a m m e d i d supply
reasonable, affordable, housing for lower
My o l d e s t s o n , he' s g o t a constructio n i n c o m e rural households. D u r i n g the 1980s
j o b, in e x c a v a t i o n w o r k. T h e r e ' s a lot o f
and 1990s, however, a r o u n d a third of rural
w o rk a v a i l a b l e n o w in c o n s t r u c t i n g ne w
council house tenants purchased their h o m e s
c a b i n s a n d h o u s e s . H e ' s v e r y g o o d a t it.
u n d e r ' r i g h t - t o - b u y ' legislation i n t r o d u c e d b y
But he h a s to m o v e f r om w h e r e he' s
the Conservative g o v e r n m e n t (Hoggart, 1995).
living, a n d h e c a n ' t f i nd a p l a c e h e c a n
Councils were not permitted t o invest the
a f f o r d. T h e influx f r om t he city h a s d r i v en
u p t he p r i ce o f h o u s i n g s o m e t h i n g a w f u l. receipts in n e w b u i l d i n g a n d w i d e r restrictions
W e ' re t r y i ng to h e l p h im b u y l a n d f o r a o n local g o v e r n m e n t finance m e a n t that little
trailer, bu t e v e n t h a t h a s g o n e s k y - h i g h . additional housing was constructed to replace
23 6
sold stock. Instead, p r i m a r y responsibility for and North America. Local geographical
social h o u s i n g p r o v i s i o n has shifted t o i n d e - v a r i a t i o n s i n levels o f i l l - h e a l t h also suggest
pendent housing associations, b u t concerns t h a t d e p r i v a t i o n is a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r (Senior
h a v e also b e e n e x p r e s s e d a b o u t t h e l e v e l o f e t al., 2 0 0 0 ) . Y e t t h e s e f a c t o r s d o n o t e n t i r e l y
new building by housing associations and explain urbanrural differences, and some
t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n r u r a l areas (Milbourne, effect m u s t also b e a t t r i b u t e d t o specifically
1998). T h e s e factors c o m b i n e d have substan- r u r a l issues i n h e a l t h a n d h e a l t h c a r e , n o t a b l y
tially r e d u c e d t h e s t o c k o f s o c i a l r e n t e d h o u s - p r o b l e m s in h e a l t h c a r e p r o v i s i o n a n d t h e social
i n g in rural areas in t h e U K . In 1 9 9 9 t h e r e a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s o f r u r a l lifestyles.
w e r e 6 8 4 , 0 0 0 social h o u s i n g u n i t s available in
rural E n g l a n d ( a r o u n d 14 p e r c e n t o f t h e total The provision of rural healthcare
h o u s i n g stock) c o m p a r e d w i t h 7 1 1 , 0 0 0 units T h e d e l i v e r y o f h e a l t h c a r e t o r u r a l areas is
i n 1 9 9 0 ( C l o k e e t al., 2 0 0 2 ) . A s s u c h , t h e p r i - faced by a n u m b e r o f difficulties, m o s t of
vatization o f social h o u s i n g in t h e U K and w h i c h are related t o t h e relative isolation a n d
elsewhere (see J o n e s and Tonts, 2003, for sparse population density of rural regions.
example, on Australia), has reduced the H e a l t h facilities a r e m o r e e x p e n s i v e t o p r o v i d e
o p t i o n s available t o l o w e r i n c o m e r u r a l r e s i d e n t s i n r u r a l a r e a s , levels o f u s e a n d o c c u p a n c y a r e
and c o n t r i b u t e d to an increase in rural h o m e - frequently lower than in urban centres, and
lessness, as d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 1 9 . t h e v i a b i l i t y o f specialist u n i t s is m o r e t e n u o u s .
E v e n in countries w i t h comprehensive public
h e a l t h s e r v i c e s , s u c h as t h e U K , t h e a c c e s s i b i l -
Rural Health ity o f h e a l t h services in rural r e g i o n s c a n b e
A s e c o n d e l e m e n t o f t h e r u r a l i d y l l m y t h is variable. A third o f rural residents in E n g l a n d
t h a t r u r a l life is h e a l t h i e r t h a n c i t y life. T h e s t a - live m o r e t h a n 2 k i l o m e t r e s a w a y f r o m the
tistical e v i d e n c e i n s u p p o r t o f t h i s a s s e r t i o n is n e a r e s t d o c t o r ' s s u r g e r y a n d o v e r h a l f live 4 o r
mixed. Figures from the U K a n d C a n a d a sug- m o r e k i l o m e t r e s f r o m t h e n e a r e s t h o s p i t a l (see
gest that t h e r e are l o w e r m o r t a l i t y rates a n d C h a p t e r 7 ) . I n l a r g e r c o n t i n e n t a l states s u c h as
l o n g e r life e x p e c t a n c i e s i n r u r a l areas ( C a b i n e t Australia, C a n a d a a n d t h e U n i t e d States these
Office, 2000; Wilkins, 1992); but other distances can b e multiplied several-fold. T h e
evidence from N o r t h America, the U K and p r o b l e m of rural health provision in the US
Australia indicates that t h e r e are h i g h e r acci- has b e e n further intensified b y t h e closure o f
d e n t r a t e s i n r u r a l areas a n d g r e a t e r p r e v a l e n c e rural hospitals d u e to pressures o f specializa-
o f c h r o n i c ill-health (Gesler a n d Ricketts, 1992; tion a n d cost-effectiveness, a n d b y t h e com-
G r a y a n d L a w r e n c e , 2 0 0 1 ; S e n i o r e t al., 2 0 0 0 ; paratively low proportion of the rural
W i l k i n s , 1992). In rural Wales, for example, population covered by health insurance
C l o k e e t al. ( 1 9 9 7 ) f o u n d t h a t 4 4 p e r c e n t o f only 53.7 per cent in 1996 (Vistnes and
residents reported serious health problems M o n h e i l , 1 9 9 7 ) . H e a l t h facilities t h a t d o e x i s t
compared with 1 7 p e r c e n t f o r W a l e s as a m a y b e poorly e q u i p p e d , w i t h half of the rural
w h o l e . T h e apparent p o o r health o f rural resi- hospitals in N e w S o u t h Wales lacking diag-
d e n t s reflects a n u m b e r o f f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g n o s t i c e q u i p m e n t t o treat r e s p i r a t o r y a n d h e a r t
t h e relatively elderly profile o f t h e rural p o p u - diseases, for e x a m p l e ( L a w r e n c e , 1 9 9 0 ) .
lation (reinforced by retirement migration) T h e recruitment and retention of trained

a n d t h e relatively p o o r e r h e a l t h o f i n d i g e n o u s health professionals is a further problem.
c o m m u n i t i e s in rural Australia, N e w Zealand A combination of personal and professional
23 7
factors often militates against doctors and M e n t a l health in general can b e a significant
o t h e r h e a l t h specialists c h o o s i n g t o l o c a t e i n issue i n rural areas, i n p a r t b e c a u s e o f t h e c h a l -
rural areas. T h e s e i n c l u d e t h e l i m i t e d oppor- lenges faced in providing appropriate support,
tunities for specialization, the absence of a n d in part because o f the h e i g h t e n e d visibil-
back-up support facilities, issues o f finding ity o f t h o s e suffering m e n t a l h e a l t h p r o b l e m s
suitable a c c o m m o d a t i o n a n d e m p l o y m e n t for in small rural c o m m u n i t i e s (see P h i l o and
families, a n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s p l a c e d o n sole Parr, 2 0 0 3 ) .
health practitioners in small t o w n s (Gordon H i g h stress l e v e l s a r e a l s o a s s o c i a t e d with
e t al., 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e is t h a t many high levels of substance abuse. Whilst the
peripheral rural regions have a shortage of p r o b l e m of alcoholism in rural communities
health professionals. In New South Wales, has l o n g been recognized, concerns about
Australia, for e x a m p l e , t h e ratio o f physicians d r u g a b u s e h a v e g a i n e d p u b l i c i t y i n t h e past
t o p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e r u r a l w e s t o f t h e s t a t e is ten years. A 1998 survey in Britain suggested
1 : 1 5 0 0 c o m p a r e d w i t h 1:30 i n t h e m e t r o p o l - that over a q u a r t e r o f children aged 14 a n d
itan areas ( L a w r e n c e , 1 9 9 0 ) . 15 i n r u r a l s c h o o l s h a d t r i e d illegal d r u g s a
higher percentage than in urban areas
Health and rural lifestyles: stress and drugs (Schools Health Education Unit, 1998).
T h e c o u n t r y s i d e is p o p u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Similarly, research i n n e i g h b o u r i n g rural a n d
p e a c e a n d tranquillity, yet for m a n y people urban communities in Scotland found that
r u r a l life c a n b e a stressful e x p e r i e n c e , p r o - four out of ten 14- and 15-year-olds had tried
v o k e d by isolation, pressures to c o n f o r m , the illegal d r u g s in b o t h localities, w i t h cannabis
inability to escape or hide in close-knit c o m - u s e b y far t h e m o s t common (Table 16.3)
munities, the lack o f diverting entertainment (Forsyth a n d B a r n a r d , 1999). Yet, t h e study
and the strain of economic restructuring, also f o u n d t h a t levels o f d r u g u s e v a r i e d m o r e
particularly in agriculture. One survey of significantly b e t w e e n schools in t h e rural dis-
British farmers in 2001 reported that 4 0 per trict, a n d that this variation could not be
cent f o u n d r u n n i n g their farm business to b e explained by deprivation measures. Rather,
' c o n t i n u a l l y stressful' ( L l o y d s T S B A g r i c u l t u r e , Forsyth and Barnard (1999) argue, experi-
2001). Gray and Lawrence (2001) s u m m a r i z e m e n t a t i o n w i t h d r u g s i n r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s is
that stresses associated with agricultural influenced by the availability of particular
restructuring in Australia c o u l d b e inferred to drugs a n d local sub-cultures. S u c h findings
lead to marriage breakdown, ill-health, correspond with the experiences of one
i n s o m n i a a n d aggressive a n d v i o l e n t behav- y o u n g rural d r u g - u s e r q u o t e d in the Guardian
iour. M o r e o v e r , initiatives established t o deal newspaper:
w i t h p r o b l e m s o f r u r a l stress i n t h e f o o t and
m o u t h epidemic in the U K in 2 0 0 1 r e p o r t e d W h a t els e wer e w e m e a n t to d o ? Y o u
an increase in suicides by farmers. M a n y of couldn't go to t he pub becaus e t he

chance s a re you r parents would be
these responses, including suicide, have also
t h e r e . Yo u c a n ' t b u y a d r i nk f r om t h e s h o p
b e e n observed in o t h e r sections of the rural
becaus e you've grown up around t he
p o p u l a t i o n . T h e National R u r a l H e a l t h Alliance
peopl e behin d t he counte r an d the y
in Australia, for e x a m p l e , f o u n d that suicide
k n o w you r age . N o yout h club, p u b ou t o f
rates a m o n g m e n a g e d b e t w e e n 15 a n d 2 4 in
b o u n d s , a n d t he p a r e n t s o f t he y o u n g e r
rural areas w e r e m o r e than twice those in k i ds d i d n 't like us hangin g o u t in t he
urban areas (Gray and Lawrence, 2001). kiddies ' play area . S o w e w o u l d g o d o w n
23 8
T a b le 16. 3 Percentag e o f children age d 14-1 5 in n e i g h b o u r i n g

rural a n d urban area s o f Scotlan d r e p o r t i ng us e o f drugs
P e r t h & K i n r o ss Dunde e
( r u r a l) ( u r b a n) A ll s c h o o l s
Any d r ug us e 43. 0 44. 7 43. 9
Cannabi s 42. 4 43. 0 42. 7
Amphetamine 11. 0 13. 1 12. 1
Psilocybi n 9. 8 7.3 8. 5
LSD 5. 4 9. 6 7. 5
Temazepa m 5.9 5.9 5.9
Ecstas y 3.3 5. 4 4. 4
Cocain e 2. 6 3.3 2. 8
Heroin 2. 6 1.4 2. 0
Source: A f t er Forsyth an d Barnard, 199 9
to a r e c r e a t i o n field o n t he o u t s k i r ts o f m i s l e a d i n g to s a y tha t t h e re is significantly

t he v i l l a ge a n d g e t s t o n e d .. . Pot , m a g i c les s p r o b l e m for t he M a o ri t h a n it is fo r
m u s h r o o m s a n d L S D a re t he d r u gs w e t he P a k e h a , it's a p r o b l e m fo r t he w h o l e
d id mostly , an d occasionall y a bit o f c o m m u n i t y . (Cocklin e t al. , 1 9 9 9 , p. 2 4 9 )
spee d whe n it c a m e into t he village .
( R u r al y o u t h q u o t e d in t he Guardian, C a n n a b i s w a s d e s c r i b e d t o C o c k l i n e t al.,
1 1 M a r ch 1 9 9 8 ) as a ' c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m ' , b u t c a n n a b i s u s e i n
N o r t h l a n d is a l s o l i n k e d t o a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d t h e
R u r a l d r u g a b u s e is n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o y o u n g s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e r e g i o n as a c o r e c a n n a b i s
people. In West Virginia, health authorities p r o d u c e r . A s C o c k l i n e t al. r e p o r t , N o r t h l a n d
h a v e e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n a b o u t levels o f a b u s e a c c o u n t e d f o r a r o u n d a q u a r t e r o f all c a n n a b i s
of O x y C o n t i n , a prescription pain-killer that plants seized b y p o l i c e i n N e w Z e a l a n d . Yet,
is a l s o k n o w n as ' h i l l b i l l y h e r o i n ' , a m o n g r u r a l despite t h e social c o n s e q u e n c e s , cannabis c u l -
r e s i d e n t s o f all a g e s ( B o r g e r , 2 0 0 1 ) . S u c h a r e tivation was credited by a n u m b e r o f residents
levels o f a d d i c t i o n t h a t 8 0 p e r c e n t o f c r i m e as b r i n g i n g i n i n c o m e , i m p r o v i n g l i v i n g c o n -
in some rural towns is believed to be d i t i o n s a n d ' h e l p i n g t o k e e p afloat o n e o f t h e
OxyContin-related. In a different context, country's most economically depressed
C o c k l i n e t al. ( 1 9 9 9 ) d e s c r i b e t h e w i d e s p r e a d regions' ( C o c k l i n et a l , 1999, p. 248).
use of cannabis in N o r t h l a n d , N e w Zealand,
quoting the observation o f a local police
officer that,
Crime and Rural Communities
The third element o f t h e rural idyll myth
r e l a t i n g t o t h e q u a l i t y o f life is t h a t t h e c o u n t r y -
C a n n a b i s u s e is a w i d e s p r e a d problem
side is a safe a n d c r i m e - f r e e p l a c e t o live. H e r e
right t h r o u g h o u t t he whole community .
t h e statistical e v i d e n c e is m o r e p o s i t i v e t h a n
Generation s a re goin g t h r o u g h, w e ' re
locking u p y o u n g a n d o l d p e o p l e , w h e r e a s for health. Levels o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n are signifi-
o n c e it w a s a l w a y s s e e n to b e t he y o u n g cantly l o w e r i n r u r a l areas t h a n i n u r b a n areas,
person' s d r ug a n d e v e r y t h i n g like this . as figures from the U K and Canada show

You d o ge t it a c r o s s t he b o a r d ; it w o u l d b e (Table 16.4). In general, rural residents are half
23 9
T a b le 1 6 . 4 Percentag e o f person s o r household s r e p o r t i ng

t h a t t h e y ha d bee n a victim o f crime
E n g l a n d a n d Wale s (1995 ) Canad a (1987 )
R u r al U r b an I n n e r C i ty R u r al U r b an
Vehicle-relate d t h e f t 15. 7 20. 1 26. 0 3. 6 5. 9
Vandalis m 8. 0 10. 9 10. 6 4. 2 7. 6
Burglary 3. 9 6. 3 10. 3 3. 2 6. 4
Persona l crime 3. 9 6.3 10. 3 11. 4 15. 8
Source: Cabine t Office , 2000 ; Norris a n d Johal , 199 2
as l i k e l y t o b e v i c t i m s o f p r o p e r t y c r i m e , s u c h T h e s e c o n d type o f offence associated w i t h

as b u r g l a r y o r v e h i c l e t h e f t , t h a n i n n e r u r b a n r u r a l c r i m e is i n t e r - p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e , w h i c h
residents, a l t h o u g h t h e difference for v i o l e n t comprises a greater proportion of recorded
c r i m e a g a i n s t t h e p e r s o n is s m a l l e r . O v e r a l l , c r i m e in r u r a l areas t h a n in u r b a n areas. T h i s
analysis o f r e p o r t e d offences in S c o t l a n d s u g - includes violent disorder, often alcohol-
gests that for e v e r y c r i m e committed in a fuelled, b e t w e e n small town rivals (Gilling
rural area, m o r e t h a n four are c o m m i t t e d in and Pierpoint, 1999), and an under-reported
urban districts (Anderson, 1999). Although current of domestic violence (McCullagh,
t h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e o f i n c r e a s i n g crime 1999; Williams, 1999).
levels i n r u r a l areas, p a r t i c u l a r l y for violent The third commonly identified type of
c r i m e a n d burglary, w h i c h has n a r r o w e d the r u r a l c r i m e is s o c i a l d i s o r d e r . V a n d a l i s m is a
d i f f e r e n c e w i t h u r b a n a r e a s , t h e b a s e is s u c h major c o m p o n e n t of rural crime, whilst f a r m -
t h a t t h e l o n g - t e r m t r e n d i n m o s t r e g i o n s is as ers i n B r i t a i n h a v e c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t trespass,
M c C u l l a g h (1999) r e m a r k s for rural Ireland, damage to farm property and the worrying of
' f r o m n e g l i g i b l e t o l o w ' (p. 3 2 ) . livestock (Yarwood, 2001). M a n y perceived
Anderson (1999) observes that, despite ' c r i m e s ' o f social disorder, h o w e v e r , simply
s o m e differences, t h e overall profile o f c r i m e i n v o l v e b e h a v i o u r t h a t is d e e m e d t o b e ' o u t o f
i n r u r a l a r e a s is n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m place' (Cresswell, 1996) and reflect inter-
t h a t in u r b a n areas. H o w e v e r , t h e r e are t h r e e c o m m u n i t y tensions b e t w e e n age groups or
types of offence that commentators com- classes ( S t e n s o n a n d W a t t , 1 9 9 9 ) . T h e c o n f l a t i o n
m o n l y i d e n t i f y w i t h r u r a l c r i m e . T h e first a r e of actual e x p e r i e n c e of c r i m e and p e r c e p t i o n
w h a t m i g h t b e called 'activities o f lawlessness' of crime is i l l u s t r a t e d in a case study by
(perhaps reflecting a l o n g e r rural tradition, see Y a r w o o d and G a r d n e r (2000) of a rural parish
Mingay, 1 9 8 9 ) . O k i h o r o (1997), for e x a m p l e , in in Worcestershire, E n g l a n d . R e p o r t e d crime
d e s c r i b i n g c r i m e in a small C a n a d i a n fishing i n t h e p a r i s h is r e l a t i v e l y l o w a n d n o t u n t y p i c a l
c o m m u n i t y , places an emphasis o n p o a c h i n g , for r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n (Table 1 6 . 5 ) ,
m o o n s h i n i n g a n d p e t t y c o r r u p t i o n . Similarly, b u t k n o w l e d g e o f c r i m e is b r o a d e r , i f u n e v e n .
Yarwood (2001) notes that studies in the O v e r half o f residents claimed to k n o w s o m e -
U n i t e d States have identified rural c r i m e w i t h o n e in the parish w h o had b e e n the victim of
illegal d r u g p r o d u c t i o n , militia g r o u p activity b u r g l a r y a n d o f vehicle theft, b u t knowledge
a n d g u n offences (Weisheit a n d Wells, 1996), o f specific c r i m e s affecting f a r m e r s , s u c h as
and larceny involving gasoline and vehicles trespass, t e n d e d t o r e m a i n in t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
(Meyer and Baker, 1982); and that the rustling community. This skewed perceptions of the
o f l i v e s t o c k h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d as a p r o b l e m i n risk from c r i m e , b u t generally residents w e r e
the U K . fairly unconcerned about crime. Only
24 0
T a b le 16. 5 Experienc e o f crime in a n Englis h parish

Respondent s w h o ha d Respondent s w h o k n e w
b e e n v i c t i ms o f c r i me somebod y w h o ha d bee n a
in t h e p a r i s h (%) v i c t im o f c r i me i n t h e p a r i s h (%)
Burglary 15 69
A t t e m p t e d burglary 7 47
Damag e t o p r o p e r ty 4 6
Damag e t o vehicl e 7 9
Thef t o f vehicl e 7 50
T h e f t o f p r o p e r ty f r om vehicl e 5 31
M u g g i ng 0.3 2
Pickpocketing/ba g snatchin g 1 5
Interference w i th livestoc k 2 6
Trespas s 13 13
Violenc e 0.3 8
Threats o f violenc e 3 3
Verbal abus e 2 2
Racia l harassmen t 0. 3 1
Sexua l assaul t 0. 3 2
Source: Y a r w o o d a n d Gardner, 200 0
T a b le 16. 6 Percentag e o f resident s o f a n Englis h parish

perceivin g various issue s to be a p r o b l e m
'Problem' o r 'Not a
' b ig p r o b l e m ' ( %) p r o b l e m ' ( %)
'Young peopl e h a n g i n g a r o u n d ' 53 44
Rubbish/litter 39 55
Traffic 55 39
Dog s 65 31
D r ug dealin g 7 69
Drunks 12 74
Loud music/partie s 11 73
Graffiti 14 75
Travellers ' 47 46
Source: A d a p t e d f r om Y a r w o o d an d Gardner, 200 0
burglary (about which 32 per cent of I believ e 9 0 p e r c e n t o f b u r g l a r i es a re

residents were concerned), vehicle theft committe d b y travellers who d i s t r i b u te
(26 p e r cent) a n d theft o f p r o p e r t y from a leaflet s fo r j o b s o f w o r k in t he a r e a .
vehicle (23 per cent) provoked significant W e h a v e a b ig p r o b l e m w i th v a n d a l s , t he

levels o f c o n c e r n . I n c o n t r a s t , i s s u e s o f ' a n t i - 12-15-year-old s h a v e n o t h i ng m u c h to
social behaviour', including 'young people do so the y f i nd f un in othe r ways .
h a n g i n g a r o u n d ' , w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as p r o b l e m s (Resident s quote d by Yarwood an d
by much larger proportions of residents G a r d n e r, 2 0 0 0 , p. 4 0 7 )
( T a b l e 1 6 . 6 ) . T h e t w o sets o f c o n c e r n s w e r e Perceptions of Out-of-place' behaviour,

m e r g e d by s o m e residents w h o b l a m e d c r i m e w h i c h have in s o m e places b e e n intensified by
o n those groups w h o were most commonly t h e effects o f r e s t r u c t u r i n g , h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d
perceived to be O u t of place': t o a g r o w i n g fear o f c r i m e i n r u r a l a r e a s , a l o n g
24 1
with the importation of urban concerns and of alternative security strategies such as
expectations by in-migrants and high-profile 'Neighbourhood Watch' schemes (Yarwood
cases s u c h as t h a t o f T o n y M a r t i n , a B r i t i s h and Edwards, 1995), gated communities
farmer who was imprisoned for shooting (Phillips, 2000), closed-circuit television
d e a d a b u r g l a r at h i s r e m o t e N o r f o l k f a r m i n s u r v e i l l a n c e ( W i l l i a m s e t al., 2 0 0 0 ) , c o r p o r a t e
2000. Expressions of this concern have sponsorship of police provision, mobile police
included campaigns for increasing policing stations a n d t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f private security
cover in rural areas and the development firms.
Summary
L i f e i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e is n o t a h o m o g e n e o u s e x p e r i e n c e . W h i l s t s o m e r e s i d e n t s g e n e r a l l y
t h e w e a l t h i e r o n e s a r e a b l e t o e n j o y a lifestyle t h a t at l e a s t a s p i r e s t o t h e m o d e l o f t h e r u r a l
i d y l l , f o r m a n y r u r a l p e o p l e t h e q u a l i t y o f life is b l i g h t e d b y p o o r h o u s i n g , p o o r h e a l t h o r t h e
f e a r o f c r i m e a n d s o c i a l d i s o r d e r . T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f g o o d q u a l i t y , a f f o r d a b l e h o u s i n g is a m a j o r
p r o b l e m in m a n y rural c o m m u n i t i e s . As c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n has fuelled d e m a n d for rural
property, households o n lower incomes have found themselves unable to c o m p e t e and b e e n
f o r c e d i n t o c h e a p b u t s u b - s t a n d a r d a c c o m m o d a t i o n . I l l - h e a l t h is a l s o p e r v a s i v e i n m a n y r u r a l
a r e a s , w i t h a b o v e a v e r a g e r a t e s o f c h r o n i c illness w o r s e n e d b y p r o b l e m s o f a c c e s s i n g h e a l t h
s e r v i c e s a n d f a c i l i t i e s . T h e stresses o f i s o l a t i o n , i n s u l a r i t y a n d r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g h a v e a l s o
c o n t r i b u t e d t o illness, a l c o h o l i s m a n d d r u g a b u s e . A n d a l t h o u g h c r i m e rates are l o w e r i n t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e t h a n i n t h e city, a s i g n i f i c a n t m i n o r i t y o f r u r a l r e s i d e n t s a r e v i c t i m s o f c r i m e a n d
m a n y m o r e l i v e i n fear o f c r i m e o r o f t h e c u l t u r a l t h r e a t o f ' o u t - o f - p l a c e ' b e h a v i o u r .
M o r e o v e r , it is f r e q u e n t l y t h e s a m e p e o p l e w h o a r e a f f e c t e d b y t h e s e d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s .
R e s i d e n t s o f s u b - s t a n d a r d h o u s i n g a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o suffer i l l - h e a l t h ; t h e r e is a l i n k b e t w e e n
d r u g a b u s e a n d c r i m e , s u c h t h a t c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h d r u g p r o b l e m s are also likely t o h a v e
h i g h e r r a t e s o f c r i m e , as a r e s e t t l e m e n t s w i t h p o o r h o u s i n g . T h e r u r a l r e s i d e n t s w h o g e t i n t h i s
t r a p t e n d n o t t o b e t h e ' M r A v e r a g e s ' d e s c r i b e d b y P h i l o ( 1 9 9 2 ) as t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o c u s o f
r u r a l r e s e a r c h (see C h a p t e r 1 5 ) . T h e y a r e r a t h e r t h e v u l n e r a b l e i n s o c i e t y , t h e ' n e g l e c t e d r u r a l
o t h e r s ' : t h e e l d e r l y , i n d i v i d u a l s l i v i n g i n p o v e r t y , i n d i g e n o u s c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e r u r a l lifestyles
o f these groups will b e e x a m i n e d in m o r e detail in the n e x t few chapters.
Further Reading
T he t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d in t h is c h a p t e r h a v e b e e n w r i t t en a b o u t in a w i d e r a n g e o f
f o c u s e d b o o k s a n d p a p e r s . O n e o f t he f e w s t u d i e s to d r aw t o g e t h e r t he t h e m e s is J a n e t
F i t c h e n 's Endangered Spaces, Enduring Places: Change, Identity and Survival in
Rural America (Westvie w Press , 1991) , whic h include s shor t section s o n housin g a n d
h e a l t h in rural N e w York S t a t e . R o y J o n e s a n d M a t t h e w T o n t s , in T r a n s i t i on a n d
d i v e r s i ty in rural h o u s i n g p r o v i s i o n : t he c a s e o f N a r r o g i n, W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a ', Australian
Geographer, v o l u m e 3 4 , p a g e s 4 7 - 5 9 ( 2 0 0 3 ) , p r o v i de a g o o d e m p i r i c a l ly b a s e d
24 2
d i s c u s s i o n o f rural h o u s i n g p r o b l e m s t h a t h a s a r e l e v a n c e b e y o n d A u s t r a l i a. Fo r m o re
o n t he r e s t r u c t u r i ng o f s o c i a l h o u s i n g p r o v i s i o n in B r i t a i n, s e e Pau l M i l b o u r n e, ' L o c al
r e s p o n s e s to c e n t r a l s t a t e r e s t r u c t u r i ng o f s o c i a l h o u s i n g p r o v i s i o n in rural a r e a s ' ,
Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 14 , p a g e s 1 6 7 - 1 8 4 ( 1 9 9 8 ) . R u r al h e a l t h h a s a n
e x t e n s i v e literature o f its o w n , i n c l u d i ng a n u m b e r o f s p e c i a l i s t j o u r n a l s . T h e e d i t e d
v o l u m e b y W i l b e rt G e s l e r a n d T h o m a s Ricketts , Health in Rural North America: The
Geography of Health Care Services and Delivery ( R u t g e r s U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 9 2 )
p r o v i d e s a n o v e r v i e w o f s o m e o f t he ke y i s s u e s f r om a g e o g r a p h i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . Fo r a n
o v e r v i e w o f r e s e a r c h o n rural c r i me s e e R i c h a rd Y a r w o o d , ' C r i me a n d p o l i c i ng in t he
British c o u n t r y s i d e : s o m e a g e n d a s fo r c o n t e m p o r a r y g e o g r a p h i c a l r e s e a r c h ' , Sociologia
Ruralis, v o l u m e 4 1 , p a g e s 2 0 1 - 2 1 9 ( 2 0 0 1 ) . ' F e a r o f c r i m e , c u l t u r al t h r e a t a n d t he
c o u n t r y s i d e ' , b y Y a r w o o d a n d G a r d n e r, in Area, volum e 32 , page s 4 0 3 - 4 1 2 (2000) ,
is a g o o d e m p i r i c a l s t u d y o f p e r c e p t i o n s o f rural c r i me a n d c u l t u r al t h r e a t s .
Websites
T he H o u s i n g A s s i s t a n c e C o u n c i l 's w e b s i t e ( w w w . r u r a l h o m e . o r g ) i n c l u d e s a r a n g e o f
i n f o r m a t i on a b o u t rural h o u s i n g in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h i l s t t he w e b s i t e o f t he N a t i o n a l
C e n t e r o n R u r al J u s t i c e a n d C r i me P r e v e n t i o n ( w w w . v i r t u a l . c l e m s o n . e d u / g r o u p s / n c r j )
s i m i l a r ly i n c l u d e s i n f o r m a t i on o n rural c r i me in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s . D a t a o n h o u s e p r i c e s
in b o t h rural a n d u r b an a r e a s o f t he U K c a n b e f o u n d o n t he w e b s i t e o f t he L a n d
R e g i s t r y ( w w w . l a n d r e g . g o v . u k ) . A l s o in t he U K, t he S u s s e x C r i me a n d D i s o r d e r
P a r t n e r s h i p 's w e b s i t e ( w w w . c a d d i e . g o v . u k ) i n c l u d e s interactive m a p s o f r e p o r t e d c r i m e s
by w a r d , e n a b l i n g v i e w e r s to c o m p a r e c r i me p a t t e r ns in rural a n d u r b an a r e a s . Fo r m o re
o n rural h e a l t h i s s u e s , s e e t he C e n t e r fo r R u r al H e a l t h Polic y A n a l y s i s ( w w w . r u p r i . o r g/
h e a l t h p o l i c y / ) in t he U S , a n d t he Institute o f R u r al H e a l t h ( w w w . r u r a l - h e a l t h . a c . u k )
in t he U K.
24 3
17
Growing Up and Growing
Old in the Countryside
Introduction
M a i n s t r e a m rural studies have traditionally focused o n those elements o f rural
activity that are p r e d o m i n a n t l y e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e w o r k i n g age population:
e c o n o m i c activity, e m p l o y m e n t , f a r m m a n a g e m e n t , p r o p e r t y o w n e r s h i p and
m i g r a t i o n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , to cite a few e x a m p l e s . Studies o f rural communities
have similarly focused o n social interaction b e t w e e n t h e active adult population.
C o m p a r a t i v e l y little a t t e n t i o n has b e e n p a i d t o t h o s e r u r a l r e s i d e n t s at e i t h e r e n d of
t h e a g e s p e c t r u m - t h e y o u n g a n d t h e e l d e r l y . Y e t , a r g u a b l y , i t is t h e s e groups
w h o s e lifestyles are m o s t significantly i n f l u e n c e d a n d s h a p e d b y t h e r u r a l context.
T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f r u r a l life f o r g r o u p s at t h r e e p o i n t s i n life:
c h i l d r e n , y o u n g p e o p l e e n t e r i n g a d u l t h o o d a n d t h e elderly. It e x p l o r e s their
perceptions of rurality and rural c o m m u n i t i e s and the geographies of their rural
existence.
Rural Childhoods childhood (although Horton, 2003, argues

The countryside is a popular setting for that children's literature has promoted a
c h i l d r e n ' s l i t e r a t u r e . F r o m Winnie-the-Pooh and variety of representations of the rural). T h e
Wind in the Willows t o Swallows and Amazons n o t i o n t h a t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e is a 'safe p l a c e ' t o
a n d t h e Famous Five t o c o n t e m p o r a r y s t o r i e s b r i n g u p c h i l d r e n is c o m m o n l y c i t e d as a r e a -
s u c h as Tlie Animals of Farthing Wood, children's s o n f o r m i g r a t i o n t o r u r a l a r e a s , a n d ' s a f e t y ' is
literature has n o t o n l y p o r t r a y e d a rural idyll, a r e c u r r e n t t h e m e in adult narratives o f rural
b u t also t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as a s i t e o f i d y l l i c childhood:
childhoods. In these stories the countryside
I t h i nk t h a t it w a s a c o n s c i o u s decisio n
is r e p r e s e n t e d as a p l a c e o f f u n , a d v e n t u r e a n d
o n o u r p a rt to m o v e , to h a v e s o m e w h e r e
f r e e d o m , b u t a l s o o f safety a n d s e c u r i t y . A s
w h e r e the y coul d hav e y o u know , m o re
J o n e s (1997) observes, these literary associa- f r e e d o m to r un a b o u t a n d y o u know,
tions form a powerful cultural discourse that m a k e f r i e n ds a n d al l t he res t o f it, w i t h o ut
c o n t i n u e s to i n f o r m p o p u l a r ideas a b o u t rural h a v i n g to w o r ry t h a t t h e y w e r e n ' t a c t u a l l y
Growing up and growing old
safe . ( I n - m i g r a nt mother , E n g l a n d , q u o t e d (1997a) r e m a r k i n g , 'there aren't t h e pressures

by V a l e n t i n e , 1 9 9 7 a , p. 140 ) o n t h e m in terms of y o u don't have to have
Adidas tracksuits, y o u d o n ' t have to have t h e
W e l l I t h i nk t h a t it's a nic e e n v i r o n m e n t , l a t e s t v i d e o g a m e s it s e e m s ' (p. 1 4 0 ) . F u r t h e r -
it's relatively quiet , safe , in t e r ms o f traffic
m o r e , t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r u r a l as a 'safe
a n d t h i n gs like tha t k i n d. P l e a s a n t c o m -
p l a c e ' for c h i l d r e n has a g e o g r a p h i c a l m a n i f e s -
munity. S o I t h i nk it h a s idyllic p r o s p e c t s
tation in the degree of a u t o n o m y that parents
for c h i l d r en .. . a n d y o u c a n w a t c h t h i n gs
are p r e p a r e d to give c h i l d r e n t o g o where
g r o w a n d pla y in t he stream . (Father ,
they like u n s u p e r v i s e d - at l e a s t w i t h i n the
E n g l a n d , q u o t e d b y J o n e s , 2 0 0 0 , p. 3 3 )
spatial b o u n d s o f t h e village (Jones, 2 0 0 0 ) .
C h i l d r e n ' s o w n n a r r a t i v e s o f r u r a l life also T h u s , t h e geographies o f rural children are
t e n d t o reflect t h e s e beliefs. I n a case s t u d y i n characterized by a dualism that contains a
n o r t h e r n S c o t l a n d , G l e n d i n n i n g e t al. ( 2 0 0 3 ) n u m b e r o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y assertions. O n o n e side,
found that over 80 per cent of children aged t h e r u r a l is a s p a c e o f f r e e d o m a n d indepen-
b e t w e e n 1 1 a n d 1 6 a g r e e d t h a t ' t h i s is a g o o d d e n c e for c h i l d r e n , b u t o n l y w i t h i n a frame-
place for c h i l d r e n t o g r o w u p in', a n d over w o r k o f adult regulation. O n t h e o t h e r side,
8 0 p e r c e n t o f children aged 15 a n d 16 agreed t h e r u r a l is a p l a c e o f d e p e n d e n c y , i n which
t h a t ' t h i s is a safe p l a c e f o r y o u n g p e o p l e t o children are often reliant o n parents for t r a n s -
l i v e ' (p. 1 3 7 ) . T h e y q u o t e t w o t e e n a g e girls p o r t , b u t w h e r e t h e spatial d y n a m i c s of, for
commenting, e x a m p l e , travel t o s c h o o l , c r e a t e independent

sites f o r interaction and identity formation.
T h e s e t w o aspects c a n b e e x a m i n e d in t u r n .
I t h i nk it is g o o d fo r y o u n g c h i l d r e n. It's
Spaces of freedom and regulation

m u c h safer .
You d o n ' t h a v e to loc k y o u r d o o r s all t he The idyllic c o u n t r y childhood of literature

time. a n d the p o p u l a r imagination involves consid-
erable freedom t o r o a m at w i l l a c r o s s open
It's q u i te s a f e . You r M um a n d D a d c a n le t
rural space. A u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l accounts of
y o u g o d o w n t he street , o r w h e r e v e r ,
rural c h i l d h o o d s in t h e early t o m i d - t w e n t i e t h
w h e n y o u ' re young , o r g o acros s t he
c e n t u r y often present m e m o r i e s o f walking o r
r o a d o n y o u r o w n s o r t o f t h i n g.
cycling over significant distances and using
You c a n g o to t he p a rk o n y o u r o w n , o r fields, w o o d l a n d and r i v e r s as a vast play-
w i th a f r i e n d, w i t h o ut t h e m h a v i n g to t a ke g r o u n d (Jones, 1 9 9 7 ; Valentine, 1997a). J o n e s
y o u a n d t a ke y o u b a c k . (2000) observes that children still u s e the
natural a n d built features o f t h e rural landscape
(15 - an d 16-year-ol d girls, Scotland ,
f o r play, a l b e i t w i t h i n a s m a l l e r spatial r a n g e :
q u o t e d by G l e n d i n n i ng e t al. , 2 0 0 3 , p. 138 )
S o m e c h i l d r en h a v e l i m i t ed a u t o n o m y to
'Safety' in this context, clearly, has a
exploi t c e r t a i n s p a c e s . Fo r e x a m p l e , a t
n u m b e r o f different, parallel, m e a n i n g s . T h e s e
o n e e n d o f t he v i l l a ge t he s t r e a m is fol-
i n c l u d e safety f r o m traffic a n d o t h e r e n v i r o n - l o w e d b y a f o o t p a t h , a n d in o n e p l a c e is
m e n t a l d a n g e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u r b a n s p a c e , as o v e r h u n g b y t r e e s w h e r e t he valle y is
w e l l as safety f r o m c r i m i n a l t h r e a t . T h e y also q u i te s t e e p a n d this m a k e s w h a t f e e l s
i n c l u d e safety f r o m u n d e s i r a b l e c u l t u r a l i n f l u - like a p r i v a t e, s e c r e t i v e s p a c e . V a r i o us
e n c e s , as o n e p a r e n t is q u o t e d b y V a l e n t i n e c o h o r t s o f c h i l d r en h a v e u s e d this p l a c e ,
24 5
k n o w n a s 'the d e n ' , f o r m e e t i n g up , a n d a M o r e t on P i n k n e y a n d w e wen t acros s

b a s e fo r activities . T h is w a s m a r k e d o n t h is b r i d ge t h a t g o e s o v e r W e s t l y Hill a n d
a n u m b e r o f t he map s d r a wn by t he w e w e r e s t a n d i n g a t t he t o p a n d w e w e r e
children, a n d t wo f r i e n ds .. . told m e t he t h r o w i ng a p p l e s d o w n into t he b r o o k a n d
d e n w a s ' s o m e w h e r e y o u c a n g o a n d si t t h is m a n c a m e o u t o f a h o u s e a n d .. . h e
a n d talk a w a y f r om e v e r y o n e e l s e . . . every - j u s t s o r t o f b l e w u p a n d h e w e n t b r i g ht
o n e ' s in t he h o u s e , it's really c r a m p e d , s o r e d like a t o m a t o a n d s h o u t e d : ' G ET O F F
y o u g o to t he d e n ' . A n o t h e r s p a c e u s e d b y T H IS B R I D GE NOW, a n d t he ground
s u c c e s s i v e c o h o r t s o f village children is s t a r t e d s h a k i n g . S o w e r an d o w n a n d h e
o n e o f t he r e m a i n i ng f a rm y a r ds w i th its s a i d : 'If I s e e y o u u p t h e re o n c e m o r e I'm
t wo b a r n s , w h i c h w a s a l s o d e p i c t e d in t he g o i n g to cal l t he police. ' (Girl a g e d 1 0 ,
children's m a p s . (Jones , 2 0 0 0 , p. 35 ) England , quote d by Matthews et al. ,
2 0 0 0 , pp . 1 4 4 - 1 4 5 )
I n t h e search for spaces b e y o n d adult sur-
veillance, rural children become adept at
exploiting the permeability o f physical and I w a s .. . o n t he g r e e n . I h a d all m y f r i e n ds
t h e r e , it w a s o n e o f m y b i r t h d a y s. W e
metaphorical boundaries, from garden fences
w e r e all r i d i ng a b o u t o n t he g r e e n .. . a n d
to rules a b o u t n o t v e n t u r i n g o n t o private p r o p -
w e g o t to t h e g a t e o n t he g r e e n a n d t h is
erty. T h i s o f t e n i n v o l v e s t r a n s g r e s s i n g t h e spatial
l a d y s a i d , 'You're n o t a l l o w e d h e r e , s t o p
o r d e r placed o n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e b y adults. W a r d
r i d i ng o n t he g r e e n y o u will s p o i l t he
(1990) laments the 'over-ordering' of rural
g r a s s ' a n d s h e h a d n ' t e v e n b o u g h t t he
space that restricts children's mobility, i n c l u d i n g l a n d . (Girl a g e d 9 , E n g l a n d , q u o t e d b y
t h e f e n c i n g off o f fields a n d w o o d s a n d i n c r e a s e M a t t h e ws e t a l . , 2 0 0 0 , p. 1 4 6 )
in residential a n d industrial l a n d uses, a r g u i n g
that rural children are 'victims o f t h e m u n i c i p a l C h i l d r e n ' s r u r a l g e o g r a p h i e s are also r e g u -
urge to tidy u p everywhere and cut each blade lated by parents who impose rules about
o f grass . . . [ a n d ] . . . t o t u r n e v e r y p a t c h of w h e r e they are allowed to go. As Matthews
ground to commercially viable use' (Ward, e t al. ( 2 0 0 0 ) n o t e , ' p a r e n t a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f
1 9 9 0 , p . 9 4 ; s e e also P h i l o , 1 9 9 2 ) . A s such, t h e G o o d Life rarely e x c e e d e d t h e i m m e d i a c y
children's o w n narratives o f their geographies o f t h e p h y s i c a l f a b r i c o f t h e v i l l a g e ' (p. 1 4 5 ) , s u c h
frequently include reference to confrontations that the actual distance that rural children are
w i t h adults, b o t h protective l a n d o w n e r s and permitted to go unaccompanied can be c o n -
residents w h o perceive children ' h a n g i n g o u t ' siderably s h o r t e r t h a n that for u r b a n children.
to b e a nuisance o r cultural threat: F u r t h e r r e g u l a t i o n is i n e f f e c t i n t r o d u c e d b y
the t i m e c o n s u m e d in travelling to school in
Oh, I wa s seve n an d I wa s w a l k i ng another settlement, and by childcare arrange-
a r o u n d w i th H o l ly a n d s h e w a s abou t m e n t s i n e v e n i n g s , w e e k e n d s a n d h o l i d a y s (see
e i g h t . W e w e n t u p t h r o u g h t he g a r d e n s in B o x 17.1).
Box 17.1 Rural childcare
T r a d i t i o n al d i s c o u r s e s o f g e n d e r in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e e m p h a s i z e d t h e w o m e n ' s d o m e s t i c
r o le a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e f a m i ly a s a f r a m e w o r k f o r r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n . I n c r e a s i n g l y ,
h o w e v e r , w o m e n a r e e m p l o y e d in t h e r u r al l a b o u r m a r k e t (se e C h a p t e r 18 ) a n d t h e
24 6
recompositio n o f the r u r al population ha s fragmente d care networks base d on

e x t e n d e d families a n d n e i g h b o u r h o o d s , c r e a t i n g a d e m a n d f o r m o re f o r m al childcare
a r r a n g e m e n t s . A s t u d y in D e v o n , s o u t h - w e s t E n g l a n d , f o r e x a m p l e , f o u n d t h a t 2 8 p e r
c e n t o f p a r e n t s s u r v e y e d u s e d a n u r s e r y o r r e g i s t e r e d c h i l d m i n d e r ( i n c l u d i ng 5 0 p e r
c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n t s in f u l l - t i me e m p l o y m e n t ) , a n d 4 7 p e r c e n t u s e d a p l a y g r o u p o r
t o d d l e r g r o u p f o r c h i l d c a r e ( H a l l i d ay a n d L i t t l e, 2 0 0 1 ) . Y e t , f o r m a l c h i l d c a r e f a c i l i t i es in
r u r al a r e a s a r e les s e x t e n s i v e t h a n in u r b a n a r e a s .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , s t u d i e s in b o t h t h e U K a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a v e f o u n d t h a t r u r al
p a r e n t s a re s t i ll m o r e l i k e ly t h a n u r b a n p a r e n t s t o r e ly o n i n f o r m al c h i l d c a r e a r r a n g e -
m e n t s , i n c l u d i ng f a m i ly m e m b e r s a n d n e i g h b o u r s (Casper , 1 9 9 6 ; H a l l i d ay a n d L i t t l e,
2 0 0 1 ) . S i m i l a r l y, r u r al f a m i l i e s c a n b e p r e p a r e d t o t r a v e l s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t a n c e s t o f i nd
a p p r o p r i a te c h i l d c a r e ( H a l l i d ay a n d L i t t l e, 2 0 0 1 ) . T h e t y p e o f c h i l d c a r e u s e d ha s a n
i m p a c t o n c h i l d r e n 's l a n d s c a p e s o f p l a y . S m i t h a n d B a r k e r ( 2 0 0 1 ) r e p o r t t h a t o u t - o f -
s c h o o l c l u b s a r e i m p o r t a n t site s t o m e e t a n d p l a y w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n a n d o f f e r o p p o r -
t u n i t i es f o r p l a y t h a t m a y n o t b e p r o v i d e d e l s e w h e r e in t h e r u r al c o m m u n i t y . In s o m e
case s t h is i n c l u d e d e x p l i c i t a c t i v i t i e s t o e n g a g e w i t h t h e r u r al e n v i r o n m e n t , b y f o r
e x a m p l e , p e r m i t t i ng acces s t o f i e l d s a n d m a k i n g f a r m visits . Fo r s o m e c h i l d r e n , t h e r e -
f o r e , it is t h r o u g h t h e s e c o n t r o l l e d a n d s u p e r v i s e d a c t i v i t i e s t h a t t h e y a r e a b l e t o e x p e -
rience somethin g of the ' i d y l l ic country childhood ' rather tha n in their ow n
u n s t r u c t u r ed pla y t i m e .
For more see Joyce Halliday and Jo Little (2001) Amongst women: exploring the reality of rural
childcare. Sociologia Ruralis, 41, 423-437; Fiona Smith and John Barker (2001) Commodifying the
countryside: the impact of out-of-school care on rural landscapes of children's play. Area, 33, 169-176.
Places of dependency (2002 ) analysed children's travel diaries to
T h e m y t h o f t h e idyllic c o u n t r y childhood s h o w that w h e r e a s u r b a n children travelled an
also a s s u m e s t h a t t h e life o f r u r a l c h i l d r e n is average of 2 k m p e r day by bicycle or w a l k -
strongly focused o n the settlement in w h i c h ing, for rural children t h e average was j u s t
they live. However, the closure of rural 0. 3 k m , d e s p i t e r u r a l c h i l d r e n o n a v e r a g e t r a v -
schools, decline o f rural services a n d c h a n g i n g elling u p to four times t h e distance o f u r b a n
f a m i l y p a t t e r n s o f s h o p p i n g a n d l e i s u r e (see c h i l d r e n t o s c h o o l e a c h day, a n d t w i c e as far
C h a p t e r 7 ) h a v e all e x p a n d e d t h e s o c i a l s p a c e for leisure activities. O v e r half o f t h e trips t o
o f rural c h i l d r e n . F r i e n d s m a d e at s c h o o l m a y leisure activities b y rural c h i l d r e n , a n d a t h i r d
w e l l live i n d i f f e r e n t t o w n s a n d v i l l a g e s . W h e n o f t r i p s t o visit f r i e n d s , w e r e m a d e b y t h e i r
combined with parents' reluctance to allow parent's car. A s Glendinning et al. (2003 )
their children to walk or cycle l o n g distances record, dependence on parental transport
o n their o w n , rural children w a n t i n g to m e e t restricts children's activities:
with friends - or t o u s e facilities such as

shops, y o u t h clubs o r c i n e m a s are increas-
I v e r y d e f i n i t e ly fel t left o u t o f t h i n gs w h e n
ingly dependent on transport provided by I w a s y o u n g e r , b e c a u s e it w a s j u s t s o dif-
their parents. In a c o m p a r i s o n of rural and ficult. S o m u c h a r r a n g i ng h a d to g o into
u r b a n districts in S w e d e n , T i l l b e r g Mattson e v e r y t h i n g . E v e r y little t h i ng y o u w a n t e d
24 7
to d o , s o m e b o d y h a d to g i v e y o u a lift really b a d l y a n d like it w a s o n l y until t he

there . You couldn't just p o p ou t a n d c o m e e v e n i n g .. . a n d t h e re w a s like o n l y a b u s
b a c k a n y t i m e . A n d y o u h a d to b e t h e re a t in t he day , I w o u l d g o in t he d a y a n d s t a y
t h is t i me to c o m e b a c k , o r e l s e y o u w e r e till t he e v e n i n g . B u t it's like t h e r e ' s not ,
d e a d . ( 1 7 - y e a r - o l d girl, S c o t l a n d , q u o t e d som e day s like t h e r e ' s j u s t n o t a bus .
b y G l e n d i n n i n g e t a l . , 2 0 0 3 , p. 1 4 0 ) (Girl, a g e d 1 3 , E n g l a n d , q u o t e d b y D a v i s
a n d R i d g e , 1 9 9 7 , p. 5 1 )
T h e d e p e n d e n c e o n parents for transport
reflects t h e l i m i t e d s e r v i c e o f p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t T h e expense involved in j o i n i n g clubs a n d
in rural areas. W h e r e children and young societies a n d p a y i n g for after-school activities
p e o p l e are able t o use p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t i n d e - c a n also b e p r o h i b i t i v e , s u c h t h a t c h i l d r e n f r o m
pendently, buses a n d trains can b e important lower income households have a different
sites o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . W a r d ( 1 9 9 0 ) notes experience of rural childhood from their
the 'culture of the school bus' and the forms of c o u n t e r p a r t s . M o r e o v e r , these differences may
sociability a n d micro-spatial organization that be more visible and pronounced in rural
are d e v e l o p e d , i n c l u d i n g seating a r r a n g e m e n t s c o m m u n i t i e s t h a n in u r b a n areas b e c a u s e t h e r e
o n t h e b u s . T h e desire o f rural y o u t h t o travel is less s p a t i a l s e g r e g a t i o n o f s o c i a l g r o u p s a n d
i n t o l o c a l t o w n s is also i n p a r t a b o u t finding therefore children are m o r e likely t o make
spaces to ' h a n g o u t ' w h e r e t h e y are b e y o n d t h e friends f r o m a r a n g e o f social b a c k g r o u n d s .
visibility of their parents and neighbours.
Indeed, neighbouring towns have become Young Adults in Rural Communities
s u c h a l o c u s for b o t h t h e e d u c a t i o n a n d leisure T h e e x p e r i e n c e o f r u r a l life f o r y o u n g a d u l t s
t i m e activities o f rural c h i l d r e n , that T i l l b e r g is coloured by broader cultural reference
Mattson (2002) questions h o w far t h e y do p o i n t s . C o m p a r e d w i t h t h e p e r c e i v e d lifestyle
' a c t u a l l y grow up i n t h e r u r a l a r e a ' (p. 4 4 6 ) . o f u r b a n y o u t h , y o u n g p e o p l e in rural areas
As children g r o w older, the pressure to b e c o m m o n l y express a sense o f a m e n i t y d e p r i -
independently mobile means that there often v a t i o n . G l e n d i n n i n g e t al. ( 2 0 0 3 ) , f o r e x a m p l e ,
is a n e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t y o u n g p e o p l e w i l l l e a r n f o u n d t h a t 8 7 p e r c e n t o f girls a g e d 15 a n d 16
t o d r i v e as s o o n as t h e y a r e l e g a l l y a b l e t o a n d interviewed in rural n o r t h e r n Scotland, and
that they will obtain a car o f their o w n b o t h 75 per cent of boys, agreed w i t h the statement
of which can be expensive (Storey and that 'there's n o t h i n g for y o u n g p e o p l e like m e
B r a n n e n , 2 0 0 0 ) . T r a n s p o r t costs i n g e n e r a l are t o d o ' , w h i l s t 6 7 p e r c e n t o f girls a n d 5 3 p e r
o n e factor that helps t o m a k e raising children c e n t o f b o y s felt t h a t t h e r e w e r e t o o f e w s h o p s
in the countryside resource-heavy, thus selling things that t h e y w a n t e d . Accordingly,
contributing to social polarization in rural young people's satisfaction with rural life
communities. Davis and Ridge (1997), for decreases w i t h age (Figure 17.1).
example, report that nearly half o f children in A s w e l l as a p a u c i t y o f s h o p s a n d e n t e r t a i n -
lower i n c o m e households studied in Somerset, m e n t facilities, r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s o f t e n lack
E n g l a n d , d i d n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o a car, f u r t h e r specific a m e n i t i e s for y o u n g p e o p l e . O n l y half
restricting their ability t o participate in social o f rural parishes in E n g l a n d , for e x a m p l e , have
activities. As o n e girl c o m m e n t e d , a y o u t h club o r o t h e r formal g r o u p for y o u n g
people (Countryside Agency, 2001). The
S o m e t i m e s y o u m i s s ou t o n things b a d l y . . . s h o r t a g e o f f o r m a l facilities f o r y o u n g p e o p l e
I m e a n if I w a n t e d to g e t somewher e h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n
24 8
3 Girls Boy s
% 40
11/1 2 year s 13/1 4 year s 15/1 6 year s
Figure 17. 1 Percentag e of youn g peopl e in rural northern Scotlan d agreein g that the rural
community is 'a goo d plac e for youn g peopl e like me to live'
Source: Base d o n Glendinning e t al. , 200 3
problems of under-age drinking, drug abuse d e s c r i b e d as s p a c e s o f m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n , p l a c e s

a n d v a n d a l i s m i n r u r a l areas (see C h a p t e r 1 6 ) . where young people congregate not through
Additionally, tensions can develop within c h o i c e b u t b e c a u s e t h e y feel e x c l u d e d from
c o m m u n i t i e s as t h e g a t h e r i n g o f y o u n g p e o p l e o t h e r s p a c e s o r d o n o t h a v e facilities s u c h as
i n p u b l i c s p a c e s is p e r c e i v e d b y o t h e r r e s i d e n t s s h o p p i n g malls:
t o b e t h r e a t e n i n g . M o r e aggressive b e h a v i o u r
c a n also e r u p t as y o u t h s c o n t e s t t h e d y n a m i c s T he town library is a bit d o d g y . T he
o f social r e s t r u c t u r i n g , w i t h conflict between library l a d i e s p e e r a t y o u funny, like w e ' re
'locals' a n d ' n e w c o m e r s ' (Jones, 2 0 0 2 ) . gonn a stea l books . We were t o ld we
T h e lifestyles o f r u r a l y o u n g p e o p l e , t h e r e - w e r e no t a l l o w e d j a c k e t s in t he library in
fore, have their own spatial and political c a s e w e s t e a l b o o k s . T h e s c h o o l library

is coo l though . (15-year-ol d females ,
d y n a m i c s , as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y P a n e l l i e t al.
N e w Z e a l a n d , q u o t e d b y Panell i e t al. ,
(2002) in a case s t u d y o f A l e x a n d r a , a small
2 0 0 2 , p. 1 1 6 )
t o w n of 4,600 population in N e w Zealand.
Through interviews a n d focus g r o u p s with
S o m e s h o p s d o n 't like t e e n a g e r s goin g
teenagers aged b e t w e e n 13 and 18, Panelli in. T h e y t h i nk t h e y might stea l stuff.
e t al. i d e n t i f y a n u m b e r o f w a y s t h r o u g h w h i c h (17-year-ol d males , Ne w Zealand , quote d
young people structure their community, by Panell i e t al. , 2 0 0 2 , p. 1 1 6 )
including the skateboard park, high school,
park, the Kentucky Fried C h i c k e n outlet and T h e experience of marginalization varied
the main street. However, these sites are between young people depending on their
24 9
interests a n d local c o n n e c t i o n s . S o m e noted, and have their origins in concerns for the
for e x a m p l e , that m o s t o r g a n i z e d activities for r e p r o d u c t i o n o f l a b o u r for a g r i c u l t u r e . T h u s
y o u t h in t h e t o w n revolved a r o u n d sport a n d f e m i n i n i t y is c o n s t r u c t e d i n t e r m s o f d o m e s -
t h e r e w a s little for n o n - s p o r t i n g individuals t o tic a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , i n c l u d i n g motherhood,
d o . M o r e o v e r , w h i l s t m a n y y o u n g p e o p l e felt b u t also t h r o u g h t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f rural
that they were part of the c o m m u n i t y because y o u n g w o m e n as coy, d e m u r e a n d w h o l e s o m e
they k n e w people, others reported experien- ( L i t t l e , 2 0 0 2 ) . M a s c u l i n i t y , m e a n w h i l e , is a l s o
c i n g e x c l u s i o n o n racial a n d o t h e r g r o u n d s . constructed through notions of the rural,
I n t h i s c o n t e x t , P a n e l l i e t al. ( 2 0 0 2 ) s u g g e s t particular t h r o u g h an association of t h e rural
that y o u n g p e o p l e in t h e t o w n actively assem- with a rugged masculinity as exemplified
ble a 'politics o f y o u t h ' t h r o u g h a series of through images of the cowboy or the pioneer
negotiations, of w h i c h they illustrate three ( C a m p b e l l a n d Bell, 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e performance
strategies. First, y o u n g p e o p l e n e g o t i a t e t h e i r of rural masculinity is t h e r e f o r e identified
place in t h e c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h subtle forms with agricultural work (Liepins, 2000c;
of space occupation. This involves both S a u g e r e s , 2 0 0 2 ) , b u t as t h i s o u t l e t h a s d e c l i n e d
i m p l i c i t a c t i v i t i e s s u c h as t h e s h a r i n g o f t h e it has found alternative expressions, for
public space o f m a i n street w i t h o t h e r users example through a macho drinking culture
a n d m o r e explicit struggles over, for e x a m p l e , (Campbell, 2000).
s k a t e b o a r d i n g o n t h e t o w n ' s streets. Secondly, These rural constructs of gender, Little
direct challenges are s o m e t i m e s m o u n t e d to (2002) argues, are 'heavily i n s c r i b e d w i t h an
t h e regulation o f space, w i t h skateboards again assumption of heterosexuality' (p. 1 6 0 ) . A s
b e i n g a focus of contestation. O n e 'skatie' Bell a n d Valentine (1995) c o n t e n d , represen-
described contesting the designation of skate- tations o f g e n d e r and sexuality in rural society
boards as ' v e h i c l e s ' (which excluded them follow a strong moral code, such that 'rurality
from footpaths) by attempting to use the conflates w i t h " s i m p l e life", w i t h hegemonic
' d r i v e - t h r o u g h ' s e c t i o n o f a fast f o o d outlet. sexualities (church weddings, monogamy,
Thirdly, y o u n g people constructed their o w n h e t e r o s e x u a l i t y ) ' (p. 1 1 5 ) . T h e h i s t o r i c o r i g i n s
sense of'creative participation' t h r o u g h activ- o f this m o r a l c o d e in t h e agricultural econ-
ities w h i c h , w h i l s t m a r g i n a l i z e d , g i v e a sense o m y also s t r u c t u r e s t h e rituals o f p a r t n e r -
o f a g e n c y , s u c h as s m o k i n g a n d l i g h t i n g f i r e - i n g w i t h i n rural society, w i t h a c o n c e r n for
crackers in a disused shed. T h e marginal perpetuating the core tenet of the family
n a t u r e o f these activities, h o w e v e r , m e a n s that farm by enabling young farmers to find
t h e y are often t e m p o r a r y , existing o n l y u n t i l future f a r m e r s ' wives. T o facilitate this, a n d
they attract adult attention. t o o v e r c o m e t h e i s o l a t i o n o f f a r m life, s o m e
rural regions developed m a t c h m a k i n g events,
Rural sexualities s u c h as t h e a n n u a l m a t c h m a k i n g festival at
T h e insularity of rural c o m m u n i t i e s can be Lisdoonvarna in w e s t e r n Ireland (Figure 17.2)
p a r t i c u l a r l y u n f o r g i v i n g f o r y o u n g p e o p l e as a n d a similar f a r m e r s ' ball i n Middlemarch,
they discover and e x p e r i m e n t w i t h their sex- N e w Z e a l a n d (Little, 2 0 0 3 ) .
uality. T r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l d i s c o u r s e s h a v e r e p r o - The hegemony o f heterosexual values in

duced strict stereotyped representations of rural society traditionally s u p p o r t e d a strong
g e n d e r roles t o w h i c h y o u n g p e o p l e are e x p e c - prejudice against homosexuality. As Fellows
ted to c o n f o r m . T h e s e representations are b o t h (1996) d e s c r i b e s for t h e r u r a l M i d - W e s t of
geographically and historically constructed t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , h o m o s e x u a l i t y w a s s e e n as
25 0
Figure 17. 2 Lisdoonvarna , Ireland, locatio n o f a n annua l match-making festiva l for the
rural farming community
'an unnatural p h e n o m e n o n o f t h e city that y e a r after p u b l i c o p p o s i t i o n a n d i n t i m i d a t i o n .

h a s n o r e l e v a n c e t o r u r a l life' (p. 18) (see also T h e bookstore survived longer and provided
Bell, 2 0 0 0 ) . K r a m e r (1995) similarly r e c o u n t s access t o gay m e d i a a n d literature. H o w e v e r ,
t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f gays a n d l e s b i a n s i n the the wider community continued to be ill-
r e m o t e rural t o w n of M i n o t (34,000 p o p u l a - i n f o r m e d a b o u t h o m o s e x u a l i t y , s u c h t h a t , as
tion) in N o r t h Dakota. Kramer details the K r a m e r observes,
covert strategies e m p l o y e d b y gay m e n and
women to perform their gay identity and M a ny o f t he m e n I c a m e into c o n t a c t w i th
m e e t sexual partners, including t h e identifica- in M i n ot possesse d suc h inaccurate
tion of clandestine 'sexual marketplaces' such i m a g e r y o f t he m e a n i n g s o f b e i n g gay ,
as a h i g h w a y r e s t a r e a , a p a r k a n d a r a i l w a y d e f i n i ng g a y m e n a s b e i n g e f f e m i n a t e , a s
bein g transvestite s who live in l a r ge
v i a d u c t . U s e o f t h e s e sites i n v o l v e d r i s k , a n d
citie s (a n imag e propagate d by loca l
for m a n y gay a n d lesbian residents t h e p r e -
m e d i a c o v e r a g e o f g a y p r i de e v e n t s ) , a s
ferred strategy was to m a k e p e r i o d i c trips to
b e i n g p e d e r a s t s o r o t h e r w i s e i m m o r al o r
large cities. I n 1 9 7 9 a n a t t e m p t was m a d e t o
deviant . T h e s e m e n instea d s a w t h e m -
give t h e gay c o m m u n i t y a m o r e public p r e s -
s e l v e s a s t o o ' n o r m a l' to b e gay , o r s a w
ence in the t o w n through the founding of a their o w n behaviou r a s a temporary
gay a n d lesbian o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d a n adult b o o k - p h a s e , a t t r i b u t a b le to h i g h libido o r t he
s t o r e . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n f o l d e d i n less t h a n a effect s o f a l c o h o l . ( K r a m e r, 1 9 9 5 , p. 2 1 0 )
25 1
The drawing of a distinction between f r o m rural areas t h a n w o m e n , t h e d e v a l u a t i o n

h o m o s e x u a l activity a n d h o m o s e x u a l i t y i d e n - o f r e m a i n i n g in a rural area c o n t r i b u t e s t o a
t i t y is, K r a m e r n o t e s , a p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e of reworking of rural masculinities and poten-
rural homosexualities. W h i l s t militating against tially t o p r o b l e m s o f d e p r e s s i o n , m e n t a l illness
the mainstream acceptance of homosexuality, and the risk of suicide (Ni Laoire, 2001).
it d o e s f o r m p a r t o f a c u l t u r e o f e x p e r i m e n - Hajesz and Dawe (1997) similarly r e c o r d a
tation that permits the conventional sexual perception in N e w f o u n d l a n d and Labrador
m o r e s of rurality to b e contested by young t h a t leavers are c o n s i d e r e d s m a r t a n d stayers
people through both homosexual and hetero- are 'losers', w h i c h informs young people's
s e x u a l b e h a v i o u r . A s w e l l as o v e r t g a y and decisions to m i g r a t e . Yet a l t h o u g h t h e y find
lesbian p e r f o r m a n c e s , this i n c l u d e s e x p e r i m e n t s that two-thirds or more of young people
with fashion and promiscuous heterosexual believe that t h e y will leave their rural home
activity. area, Hajesz and Dawe also find that most
y o u n g p e o p l e w o u l d p r e f e r t o stay i f t h e r e
Moving out and staying behind w e r e n o c o n s t r a i n t s u p o n d o i n g so, a n d t h a t
In spite of criticisms of t h e lack o f amenities m a n y w h o leave retain p e r m a n e n t residence
a n d the insular nature o f rural c o m m u n i t i e s , status at h o m e a n d o f t e n r e t u r n t o live i n t h e i r
many young people do actually want to r u r a l h o m e a r e a l a t e r i n life.
r e m a i n in their h o m e area - b u t t h e o p p o r t u -
nities for them to do so m a y be limited. Elderly Rural Residents
Pursuing higher education commonly means T h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n is a n a g e i n g p o p u l a t i o n .
leaving rural c o m m u n i t i e s to attend colleges In t h e U n i t e d States 13 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p -
a n d universities in u r b a n areas a n d t h e s h o r t - ulation of n o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n counties in 1980
age o f g r a d u a t e j o b s in r u r a l areas restricts t h e were aged over 65; by 2 0 0 1 , the proportion
o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f t h o s e w h o leave for u n i v e r - had increased to 20 per cent (Laws and
sity t o r e t u r n . W h i l s t h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n pro- Harper, 1992; E R S , 2002). Similar trends
vides an entry route into national labour are e v i d e n t e l s e w h e r e in t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d
m a r k e t s , t h o s e y o u n g p e o p l e w h o stay b e h i n d (see a l s o C h a p t e r 6 ) . T h e a g e i n g o f t h e r u r a l
are often restricted t o a local l a b o u r market p o p u l a t i o n is a p r o d u c t o f a n u m b e r o f s e p a -
t h a t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y p o o r l y p a i d , i n s e c u r e rate b u t parallel processes. First, t h e family
a n d u n r e w a r d i n g j o b s w i t h few prospects for s t r u c t u r e o f t h e rural p o p u l a t i o n has c h a n g e d .
career a d v a n c e m e n t ( R u g g and Jones, 1999). W h e r e a s f a r m i n g was o n c e associated with
F i n d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e , a f f o r d a b l e h o u s i n g is a l s o large families, t h e decline in t h e f a r m p o p u l a -
difficult for y o u n g p e o p l e i n r u r a l areas, a n d tion and the modernization of agriculture
forms a n a d d i t i o n a l ' p u s h ' factor for youth s u c h t h a t it is less d e p e n d e n t o n f a m i l y l a b o u r
out-migration. have c o n t r i b u t e d to a decrease in the average
Moreover, N i Laoire (2001), in a study of family size a n d h e n c e a residual elderly bias in
rural Ireland, suggests that t h e r e are positive the farming community (Laws a n d Harper,
a n d negative c o n n o t a t i o n s associated w i t h d e c i - 1992). Secondly, the out-migration of y o u n g
s i o n s t o m i g r a t e a n d t o stay r e s p e c t i v e l y , e s p e - people means that older people are over-
c i a l l y f o r y o u n g m e n . W h i l s t o u t - m i g r a t i o n is represented in the r e m n a n t rural population
associated w i t h h e r o i s m a n d freedom, a stigma c o m p a r e d w i t h the national average. Thirdly,
c a n b e a t t a c h e d t o t h o s e w h o 'stay b e h i n d ' . t h e o l d e r rural p o p u l a t i o n has in s o m e areas
E v e n t h o u g h m e n a r e less l i k e l y t o m o v e a w a y been boosted by retirement in-migration.
25 2
These processes have also produced a t h e effects o f r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g . T h i s is m o s t

differentiated g e o g r a p h y o f t h e rural elderly, p r o m i n e n t l y manifest i n t w o ways. First, t h e r e
w i t h particular concentrations of older people is a t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e s t r i c t e d m o b i l i t y o f
i n certain rural areas. T h e s e i n c l u d e v e r y small m a n y elderly residents a n d t h e rationalization
settlements w i t h a strong agricultural pres- o f rural services. G a n t a n d S m i t h (1991), in a
e n c e ; r e m o t e a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y d e p r i v e d areas study of the Cotswolds in England, found
f r o m w h i c h t h e r e is s i g n i f i c a n t o u t - m i g r a t i o n ; considerable differences i n t h e m o n t h l y g e o -
and areas that are attractive as retirement graphical mobility of 'independent' elderly
destinations, n o t a b l y coastal locations (Laws residents, w h o w e r e in g o o d health, a n d those
and Harper, 1992). in ' d e p e n d e n t ' households w h e r e o n e or m o r e
Laws and H a r p e r (1992) c o m m e n t that O n m e m b e r s suffered f r o m s o m e serious disabil-
a l m o s t a n y i n d i c a t o r o f h e a l t h , i n c o m e , access ity. W h i l s t 'independent' residents travelled
t o services etc., t h e rural elderly have been quite extensively and quite frequently to
s h o w n t o b e d i s a d v a n t a g e d ' (p. 1 0 2 ) . T h i s g e n - n e a r b y t o w n s t o visit g r o c e r s , c h e m i s t s , p o s t
eralization, however, understates the degree of offices a n d h o s p i t a l s , ' d e p e n d e n t ' households
stratification w i t h i n t h e rural elderly p o p u l a - w e r e largely restricted t o their o w n village,
t i o n . P o v e r t y is a m a j o r p r o b l e m f o r many making only occasional visits t o amenities
o l d e r p e o p l e i n r u r a l areas, particularly t h o s e in towns. T h e declining provision of shops,
w h o are d e p e n d e n t o n small p e n s i o n s . Elderly p o s t offices, b a n k s a n d o t h e r b a s i c s e r v i c e s i n
p e o p l e a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o live i n p o v e r t y t h a n villages a n d small t o w n s ( C h a p t e r 7) t h e r e f o r e
r u r a l r e s i d e n t s as a w h o l e , a n d e l d e r l y p e o p l e further disadvantages those elderly rural resi-
i n rural areas are m o r e likely t o live i n p o v e r t y d e n t s w i t h least i n d e p e n d e n c e . E l d e r l y r u r a l
t h a n t h o s e in u r b a n areas. H o w e v e r , t h e r e are residents in New Zealand interviewed by
also m a n y relatively w e a l t h y retirees i n r u r a l C h a l m e r s a n d Joseph (1998) expressed anger
communities who have contributed to the towards the companies and g o v e r n m e n t agen-
p r o c e s s e s o f g e n t r i f i c a t i o n a n d class r e c o m p o - cies whose rationalization strategies had
s i t i o n (see C h a p t e r 6 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e s o u r c e s closed local b r a n c h e s :
available t o elderly rural residents d o signifi-
c a n t l y s h a p e t h e i r lifestyles. L i v i n g i n a r u r a l I'm v e r y c r o s s w i th t he Ban k of Ne w
area as a n elderly resident is considerably Z e a l a n d . T h e y los t five a c c o u n t s f r om o u r
e a s i e r i f o n e c a n afford t o r u n a c a r , t o p a y f o r f a m i ly w h e n the y moved . We weren' t
private healthcare, for d o m e s t i c a n d g a r d e n i n g h a p p y w h e n t he p o s t o f f i ce c l o s e d , o r
h e l p a n d for purchases t o b e delivered. T h o s e w h e n t he M a t a m a t a C o u n t y C o u n c i l d i s -

a p p e a r e d f r om t he f a c e o f t he e a r t h .
l i v i n g o n r e s t r i c t e d f u n d s find t h a t t h e i r a b i l -
ity t o access services a n d p a r t i c i p a t e i n social B y t a k i ng s e r v i c e s a w a y f r om T i r a u, it's
a c t i v i t i e s is s e v e r e l y c u r t a i l e d . Y e t , o n e e x p e r i - n o l o n g e r attractive fo r o l d e r p e o p l e to
e n c e shared by t h e majority o f elderly rural live h e r e .
r e s i d e n t s is t h e t r a n s i t i o n w i t h a g e f r o m a s t a t e
( E l d e r ly r e s i d e n t s , N e w Z e a l a n d , q u o t e d
o f i n d e p e n d e n c e t o a state o f d e p e n d e n c y . by C h a l m e r s a n d J o s e p h , 1 9 9 8 , p. 162 )
The very physical environment of rural
a r e a s m a k e s t h e loss o f i n d e p e n d e n c e prob- Secondly, older residents have f o u n d t h e m -
l e m a t i c , b u t as C h a l m e r s a n d J o s e p h (1998) selves dislocated from the community as
discuss i n t h e c o n t e x t o f N e w Z e a l a n d , t h e social r e c o m p o s i t i o n has t a k e n place. R o w l e s
difficulties t h a t r e s u l t h a v e b e e n i n c r e a s e d b y (1983, 1988) argued that older residents he
25 3
studied in rural Appalachia w e r e able to d r a w comin g ou t of t he chimne y again .

o n 'social credit' that t h e y h a d accumulated T r a n s p o rt is n o p r o b l e m n o w tha t e v e r y -
o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i r life i n t h e c o m m u n i t y b o d y h a s a car. Bu t if y o u haven' t g o t a car,
t o r e c e i v e h e l p f r o m n e i g h b o u r s as t h e y g r e w there's o n l y t he Friday bus . T h e re u s e d to

b e a b u s e v e r y d a y till e v e r y b o d y g o t c a r s .
less i n d e p e n d e n t . H o w e v e r , f o r m a n y elderly
T he b u s e s w e r e c u t to t h r ee t i m e s a w e e k
residents the 'communities' in which they
a n d t h e n o n c e a w e e k . Yo u h a v e n o c h o i c e
built u p social credit have b e e n substantially
a n y m o r e w h e n to g o into t o w n . T h e re u s e d
eroded. Population restructuring, the closure
to b e t he c h e a p M a r k et D a y tickets o n t he
of village services, the fragmentation of train e v e r y M o n d a y , s o a lot o f p e o p l e
families, increased daily mobility and the w o u l d g o in t o g e t h e r to sel l a n d buy. N o w
inevitable deaths o f friends and associates, there's o n l y m e a n d M rs D a n i e l o n t he
m e a n that the c o m m u n i t y networks in w h i c h Friday bus , b e c a u s e e v e r y b o d y e l s e h a s
they participated are n o w sometimes non- thei r o w n car. ( E l d e r ly f e m a l e , Wales ,
e x i s t e n t . T h e y m a y find t h a t t h e y n o w know q u o t e d b y J o n e s , 1 9 9 3 , p. 2 4 )
f e w p e o p l e i n t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d m a y find it
difficult t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e n e w p a t t e r n s o f T h e e x p e r i e n c e of older p e o p l e living in
r u r a l life. T h i s s e n s e o f d i s l o c a t i o n is c o n v e y e d r u r a l a r e a s h e n c e h a s a t e m p o r a l as w e l l as a
in the narratives o f elderly rural residents in spatial d i m e n s i o n . T h e i r lifestyle a n d t h e c o n -
mid-Wales recounted by Jones (1993): straints that are p l a c e d u p o n it a r e i n part

described a n d u n d e r s t o o d in t e r m s o f rurality
and comparisons with other larger settle-
It's n i c e to s e e p e o p l e c o m i n g to live in
m e n t s . B u t for residents w h o have lived in t h e
t he valle y agai n afte r t he house s la y
e m p t y all t h o s e y e a r s . A lot o f t h e m w e n t c o m m u n i t y f o r s o m e t i m e , p e r h a p s all t h e i r
nearly derelic t as a resul t o f peopl e life, t h e p r e s e n t - d a y e x p e r i e n c e o f r u r a l life is

h a v i n g to g o a w a y a n d l o o k fo r j o b s . I like also u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f l o n g - t e r m rural
to s e e a light in t he w i n d o w a n d s m o k e c h a n g e a n d a m e m o r y o f h o w life u s e d t o b e .
Summary
T h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f c h i l d r e n , y o u n g p e o p l e a n d t h e e l d e r l y l i v i n g i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a r e all
s h a p e d b y t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f rurality. P r o b l e m s o f access t o services, p o o r p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a n d
d e p e n d e n c y o n o t h e r s are s h a r e d b y y o u n g a n d o l d alike. I n contrast, t h e rural c o m m u n i t y
values t h a t are often h e l d t o b y elderly residents against t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e tide, are also t h e
s a m e v a l u e s t h a t a r e f r e q u e n t l y s e e n b y y o u n g r e s i d e n t s as o p p r e s s i v e a n d s t i f l i n g . B o t h y o u n g
a n d o l d a d o p t s t r a t e g i e s t o c o p e w i t h t h e p r e s s u r e s o f r u r a l life, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p r e s s u r e s
o f r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g . I n d o i n g so t h e y create t h e i r o w n r u r a l g e o g r a p h i e s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s
that are strikingly different from t h o s e o f t h e w o r k i n g age p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h has so often
b e e n t h e p r e d o m i n a n t focus o f rural studies.
25 4
Further Reading
In r e c e n t y e a r s t h e re h a v e b e e n a s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r o f a r t i c l es a n d b o o k s p u b l i s h e d o n
c h i l d r en a n d y o u n g p e o p l e in rural a r e a s . T h e s e i n c l u de a s e r i e s o f p a p e r s in a s p e c i a l
issu e o f t he Journal of Rural Studies o n ' y o u n g rural lives ' in 2 0 0 2 ( v o l u m e 18 , n u m b e r 2 ) .
O t h e r ke y r e a d i n g s i n c l u de G l e n d i n n i n g a n d c o l l e a g u e s ' R u r al c o m m u n i t i e s a n d
w e l l - b e i n g : a g o o d p l a c e to g r o w u p ? ' , in The Sociological Review, volume 5 1 , page s
1 2 9 - 1 5 6 ( 2 0 0 3 ) ; O w a i n J o n e s ( 2 0 0 0 ) ' M e l t i ng g e o g r a p h y : purity, d i s o r d e r , c h i l d h o o d
a n d s p a c e ' , in S a r a h H o l l o w a y a n d Gill V a l e n t i ne ( e d s ) , Children's Geographies: Playing,
Living, Learning ( R o u t l e d g e , 2 0 0 0 ) ; H u g h M a t t h e w s e t a l . , ' G r o w i ng u p in t he
c o u n t r y s i d e : c h i l d r en a n d t he rural idyll', in t he Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 16 ,
p a g e s 1 4 1 - 1 5 3 ( 2 0 0 0 ) ; R u th Panell i e t al. , " ' We m a k e o u r o w n f u n ": r e a d i n g t he politics
o f y o u t h w i t h ( i n) c o m m u n i t y ', in Sociologia Ruralis, volum e 42 , page s 1 0 6 - 1 3 0 (2002) ;
a n d Gill V a l e n t i n e , s a f e p l a c e to g r o w u p ? P a r e n t i n g , p e r c e p t i o n s o f c h i l d r e n 's s a f e t y
a n d t he rural idyll', in t he Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 13 , p a g e s 1 3 7 - 1 4 8 (1997) .
I s s u e s r e l a t i ng to g e n d e r identities a n d s e x u a l i t i e s in t he c o u n t r y s i d e a re d i s c u s s e d a t
g r e a t e r l e n g t h in J o Little's b o o k , Gender and Rural Geography ( P r e n t i c e H a l l, 2 0 0 2 ) ,
a n d in a t h e m e d i s s u e o f Rural Sociology o n rural m a s c u l i n i t i e s in 2 0 0 0 ( v o l u m e 6 5 ,
n u m b e r 4 ) . L e s s h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d o n t he e l d e r l y in rural a r e a s , bu t a g o o d e m p i r i c a l ly
b a s e d d i s c u s s i o n is t he s t u d y o f e l d e r l y r e s i d e n t s in T i r a u, N e w Z e a l a n d , in Le x
C h a l m e r s a n d A l an J o s e p h , ' R u r al c h a n g e a n d t he e l d e r l y in rural p l a c e s : c o m m e n t a r i e s
f r om N e w Z e a l a n d ' , Journal of Rural Studies, v o l u m e 14 , p a g e s 1 5 5 - 1 6 6 ( 1 9 9 8 ) .
Websites
T h e re a re a n u m b e r o f w e b s i t e s t h a t giv e y o u n g p e o p l e in rural a r e a s a n o p p o r t u n i ty to
c o m m e n t a b o u t thei r e x p e r i e n c e s , o r w h i c h a re linked to o r g a n i z a t i o n s p r o v i d i ng s u p p o r t
for rural y o u t h . T h e s e i n c l u de t he Y o u n g A u s t r a l i a ns R u r al N e t w o r k ( w w w . y a r n . g o v . a u ) ,
a g r o u p fo r y o u n g p e o p l e w o r k i ng in rural i n d u s t r i e s ; t he w e b s i t e o f H e y w i re
( w w w . a b c . n e t . a u / h e y w i r e / d e f a u l t . h t m ) , a l o n g - r u n n i ng A u s t r a l i an radio p r o g r a m m e a i m e d
a t y o u n g p e o p l e in rural a r e a s ; R u r al Youth V o i c e ( w w w . r u r a l y o u t h v o i c e . o r g . u k ) , a n
initiative w o r k i ng w i th rural y o u n g p e o p l e a g e d b e t w e e n 1 3 a n d 1 9 in w e s t e r n E n g l a n d ;
a n d t he N a t i o n a l R u r al Youth N e t w o r k C o u n c i l ( r e a l m . n e t / r u r a l) in C a n a d a . F i r s t - h a nd
a c c o u n t s o f gay , l e s b i a n a n d b i s e x u a l y o u n g p e o p l e in rural a r e a s o f t he U n i t e d S t a t e s
c a n b e f o u n d o n t he Y o u th R e s o u r c e w e b s i t e (www.youthresource.com/our_lives /
r u r a l . i n d e x . c f m ).
25 5
18
Working in the Countryside
Introduction
T h e restructuring of the rural e c o n o m y n o t only c h a n g e d the e c o n o m i c sectors in
w h i c h r u r a l p e o p l e w o r k e d , b u t also t h e n a t u r e o f w o r k i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e itself.
As e m p l o y m e n t i n a g r i c u l t u r e , forestry, m i n i n g a n d o t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l i n d u s t r i e s
has d e c l i n e d , a n d t h a t i n t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r h a s i n c r e a s e d , s o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s for
t h e rural l a b o u r force have b e e n redefined. T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f r u r a l e m p l o y m e n t o v e r t h e past c e n t u r y a n d t h e c h a n g i n g
e x p e r i e n c e o f w o r k i n g i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . It first c h a r t s t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e r u r a l
w o r k f o r c e h a s b e e n r e s t r u c t u r e d b e f o r e m o v i n g o n t o discuss c o n t e m p o r a r y
e x p e r i e n c e s o f f i n d i n g w o r k i n r u r a l areas, t h e c h a n g i n g g e n d e r d y n a m i c s o f
participation in the rural labour market, the experiences o f m i g r a n t w o r k e r s a n d
finally t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c o m m u t i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e s o f c o m m u t e r s .
T h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l o f r u r a l e m p l o y m e n t is e p i t o m i z e d b y H o w a r d
N e w b y s s t u d y o f f a r m l a b o u r e r s i n e a s t e r n E n g l a n d , The Deferential Worker (1977).
N e w b y describes a f o r m of e m p l o y m e n t that was framed by paternalistic and
particularistic relations b e t w e e n the e m p l o y e r a n d t h e worker. M o s t f a r m w o r k e r s
t e n d e d t o h o l d o n e j o b for life, m a n y l i v e d i n t i e d h o u s i n g a n d a s i g n i f i c a n t
n u m b e r w o r k e d i n t h e s a m e c o m m u n i t y i n w h i c h t h e y h a d b e e n b o r n , o r at least
i n a n e i g h b o u r i n g c o m m u n i t y . T h e w o r k itself w a s h a r d , m a n u a l l a b o u r , m a i n l y
d o n e o u t s i d e a n d i n all w e a t h e r s . It d i d n o t r e q u i r e a n y f o r m a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o r
t r a i n i n g , b u t it d i d i n v o l v e p a r t i c u l a r specialist k n o w l e d g e t h a t w a s e i t h e r p i c k e d u p
o n t h e j o b o r p a s s e d d o w n b e t w e e n g e n e r a t i o n s i n t h e r u r a l c o m m u n i t y . It w a s
n o t , b y m o d e r n s t a n d a r d s , h i g h l y skilled w o r k , b u t it w a s s e c u r e a n d stable a n d , i n a
s o c i e t y t h a t l a r g e l y r e v o l v e d a r o u n d f a r m i n g , it w a s w o r k t h a t w a s v a l u e d .
T h e modernization of agriculture during the twentieth century changed
t h e r o l e o f f a r m l a b o u r (see also C h a p t e r 4 ) . I n B r i t a i n t h e n u m b e r o f h i r e d
f a r m w o r k e r s fell s h a r p l y f r o m o v e r 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n t h e 1 9 4 0 s t o u n d e r 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n t h e
1990s (Clark, 1991). W h e r e a s t h e r e h a d b e e n nearly t h r e e h i r e d f a r m w o r k e r s for
Working in the countryside
every farmer in 1 9 3 1 , by 1987 the ratio was 1 . 1 : 1 . For those farmworkers w h o

remained, the nature of their w o r k changed with mechanization, b e c o m i n g an
i n c r e a s i n g l y skilled j o b . F o r m a l t r a i n i n g s c h e m e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d a n d t h e h i g h e r
skill level w a s r e c o g n i z e d t h r o u g h t h e p a y m e n t o f a b o v e - a v e r a g e w a g e s c o m p a r e d
w i t h equivalent positions (Clark, 1991). Additionally, m o r e farm workers w e r e
e m p l o y e d o n a casual basis, w o r k i n g for a n u m b e r o f different f a r m s as r e q u i r e d ,
o r as a p a r t - t i m e o r s e a s o n a l activity, w h i l s t t h e e x p a n s i o n o f c o r p o r a t e f a r m i n g
c o n t r i b u t e d t o a 6 1 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u m b e r o f salaried f a r m m a n a g e r s i n
E n g l a n d and Wales b e t w e e n 1972 and 1977 (Clark, 1991).
O u t s i d e a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e g r o w t h o f t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r as t h e c o u n t r y s i d e s
largest e m p l o y e r c o n t r i b u t e d t o a p o l a r i z a t i o n i n t h e n a t u r e o f r u r a l w o r k . A t o n e
level, t h e r e l o c a t i o n o f s e r v i c e s e c t o r h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d h i - t e c h i n d u s t r i e s a n d t h e
e x p a n s i o n o f t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r i n r u r a l areas h a v e i n c r e a s e d t h e a m o u n t o f
m a n a g e r i a l , p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d skilled t e c h n i c a l e m p l o y m e n t . H o w e v e r , s u c h j o b s
frequently recruit from a regional o r national l a b o u r p o o l a n d can b e associated
w i t h m i d d l e class m i g r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n p r o v i d i n g e m p l o y m e n t for t h e e x i s t i n g
l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n . A t a n o t h e r level, e m p l o y m e n t i n t o u r i s m , c a t e r i n g , r e t a i l i n g , call
c e n t r e s a n d t h e d e l i v e r y e n d o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e s - all o f w h i c h h a v e b e e n g r o w t h
areas is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h l o w skilled, l o w p a i d , i n s e c u r e a n d o f t e n t e m p o r a r y o r
s e a s o n a l j o b s . B y 2 0 0 0 , s o m e 4 2 p e r c e n t o f w o r k e r s i n t h e r u r a l U n i t e d States
w e r e e m p l o y e d i n j o b s w i t h l o w skill r e q u i r e m e n t s , c o m p a r e d w i t h 3 6 p e r c e n t o f
w o r k e r s i n t h e U S as a w h o l e , b u t significantly t h e g a p b e t w e e n levels o f l o w skill
a n d h i g h skill j o b s i n r u r a l areas h a d n a r r o w e d n o t i c e a b l y i n t h e p r e v i o u s d e c a d e .
A n a l y s t s s u g g e s t t h a t this t r e n d reflects a n o n g o i n g t r a n s i t i o n i n r u r a l e m p l o y m e n t
f r o m m a n u f a c t u r i n g t o t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r , b u t n o t e t h a t it w a s slightly offset b y a
shift t o w a r d s l o w skill j o b s w i t h i n t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r ( G i b b s a n d K u s m i n , 2 0 0 3 ) .
A f u r t h e r f e a t u r e o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y r u r a l l a b o u r f o r c e is t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f e m p l o y m e n t i n small e n t e r p r i s e s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e are n a t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s ,
generally a r o u n d half of employees in p r e d o m i n a n t l y rural regions w o r k in
establishments w i t h fewer than 20 employees, c o m p a r e d w i t h a r o u n d a third o f
e m p l o y e e s i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y u r b a n r e g i o n s (Table 1 8 . 1 ) . F i g u r e s f r o m S c a n d i n a v i a
also s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d e g r e e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e m p l o y m e n t i n s m a l l e r e n t e r p r i s e s
i n c r e a s e d b e t w e e n t h e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s a n d m i d - 1 9 9 0 s (Foss, 1 9 9 7 ) . Similarly, r u r a l
r e g i o n s t e n d t o h a v e h i g h e r levels o f s e l f - e m p l o y m e n t t h a n u r b a n areas, a n d t h e r e is
also a s t r o n g e l e m e n t o f p e o p l e i n r u r a l areas h o l d i n g m u l t i p l e p a r t - t i m e o r l o w
paid jobs, including mixing self-employment and paid employment.
Finding Work in Rural Areas T h u s , t h e r e is n o c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n o f levels

T h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for e m p l o y m e n t in rural of e m p l o y m e n t and u n e m p l o y m e n t in rural
a r e a s a r e s h a p e d as m u c h b y r e g i o n a l a n d l o c a l areas c o m p a r e d w i t h u r b a n a r e a s . I n a n u m b e r
factors, i n c l u d i n g t h e structure o f t h e econ- of countries, including the U K , Belgium and
omy, history of industrialization and demo- Japan, u n e m p l o y m e n t rates in rural regions
graphic p r o f i l e , as b y their rural situation. are significantly l o w e r t h a n t h o s e in urban
25 7
T a b le 1 8 . 1 Percentag e o f employee s w o r k i ng in establishment s o f

d i f f e r i ng siz e
Numbe r o f employee s pe r establishmen t
1- 9 10-1 9 20-4 9 50-9 9 10 0 +
Norway
Predominantl y rural region s 40 13 15 11 21
Predominantl y u r b an region s 27 12 15 12 34
F i n l a nd
Switzerlan d
UK
regions, yet in m a n y o t h e r countries, including L i n c o l n s h i r e 's very , v e r y m u c h w o r d o f

C a n a d a , Italy a n d N e w Z e a l a n d , rural u n e m - m o u t h . A lot o f f i r ms d o n ' t e v e n a d v e r t i s e
ployment rates are higher than those for for j o b s . [ O n e f i r m] I c a n ' t e v e r r e m e m b e r
urban centres (von Meyer, 1997). In both t h e m a d v e r t i s i n g , bu t I g o t a j o b b y g o i n g

r o u nd t h e re p u t t i ng a n a p p l i c a t i o n f o rm in
contexts, however, the experience of finding
a n d c h a s i n g it up , w o r d o f m o u t h . G o t t he
appropriate e m p l o y m e n t in rural communi-
j ob w h e r e I a m n o w o r i g i n a l ly b y w o r d o f
ties c a n b e b e s e t b y a n u m b e r o f common
mouth. (Male, England , quote d by Monk
difficulties, m a n y of which result from the
e t a l . , 1 9 9 9 , p. 2 5 )
structural characteristics of rural environ-
m e n t s a n d societies. W e l l, I m e a n , y o u k n o w , t h i n gs j u s t t u rn
up, d o n ' t they , d o w n t he p u b o r s o m e -
Research in three areas i n E n g l a n d and
b o d y s a y s s o m e t h i n g . Y e a h , t h a t is t he
Wales an accessible rural locality in Suffolk,
o n l y w a y I f i nd w o r k. ( M a l e , England ,
a less accessible locality in Lincolnshire
q u o t e d b y M o n k e t a l . , 1 9 9 9 , p. 2 5 )
( H o d g e e t al., 2 0 0 2 ; M o n k e t al., 1 9 9 9 ) , a n d
four remote rural localities in mid-Wales S u c h informal r e c r u i t m e n t practices d i s c r i m -
( C l o k e e t al., 1 9 9 7 ) h a s i d e n t i f i e d a n u m b e r inate in favour o f ' k n o w n ' local residents a n d
of barriers to participation in paid employ- c a n m a k e it difficult for i n - m i g r a n t s e s p e c i a l l y t o
m e n t . First, t h e traditionally c l o s e - k n i t n a t u r e find o u t a b o u t v a c a n c i e s a n d t o a p p l y f o r j o b s .
of rural c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e small size of Secondly, access t o t r a n s p o r t can b e a m a j o r
enterprises m e a n that m a n y employers recruit barrier. T h e limited e m p l o y m e n t opportuni-
largely t h r o u g h informal n e t w o r k s . A r o u n d a ties i n m o s t r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s r e q u i r e p e o p l e
fifth of employees surveyed in mid-Wales h a d to travel i n t o n e i g h b o u r i n g t o w n s , o r else-
found work through the recommendation of w h e r e in a w i d e r rural region, to find work.
friends o r direct personal enquiries, a n d similar F o r individuals w h o are d e p e n d e n t o n public
experiences were recorded in Lincolnshire: transport, in particular, this can severely
25 8
restrict their options. The problem of This can be a problem of over-qualification,

transport can become self-reproducing as f o r e x a m p l e as a r e s u l t o f l a c k o f g r a d u a t e
i n d i v i d u a l s m a y b e u n a b l e t o afford t o r u n a o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n rural areas o r b e c a u s e clerical
car w i t h o u t g e t t i n g j o b , b u t c a n n o t get a j o b skills d e v e l o p e d i n a n u r b a n - b a s e d j o b have
w i t h o u t h a v i n g a car: n o o b v i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n i n a r u r a l a r e a . It c a n
also b e a p r o b l e m o f skills d e v e l o p e d i n t r a d i -
I d id h a v e a c o u p l e o f i n t e r v i e w s , o n e
t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s s u c h as f a r m i n g n o t being
w a s a t [a f o o d f a c t o r y] a n d t h e y s a i d ,
t r a n s f e r a b l e as t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r w o r k i n
b e c a u s e o f m y t r a n s p o r t, b u s e s w e r e no t
those sectors decline:
g o o d e n o u g h , b e c a u s e o f t he t i m e t a b l e ,
t h a t w a s t he o n l y t h i ng t h a t s t o o d in m y
I s u p p o s e I a m l i m i t ed b y w h a t I c a n d o
way . T h e sam e w i th [ a n o t h e r f a c t o r y ],
really, b e c a u s e I've h a d p r e v i o u s e x p e r i -
the y sai d I coul d hav e ha d a permanen t
e n c e o n t he l a n d , a n d in t he g a r d e n a n d
j ob if I h a d reliable t r a n s p o rt a n d no t t he
that, y o u k n o w , I s u p p o s e w i t h o ut t he
bus service . (Female , England , quote d
relevan t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , y o u ' re restricte d
by M o n k e t a l . , 1 9 9 9 , pp . 2 6 - 2 7 )
a s to w h a t y o u c a n g o fo r o r a p p l y fo r
S o I w a s in a bit o f a c a t c h - 2 2 s i t u a t i o n . I really. I d id l o o k fo r o t h e r j o b s , bu t o n l y a s
c o u l d n 't g e t a j o b, I c o u l d n ' t g e t a c a r until a gardener . (Male, England , quote d by
I g o t a j o b, a n d I c o u l d n ' t g e t a j ob until I M o nk e t a l . , 1 9 9 9 , p. 2 4 )
g o t a car . ( M a l e , England , quote d by
M o nk e t a l . , 1 9 9 9 , p. 2 7 ) Therefore, even in rural regions where
u n e m p l o y m e n t is n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a s i g -
T h u s , thirdly, t h e costs o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e
nificant p r o b l e m m a n y p e o p l e are restricted
labour market can b e prohibitive given the l o w
t o j o b s t h a t d o n o t fully u s e t h e i r skills o r
rate o f wages paid b y m a n y rural j o b s . In t h e
qualifications. T h i s gives rise t o t w o models
t h r e e r e s e a r c h areas o f L i n c o l n s h i r e , Suffolk a n d
o f e m p l o y m e n t h i s t o r y in t w o areas. T h e first
mid-Wales, average m a l e earnings w e r e b e t w e e n
is o f f r e q u e n t short-term, often temporary
77 per cent and 84 per cent of the national
or seasonal employment, interspersed with
m e a n ( C l o k e e t al., 1 9 9 7 ; M o n k e t al., 1 9 9 9 ) .
p e r i o d s o f u n e m p l o y m e n t . L o o k e r (1997), for
After tax, a q u a r t e r o f full-time w o r k e r s sur-
example, reports that m o r e y o u n g people sur-
veyed in Lincolnshire took home less than
veyed in rural localities in C a n a d a h a d d r a w n
G B ^ 1 5 0 per week, out of w h i c h they needed
u n e m p l o y m e n t insurance t h a n those in u r b a n
t o p a y t r a n s p o r t a n d h o u s i n g costs t h a t w e r e
l o c a l i t i e s ( T a b l e 1 8 . 2 ) . T h e s e c o n d m o d e l is o f
generally higher t h a n they w o u l d have b e e n in
longer-term employment in the same job,
a n u r b a n area, a n d i n m a n y cases, c h i l d c a r e costs
b u t less t h r o u g h c h o i c e t h a n b e c a u s e o f t h e
as w e l l . A s s u c h , M o n k e t al. ( 1 9 9 9 ) r e p o r t e x a m -
absence o f alternatives. In traditional o c c u p a -
ples o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a d r e s t r i c t e d t h e m s e l v e s
t i o n s , s u c h as f a r m w o r k , t h e a b i l i t y t o l o o k
t o l o w skill, l o w p a i d j o b s i n o r n e a r t h e i r p l a c e
for alternative e m p l o y m e n t may be further
of residence because the additional i n c o m e from
restricted by a d e p e n d e n c e o n tied housing
h i g h e r skilled, b e t t e r p a i d j o b s f u r t h e r away
( M o n k et a l , 1999).
w o u l d h a v e b e e n offset b y t h e t r a n s p o r t costs.
Fourthly, w h e n these various constraints

are taken o n b o a r d , m a n y rural w o r k e r s find Gender and Rural Employment
t h a t t h e skills a n d q u a l i f i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e y h a v e O n e of the m o s t p r o m i n e n t changes in rural
are m i s m a t c h e d t o t h e j o b s t h a t are available. employment has been the shifting gender
25 9
T a b le 1 8 . 2 W o rk experience s o f y o u n g peopl e in
rural an d u r b an localitie s in Canad a
R u r al r e s p o n d e n t s (%) U r b a n r e s p o n d e n t s (%)
D r a wn u n e m p l o y m e n t insuranc e 50 23
Prefe r seasona l w o r k plus 18 5
u n e m p l o y m e n t insuranc e
Accesse d a g o v e r n m e n t p r o g r a m me 20 15
Held a f u l l - t i me j ob 68 74
Q u it a j ob 32 46
Starte d o w n busines s 3 8
Source: A f t er Looker, 199 7
balance of the workforce. T h e n u m b e r of rural in s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d f o u n d that 85 p e r cent

women in paid w o r k increased significantly o f f a r m w o m e n dealt w i t h enquiries a n d ran
in the s e c o n d half o f the t w e n t i e t h century, errands, 70 per cent were involved in manual
a l t h o u g h t h e rate o f female participation in t h e work on the farm and 65 per cent were
l a b o u r force r e m a i n s l o w e r i n r u r a l areas t h a n responsible for b o o k - k e e p i n g a n d o t h e r cler-
i n u r b a n areas ( L i t t l e , 1 9 9 7 ; v o n M e y e r , 1 9 9 7 ) . ical d u t i e s ( W h a t m o r e , 1 9 9 1 ) . U p t o a t h i r d o f
I n p a r t , t h i s reflects c h a n g e s i n a t t i t u d e s to the w o m e n in the study regularly undertook
gender and employment within the agricul- m a n u a l w o r k o n t h e farm in k e e p i n g w i t h
tural community. Historically, w o m e n were evidence from Scandinavia that w o m e n are
fully i n v o l v e d i n f a r m w o r k , b u t as H u n t e r a n d increasingly challenging gender stereotypes
R i n e y - K e h r b e r g (2002) describe, d u r i n g the b y b e c o m i n g i n v o l v e d i n all a s p e c t s o f f a r m -
late n i n e t e e n t h a n d early t w e n t i e t h centuries i n g a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e m s e l v e s as indepen-
new c o n s t r u c t s o f g e n d e r roles e m e r g e d in dent farmers in their own right (Silvasti,
w h i c h agricultural w o r k was identified with 2003).
masculinity, a n d farm w o m e n w e r e associated W o m e n h a v e also b e e n at t h e forefront of

w i t h a d o m e s t i c role. T h i s g e n d e r i n g o f roles adaptation strategies to agricultural restruc-
understated and undervalued the contribution turing through involvement in on-farm
of w o m e n to the functioning of the farm econ- a n d off-farm diversification. O n - f a r m , w o m e n
omy. As Little observes, have frequently b e e n responsible for d e v e l o p -
i n g n e w i n i t i a t i v e s s u c h as f a r m s h o p s , b e d
f a r m e r 's wive s were nearly alway s and breakfast accommodation, craft enter-
r e s p o n s i b l e fo r t he m a j o r i ty - if no t all - o f prises a n d e d u c a t i o n a l activities (Gasson and
t he d o m e s t i c w o r k o f t he f a rm h o u s e h o l d .
W i n t e r , 1 9 9 2 ; Little, 2 0 0 2 ) . O f f - f a r m , income
T h e y w e r e f o u n d to b e in c h a r g e o f t he
earned by w o m e n from full-time or part-time
cooking , cleaning , shoppin g a n d c h i l d-
e m p l o y m e n t in a diverse range of occupations
c a r e d u t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i th t he house -
has p r o v i d e d an i m p o r t a n t addition t o farm
hold, an d expecte d to p e r f o rm thes e
finances at a t i m e w h e n i n c o m e f r o m a g r i c u l -
duties regardles s o f w h a t othe r w o rk the y
d id o n t he f a rm - o n e i t h e r a r o u t i ne o r tural production has been under pressure
e m e r g e n c y b a s i s . (Little, 2 0 0 2 , p. 1 0 5 ) (Kelly and Shortall, 2002). Participation in

paid e m p l o y m e n t by w o m e n in the agricul-
The 'other' work on the farm included tural population in Canada surpassed the
b o t h administrative a n d m a n u a l tasks. A s t u d y n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s a n d is n o w
26 0
over 60 per cent (Dion and Welsh, 1992). response t o a n e e d for h o u s e h o l d s t o have a
A separate study in Manitoba found that dual i n c o m e in order t o afford high rural
55 per cent of farmers' wives had off-farm property prices.
employment in 1 9 9 2 (Stabler a n d Rounds, T h e incentives for e m p l o y m e n t are b a l a n c e d
1 9 9 7 ) . A s w e l l as t h e f i n a n c i a l b e n e f i t s , off- b y costs a n d constraints, especially f r o m family
f a r m e m p l o y m e n t also g i v e s w o m e n a n i d e n - responsibilities. Little ( 1 9 9 7 ) , for e x a m p l e , cites
tity and role that is i n d e p e n d e n t of their w o m e n interviewed in t w o English villages
association w i t h the farm and which chal- who felt restricted in their employment
lenges conventional g e n d e r relations in the options by the expectation placed o n them
farm household (Kelly a n d Shortall, 2 0 0 2 ) . t o b e f u l l - t i m e m o t h e r s , o r b y difficulties in
H o w e v e r , if f a r m w o m e n a r e still expected finding a p p r o p r i a t e a n d affordable childcare
to take a lead in domestic responsibilities, (see also C h a p t e r 1 7 ) :
e m p l o y m e n t either o n - f a r m or off-farm may
simply increase t h e a m o u n t of w o r k that farm T he s t r a in w i th younge r children is
w o m e n are c o m p e l l e d t o d o . alway s o n t he m o t h e r to p r o v i de t he
c h i l d c a r e . B e f o r e m y p r e s e n t j o b [a s a
At the same time, m a n y of the n e w jobs
secretary ] I worke d a s a cleane r an d
created in expanding sectors of the rural
d r o ve a fis h v a n to fit in w i th s c h o o l h o u r s .
e c o n o m y h a v e b e e n filled b y w o m e n . F e m a l e
( M o t h e r, E n g l a n d , q u o t e d b y Little, 1 9 9 7 ,
e m p l o y m e n t i n t o u r i s m , f o r e x a m p l e , is signif- p. 150 )
i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n r e l a t i v e t e r m s i n r u r a l areas
t h a n in u r b a n areas, a n d over half o f rural Jobs within rural communities that can
tourism jobs in the UK, Canada and be fitted w i t h i n t h e s c h o o l d a y a r e at a h i g h
Germany were held by women in 1990 p r e m i u m . Accordingly, studies in E n g l a n d a n d
( B o n t r o n a n d Lasnier, 1997). Overall, t h e j o b s Canada have identified very high rates of
c o m m o n l y t a k e n b y r u r a l w o m e n reflect t h e part-time employment for rural women
full r a n g e o f o c c u p a t i o n s , f r o m professional ( L i t t l e a n d A u s t i n , 1 9 9 6 ; L e a c h , 1 9 9 9 ) - a n d as
positions, notably in teaching and healthcare, s u c h , w o m e n i n r u r a l areas o f t e n experience
t o clerical w o r k , m a n u f a c t u r i n g production relatively p o o r e m p l o y m e n t conditions. T h e
lines, cleaning and childminding (Little, time constraints on women's employment
1 9 9 7 ) . I n s o m e areas, rural d e v e l o p m e n t a g e n - also produce significant underemployment.
cies h a v e i m p l e m e n t e d specific strategies to O v e r half of the e m p l o y e d w o m e n surveyed
increase employment opportunities for b y Little a n d A u s t i n (1996) in an English rural
women (Little, 1 9 9 1 ) , b u t as L i t t l e (2002) c o m m u n i t y in 1993 were in j o b s that did n o t
notes, m o s t rural d e v e l o p m e n t strategies pay use their qualifications o r training.
little a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r issue o f f e m a l e T h e w o r k i n g lives o f r u r a l w o m e n there-
participation in t h e labour market. As such, fore are highly complex and frequently
the g r o w t h in w o m e n ' s e m p l o y m e n t in rural involve a m i x t u r e o f formal a n d informal, paid
areas h a s b e e n p r o d u c e d more by demand and unpaid activity. In a study in rural
t h a n b y supply. T h e r e has b e e n a desire o n t h e V e r m o n t , N e l s o n (1999) f o u n d that a major-
part of rural w o m e n to break stereotypes and ity o f b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n w e r e e n g a g e d in
t o e s t a b l i s h t h e m s e l v e s as i n d e p e n d e n t e a r n e r s . i n c o m e - g e n e r a t i n g activity b e y o n d their m a i n
Professional w o m e n i n - m i g r a n t s , in particular, work, and that most households undertook
have sought to maintain a career presence. some form o f s e l f - p r o v i s i o n i n g , s u c h as c a r
W o m e n ' s e m p l o y m e n t , c a n , h o w e v e r , also b e a maintenance, growing vegetables, keeping
26 1
animals for m e a t o r eggs o r c u t t i n g f i r e w o o d . in the rural l a b o u r force of the developed

H o w e v e r , N e l s o n n o t e s t h a t t h e r e w e r e signif- world can be seen as a d i m e n s i o n of the
icant g e n d e r differences in t h e w a y in w h i c h globalization of mobility, with employers
m e n and w o m e n approached these additional recruiting for low skilled, marginal and
activities. M e n w e r e m o r e likely t o have a usually t e m p o r a r y j o b s t h r o u g h transnational
formal s e c o n d j o b , m o r e likely t o b e formally n e t w o r k s . A n e s t i m a t e d 6 9 p e r c e n t o f all s e a -
self-employed and more involved in self- sonal farmworkers in t h e U n i t e d States are
p r o v i s i o n i n g activity. Significantly, w h i l s t for foreign-born, including more than 90 per
men these activities often t o o k place away cent o f t h e seasonal w o r k f o r c e in California
from the h o m e and were devoted dedicated (Bruinsma, 2003). In Europe, the d e p e n d e n c y
time, w o m e n ' s supplemental e c o n o m i c activity o n m i g r a n t w o r k e r s is less e x t e n s i v e b u t s i g n i -
t e n d e d t o b e m o r e casual a n d m o r e home- f i c a n t n o n e t h e less. H o g g a r t a n d Mendoza
based, including sewing, knitting, craft- (1999) report that m i g r a n t African workers
making, baby-sitting and caregiving, detailed comprised m o r e than 5 per cent of the agri-
w o r k in h o m e decoration and g r o w i n g vegeta- cultural workforce in the three Spanish
bles. T h e s e tasks w e r e o f t e n f u s e d w i t h their provinces of Murcia, Almeria and Caceres in
other activities, especially domestic work. 1995, and that 32 per cent of African migrant
W h e r e a s m e n w o u l d r e g a r d c h i l d c a r e as t i m e workers in Spain were employed in agricul-
w h e n they were n o t engaged in m o r e e c o n o - ture. Similarly, in t h e U K t h e r e are e s t i m a t e d
m i c a l l y p r o d u c t i v e activity, f o r w o m e n c h i l d c a r e to b e s o m e 2 0 , 0 0 0 foreign workers o n farms
often was p e r f o r m e d alongside o t h e r chores: in East Anglia, including Lithuanians,

Russians, Portuguese, M a c e d o n i a n s , Latvians,
W h e n h e baby-sits , he can' t d o anything Poles, Ukrainians, Bulgarians a n d C h i n e s e .
e l s e .. . I c a n c o o k a n d d o l a u n d ry a n d Californian agriculture has b e e n heavily
c l e a n t he h o u s e a n d w o r k a t m y d e s k
d e p e n d e n t o n m i g r a n t M e x i c a n labour since
a n d t a ke c a r e o f t he baby , b u t he can't.
the mid-twentieth century. T h e rapid devel-
( M o t h e r, Vermont, quote d by Nelson ,
o p m e n t o f intensive, capitalist a g r i c u l t u r e in
1 9 9 9 , p. 5 2 8 )
California at t h e start o f t h e century (see
C h a p t e r 4 ) , first a t t r a c t e d m a s s m i g r a t i o n f r o m
T h i s differential a p p r o a c h t o supplemental
o t h e r parts o f t h e U n i t e d States. T h e harsh
activity, N e l s o n a r g u e s , c o n t i n u e s t o r e i n f o r c e
work, exploitation and poverty of the
male privilege in rural households and to
migrants was d o c u m e n t e d in the writing of
undervalue the w o r k d o n e by w o m e n in the
J o h n S t e i n b e c k , n o t a b l y The Grapes of Wrath
rural milieu.
(1939). T h e radicalization and unionization
Migrant Workers in the Rural Economy o f t h e f a r m w o r k f o r c e in a struggle for b e t t e r
T h e modernization of agriculture may have conditions, however, generated conflict with
reduced the farming workforce, but there e m p l o y e r s a n d it w a s t h u s i n s e a r c h o f ' d o c i l e '
are types of agriculture, notably forms of workers, with 'no political ambitions', that
vegetable a n d fruit c u l t i v a t i o n , t h a t a r e still the industry started to recruit foreign m i g r a n t
very labour-intensive, albeit on a seasonal labour (Mitchell, 1996). B e t w e e n 1924 and
basis. H o w e v e r , t h e l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s of 1930, an estimated 58,000 Mexican and
t h e s e f a r m s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y filled b y m i g r a n t Hispanic workers arrived in the San Joaquin
workers. As n o t e d in C h a p t e r 3, the presence Valley e a c h year, w i t h m a n y m o r e employed
o f m i g r a n t w o r k e r s from t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d i n t h e L o s A n g e l e s B a s i n ( e a s t e r n Asia, i n c l u d i n g
26 2
China, Japan and the Philippines, was also The introduction of migrant workers in
for a s h o r t p e r i o d a k e y r e c r u i t i n g g r o u n d ) . As E u r o p e a n agriculture has a m o r e recent h e r -
Mitchell (1996) describes, the e m p l o y m e n t o f i t a g e a n d is c o n n e c t e d t o t h e b r o a d e n i n g of
m i g r a n t w o r k e r s w a s f r a m e d b y racist attitudes e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s for rural residents.
and practices from the beginning. Brutal Hoggart and Mendoza (1999) explain the
working conditions and p o o r wages were a increase in African m i g r a n t w o r k e r s in Spain
m a t t e r o f course a n d migrants lived in poverty in t e r m s o f Spanish w o r k e r s rejecting seasonal
in racially stratified labour camps. The agricultural labour in favour o f better o p p o r -
exploitation was disguised by a representation tunities, for instance in t o u r i s m . A g r i c u l t u r e
o f t h e rural idyll that w a s u s e d to attract hence provides an entry point into the
m i g r a n t s , p r o m i s i n g t h a t families ' c o u l d find Spanish l a b o u r m a r k e t for African migrants
h e a l t h f u l , fulfilling l i v i n g i n t h e countryside w h o themselves aspire t o m o v e o n t o other
should they choose to spend their summers j o b s . A l t h o u g h c o n d i t i o n s are rarely e x p l o i t a -
helping b r i n g in the crop' (Mitchell, 1996, tive, t h e e m p l o y m e n t u n d e r t a k e n b y m i g r a n t
p . 8 3 ) . Y e t , as M i t c h e l l l a t e r c o n c l u d e s , the w o r k e r s i n S p a i n is c h a r a c t e r i z e d as ' u n s k i l l e d
p r o m i s e d 'rural idyll' 'was built o n t h e con- w o r k , o n p o o r pay, i n o c c u p a t i o n s associ-
stant, consistent objectification a n d racializa- ated with inferior social status, w i t h short
t i o n o f l a b o r ' (p. 1 0 7 ) . p e r i o d s o f e m p l o y m e n t , in j o b s that are rarely
T h e farmworkers of California w o n u n i o n part of a promotional ladder' (Hoggart and
recognition from growers in 1975, but by M e n d o z a , 1999, p. 554).
2002 only 27,000 of the 600,000 agricultural T h e e m p l o y m e n t o f m i g r a n t w o r k e r s has

w o r k e r s in t h e state w e r e u n i o n i z e d a n d rela- begun to spread from agriculture to other
tions remained exploitative. T h r e e - q u a r t e r s of sectors of the rural economy. However,
migrant farmworkers earned less than whereas in agriculture migrant workers could
$10,000 a year and 90 per cent h a d n o health b e d e s c r i b e d as r e s o l v i n g a l a b o u r s h o r t a g e , i n
insurance (Campbell, 2002). Housing avail- o t h e r industries they can displace an existing
ability has remained limited, with many w o r k f o r c e . S e l b y e t al. ( 2 0 0 1 ) , f o r example,
migrants forced to sleep in overcrowded discuss t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f M e x i c a n women
camps and hostel a c c o m m o d a t i o n or outside. in the crab houses of North Carolina.
A s o n e w o r k e r t o l d t h e Los Angeles Times: M e x i c a n workers were recruited in response
' W h e n it c o m e s t o p r o v i d i n g u s w i t h a p l a c e to pressure from foreign c o m p e t i t i o n and a
t o sleep, m a n y o w n e r s l o o k t h e o t h e r way. p e r c e i v e d inability t o c u t l a b o u r costs in t h e
They tell y o u " I t isn't m y p r o b l e m " . T h e y local, p r e d o m i n a n t l y black, workforce. The
d o n ' t c a r e w h a t h a p p e n s a t n i g h t as l o n g as w o m e n s t u d i e d b y S e l b y e t al. ( 2 0 0 1 ) were
y o u s h o w u p for w o r k at d a w n t h e n e x t day' employed as ' c r a b p i c k e r s ' i n a small crab
(Glionna, 2002, p. B l ) . T h e problem was house, extracting m e a t from crabs. Reflecting
partially addressed in 2002 when vineyard t h e g e n d e r i n g o f t h e c r a b i n d u s t r y , all t h e c r a b
o w n e r s a n d l o c a l r e s i d e n t s i n t h e N a p a Valley pickers in the c o m p a n y were w o m e n , includ-
v o t e d for a n o r d i n a n c e t o treble t h e a m o u n t ing 12 M e x i c a n s and t h r e e , elderly, white
o f h o u s i n g for m i g r a n t w o r k e r s in t h e c o u n t y . w o m e n with strong connections to the pro-
Also in 2 0 0 2 , f a r m w o r k e r s b e g a n a political prietors w h o h a d n o t b e e n displaced by the
mobilization that spread across t h e United shift to migrant w o r k e r s . Visa regulations
States in s u p p o r t o f u n i o n i z a t i o n a n d b e t t e r m e a n t that the M e x i c a n workers w e r e essen-
working conditions. tially t i e d t o t h e j o b , b u t w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s
26 3
were reasonable and with pay linked to than 3 5 per cent. In Austria, nearly 3 0 per cent
productivity, they could theoretically e a r n sig- o f residents in p r e d o m i n a n t l y rural regions are
nificantly a b o v e t h e m i n i m u m w a g e . Yet, t h e c o m m u t e r s , as a r e o v e r 1 5 p e r c e n t i n C a n a d a ,
spatial a n d social o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e w o r k i n g a n d a r o u n d 10 p e r c e n t o f residents in signif-
e n v i r o n m e n t clearly i n d i c a t e d t h e secondary icantly rural regions in Britain and Germany
status o f t h e m i g r a n t w o r k e r s . A l t h o u g h Selby (Schindegger a n d Krajasits, 1 9 9 7 ) . R a t e s of
e t al. ( 2 0 0 1 ) n o t e t h a t t h e M e x i c a n a n d w h i t e out-commuting predictably increase with
w o m e n had m u c h in c o m m o n , they observe d e c r e a s i n g s e t t l e m e n t s i z e ( s e e F i g u r e 1 8 . 1 ) , as
t h a t t h e r e was little i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m : w e l l as w i t h p r o x i m i t y t o l a r g e r u r b a n c e n t r e s .
Overall, c o m m u t i n g is a g r o w i n g practice.
In t he m a i n r o o m , t h r ee w h i te w o m e n si t The number of commuters in significantly
a t t a b l e s w h i le p i c k i ng t he m e a t o u t o f rural regions in Canada increased by over
t he c r a b s . T h e w o m e n a l w a y s si t together , 50 per cent b e t w e e n 1980 and 1990, and in
w o r k i ng a n d s o m e t i m e s s i n g i n g h y m n s , the U K by a r o u n d 25 per cent in the same
t a l k i ng a n d l a u g h i n g . O n t he o t h e r s i d e
p e r i o d ( S c h i n d e g g e r a n d Krajasits, 1 9 9 7 ) .
o f t he r o o m , 1 2 H i s p a n i c w o m e n s t a n d
These aggregate figures disguise s o m e of
a r o u n d a t a b le a n d w o r k in s i l e n c e . .. .
the dynamics of commuting within rural
T h e re is n o d i s c e r n i b l e c o n t a c t b e t w e e n
t he t wo group s o f p i c k e rs as t he da y areas. Analysis of trends in Canada, for
w e a r s o n . ( S e l b y e t a l . , 2 0 0 1 , p. 2 3 9 ) e x a m p l e , r e v e a l s t h a t o v e r 2 0 p e r c e n t o f all
c o m m u t i n g is w i t h i n r u r a l a r e a s o r between
Thus, whilst the Mexican women saw different r u r a l areas. C o m m u t i n g f r o m rural
t h e m s e l v e s as b e i n g e m p o w e r e d b y t h e l e v e r - areas i n t o u r b a n c e n t r e s c o n s t i t u t e s 11 p e r c e n t
age their earnings gave t h e m to send m o n e y o f all c o m m u t i n g , n e a r l y t h r e e t i m e s as m u c h
h o m e for t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n or as t r a v e l f r o m u r b a n a r e a s t o e m p l o y m e n t in
improvements to their homes, their w o r k i n g the countryside (Green and Meyer, 1997a). A
e x i s t e n c e w a s m a r k e d o u t v e r y c l e a r l y as b e i n g separate study o f W i l m o t Township, w i t h i n the
t e m p o r a r y a n d separate from that o f t h e local, commuting zone of Kitchener/Waterloo,
white, community. O n t a r i o , d e m o n s t r a t e s this c o m p l e x i t y f u r t h e r

( T h o m s o n a n d Mitchell, 1998). A r o u n d half o f
Commuting household members in the t o w n s h i p com-
R u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g has p r o d u c e d a disloca- m u t e d to e m p l o y m e n t in the urban centres of
t i o n o f places o f w o r k a n d places o f residence Waterloo, Kitchener or Cambridge. O f the
for m o s t rural p e o p l e . W h e r e a s in an a g r i c u l - r e m a i n i n g households, m o s t residents w o r k e d
turally d o m i n a t e d economy work and resi- at h o m e w i t h a m i n o r i t y w o r k i n g elsewhere
dence were closely b o u n d together within in t h e t o w n s h i p . W h i l s t c o m m u t i n g rates w e r e
discrete, coherent communities, today the h i g h e r for i n - m i g r a n t s t h a n for longer-term
limited n u m b e r of employment opportunities residents, T h o m s o n a n d Mitchell (1998) note
in rural c o m m u n i t i e s m e a n s c o m m u t i n g to that in nearly a quarter of n e w c o m e r house-
work outside their home settlement has holds b o t h p a r t n e r s w o r k e d at h o m e . As such,
become the n o r m for m o s t rural workers. they conclude that although commuting is
Three-quarters of non-metropolitan counties dominant, O n e cannot ignore the fact that
in the United States have out-commuting n e w residents are finding, o r creating, gainful
rates f r o m their main settlements of more e m p l o y m e n t i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e ' ( p p . 196197).
26 4
Canadian research also challenges the w i fe .. . [the c h i l d r e n] w e r e in b e d b y t h e n ,

p e r c e p t i o n t h a t c o m m u t i n g is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h I n e v e r g o t to s e e t h e m a t all .. . A n d it
middle class i n - m i g r a n t s . A l t h o u g h slightly w a s , it w a s m a k i n g m e r a t h e r ill .. . A n d
m o r e w o r k e r s e m p l o y e d in professional and t h a t t o o k m e t h r ee m o n t h s to recover .

( M a l e , E n g l a n d , q u o t e d b y M o n k e t al. ,
managerial occupations in total are com-
1 9 9 9 , pp . 2 7 - 2 8 )
m u t e r s t h a n for o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s , c o m m u t -
i n g b y r u r a l r e s i d e n t s is n o m o r e significant
Commuting c a n also h a v e a detrimental
for these o c c u p a t i o n types t h a n for m a n u a l o r
effect o n c o m m u n i t i e s . R e s e a r c h b y E r r i n g t o n
l o w e r skilled o c c u p a t i o n s ( G r e e n a n d M e y e r ,
(1997) o n a village in Berkshire, in t h e L o n d o n
1 9 9 7 b ) . I n d e e d , M o n k e t al. ( 1 9 9 9 ) i n t h e U K
c o m m u t i n g belt, f o u n d that residents w o r k i n g
n o t e that s o m e l o w e r skilled w o r k e r s are p r e -
o u t s i d e t h e v i l l a g e w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y less l i k e l y
p a r e d t o travel l o n g distances, i n v o l v i n g l o n g
t h a n t h o s e w o r k i n g in t h e village t o use shops
h o u r s , for e m p l o y m e n t . As t h e y q u o t e one
a n d facilities i n t h e v i l l a g e a n d m o r e l i k e l y t o
m a n describing, long-distance c o m m u t i n g o n
u s e facilities i n o t h e r p l a c e s ( T a b l e 1 8 . 3 ) . F o r
a d a i l y basis c a n h a v e a d e t r i m e n t a l effect on
communities where a majority of residents
health a n d family relations:
w o r k in o t h e r settlements, this can m e a n that
levels of patronage fall b e l o w the level at
Y o u ' ve g o t to t h i nk h o w fa r P e t e r b o r o u g h
w h i c h services a n d amenities can b e main-
is f r om [ p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e ] . It's 5 0 miles ,
tained, forcing their closure. This in turn
right. W e g o t p i c k e d u p .. . bu t h a v i n g to
reduces employment opportunities in the
g e t u p a t 4 o ' c l o c k in t he m o r n i n g , g e t
p i c k e d u p a t 5 , g o t t h e re fo r 6 .. . It w a s communities concerned and contributes to a
1 2 h o u rs a d a y . . . no t g e t t i n g h o m e a g a i n process in which some villages effectively
till 8 o ' c l o c k .. . s p e n d t wo h o u rs w i th y o u r b e c o m e specialist ' d o r m i t o r y ' s e t t l e m e n t s .
26 5
T a b le 1 8 . 3 P r o p o r t i on o f t o t a l visits pe r yea r t o selecte d

facilities in a Berkshire village m a d e by member s o f
surve y pane l (n = 55 ) w o r k i ng in t he village
an d w o r k i ng outsid e t he village
R e s i d e n t s w o r k i ng R e s i d e n t s w o r k i ng
in v i l l a g e (%) o u t s i d e v i l l a g e (%)
Ban k 88 12
Pos t office 64 36
Newsagen t 58 42
Bake r 63 37
Chemis t 67 33
Groce r 64 36
Clothe s sho p 66 34
Pu b 53 47
Church 46 54
Doctor's surger y 46 54
Source: A f t er E r r i n g t o n, 199 7
Summary
E c o n o m i c restructuring has reshaped t h e rural l a b o u r market. As t h e d e p e n d e n c y o n farming

a n d o t h e r resource-exploitation-based e m p l o y m e n t has declined, t h e range o f o c c u p a t i o n a l
o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n r u r a l a r e a s h a s e x p a n d e d vastly. T h e n a t u r e o f t h e r u r a l l a b o u r f o r c e h a s a l s o
changed, w i t h greater female participation and the recruitment of foreign migrant workers to
fill l a b o u r s h o r t a g e s i n b a s i c , u n s k i l l e d w o r k i n a g r i c u l t u r e a n d e l s e w h e r e . H o w e v e r , d e s p i t e
these broad trends, the experience of finding w o r k f o r i n d i v i d u a l s l i v i n g i n r u r a l a r e a s c a n still
b e difficult, o b s t r u c t e d b y b a r r i e r s i n c l u d i n g p r o b l e m s o f access t o t r a n s p o r t , t h e availability o f
childcare a n d t h e s h o r t a g e o f a p p r o p r i a t e , skilled, o c c u p a t i o n s . As s u c h , m a n y p e o p l e are
e m p l o y e d i n j o b s t h a t d o n o t fully u s e t h e i r skills, q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o r t r a i n i n g . T h i s a l s o m e a n s
t h a t m a n y r u r a l r e s i d e n t s a r e e a r n i n g less t h a n t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l i n c o m e p o t e n t i a l , b u t a r e
instead 'trapped' in l o w w a g e e m p l o y m e n t , contributing to problems o f poverty and
deprivation in rural society that are discussed further in t h e n e x t chapter.
Further Reading
Statistica l a n a l y s i s o f a w i d e r a n g e o f i s s u e s c o n c e r n i n g rural e m p l o y m e n t p a t t e r n s ,
i n c l u d i ng c o m m u t i n g , w i th e x a m p l e s f r om E u r o p e a n d N o r th A m e r i c a , is c o n t a i n e d in a n
e d i t e d v o l u m e b y R a y B o l l m a n a n d J o h n B r y d e n , Rural Employment: An International
Perspective ( C A B I n t e r n a t i o n a l, 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e s t r o n g e c o n o m i c f o c u s o f t h is w o r k,
h o w e v e r , r e v e a l s little o f t he a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f p e o p l e w o r k i ng in t he c o u n t r y s i d e ,
m o re o f w h i c h is c o n v e y e d b y Ian H o d g e a n d c o l l e a g u e s in ' B a r r i e rs to p a r t i c i p a t i on in
r e s i d u a l rural l a b o u r m a r k e t s ' , Work, Employment and Society, v o l u m e 16 , p a g e s
4 5 7 - 4 7 6 ( 2 0 0 2 ) . Fo r m o r e o n g e n d e r a n d rural e m p l o y m e n t , s e e t w o c h a p t e r s b y J o
Little: ' E m p l o y m e n t m a r g i n a l i ty a n d w o m e n ' s s e l f - i d e n t i t y ', in P. C l o k e a n d J . Little ( e d s ) ,
26 6
Contested Countryside Cultures ( R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 7 ) a n d C h a p t e r 5 in h e r Gender and

Rural Geography ( P r e n t i c e H a l l, 2 0 0 2 ) .
D o n Mitchell's b o o k The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California
Landscape ( U n i v e r s i ty o f M i n n e s o t a P r e s s , 1 9 9 6 ) d i s c u s s e s historica l d i m e n s i o n s o f
m i g r a nt w o r k e rs in C a l i f o r n i an a g r i c u l t u r e. Fo r d i s c u s s i o n o f m o r e c o n t e m p o r a r y
e x p e r i e n c e s , s e e t he w o r k o f Keith H o g g a r t a n d C r i s t o b a l M e n d o z a , ' A f r i c an i m m i g r a nt
w o r k e rs in S p a n i s h a g r i c u l t u r e ', Sociologia Ruralis, volum e 39 , page s 5 3 8 - 5 6 2 (1999) ;
a n d E m i ly Selby , D e b o r a h D i x o n a n d Holly H a p k e , w o m a n ' s p l a c e in t he c r a b
p r o c e s s i n g i n d u s t ry o f E a s t e r n C a r o l i n a ', Gender, Place and Culture, volume 8, page s
2 2 9 - 2 5 3 (2001) .
Websites
M o re i n f o r m a t i on o n m i g r a nt a g r i c u l t u r al w o r k e rs in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d c a m p a i g n s to
i m p r o ve t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s , c a n b e f o u n d o n t he F a r m w o r k e rs w e b s i t e ( w w w . f a r m w o r k e r s.
o r g ) a n d t he w e b s i t e o f t he R u r al C o a l i t i on ( w w w . r u r a l c o . o r g ) .
26 7
Hidden Rural Lifestyles:
Poverty a n d Social Exclusion
Introduction
T h e previous three chapters have highlighted a n u m b e r of processes and
e x p e r i e n c e s that have c o n t r i b u t e d t o d e p r i v a t i o n a n d p o v e r t y in rural areas:
p r o b l e m s o f access t o g o o d quality, affordable h o u s i n g a n d t h e b u r d e n o f d e b t
placed o n m a n y rural h o u s e h o l d s in s e e k i n g to pay for p r o p e r t y ( C h a p t e r 16);
p r o b l e m s o f the d e p e n d e n c y o f elderly residents o n local services that are b e i n g
rationalized ( C h a p t e r 17); a n d p r o b l e m s in finding a p p r o p r i a t e w o r k that leads to
underemployment and a prevalence of low wage employment (Chapter 18).
H o w e v e r , t h i s l a n d s c a p e o f r u r a l p o v e r t y is o f t e n h i d d e n . A s F u r u s e t h (1998)
observes, 'for m o s t residents o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d w o r l d , w h o live i n u r b a n and
s u b u r b a n c o m m u n i t i e s , t h e t e r m rural c o n v e y s a c o m f o r t a b l e i m a g e o f p i c t u r e s q u e
small t o w n s a n d o p e n c o u n t r y s i d e p o p u l a t e d b y prosperous farmers a n d other
m i d d l e - c l a s s o r s i m i l a r r e s i d e n t s ' (p. 2 3 3 ) .
T h e m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n o f r u r a l p o v e r t y ( o r its n e a r s y n o n y m s , ' d e p r i v a t i o n ' a n d

'social e x c l u s i o n ' - see B o x 19.1) has t h r e e facets. First, t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p o v e r t y
i n r u r a l a r e a s is f r a g m e n t e d . D e p r i v e d h o u s e h o l d s t e n d n o t t o b e c l u s t e r e d together
in identifiable territorial units, b u t rural c o m m u n i t i e s often i n c o r p o r a t e wide
discrepancies in i n c o m e a n d wealth. M i l b o u r n e , for e x a m p l e , notes that,
h o u s e h o l d s living in p o v e r t y in s m a l l a n d s c a t t e r e d rural s e t t l e m e n t s t e n d to r e m a i n p h y s i -
c a l l y h i d d e n , in c o n t r a s t to t he v i s u a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o v e r t y in t he u r b a n , a n d m o r e
s p e c i f i c a l l y i n n e r city a r e n a . I n d e e d , in m a n y a r e a s o f t he c o u n t r y s i d e , t he m a r k e d p h y s i c a l
s e g r e g a t i o n o f ' r i c h' a n d 'poor' h o u s e h o l d s - s u b u r b i a a n d i n n e r city - t e n d s to b e a b s e n t ,
w i th t he 'rural p o o r ' o f t e n living c h e e k - b y - j o w l w i th m o re a f f l u e n t r e s i d e n t s . ( M i l b o u r n e,
1 9 9 7 b , pp . 9 4 - 9 5 ) .
Hidden lifestyles: poverty and exclusion
Box 19.1 Key term
Poverty , deprivation and s o c i a l e x c l u s i o n : Thes e t e r ms a re ofte n use d i n t e r-

c h a n g e a b l y b u t in f a c t h a v e s u b t l y d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s . Poverty is a n a b s o l u t e c o n d i t i o n
that relate s to the economi c positio n an d powe r o f a househol d or i n d i v i d u a l.
H o u s e h o l d s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d a s l i v i ng ' in p o v e r t y ' o r ' b e l o w t h e p o v e r t y l i n e ' a g a i n s t
o f f i c i a l d e f i n i t i o ns (a s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ) o r a c a d e m i c d e f i n i t i o ns (a s in t h e U K ).
Deprivation is a r e l a t i ve t e r m t h a t s u g g e s t s t h a t s o m e c o m m u n i t i e s , h o u s e h o l d s o r i n d i-
v i d u a ls h a v e les s o f a r e s o u r c e t h a n o t h e r s . D e p r i v a t i o n is c o m m o n l y u s e d t o r e f e r t o
e c o n o m i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s b u t it c a n a l s o b e r e l a t e d t o h e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n , t r a n s p o r t,
acces s t o services . T h e us e o f t h e t e r m ' d e p r i v a t i o n' in a r u r al c o n t e x t has , h o w e v e r ,
b e e n c r i t i c i z e d b e c a u s e m a n y r u r al r e s i d e n t s d o n o t a c c e p t t h a t r u r al h o u s e h o l d s c a n
b e d e p r i v e d (se e W o o d w a r d , 1 9 9 6 ) . Social exclusion ha s g a i n e d p o p u l a r i ty in r e c e n t
year s a m o n g policy-makers a n d academic s a l i k e . It is a g a i n a b r o a d e r t e r m than
p o v e r t y , f o c u s i n g o n t h e w a y s in w h i c h h o u s e h o l d s a n d i n d i v i d u a ls a re marginalize d
f r o m m a i n s t r e a m s o c i e t y . H o w e v e r , socia l e x c l u s i o n ha s b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r n o t e n g a -
g i n g w i t h t h e r o o t cause s o f p o v e r t y b y i m p l y i ng t h a t r e m e d i e s lie in e d u c a t i o n , t r a i n-
i n g a n d p r o g r a m m e s f o r socia l i n t e g r a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n in t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i on o f w e a l t h .
T he d e b a t e a b o u t t h e a p p r o p r i a te us e o f t h e s e t e r m s in r u r al s t u d i e s c o n t i n u e s . In t h is
c h a p t e r , t h e t e r m ' p o v e r t y ' is u s u a l l y u s e d ; ' d e p r i v a t i o n' is o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e d whe n
r e f e r r i ng t o r e l a t i ve d i s a d v a n t a g e , a n d ' s o c i a l e x c l u s i o n ' w h e n r e f e r r i ng t o m a r g i n a l -
i z a t i o n w i t h in r u r al s o c i e t y .
Secondly, t h e discourse o f t h e 'rural idyll' masks t h e existence o f rural poverty.

T h e idealistic i m a g e s o f t h e r u r a l idyll d o n o t a p p e a r t o a l l o w f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
poverty w i t h i n t h e countryside and thus o p i n i o n b o t h inside and outside the
c o u n t r y s i d e t h a t is i n f o r m e d b y this d i s c o u r s e p r e s u m e s t h a t d e p r i v a t i o n c a n n o t b e
p r e s e n t ( C l o k e , 1 9 9 7 b ; W o o d w a r d , 1 9 9 6 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e r u r a l idyll
c a n e x a c e r b a t e r u r a l d e p r i v a t i o n b e c a u s e it c e l e b r a t e s aspects o f c o u n t r y life,
i n c l u d i n g isolation, t h e shortage o f h o u s i n g a n d absence o f industry, that c o n t r i b u t e
t o social e x c l u s i o n . Similarly, t h e s h a r e d s i t u a t i o n o f r u r a l r e s i d e n t s o f all social
p o s i t i o n s i n a n aesthetically v a l u e d n a t u r a l l a n d s c a p e t h a t is associated w i t h p e a c e
a n d tranquillity, is also p o r t r a y e d b y s o m e as ' c o m p e n s a t i o n ' for m a t e r i a l d e p r i v a t i o n ,
s u c h t h a t w h i l s t r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s m a y h a v e t h e s a m e level o f m a t e r i a l d e p r i v a t i o n as
u r b a n h o u s e h o l d s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p o v e r t y is j u d g e d t o b e less severe:
t he p o o r c a n t h us b e d i s r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g ' c o n t e n t ' w i th thei r ( u n d e m a n d i n g ) rural life, a n d

t he n o t - s o - p o o r will no t b e a b l e to r e c o n c i l e t he i d e a o f p o v e r t y w i th t he idyll-ise d i m a g i n e d
g e o g r a p h i e s o f t he village , s o a n y materia l e v i d e n c e o f p o v e r t y will b e s c r e e n e d o u t culturally.
( C l o k e , G o o d w i n e t a l . , 1 9 9 5 , p. 3 5 4 )
T h i r d l y , t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e r u r a l idyll also i n f o r m s a set o f m o r a l v a l u e s t h a t

d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f p o v e r t y i n r u r a l areas. I n t h e s e , r u r a l life is
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r e s i l i e n c e , p e r s e v e r a n c e a n d self-help. T h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s a n d
h o u s e h o l d s w h o slip i n t o p o v e r t y , t h e r e f o r e , m a y b e p e r c e i v e d n o t o n l y as a n
affront t o t h e ' r u r a l i d y l l ' , b u t also as 'failures' a n d ' u n d e s e r v i n g p o o r ' . A s s u c h , e v e n
26 9
households experiencing material deprivation may be unwilling to admit their

circumstances and b e c o m e complicit in the reproduction of the n o t i o n that rural
p o v e r t y d o e s n o t exist:
In t h is r e s p e c t , t h e p o o r u n w i t t i n g ly c o n s p i r e w i th t h e m o r e a f f l u e n t to h i de t h e i r o w n p o v e r t y
by d e n y i n g its e x i s t e n c e . T h o s e v a l u e s w h i c h a re a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e rural idyll r e s u l t in t h e
p o o r t o l e r a t i ng t h e i r m a t e r i a l d e p r i v a t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e p r i o r i ty g i v e n to t h o s e s y m b o l s o f
t he rural idyll: t h e family, t h e w o r k e t h i c , a n d g o o d h e a l t h . A n d w h e n m a t e r i a l d e p r i v a t i o n
b e c o m e s s o c h r o n ic b y t he s t a n d a r d o f t h e a r e a t h a t it h a s to b e r e c o g n i s e d b y t h e p o o r
t h e m s e l v e s , s h a m e f o r c e s s e c r e c y a n d t he m a n a g e m e n t o f t h a t p o v e r t y w i t h in t h e s m a l l e s t
p o s s i b l e f r a m e w o r k. ( F a b e s e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 , p p . 5 5 - 5 6 )
I n s e e k i n g t o m o v e b e y o n d stalled d e b a t e s a b o u t t h e identification of
d e p r i v a t i o n i n r u r a l areas a n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e use o f t e r m i n o l o g y , W o o d w a r d
( 1 9 9 6 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e g a p b e t w e e n a c a d e m i c a n d lay u n d e r s t a n d i n g s n e e d s t o b e
b r i d g e d a n d calls f o r t h e a t t i t u d e s a n d b e l i e f s o f d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f p e o p l e l i v i n g i n
r u r a l a r e a s t o b e t a k e n a c c o u n t o f i n r e s e a r c h o n r u r a l lifestyles. T h i s c h a p t e r s e e k s
t o h o n o u r t h i s call b y d i s c u s s i n g b o t h t h e e v i d e n c e f o r r u r a l p o v e r t y a n d t h e
e x p e r i e n c e s o f r u r a l p e o p l e l i v i n g i n o r w i t h d e p r i v a t i o n . It first e n g a g e s w i t h
e v i d e n c e for rural p o v e r t y in t h e U n i t e d States, C a n a d a a n d t h e U K before
discussing p a r t i c u l a r case studies a n d narratives o f r u r a l p o v e r t y . It t h e n focuses on
t h e p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e o f t h e h o m e l e s s i n r u r a l areas a n d c o n c l u d e s b y
considering responses t o the p r o b l e m of rural poverty.
Evidence for Rural Poverty than actual u n e m p l o y m e n t , t h e latter being

T h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f p o v e r t y i n r u r a l a r e a s is a key indicator of urban deprivation.
notoriously problematic. In addition to the Milbourne (1997b) also o b s e r v e s t h a t rural
cultural perceptions o f rurality a n d poverty poverty 'tends to b e characterized by higher
discussed above, indicators of deprivation proportions of households in employment,
d e v e l o p e d i n u r b a n contexts d o n o t translate m a r r i e d c o u p l e families a n d t h e elderly, a n d a
s m o o t h l y to rural situations. A l t h o u g h there l o w e r i n c i d e n c e o f single p a r e n t households
are i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n rural a n d u r b a n t h a n i n m e t r o p o l i t a n areas' (p. 9 8 ) .
p o v e r t y , t h e r e a r e also a n u m b e r o f differences F u r t h e r p r o b l e m s a r i s e i n t h e spatial scale
in emphasis in terms o f t h e key problems. at w h i c h i n d i c a t o r s o f d e p r i v a t i o n a r e c o n -
L i m i t e d accessibility, h i g h p e r capita service s t r u c t e d . L o c a l g o v e r n m e n t u n i t s i n r u r a l areas
costs, w e a k service provision a n d p r o b l e m s o f t e n d t o cover m o r e extensive a n d m o r e diverse
h o u s i n g p r o v i s i o n a r e all, f o r e x a m p l e , m a j o r territories than in urban areas and conse-
c o m p o n e n t s i n r u r a l d e p r i v a t i o n t h a t a r e less q u e n t l y t h e r e is a m o d e r a t i n g effect o n t h e
significant in urban areas ( F u r u s e t h , 1998). statistics c o l l e c t e d . M o r e o v e r , as n o t e d a b o v e ,
Conversely, problems o f overcrowding, high t h e r e is g r e a t e r i n t e r s p e r s i o n o f h o u s e h o l d s o f
c r i m e a n d a blighted physical environment d i f f e r i n g i n c o m e levels i n r u r a l communities
a r e g e n e r a l l y less i m p o r t a n t i n r u r a l d e p r i v a - than in urban n e i g h b o u r h o o d s such that even
tion than urban deprivation. Similarly, as at a s m a l l a r e a l e v e l t h e p r e s e n c e o f a m i n o r i t y
noted in Chapter 18, the u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t o f deprived h o u s e h o l d s m a y b e disguised b y
o f skills is m o r e o f a p r o b l e m i n r u r a l a r e a s the prosperity o f the majority o f households.
27 0
In response, attempts have been made to income to mean and median income
d e v e l o p m o r e spatially s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r s b u t r e s p e c t i v e l y , s u g g e s t e d e v e n h i g h e r levels of
m u c h o f t h i s w o r k is still i n its initial stages. poverty (Cloke, 1997b).
T h e s e qualifications n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , exist- The figures from b o t h N o r t h America and
ing indicators of deprivation do provide evi- t h e U K f u r t h e r suggest that t h e r e are signifi-
dence t h a t r u r a l p o v e r t y is m o r e pervasive cant variations in the degree of poverty
than popular perceptions envisage. In the b e t w e e n different social g r o u p s in t h e c o u n -
United States, w h e r e there is an official tryside a n d b e t w e e n different rural localities.
poverty line defined in terms of i n c o m e and In C a n a d a , for e x a m p l e , 2 8 p e r c e n t o f rural
necessary budgets for food and essential families w e r e calculated t o live b e l o w t h e l o w
household items, 15.9 per cent of the popula- i n c o m e cut-off in 1986 c o m p a r e d w i t h 13 p e r
tion in n o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n counties were calcu- cent of unattached people in rural areas
lated to be living in poverty in 1997, ( R e i m e r e t al., 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s b i a s is r e p l i c a t e d i n
compared with 13.2 per cent of the m e t r o - t h e U n i t e d States, w h e r e 61 p e r c e n t o f t h e
politan population (Nord, 1999). Similarly, rural p o o r have b e e n r e p o r t e d to b e in t w o -
i n C a n a d a a ' l o w i n c o m e c u t - o f F is fixed at adult households (Porter, 1989), a n d where
62 per cent or m o r e of household income 24 per cent o f rural children w e r e calculated
s p e n t o n food, c l o t h i n g a n d shelter, a n d 16 p e r to b e living in poverty in 1996, c o m p a r e d w i t h
c e n t o f r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s p a s s e d this t h r e s h o l d i n 2 2 p e r c e n t o f c h i l d r e n i n m e t r o p o l i t a n areas
1 9 8 6 ( R e i m e r e t al., 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s w a s a l o w e r (Dagata, 1999). Porter (1989) also suggests
percentage than in urban centres, b u t partly that c o m p a r e d w i t h the urban poor, the rural
because o f difference w i t h i n rural regions. T h e p o o r in t h e U n i t e d States are d i s p r o p o r t i o n -
p r o p o r t i o n of households in rural settlements of ately white and disproportionately elderly.
less t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 r e s i d e n t s , i n c l u d i n g f a r m s , falling Similarly, C l o k e et al.'s (1994) research in
below the low income cut-off was roughly E n g l a n d i n d i c a t e s t h a t levels o f p o v e r t y are
e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e i n cities o f o v e r 5 0 , 0 0 0 p o p - m o r e p r e v a l e n t for p a r t i c u l a r social groups,
u l a t i o n a n d R e i m e r e t al. ( 1 9 9 2 ) also n o t e t h a t notably single elderly h o u s e h o l d s , l o n g - t e r m
differences in the cost o f living m e a n t that resident households and those with close
r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s r e a c h e d t h e t h r e s h o l d at l o w e r relatives nearby, h o u s e h o l d s i n social h o u s i n g
levels o f i n c o m e t h a n u r b a n h o u s e h o l d s . a n d t h o s e w i t h o u t access t o a car (Table 19.1).
T h e r e is n o e q u i v a l e n t official d e f i n i t i o n o f These findings appear to support the notion
poverty in t h e U K , b u t research in the 1990s of class recomposition taking place with
applied the T o w n s e n d indicator that defines counterurbanization (see Chapter 6), with
h o u s e h o l d s i n o r o n t h e m a r g i n s o f p o v e r t y as poverty b e i n g m o r e extensive in the 'local'
t h o s e w i t h a n i n c o m e t h a t is less t h a n 1 4 0 p e r population than among in-migrants, but it
c e n t o f t h e i r state i n c o m e s u p p l e m e n t e n t i t l e - should also b e n o t e d t h o s e areas w i t h the
m e n t . U s i n g this m e a s u r e t h e research found m o s t e x t e n s i v e p o v e r t y also a t t r a c t e d s i g n i f i -
that 2 3 . 4 p e r c e n t o f h o u s e h o l d s in 12 rural cant n u m b e r s of in-migrants o n l o w incomes.
study areas w e r e in or on the margins of T h e geographical pattern o f rural poverty

p o v e r t y , w i t h r a t e s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t u d y areas reflects t h e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of these at-
r a n g i n g from 1 2 . 8 p e r c e n t i n C h e s h i r e t o 3 9 . 2 risk g r o u p s c o m b i n e d w i t h factors concern-
per cent in N o r t h u m b e r l a n d (Cloke, 1997b; ing the structure o f the local e c o n o m y and
C l o k e e t al., 1 9 9 4 ; M i l b o u r n e , 1 9 9 7 b ) . T w o labour market. In 1990, there were 765
alternative indicators, c o m p a r i n g household n o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n c o u n t i e s i n t h e U n i t e d States
27 1
Table 19. 1 Socia l group s w i th 2 0 pe r cen t o r more o f household s

in o r o n t he margins o f povert y in 12 rural localitie s in Englan d
% in o r o n m a r g i ns o f p o v e r t y
One-perso n elderl y household s 41. 8
Two-perso n elderl y household s 27. 4
Two-perso n non-elderl y household s 20. 5
Househol d residen t f o r les s t h a n 5 year s 24. 1
Househol d residen t f o r 5-1 5 year s 31. 8
Househol d residen t f o r m o re t h a n 15 year s 42. 4
Clos e relative s living nearb y 60. 0
Housin g f u l ly o w n e d 34. 1
Household s in sociall y r e n t e d p r o p e r ty 47. 1
Household s w i th n o acces s t o a private ca r 42. 4
Source: A f t er M i l b o u r n e, 1997 b
where m o r e than 20 per cent of the population Porter (1989) found that nearly two-thirds o f
lived b e l o w t h e p o v e r t y line considerably rural households in p o v e r t y in the United
less t h a n t h e 2 , 0 8 3 c o u n t i e s t h a t w e r e i n t h e S t a t e s h a d at l e a s t o n e p a i d w o r k e r i n the
same position in 1960. H o w e v e r , in 5 3 5 c o u n - household, and nearly a quarter had two,
ties, t h e p o v e r t y rate h a d e x c e e d e d 2 0 p e r c e n t whilst the comparative figures for u r b a n p o o r
of t h e p o p u l a t i o n in each o f t h e years 1960, households w e r e 51 p e r cent and 16 p e r cent
1970, 1980 and 1990. As Figure 19.1 shows, respectively. As such, a key factor in e x p l a i n -
m o s t o f these 'persistent p o v e r t y c o u n t i e s ' are i n g r u r a l p o v e r t y is t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f a l o w
located in the southern states and in wage economy, especially when combined
Appalachia, contributing to a regional geo- with higher mean expenditure by rural
graphy of rural poverty in the U S . Nearly a h o u s e h o l d s o n b a s i c s s u c h as fuel a n d t r a n s -
third o f t h e rural p o o r w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d in port. In 2002, o n e in four rural workers aged
these counties in 1990, w i t h an average o f 29 2 5 a n d o v e r i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e a r n e d less
p e r cent o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n in t h e persistent than the weighted poverty threshold of
poverty counties living b e l o w the poverty $ 1 8 , 3 9 0 p e r year, c o m p a r e d w i t h o n e in six
line. U n e m p l o y m e n t rates w e r e significantly urban workers (ERS, 2003a). L o w wage earners
higher than the rural average in these c o u n - are particularly c o n c e n t r a t e d in agriculture,
ties, and average income levels markedly m a n u f a c t u r i n g , retailing and services sectors
l o w e r . T h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f p o v e r t y i n t h e s e areas that collectively c o m p r i s e 71 p e r cent o f rural
results f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n o f physical, social employment in the United States. Indeed,
a n d e c o n o m i c factors, w i t h t h e c o u n t i e s g e n e r - across t h e b o a r d average w e e k l y earnings in
ally c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s p a r s e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , non-metropolitan counties in 2002 were
t h e decline o f staple industries, l o n g - s t a n d i n g 20 per cent below those in metropolitan
low wage economies and high levels of counties (ERS, 2003b).
d i s a b i l i t i e s t h a t affect l a b o u r m a r k e t partici- A similar p i c t u r e has b e e n f o u n d i n t h e U K ,
p a t i o n ( L a p p i n g e t al., 1 9 8 9 ) . w i t h average earnings in peripheral rural local-
One of the most prominent features of ities as m u c h as 2 5 p e r c e n t l o w e r t h a n the
r u r a l p o v e r t y is t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e ' w o r k i n g national m e a n ( C a b i n e t Office, 2 0 0 0 ) . In over a
p o o r ' , individuals w h o are in employment, q u a r t e r o f h o u s e h o l d s in rural Wales t h e gross
often in t h e service sector, b u t w h o have l o w a n n u a l salaries o f t h e first t w o a d u l t e a r n e r s i n
i n c o m e s a n d limited employee benefits such t h e m i d - 1 9 9 0 s w e r e less t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 - with
as h e a l t h insurance (Lapping et al., 1989). localities w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n w h e r e t h e p r o p o r t i o n
27 2
Table 19. 2 Household s w h e r e t he gros s annua l salarie s o f

t he first t w o adults wa s les s t h a n 8,00 0 in e i g h t cas e stud y
area s in Englan d a n d Wales , mid-1990 s
Englan d % Wale s %_
N o r t h u m b e r l a nd 53. 4 Betws-y-Coe d 43. 6
N o r th Yorkshire 50. 5 Devil's Bridge 41. 1
Devo n 46. 9 Tana t Valle y 37. 0
Shropshire 33 Teifi Valle y 36 3
Source: A f t er Cloke e t al. , 199 7
w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r ( C l o k e e t al., 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e e x p e c t a t i o n that p o v e r t y has a material

F u r t h e r m o r e , case s t u d y r e s e a r c h i n England e x p r e s s i o n is a l s o e v i d e n t i n d e s c r i p t i o n s by
a n d Wales suggested that b e t w e e n a third a n d a rural residents in E n g l a n d and Wales o f the
h a l f o f h o u s e h o l d s i n r u r a l areas r e c e i v e d less deprivation that they perceive to b e present in
than 8 , 0 0 0 from t h e g r o s s a n n u a l salaries o f t h e i r l o c a l i t y , as r e p o r t e d b y C l o k e e t al. ( 1 9 9 7 )
t h e first t w o a d u l t s ( T a b l e 1 9 . 2 ) . a n d M i l b o u r n e ( 1 9 9 7 b ) . T h e s e frequently refer
to low incomes, limited e m p l o y m e n t oppor-
Experiences of Rural Poverty
tunities, environmental conditions and the
Individuals' experiences of rural poverty are
lack o f public transport a n d services:
strongly shaped by their geographical context.
H o u s e h o l d s in poverty in generally affluent [ T h e re is a ] s h o r t a g e o f loca l e m p l o y m e n t
rural c o m m u n i t i e s , for e x a m p l e , c a n e x p e r i e n c e a n d low w a g e s [and ] deprivation associ -
' d o u b l e d e p r i v a t i o n ' in that t h e y are n o t o n l y ate d w i th a g r i c u l t u r al policy (Retired
in a d e p r i v e d situation against t h e national male , Wales , quote d by M i l b o u r n e,
m e a n , b u t local 'peer-pressure' a b o u t t h e type 1 9 9 7 b , p. 1 1 0 )
o f e x p e c t e d lifestyle is b a s e d o n a n above-
Employmen t [is] n o t available , no rea l
average i n c o m e l e v e l . Y e t , p u b l i c l y at least,
j o b s . [ We n e e d ] h i g h e r i n c o m e a n d bette r
individuals in this p o s i t i o n will commonly e m p l o y m e n t . [ T h e re a r e ] t o o m a n y od d
n o t a c k n o w l e d g e their poverty. As discussed j o bs - no t e n o u g h rea l j o b s . ( 3 6 - y e a r - o l d
at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f this c h a p t e r , t h e denial m a n , W a l e s , q u o t e d b y M i l b o u r n e, 1 9 9 7 b ,
o f r u r a l d e p r i v a t i o n is a c o r e e l e m e n t i n n a r - p. 1 1 0 )
ratives of poverty in the UK countryside.
[ T h e re is a ] lac k o f a f f o r d a b le a c c o m m o -
W o o d w a r d (1996) observes that rural poverty
dation, lac k o f money , lac k o f choic e o f
is o f t e n p e r c e i v e d as a n h i s t o r i c a l anachro-
jobs . (50-year-ol d m a n , Wales , quote d by
nism, such that people charged w i t h adminis-
M i l b o u r n e, 1 9 9 7 b , p. 1 1 1 )
tering village charities remark that their
function is b e c o m i n g defunct. Behind this [ We need ] improved wate r supply ,
p e r c e p t i o n is a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f p o v e r t y with i m p r o v e d t e l e p h o n e lines , improvemen t
s q u a l o r a n d a n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t it m u s t h a v e a in t he p o l l u t i on o f rivers in t he a r e a .. .
i m p r o v e m e n t in polic e s e r v i c e s . ( R e s i d e n t ,
clear, m a t e r i a l , e x p r e s s i o n . T h i s h a s a t w o - f o l d
Wales , quote d b y C l o ke e t al. , 1997 ,
i m p l i c a t i o n . P o v e r t y t h a t is h i d d e n b e h i n d fairly
p. 1 3 1 )
respectable, well-maintained, p r o p e r t y faades
gets i g n o r e d , whilst in searching for examples o f T h e s e statements, however, convey a rather
rural poverty, p e o p l e m a y p o i n t to rundown disjointed, detached engagement with rural
cottages a n d t h e like w h o s e residents m a y n o t poverty. T h e y reveal n o t h i n g a b o u t h o w mat-
actually consider themselves t o b e deprived. e r i a l d e p r i v a t i o n a c t u a l l y i m p a c t s o n t h e lifestyle
27 4
c h o i c e s a n d d e c i s i o n s o f t h o s e affected, o r h o w in small t o w n s a n d villages. T h e t o w n s and

individuals m a y e x p e r i e n c e multiple forms o f villages c o n c e r n e d t e n d t o b e in m o r e p e r i -
d e p r i v a t i o n . M o r e e v i d e n c e o f this c o m e s f r o m p h e r a l r u r a l areas a w a y f r o m m a j o r s o u r c e s o f
rural regions where poverty is b o t h more e m p l o y m e n t . T h e lack o f e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r -
p e r v a s i v e a n d m o r e w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d , s u c h as tunities has e n c o u r a g e d o u t - m i g r a t i o n , leav-
A p p a l a c h i a i n t h e e a s t e r n U n i t e d States and ing surplus, and consequently cheap, h o u s i n g
t h e area n o r t h i n t o N e w Y o r k State. T h e r e g i o n t h a t h a s b e e n filled b y t e n a n t s u n a b l e t o afford
is t h e l o c a t i o n o f a c l u s t e r o f p e r s i s t e n t p o v e r t y a c c o m m o d a t i o n in larger towns. M u c h of t h e
counties, although C l o k e (1997b) notes m a n y h o u s i n g is s u b - s t a n d a r d y e t t h e r e n t s c h a r g e d
p e o p l e in A p p a l a c h i a are n o t disposed t o accept a r e still d e m a n d i n g o n t h e b u d g e t s o f t e n a n t s ,
the 'stigmatic tag of " p o o r " or "deprived"' many of w h o m are d e p e n d e n t on welfare
(p. 2 6 5 ) . F i t c h e n ( 1 9 9 1 ) c o n t e n d s t h a t p o v e r t y p a y m e n t s . M a n y o f t h e villages h a v e n o p u b l i c
i n t h e r e g i o n is t y p i c a l l y m a n i f e s t i n t h r e e t y p e s transportation service, such that u n e m p l o y m e n t
o f residential landscape, a n d h e r descriptions o f is e x a c e r b a t e d n o t o n l y b y a s h o r t a g e o f l o c a l
these sites p r o v i d e some indication of the j o b s b u t also b y t h e difficulties o f t r a v e l l i n g t o
dynamics o f rural poverty. w o r k elsewhere.
First, F i t c h e n a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e p o c k e t s o f Thirdly, Fitchen locates poverty in the
l o n g - t e r m , inter-generational poverty in the g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f trailer parks a n d i n f o r m a l
o p e n countryside. T h e s e are generally locations clusters of trailers in the region. Trailer
w i t h p o o r c o n d i t i o n s for a g r i c u l t u r e w h e r e t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n h a s i n c r e a s e d as a r e l a t i v e l y
r e s i d e n t families d i d n o t a d a p t t o t h e e m p l o y - a f f o r d a b l e h o u s i n g o p t i o n (see C h a p t e r 16),
m e n t opportunities provided in t h e towns and a l t h o u g h t h e costs o f p u r c h a s i n g trailers h a v e
cities o f t h e r e g i o n . A s F i t c h e n d e s c r i b e s , t h e also i n c r e a s e d w i t h d e m a n d a n d t h e m a i n t e -
social e x c l u s i o n o f s u c h h o u s e h o l d s is b a s e d o n n a n c e o f trailers can involve n u m e r o u s h i d d e n
e c o n o m i c status b u t r e i n f o r c e d b y spatial i s o l a - costs t h a t are significant for l o w i n c o m e resi-
tion and cultural stereotyping: dents. Trailers c a n have i n a d e q u a t e space for
families a n d m a n y are e x p e n s i v e t o heat, w i t h
p o o r insulation. Increasingly trailer parks are
T h e i r s o c i a l s e p a r a t i o n f r om t he large r
urban-base d community is reveale d also s t i g m a t i z e d as sites o f p o v e r t y . T h e c u m u l a -
v e r b a l l y: T h e y refe r to it a s 'the o u t s i d e tive d e p r i v a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d b y m a n y rural
world.' Reciprocally , t he peopl e o f t he p e o p l e i n p o v e r t y is i l l u s t r a t e d b y Fitchen's

rural p o c k e t s o f p o v e r t y a re r e f e r r ed to b y p e n portrait o f o n e trailer p a r k resident:
t he large r c o m m u n i t y in s u c h d e r o g a t o r y
t e r ms a s ' p o o r w h i te trash, ' 'the shac k
S a n d y is t w e n t y y e a r s o l d . S h e live s in a
people, ' o r ' p e o p l e w h o live like animals. '
trailer p a rk in a s m a l l village a n d is sol e
T h e i r s o c i a l life is a l m o s t e n t i r e ly c o n -
provide r for hersel f a n d he r o n e child. T he
fined to t he immediate neighborhoo d
welfare d e p a r t m e n t w a n t e d he r to ge t a
o r w i t h in a c l u s t e r o f s i m i l a r d e p r e s s e d
job, a n d s h e hersel f d e s p e r a t e l y w a n t e d
n e i g h b o r h o o d s t h a t a re linked b y g e o -
to ge t off welfare . T h e o n l y w o rk s h e c o u l d
g r a p h ic proximity, kinship, m a r r i a g e , c a r
ge t w a s a thirty-hour a w e e k job, a t $ 4 . 0 5
t r a d i n g, a n d s h a r e d p o v e r t y a n d s t i g m a .
a n hour, in a s u p e r m a r k e t in t he t o w n . T h is
( F i t c h e n , 1 9 9 1 , p. 119 )
leave s he r b e l o w t he p o v e r t y level ; eve n
w i th c o n t i n u e d f o o d - s t a m p a n d m e d i c a i d
S e c o n d l y , p o v e r t y is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e o p l e benefits , sh e ha s insufficien t income .
on low incomes living in rented housing S a n d y interviewe d a t a fast-foo d restauran t
27 5
for a s e c o n d p a r t - t i me j ob bu t s h e f o u n d it S h e s a y s t h i n gs m a y i m p r o ve o n c e he r
i m p o s s i b l e to c o m b i n e t he shifts o f t wo n e w b o y f r i e nd g e t s o u t o f jail. H e r f o n d e s t
j o b s , a s t he r e s t a u r a n t w o u l d no t i n f o rm h o p e is t h a t life will s o m e h o w b e b e t t e r fo r
h e r until e a c h Friday w h a t he r nex t w e e k ' s he r d a u g h t e r , C a r o l S u e , 2 6 , a n d h e r t w o -
schedul e would be . B e s i d e s , sh e still y e a r - o l d g r a n d d a u g h t e r , J a c q u e l i n e R u t h.
w o u l d no t h a v e h a d h e a l t h benefits . S h e B u t t h a t d r e a m m a y b e illusory. C a r o l S u e
d e c i d e d no t to p u r s u e t he job. Eventually , Steven s earn s just $3.8 5 a n hou r a s a
w h e n s h e go t t o o fa r b e h i n d in t he rent, nursing-hom e aide . He r life, like he r
S a n d y m o v e d in w i th a f r i e n d. ( F i t c h e n , mother's , ha s bee n a successio n o f small -
1 9 9 1 , p. 132 ) t o w n r o m a n c e s w i th m e n p r o ne to d r u n k-
ennes s an d violence . Little Jacquelin e
The cumulative experience of rural R u th w a s f a t h e r e d b y C a r o l S u e ' s c u r r e nt
poverty does n o t apply just to individuals but b o y f r i e n d, bu t t he t o d d l e r d o e s n ' t c a r ry
c a n also b e i n t e r - g e n e r a t i o n a l . C l o k e ( 1 9 9 7 b ) , e i t h e r p a r e n t 's s u r n a m e .. . If w e e n d u p in
s o m e c u s t o d y fight, I d o n ' t w a n t h e r in
for e x a m p l e , r e c o u n t s t h e story o f o n e small
court alread y usin g he r daddy's las t
t o w n r e s i d e n t i n K a n s a s , as t o l d t o Newsweek
n a m e . ' ( M c C o r m i c k, 1 9 8 8 , p. 2 2 )
magazine:
P o v e r t y is p a s s e d f r om o n e g e n e r a t i o n to E x p e r i e n c e s o f rural p o v e r t y are s h a p e d b y
a n o t h e r : it is t he o n l y l e g a c y o f t he poor . o v e r - a r c h i n g processes o f restructuring, b u t in
I da S w a l l e y m a r r i ed a t 1 5 to e s c a p e a each individual's case initial situations of
h a r d - d r i n k i ng stepfather . Sh e ha s no u n e m p l o y m e n t or l o w i n c o m e have the p o t e n -
m a r k e t a b le skills . N o w 4 3 , s h e is s e p a -
tial t o m u l t i p l y i n t o s p i r a l l i n g p r o b l e m s o f i l l -
r a t e d f r om h e r f o u r th h u s b a n d a n d is
health, c r i m e , d r u g abuse, alcoholism, family
living in a s q u a l i d $ 2 0 0 - a - m o n t h a p a r t-
breakup and homelessness (see B o x 19.2).
m e n t t h a t c o u l d b e o w n e d b y a n u r b an
Many o f these e x p e r i e n c e s are shared with
s l u m l o r d. S w a l l e y s h a r e s t he h o v e l w i th
he r 1 7 - y e a r - o l d s o n a n d a m e n a g e r i e o f urban households in poverty, b u t the particu-
bug s a n d mice . A n ol d fly swatte r is the onl y larities o f rural localities i n f l u e n c e t h e ability
d e c o r a t i o n o n o n e wall. T h e K a n s a s h e a t of individuals to escape from poverty and
p u s h e s t he fetid ai r t o w a r ds 1 0 0 d e g r e e s inform the attitudes of w i d e r society towards
a n d a g g r a v a t e s Swalley' s hear t p r o b l e m s . the disadvantaged.
Box 19.2 Rural homelessness
T he r e l a t i ve i n v i s i b i l i ty o f r u r al p o v e r t y is p a r t i c u l a r ly m a r k e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r o b l e m
o f h o m e l e s s n e s s . N o t o n l y is h o m e l e s s n e s s d i s g u i s e d b y t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e r u r al i d y ll
( C l o ke e t a l . , 2 0 0 1 a , 2 0 0 2 ) , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e r u r al h o m e l e s s n e s s is o f t e n l i t e r a l ly les s
v i s i b le t h a n u r b a n h o m e l e s s n e s s . R u r al h o m e l e s s n e s s is i d e n t i f i e d les s w i t h r o u g h s t r e e t
s l e e p i n g t h a n w i t h t r a n s i t o ry r e s i d e n c e in t e m p o r a r y a c c o m m o d a t i o n , h o s t e l s , d i s u s e d
b u i l d i n gs o r i n v o l u n t a ry r e s i d e n c e w i t h f r i e n ds a n d f a m i l y. T h e r u r al h o m e l e s s p o p u l a -
t i o n a l s o t e n d s t o b e m o r e d i f f u s e t h a n in u r b a n a r e a s a n d is s y s t e m a t i c a l l y under-
c o u n t e d in o f f i c i a l s u r v e y s ( C l o k e e t a l . , 2 0 0 1 b ; L a w r e n c e , 1 9 9 5 ) . As s u c h , t h e scal e
o f t h e p r o b l e m o f r u r al h o m e l e s s n e s s c a n g o u n a c k n o w l e d g e d b y r e s p o n s i b l e loca l
g o v e r n m e n t agencie s as w e l l as by t h e public.
27 6
T he s h o r t c o m i n g s o f o f f i c i al c o u n t s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , statistica l e v i d e n c e nevertheles s
p o i n ts t o a s i g n i f i c a n t a n d g r o w i n g p r o b l e m o f r u r al homelessness . In 1996 # fo r example ,
t h e r e w e r e n e a r l y 16,00 0 r e g i s t e r e d h o m e l e s s h o u s e h o l d s in r u r al E n g l a n d , o r 14. 4 p e r c e n t
o f t h e n a t i o n a l t o t a l ( C l o ke e t al. , 2 0 0 2 ) . W h i l s t t h is f i g u re w a s b o t h b e l o w t h e n a t i o n a l
a v e r a g e a n d m a r g i n a l ly d o w n o n 1992 , homelessnes s in ' d e e p r u r a l' districts h a d i n c r e a s e d
b y o v e r 1 2 p e r c e n t sinc e 199 2 a n d o v e r a q u a r t e r o f r u r al loca l a u t h o r i t i es r e p o r t e d a n
increas e in h o m e l e s s n e s s o f m o r e t h a n 2 5 p e r c e n t . In t h e U n i t e d States , L a w r e n c e (1995 )
r e p o r ts e s t i m a t e d r a t e s o f homelessnes s in r u r al c o u n t i e s in I o w a a s h i g h a s 7 0 p e r s o n s p e r
1,00 0 p o p u l a t i o n , w i t h a n a v e r a g e r a te o f a r o u n d 2 0 p e r s o n s p e r 1,00 0 p o p u l a t i o n t h a t
w a s h i g h e r t h a n r a t e s in N e w Y o r k, Los A n g e l e s o r W a s h i n g t o n .
H o m e l e s s n e s s in r u r al a r e a s m a y a l s o h a v e d i f f e r e n t cause s f r o m t h a t in u r b a n a r e a s .
H o u s i n g f a c t o r s i n c l u d i ng t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s h o r t h o l d t e n a n c i e s , m o r t g a g e a r r e a rs
a n d t h e los s o f r e n t e d o r t i e d a c c o m m o d a t i o n t h r o u g h o t h e r r e a s o n s a re a l l m o r e s i g n i -
f i c a n t in r u r al t h a n in u r b a n h o m e l e s s n e s s ( C l o ke e t a l . , 2 0 0 2 ) . I n d i v i d u a l s' a c c o u n t s
o f r u r al h o m e l e s s n e s s c o l l e c t e d b y C l o k e e t a l . ( 2 0 0 2 ) e m p h a s i z e t h e m u l t i p le event s
t h a t a re o f t e n i n v o l v e d in t h e proces s o f b e c o m i n g h o m e l e s s , i n c l u d i ng los s o f e m p l o y m e n t ,
r e l a t i o n s h i p b r e a k d o w n , f a m i ly d i s p u t e s a n d illness , b u t t h e s h o r t a g e o f a f f o r d a b le
h o u s i n g , i n c l u d i ng d i f f i c u l t i es in accessin g socia l h o u s i n g , is a c o m m o n f a c t o r t h a t t i ps
o t h e r w i s e v u l n e r a b l e p e o p l e i n to h o m e l e s s n e s s . T h e y a l s o n o t e t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n o f
r u r al a n d u r b a n h o m e l e s s n e s s , w i t h e c o n o m i c m i g r a n ts f r o m r u r al a r e a s e x p e r i e n c i n g
h o m e l e s s n e s s a n d h o m e l e s s i n d i v i d u a ls f r o m c i t i e s a n d t o w n s m o v i n g t o r u r al a r e a s
t h a t a re p e r c e i v e d t o b e safer , c h e a p e r a n d a m o r e p l e a s a n t e n v i r o n m e n t . I n d e e d , t h e
a c c o u n t s q u o t e d b y C l o k e e t a l . ( 2 0 0 2 ) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p e r i o d i c m o b i l i ty o f h o m e l e s s
i n d i v i d u a ls b e t w e e n u r b a n a n d r u r al l o c a t i o n s is n o t u n c o m m o n .
For more see Paul Cloke, Paul Milbourne and Rebekah Widdowfield (2002) Rural Homelessness
(Policy Press); Paul Cloke, Paul Milbourne and Rebekah Widdowfield (2001) Homelessness and
rurality: exploring connections in local spaces of rural England. Sociologia Ruralis, 41, 438-453; and
Mark Lawrence (1995) Rural homelessness: a geography without a geography. Journal of Rural Studies,
11,297-307.
Summary
P o v e r t y is p r e v a l e n t a n d p e r s i s t e n t i n r u r a l a r e a s , y e t its p r e s e n c e is o f t e n d i s g u i s e d b y d i f f u s i o n
a n d b y t h e p o w e r f u l discourse o f t h e rural idyll. T h e h i d d e n n a t u r e o f rural p o v e r t y can
frustrate t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f policies a n d initiatives t o tackle t h e p r o b l e m . In general, a t t e m p t s
t o address rural p o v e r t y take o n e o f t w o f o r m s . First, t h e alleviation o f p o v e r t y c a n b e an
o b j e c t i v e o f r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t s t r a t e g i e s (see C h a p t e r 1 0 ) . H o w e v e r , t h i s a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n
a r g u e d t o b e o n l y partially successful. E c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t initiatives m a y create m o r e j o b s ,
b u t t h e r e is u s u a l l y n o g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e n e w j o b s w i l l g o t o l o c a l r e s i d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g
p o v e r t y , t h a t o b s t a c l e s t o e m p l o y m e n t s u c h as t r a n s p o r t w i l l b e o v e r c o m e , t h a t w a g e s w i l l b e
s u f f i c i e n t t o raise i n c o m e levels o r t h a t a l t e r a t i o n w i l l r e s u l t i n n o n - e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s i n
deprivation. Secondly, individuals a n d h o u s e h o l d s e x p e r i e n c i n g p o v e r t y o r n e a r - p o v e r t y are
s u p p o r t e d b y welfare p a y m e n t s f r o m t h e state. Yet, again, welfare p a y m e n t s are o f t e n
27 7
i n s u f f i c i e n t t o lift r e c i p i e n t s o u t o f p o v e r t y , a n d p r o g r a m m e s i m p l e m e n t e d as p a r t o f n a t i o n a l
welfare systems m a y n o t b e a t t u n e d to t h e particular circumstances of rural poverty.
F u r t h e r m o r e , C l o k e suggests that welfare reforms in line w i t h N e w R i g h t ideologies in
t h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r o b l e m o f r u r a l p o v e r t y b y r e m o v i n g t h e safety
n e t for m a n y h o u s e h o l d s . I n d e e d , n e w e r ' w o r k f a r e ' a n d 'welfare t o w o r k ' p r o g r a m m e s have
b e e n c r i t i c i z e d as i n e f f e c t i v e i n r u r a l a r e a s b e c a u s e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e o f r u r a l p o v e r t y
a n d of the rural e c o n o m y and labour market.
A s s u c h , i n c r e a s i n g e m p h a s i s is p l a c e d o n s e l f - h e l p a n d v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n as s t r a t e g i e s f o r
d e a l i n g w i t h r u r a l p o v e r t y . T h e s e i n c l u d e f o r m s o f c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d m u t u a l i t y s u c h as s o u p
k i t c h e n s , f o o d b a n k s a n d c r e d i t u n i o n s , as w e l l as i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k s a n d c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m s
developed by deprived households themselves. Additionally, the historic response to rural
p o v e r t y is still a n o p t i o n - m i g r a t i o n . P u b l i c officials i n C a l i f o r n i a h a v e s o u g h t t o a d d r e s s
problems of u n e m p l o y m e n t a m o n g former agricultural workers by encouraging t h e m to
m i g r a t e e a s t w a r d t o s t a t e s s u c h as K a n s a s , I o w a a n d N e b r a s k a w h e r e l o w s k i l l e d j o b s e x i s t i n
i n d u s t r i e s l i k e m e a t - p a c k i n g . M i g r a t i o n itself, h o w e v e r , is a n e x p e n s i v e p r o c e s s t h a n c a n b e
b e y o n d t h e m e a n s o f m a n y rural h o u s e h o l d s t r a p p e d in c o n d i t i o n s o f multiple deprivation.
Further Reading
T he c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , d y n a m i c s a n d relative n e g l e c t o f rural p o v e r t y a re d i s c u s s e d , w i th
e v i d e n c e f r om E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s , b y P a u l C l o k e in ' P o o r c o u n t r y: m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n ,
p o v e r t y a n d rurality', in P. C l o k e a n d J . Little ( e d s ) , Contested Countryside Cultures
( R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 7 ) ; a n d b y P a u l M i l b o u r ne in ' H i d d en f r om v i e w : p o v e r t y a n d
m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n in rural B r i t a i n ', in P. M i l b o u r ne ( e d . ) , Revealing Rural Others':
Representation, Power and Identity in the British Countryside (Pinter, 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e
p e r c e i v e d i n c o m p a t i b i l i ty b e t w e e n d e p r i v a t i o n a n d t he d i s c o u r s e o f t he rural idyll is
d i s c u s s e d in m o r e d e t a i l b y R a c h e l W o o d w a r d in h e r a r t i c le ' " D e p r i v a t i o n" a n d " t he
rural": a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n into c o n t r a d i c t o ry d i s c o u r s e s ' , in Journal of Rural Studies,
v o l u m e 12 , p a g e s 5 5 - 6 7 ( 1 9 9 6 ) . J a n e t F i t c h e n ' s s t u d y o f rural c o m m u n i t i e s in N e w York
S t a t e i n c l u d e s a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f p r o b l e m s o f rural p o v e r t y , h i g h l i g h t i ng t he w a y in
w h i c h m u l t i p le f a c t o rs c o n t r i b u te to d e p r i v a t i o n ; s e e Endangered Spaces, Enduring
Places: Change, Identity and Survival in Rural America (Westvie w Press , 1991) .
Websites
M o re i n f o r m a t i on o n rural p o v e r t y in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s c a n b e f o u n d a t t he R u r al
P o v e r t y R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ( w w w . r p r c o n l i n e . o r g ) . T h e C o u n t r y s i d e A g e n c y in E n g l a n d
h a s a c o n c e r n w i th t a c k l i ng s o c i a l e x c l u s i o n in rural a r e a s , a s d e t a i l e d o n its w e b s i t e
(www.countryside.gov.uk) .
27 8
Rurality, National Identity
and Ethnicity
SHI
Introduction
T h e countryside has l o n g played an i m p o r t a n t role in the constitution o f national
i d e n t i t i e s . C i t i e s m i g h t b e c e l e b r a t e d as s y m b o l s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d m a y p r o v i d e the
stages for m o n u m e n t a l landscapes o f p o w e r that celebrate national prowess, b u t
t h e y a l s o a t t r a c t s u s p i c i o n as ' m e l t i n g p o t s ' o f d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e s a n d i d e a s , w h e r e
national values a n d principles m i g h t b e c o m p r o m i s e d by association w i t h foreign
p e o p l e s a n d influences. S h o r t (1991) n o t e s that this m o r a l g e o g r a p h y w a s expressed
as e a r l y as t h e first c e n t u r y BCE b y t h e R o m a n w r i t e r C i c e r o a n d s t i l l f i n d s
a r t i c u l a t i o n t o d a y . T h e c o u n t r y s i d e , i n c o n t r a s t , w a s r e p r e s e n t e d as a n innocent,
purer, space in w h i c h national values and national identities w e r e held true.
It is, h o w e v e r , a d a n g e r o u s l y s h o r t s t e p f r o m r e p r e s e n t i n g r u r a l a r e a s as p l a c e s
o f national p u r i t y , t o r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m as p l a c e s o f ethnic or racial p u r i t y . I n the
d e v e l o p e d w o r l d , t h a t m e a n s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as a ' w h i t e s p a c e ' f r o m
w h i c h p e o p l e o f n o n - w h i t e e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d s are implicitly o r explicitly
e x c l u d e d . T h i s p r e j u d i c e is i n d e e d r e i n f o r c e d b y h i s t o r i c a l s o c i a l a n d economic
factors that have t e n d e d to c o n c e n t r a t e n o n - w h i t e populations in u r b a n centres,
s u c h t h a t t h e n o n - w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n o f m a n y r u r a l r e g i o n s is v e r y s m a l l ,
c o m p o u n d i n g experiences of isolation and discrimination. At the same time,
established n o n - w h i t e rural populations, notably the black population o f the
s o u t h e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d first n a t i o n p e o p l e s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a and
N e w Z e a l a n d have b e e n marginalized a n d discriminated against by a w h i t e
n a t i o n a l elite, w i t h t h e i r rural situation f r e q u e n t l y t a k e n a d v a n t a g e o f in t h e i r
exploitation.
I n o r d e r t o e x p l o r e t h e s e t h e m e s further, this c h a p t e r starts b y discussing in
m o r e detail discursive c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n rurality a n d national identity, a n d the
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r u r a l as a w h i t e s p a c e . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t e r then
investigates n o n - w h i t e e x p e r i e n c e s o f rurality, e x a m i n i n g t h e e x c l u s i o n a n d racism
e x p e r i e n c e d b y p e o p l e o f different e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d s living in rural areas o r
u s i n g rural space for r e c r e a t i o n . T h e c h a p t e r t h e n describes a n e x c e p t i o n t o t h e

m o d e l o f the w h i t e countryside in the p r e d o m i n a n t l y black rural counties o f the
s o u t h e r n U n i t e d States, b u t n o t e s t h a t s u c h areas h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d systematic
c o l l e c t i v e e x c l u s i o n a n d m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n . It finally addresses a s e c o n d exception
t o t h e m o d e l i n t h e first n a t i o n r u r a l i t i e s o f i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s o f N o r t h
A m e r i c a , Australia a n d N e w Zealand, o b s e r v i n g again h o w such communities
have b e e n systematically e x c l u d e d a n d marginalized from m a i n s t r e a m rural
society.
Rurality and National Identity the c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e rural p o p u l a t i o n

The association of national identity with and Serbian nationalism in t h e 1990s, t h e
rurality has involved ideas b o t h o f landscape 'rural claims t o b e m o r e p u r e t h a n t h e city; t o
a n d o f r u r a l life. L a n d s c a p e s , as D a n i e l s ( 1 9 9 3 ) preserve t h e o l d values w h i c h t h e city has
n o t e s , p i c t u r e t h e n a t i o n , p r o v i n g visual s h a p e s u l l i e d ' (p. 7 1 ) . T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r u r a l life
to constructs o f identity: 'As exemplars of is c l e a r l y p r e m i s e d o n t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f a n
moral order a n d aesthetic harmony, particular a g r a r i a n society, y e t t h e e m p h a s i s t h a t it places
landscapes achieve t h e status o f n a t i o n a l i c o n s ' on tradition a n d stability chimes with the
(p. 5 ) . D i s t i n c t i v e r u r a l l a n d s c a p e s a r e h e n c e c o n t e m p o r a r y d i s c o u r s e o f t h e rural idyll.
v e n e r a t e d as i c o n i c s y m b o l s o f n a t i o n a l i d e n - R u r a l s p a c e c a n b e b o t h t h e heartland and
tity - the American prairies, t h e Australian t h e frontier o f t h e nation. T h e latter identifica-
outback, the highlands o f Scotland a n d the t i o n is a n i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t i n t h e n a t i o n a l
r o l l i n g hills a n d v a l e s o f E n g l a n d . S u c h l a n d - identities o f t h e U n i t e d States, C a n a d a a n d
scapes c a n b e inspirational a n d comforting, Australia:
Daniels (1993) again r e m a r k i n g t h a t , ' p r o t e c -
tive i m a g e s o f l a n d s c a p e h a v e played a role i n Fo r s t a t e s in t h e N e w W o r l d, nation-
c u l t u r a l resistance t o o u t s i d e a g g r e s s i o n ' (p. 7 ) . b u i l d i ng h a s b e e n i n t i m a t e ly r e l a t e d to
c o n q u e r i n g t he w i l d e r n e s s . T h r o u g h o u t
Rural life, m e a n w h i l e , is c o n s t r u c t e d in
A m e r i c a a n d in A u s t r a l ia t h e n a t i o n a l h i s -
nationalist discourses as b e i n g purer and
t o r i es h a v e c o n s i s t e d o f c r e a t i n g a c o u n -
more honourable t h a n life i n t h e city. T h e
t ry f r om t h e f o r e s t a n d t h e g r a s s l a n d s .
eighteenth-century French philosopher Jean-
T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i on o f t he w i l d e r n e s s h a s
Jacques R o u s s e a u , for example, claimed that a s p e c i a l p l a c e in t h e i r n a t i o n a l identity.
' i t is t h e r u r a l p e o p l e w h o m a k e t h e n a t i o n ' ( S h o r t , 1 9 9 1 , p. 19 )
(quoted by Lehning, 1 9 9 5 , p. 12), a n d the
p e a s a n t class h a s f r e q u e n t l y b e e n h e l d u p as Thus, the expansion of the United States
the p r i m e example o f national character. N o t into the wilderness o f the west n o t only rep-
only w e r e rural p e o p l e celebrated for feeding resented a symbolic progress away from
t h e n a t i o n , b u t t h e y w e r e a l s o c o n s t r u c t e d as E u r o p e , b u t also p r o v i d e d a space i n w h i c h
b e i n g less ' c o n t a m i n a t e d ' w i t h a l i e n i d e a s a n d t h e y o u n g n a t i o n c o u l d p r o v e itself t h r o u g h
affections than c i t y - d w e l l e r s , a n d as being its c o n q u e s t o f n a t u r e . I n t h i s ' f r o n t i e r t h e s i s ' ,
c l o s e r t o a t r a d i t i o n a l w a y o f life t h a t s o m e - the key figure was n o t the peasant b u t t h e
how recalled t h e origins o f t h e nation. As pioneer t h e a d v e n t u r e r w h o s e b r a v e r y , d e t e r -
R a m e t (1996) describes in an article tracing mination and resourcefulness supposedly
28 0
Rurality, national identity and ethnicity
epitomized the national character, and w h o s e threatened the very rural landscape r e p r o d u c e d
spiritual descendants are claimed to b e the as t h e e p i t o m e o f E n g l i s h n e s s . S p u r r e d b y t h i s
family farmers a n d ranchers o f c o n t e m p o r a r y perceived threat, the vision of rural E n g l a n d
r u r a l A m e r i c a . F u r t h e r m o r e , as d i s c u s s e d in became introspective, paradoxically repre-
C h a p t e r 1 3 , t h e w i l d e r n e s s also p r o v i d e d t h e sented both as t i m e l e s s and enduring and
U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h sites o f c u l t u r a l a n d n a t u r a l as f r a g i l e a n d e n d a n g e r e d . T h e s e interpreta-
i m p o r t a n c e that gave t h e y o u n g c o u n t r y an tions were famously appealed to by the inter-
instant heritage to rival E u r o p e a n nations, war prime minister Stanley Baldwin, in a
establishing t h e rationale for t h e creation of speech that celebrated the agrarian country-
national parks. s i d e as t h e seat o f c o n t i n u i t y i n E n g l i s h n a t i o n a l
T h e representation of the countryside as identity:
t h e n a t i o n a l h e a r t l a n d is e x e m p l i f i e d b y the
case o f E n g l a n d . A l t h o u g h E n g l a n d has b e e n a To m e , E n g l a n d is t he c o u n t r y, a n d t he
c o u n t ry is E n g l a n d .. . T h e sound s of
predominantly industrial and urban country
E n g l a n d , t he tinkle o f t he h a m m e r o n t he
s i n c e 1 8 6 1 , t h e i d e o l o g y o f E n g l i s h n e s s is, as
anvi l in t he c o u n t ry smithy , t he c o r n c r a ke
Howkins (1986) observes, 'to a remarkable
o n a d e w y m o r n i n g , t he s o u n d o f t he
d e g r e e rural. M o s t importantly, a large part o f
s c y t h e a g a i n s t t he w h e t s t o n e , a n d t he
the English ideal is rural' (p. 6 2 ; original sigh t o f a ploug h tea m comin g ove r
emphasis). H o w k i n s traces this identifica- t he b r ow o f a hill, t he s i g h t t h a t h a s b e e n
t i o n o f Englishness w i t h rurality t o t h e late s e e n in E n g l a n d s i n c e Englan d wa s a
n i n e t e e n t h a n d early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y and l a n d , a n d m a y b e s e e n in E n g l a n d l o n g
t h e era o f i m p e r i a l e x p a n s i o n . T h e process o f afte r t he E m p i re h a s p e r i s h e d a n d e v e r y
c o l o n i z a t i o n w a s l e d b y m i l i t a r y officers and w o r ks in E n g l a n d h a s c e a s e d to f u n c t i o n,
administrators d r a w n from the m i n o r gentry, for c e n t u r i e s t he on e eterna l sigh t o f

England . (Speec h by Stanle y Baldwin,
m a n y o f w h o m h a d b e e n raised o n country
1 9 2 4 , q u o t e d b y P a x m a n , 1 9 9 8 , p. 1 4 3 )
estates. T h u s ,
Y e t , as P a x m a n observes, the rural scene

T he v e r y g l o b a l r e a c h o f E n g l i s h i m p e r i-
described by Baldwin was a historical
a l i s m , into a l i e n l a n d s , w a s a c c o m p a n i e d
anachronism even by the time he was speak-
b y a c o u n t e r v a i l i n g s e n t i m e n t fo r c o s y
ing in 1924. As in o t h e r countries, the rural
h o m e s c e n e r y , fo r t h a t c h e d c o t t a g e s a n d
g a r d e n s in p a s t o r a l c o u n t r y s i d e . Inside idyll that was reproduced at the heart of
Grea t B r i t a in l u r k ed L i t t le England . English national identity was always m o r e o f a
( D a n i e l s , 1 9 9 3 , p. 6 ) h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n t h a n a t a n g i b l e reality. I t w a s
also b a s e d o n a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n a l l a n d s c a p e ,
This discourse was c e m e n t e d in the p o p u - that of the 'south country' of central southern
lar i m a g i n a t i o n b y t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r and E n g l a n d , d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y 'a u n i f o r m land-
the reproduction of images of England, such s c a p e t y p e o f s m o o t h , b a r e , r o l l i n g hills d o t t e d
as J o h n Constable's iconic painting The with woodlands' (Brace, 1999, p. 92). T h e
Haywain, as t h e d e p i c t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y t h a t m o r e peripheral rural landscapes o f the west-
the armed forces were fighting to defend e r n m o o r s , n o r t h e r n u p l a n d s a n d e a s t e r n fens,
(Daniels, 1993; H o w k i n s , 1986). A t the same as w e l l as t h e m o r e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r y s i d e
time, however, the war and its immediate of the Midlands, were all excluded from
aftermath witnessed rapid urbanization w h i c h vision o f t h e ideal E n g l a n d .
28 1
In constructing an association b e t w e e n the groups form t h e significant m a j o r i t y of the

countryside and national identity in a m a n n e r rural p o p u l a t i o n in m o s t o f E u r o p e , Australia,
that celebrated the purity of rural people and N e w Zealand, C a n a d a and the n o r t h e r n parts
t h e lack o f contact w i t h foreign influences, o f t h e U n i t e d States. T h e m a i n e x c e p t i o n s t o
a n d p o s i t i o n e d r u r a l s p a c e as a r e p o s i t o r y of this pattern the primarily black and
historic national values, representations o f this Hispanic counties of the southern United
type explicitly or implicitly identified the S t a t e s a n d first n a t i o n c o m m u n i t i e s a r e d i s -
rural with a homogeneous ethnic group. cussed later in this chapter.
Consequently, people of ethnic groups other The combination of demographic trends
than the dominant national ethnicity and cultural prejudices means that the identi-
have often been excluded from discursive fication o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as a ' w h i t e ' s p a c e
representations o f t h e rural idyll, a n d have b e c o m e s self-reproducing. R a c i s t attitudes are
experienced racist discrimination in their a small b u t n o t a b l e factor in c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a -
o c c u p a n c y o r use of rural space. T h e r e m a i n - tion (see Chapter 6), reinforcing white
der o f this chapter investigates non-white perceptions in w h i c h ,
experiences o f rurality. It first explores the
construction of the r u r a l as a w h i t e space ' e t h n i c i t y' is s e e n a s b e i n g O u t o f p l a c e '
and the exclusion and racism experienced in t he countryside , reflecting t he
by people o f different ethnic backgrounds Othernes s of peopl e o f colour. In t he

w h i te i m a g i n a t i o n p e o p l e o f c o l o u r a re
living i n rural areas o r u s i n g rural space for
c o n f i n e d to t o w n s a n d cities , r e p r e s e n t -
recreation.
ing a n u r b a n , ' a l i e n ' e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t he
w h i te landscap e of rurality is aligne d
Contesting the Rural as a White Space
w i th 'nativeness ' an d t he absenc e of
The identification of the rural idyll with
evi l o r d a n g e r . T h e e t h n i c association s
national identity has p r o v i d e d spurious legiti- o f t he countryside a re naturalise d as
m a t i o n t o racist c o n s t r u c t s o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e an absenc e i n t r u d ed upo n by peopl e
as a ' w h i t e ' space that have been further o f colour. ( A g y e m a n a n d Spooner , 1997 ,
r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e spatial d y n a m i c s o f i m m i - p. 1 9 9 )
gration. Proximity to airports a n d major sea-
ports, the existence of established ethnic E x c l u s i o n a r y discourses o f this t y p e mean
c o m m u n i t i e s a n d g r e a t e r levels o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l t h a t for m a n y p e o p l e o f c o l o u r r u r a l areas are
s u p p o r t f o r n e w a r r i v a l s all f a v o u r c i t i e s as t h e perceived to b e threatening places w h e r e they
initial d e s t i n a t i o n . F o r instance, o n l y 5 per are u n w e l c o m e . T h i s g e o g r a p h y o f fear and
cent of immigration into the United States exclusion has b e e n articulated by t h e black
between 1990 and 1999 was directly into British photographer I n g r i d Pollard, whose
rural counties (Isserman, 2000). However, 'Pastoral Interludes' collection involved self-
even settled and domestic-born ethnic portraits in the rural landscape. In the caption
m i n o r i t y p o p u l a t i o n s t e n d t o b e spatially c o n - to o n e image Pollard writes,'I t h o u g h t I liked
centrated in urban areas. In 1991, ethnic t h e L a k e D i s t r i c t , w h e r e I w a n d e r e d l o n e l y as
minorities formed 6.2 p e r c e n t o f t h e UK a B l a c k f a c e i n a sea o f w h i t e . A v i s i t t o t h e
p o p u l a t i o n , b u t o n l y 1.6 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p - countryside is always accompanied by a
ulation in rural districts; similar p a t t e r n s are feeling of unease, dread'; whilst another
repeated elsewhere, such that w h i t e ethnic simply reads: 'feeling I don't belong. Walks
28 2
Predominantly urban EH3 Predominantly rural Mixed urban an d rural
<f #
* # ^ # ^
cf <r <f / * * / 5 <?
Figure 20. 1 Polic e force area s in Englan d an d Wale s with highes t incidenc e of racial
crime, by percentag e of ethnic minority population affected , 1999-200 0
Source: Base d o n information in the Observer, 18 February 200 1
t h r o u g h leafy g l a d e s w i t h a b a s e b a l l b a t by Incidents o f racial c r i m e , i n c l u d i n g violent

m y side' (quoted in K i n s m a n , 1995, p. 3 1 0 and attacks and racial abuse, have also been
p. 302). reported to b e higher in m a n y rural parts o f
T h e s e representations of race and rurality E n g l a n d a n d Wales t h a n in u r b a n areas, rela-
i m p a c t o n t h e everyday lived e x p e r i e n c e s o f tive t o t h e size o f t h e e t h n i c m i n o r i t y p o p u -
people of colour living in rural areas. lation (Figure 20.1).
A l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o s i n g l e , s t a n d a r d e x p e r i - The perception of the countryside as a
e n c e a n d a l t h o u g h m a n y p e o p l e o f c o l o u r are threatening and unwelcoming environment
w e l c o m e d and integrated into rural c o m m u - also deters people of colour from visiting
nities, A g y e m a n a n d S p o o n e r (1997) highlight r u r a l areas f o r r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s . S t u d i e s i n
a number of reports in rural England that Britain have s h o w n that m e m b e r s of ethnic
h a v e f o u n d ' a n e x t e n s i v e a m o u n t o f racial v i o - m i n o r i t i e s are a m o n g t h e social g r o u p s that
lence, harassment, condescension a n d bigotry, are least likely t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n r u r a l r e c r e -
provoked by a mixture of ignorance, the ation. As A g y e m a n a n d S p o o n e r (1997) note,
uncritical acceptance of stereotypes and a t h i s is i n p a r t due to economic and time
r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e a r r i v a l o f i n c o m e r s ' (p. 2 0 3 ) . f a c t o r s , b u t it also reflects a s e n s e o f fear, as
They note that institutional racism is fre- recorded by Malik:
q u e n t l y e v i d e n t i n r u r a l areas a n d t h a t p u b l i c
service providers and employers often pay it a p p e a r e d to b e m o re t he anticipation o f
only lip-service to equal opportunities. a b u s e o r u n a c c e p t a n c e in t he countryside ,
28 3
rather tha n an y direct experience s of and geographical marginalization of the

r a c i s m o n p r e v i o u s visits , t h a t d e t e r r e d c o m m u n i t i e s is a l e g a c y o f e n t r e n c h e d r a c i a l
m a n y p e o p l e f r om g o i n g a t all, a n d p r e - discrimination a n d repression in t h e region.
vente d a complet e feelin g o f safet y a n d So-called 'Jim C r o w ' laws i n t r o d u c e d in t h e
r e l a x a t i o n fo r o t h e r s w h i le t h e r e . (Malik,
late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y legislated for s e g r e g a -
1 9 9 2 , p. 3 2 )
tion of black and w h i t e populations and the
provision of separate schools, hospitals, public
Yet, rural racism in t h e U K is a l a r g e l y
parks, transport, housing, restaurants and
h i d d e n p h e n o m e n o n , disguised by the rela-
theatres in m a n y s o u t h e r n states. As t h e s t a n -
tively small n u m b e r o f p e o p l e o f c o l o u r living
d a r d o f t h e facilities p r o v i d e d for t h e black
in rural areas a n d b y devices t h a t are u s e d t o
c o m m u n i t y was invariably inferior to that of
e x p l a i n away racist s e n t i m e n t s . T h u s , racially
t h e facilities for t h e w h i t e c o m m u n i t y , s e g r e -
m o t i v a t e d m i g r a t i o n t o r u r a l a r e a s is d i s g u i s e d
gation enforced t h e social a n d geographical
as 'quality of life' migration and racial
isolation of rural African A m e r i c a n s in the
prejudice is d i s m i s s e d as l o c a l a n t i p a t h y to
South (Snipp, 1996). Additionally, the rural
i n c o m e r s o f all b a c k g r o u n d s (Agyeman and
black communities were economically dis-
Spooner, 1997). Initiatives have been
advantaged not only by poor education and
launched to challenge these attitudes, and to
l i m i t e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s b u t also b y e m p l o y m e n t
encourage more people of colour to visit
discrimination and the practice of sharecrop-
rural areas, i n c l u d i n g t h e w o r k o f t h e B l a c k
p i n g , w h e r e b y f r e e d slaves w h o h a d n o l a n d o f
Environmental N e t w o r k and schemes oper-
their o w n w o r k e d a portion of land o w n e d by
a t e d b y n a t i o n a l p a r k s , a n d t h e r e is e v i d e n c e
w h i t e s in r e t u r n for a l i m i t e d share o f the
that these attempts have met a positive
profit. T h e sharecropping system, however,
response, particularly among younger black
was brutally exploited by w h i t e landowners
a n d Asian B r i t o n s w h o see t h e e n j o y m e n t of
such that the black farmer was often ' s h o w n '
t h e c o u n t r y s i d e as t h e i r r i g h t as m u c h as it is
to owe m o n e y to the landowner and could
for o t h e r citizens.
rarely e a r n e n o u g h t o enable an escape from
the hard, physically a n d mentally damaging
The Rural Black Experience in America w o r k (Harris, 1995).
Prominent exceptions to the construct of Between 1920 and 1950 out-migration

r u r a l a r e a s as a ' w h i t e s p a c e ' i n c l u d e t h e 77 reduced the rural African A m e r i c a n popula-
non-metropolitan counties in the southern t i o n i n t h e s o u t h e r n states b y 2 0 p e r cent.
U n i t e d States w h e r e African A m e r i c a n s form However, in recent decades the population
the majority of the population. These coun- has stabilized a n d in 1 9 9 0 a r o u n d 15 p e r c e n t
ties, w h i c h are p r e d o m i n a n t l y l o c a t e d i n t h e of the total U S African A m e r i c a n popula-
Mississippi valley a n d t h e f o r m e r c o t t o n - a n d t i o n lived in t h e rural S o u t h (Snipp, 1996).
tobacco-growing belt of Alabama, Georgia In the l o n g t e r m r u r a l - u r b a n black migra-
a n d S o u t h Carolina, are b o t h highly visible t i o n has increased social p o l a r i z a t i o n within
and strongly rooted in a particular social, the African American population as the
e c o n o m i c a n d political history. T h e concen- emergence o f an urban black middle class
tration of African Americans in these has n o t b e e n m a t c h e d in t h e rural counties
areas reflects the history o f slavery a n d its of the South, which remain economically
abolition, b u t t h e c o n t i n u e d social, e c o n o m i c marginalized:
28 4
Despit e their persistence , rural blac k and globalized agricultural industry that
communitie s hav e becom e 'place s left d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y (see
b e h i n d ' in m a n y r e s p e c t s . A l t h o u g h m u c h C h a p t e r 4). H o w e v e r , whereas w h i t e farmers
ha s b e e n w r i t t en a b o u t t he r e t u rn of w e r e heavily supported and subsidized by the
A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a ns to t he S o u t h , a n d t he
government to adapt, assistance for black
s o u t h e r n e c o n o m i c b o o m o f t he 1970 s
farmers was m o r e restricted and m o r e c o n d i -
a n d 1 9 8 0 s , t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e no t
tional. Black farmers experienced difficulty
rejuvenate d r u r al blac k communities .
in obtaining loans from commercial banks
T h e re is a m p l e e v i d e n c e tha t e c o n o m i c
developmen t in t he Sout h is highly and hence were especially dependent on
uneven , concentrate d in u r b an areas , loans from the U S D A , m o r e generally per-
bypassin g A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a ns in r u r al c e i v e d t o b e t h e ' l e n d e r o f last r e s o r t ' . Y e t t h e

p l a c e s . ( S n i p p , 1 9 9 6 , p. 131 ) USDA processed applications from black
farmers m o r e slowly than those from white
M o s t r u r a l b l a c k c o u n t i e s a r e classified as farmers and charged a higher interest rate
p e r s i s t e n t p o v e r t y c o u n t i e s (see C h a p t e r 19) (Sheppard, 1999). Black farmers were also
and in 1989 nearly half (47.8 per cent) of confronted by considerable racism, discrimi-
black households in rural counties where n a t i o n a n d abuse from local U S D A officials
b l a c k s f o r m e d t h e m a j o r i t y w e r e classified as i n m a n y a r e a s o f t h e S o u t h . It w a s n o t u n t i l
l i v i n g i n p o v e r t y ( C r o m a r t i e , 1 9 9 9 ) . A s w e l l as 1999 that the settlement of a lawsuit substan-
being economically marginalized, rural tiated m a n y o f the black farmers' allegations
A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s h a v e also h i s t o r i c a l l y b e e n of institutional racism and the U S D A agreed
e x c l u d e d from positions o f political p o w e r in to pay compensation of u p to $300 million in
m u c h of the rural S o u t h by the persistence of total t o b l a c k f a r m e r s w h o s e civil r i g h t s h a d
a minority white elite w h o s e p o s i t i o n was b e e n violated.
o r i g i n a l l y f o u n d e d o n s e g r e g a t i o n . It w a s o n l y
at t h e e n d o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h a t t h i s First Nation Ruralities
political marginalization b e g a n to b e seriously E x c e p t i o n s t o t h e r u l e o f t h e r u r a l as a ' w h i t e
c h a l l e n g e d as b l a c k s s t a r t e d t o b e e l e c t e d t o s p a c e ' are also p r e s e n t e d b y t h e ruralities of
l o c a l p o l i t i c a l office i n s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r s . first nation indigenous peoples in North
Some of the most brutal discrimination A m e r i c a , Australia a n d N e w Zealand. P r i o r t o
has b e e n that faced by black farmers in t h e E u r o p e a n c o l o n i z a t i o n t h e first n a t i o n s w e r e
United States. In 1920, there were over essentially rural societies; h o w e v e r , in the
9 2 5 , 0 0 0 black farmers in the U S , or o n e in process of colonization indigenous people
s e v e n o f all A m e r i c a n f a r m e r s . B y 1 9 8 2 , o n l y w e r e dispossessed o f their lands a n d forced
one in sixty-seven farmers was black and into reservations that w e r e again predomi-
by 1992 there were fewer than 19,000 black nantly located in rural situations. A t the same
f a r m e r s still w o r k i n g . T h e v i r t u a l e r a d i c a t i o n time, the reinvention of the countryside of
of the black agricultural community has the n e w nations - Australia, N e w Zealand,
resulted from a c o m b i n a t i o n of pressure from Canada and the United States - denuded
economic restructuring and institutional r u r a l s p a c e o f its first n a t i o n r e f e r e n c e s and
racism. Black-operated farms have always meanings and imposed new meanings that
b e e n small units a n d therefore i l l - e q u i p p e d t o ignored the continuing presence of indige-
c o m p e t e in t h e increasingly commercialized n o u s c o m m u n i t i e s (see B o x 2 0 . 1 ) . T h e rural
28 5
g e o g r a p h i e s o f first n a t i o n g r o u p s a r e h e n c e a n d c o n t a i n A m e r i c a n I n d i a ns in a r e a s
geographies of oppression and subordination. d i s t a n t f r om t he m a i n s t r e a m o f A m e r i c a n
As Snipp (1996) argues with reference to society . It w a s e x p e c t e d t h a t e v e n t u a l l y ,

w i th education , C h r i s t i an conversion ,
Native A m e r i c a n reservations in the United
a n d o t h e r m e a s u r e s d e s i g n e d to 'civilize'
States,
American Indians, reservation s would
T h e o r i g i n al m o t i ve fo r c r e a t i n g r e s e r v a - no longe r be needed . (Snipp , 1996 ,
t i o ns in t he 1 9 t h c e n t u r y w a s to i s o l a t e p. 1 2 7 )
B o x 20.1 The myth of the Canadian rural north
T he a s s o c i a t i o n o f r u r a l i ty a n d n a t i o n a l i d e n t i ty a n d t h e d i s c u r s i v e e x c l u s i o n o f i n d i g e n -
o u s p e o p l e s f r o m s u c h i m a g i n e d g e o g r a p h i e s a r e b o t h i l l u s t r a t ed in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f
t h e r u r al n o r th o f C a n a d a . S h i e l d s ( 1 9 9 1 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e m y t h o f t h e
T r ue N o r th S t r o n g an d Free ' as a cor e componen t in t h e discours e of Canadia n
n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y w h i c h p o s i t i o n e d t h e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y a s a s p i r i t u al
n a t i o n a l h e a r t l a n d a n d a c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t o t h e citie s o f s o u t h e r n C a n a d a w h e r e the
v a s t m a j o r i ty o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n r e s i d e . As S h i e l d s o b s e r v e s , ' f o r m o s t E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g
C a n a d i a n s t h e " N o r t h" is n o t j u s t a f a c t u a l g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n b u t a l s o a n i m a g i n a r y
z o n e : a f r o n t i e r, a w i l d e r n e s s , a n e m p t y " s p a c e " w h i c h , s e e n f r o m s o u t h e r n C a n a d a is
w h i t e , b l a n k ' ( p . 1 6 5 ) . It is , S h i e l d s c o n t i n u e s , ' a n e m p t y p a g e o n t o w h i c h c a n b e p r o -
j e c t e d i m a g e s o f t h e essenc e o f " C a n a d i a n - n e s s " a n d als o i m a g e s t o d e f i n e one' s
u r b an existenc e a g a i n s t ' (p . 165) . T he r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e N o r th as a ' b l a nk space' ,
h o w e v e r , d e n i e s t h e p r e s e n c e a n d h e r i t a g e o f t h e I n u it c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h e region .
To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e I n u it p r e s e n c e is a c k n o w l e d g e d , t h e f o r m s o f r e p r e s e n t a -
tion employe d reinforced a paradoxica l perceptio n o f the I n u it l i f e s t y l e both as
b e i n g h a r s h a n d d i f f i c u l t, t h u s s y m b o l i z i n g t h e r e s i l i e n c e o f t h e C a n a d i a n nationa l
c h a r a c t e r , a n d a s i n f e r i or t o t h e c i v i l i z a t i o n o f t h e u r b a n s o u t h . F o r e x a m p l e , S h i e l d s
n o t e s t h a t in f i l ms o f t h e N o r t h , ' t he r e m o v a l o f t h e r o o f s o f i g l o o s t o p e r m i t t h e
f i l m i ng o f l i fe i n s i d e n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e i n h a b i t a n t s ' b e i n g f u l ly c l o t h e d in t h e s u b - z e r o
t e m p e r a t u r e s , i n t r o d u c i ng t h e i d e a t h a t i g l o o s a r e u n c o m f o r t a b l e a n d c o l d h a b i t a -
t i o n s ' (p. 176) .
M o r e o v e r , t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e N o r th as a r e s o u r c e - r i c h
h i n t e r l a n d a n d a s a c u l t u r al h e a r t l a n d in n e e d o f p r o t e c t i o n , ' f u r n i s h e d t h e basi s
f o r p a t e r n a l i s t i c p o l i c i e s o n N o r t h e r n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e " c i v i l i s i n g" o f t h e I n u it
w i t h l i t t le p o w e r e x e r c i s e d b y N o r t h e r n i n h a b i t a n t s ' ( p . 1 6 5 ) . T h e constitutiona l
s t a t u s o f t h e N o r t h w e s t T e r r i t o r i es a n d t h e Y u k o n T e r r i t o ry d e n i e d t h e m t h e a u t o n o m y
of the souther n province s an d mean t that the y were largely governe d f r om
t h e s o u t h i n ' t he n a t i o n a l interest'. From t he 1980 s o n w a r d s , d e m a n d s f o r self -
governmen t formed a centra l objective o f the indigenou s r i g h ts campaig n in
C a n a d a , e v e n t u a l l y l e a d i n g t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in 1 9 9 9 o f t h e n e w t e r r i t o ry of
N u n a v u t , w h i c h m e a n s ' O u r L a n d ' in t h e I n u k t i t ut l a n g u a g e . I n u it c o m p r i s e 8 5 p e r
c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f j u s t 2 9 , 0 0 0 r e s i d e n t s w h o o c c u p y t h e t w o m i l l i on s q u a r e
k i l o m e t re t e r r i t o ry c a r v e d f r o m t h e N o r t h w e s t T e r r i t o r i es t o t h e n o r t h a n d w e s t o f
H u d s o n Bay .
For more see Chapter 4 in Rob Shields (1991) Places on the Margin (Routledge).
28 6
C o n c e n t r a t i o n o n t h e reservations was, in 80 per cent unemployment), Rocky Boy's

t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y at least, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Reservation (Montana, 77 per cent), and
t h e d e p r i v a t i o n o f t h e N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s ' self- R e d Lake C h i p p e w a Reservation (Minnesota,
sufficiency, as t h e y w e r e p r o h i b i t e d from h u n t - 62 per cent) (Cornell, 2000).
ing outside the reservation or from possessing Y e t , C o r n e l l ( 2 0 0 0 ) also n o t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e
firearms, a n d thus b e c a m e increasingly d e p e n - substantially lower unemployment rates on
dent on rations supplied by the military. m a n y other reservations, suggesting a polar-
D u r i n g t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h e rural focus ization in the circumstances of different
o f first n a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n s w a s d i l u t e d b y o u t - Native American groups in different rural
migration to urban centres. In 1990, just u n d e r r e g i o n s t h a t is also i n d i c a t e d b y f i g u r e s for
half o f the Native A m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n in the c h a n g e s i n p o v e r t y levels o n r e s e r v a t i o n s in
U n i t e d S t a t e s still l i v e d i n r u r a l areas, m o s t l y o n t h e 1980s (Figure 2 0 . 2 ) . T h e relative affluence
reservations, b u t w i t h s o m e regional variation o r d e p r i v a t i o n o f reservations c a n reflect t h e
(Snipp, 1996). W h i l s t the Native American degree of their geographical isolation and
population in California is predominantly hence their ability to tap i n t o local urban
u r b a n , i n t h e m o u n t a i n states a n d A l a s k a it is l a b o u r m a r k e t s , b u t t h e y also reflect t h e e x t e n t
predominantly rural, f o r m i n g a majority in to w h i c h individual reservations have taken
27 non-metropolitan counties (Brewer and a d v a n t a g e o f t h e i r sovereign status t o d e v e l o p
S u c h a n , 2 0 0 1 ; S n i p p a n d Sandefur, 1988). n i c h e m a r k e t a c t i v i t i e s , s u c h as t h e sale o f t a x -
E c o n o m i c factors have b e e n influential in free t o b a c c o p r o d u c t s a n d , m o s t significantly,
Native A m e r i c a n migration from the reserva- gambling-related t o u r i s m (Snipp, 1996).
t i o n s t o c i t i e s . L a b o u r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n is Snipp (1996) observes that as the last

significantly h i g h e r for N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s in r e m a i n i n g land base, N a t i v e A m e r i c a n reser-
urban areas than rural areas and average vations have become the central sites of
a n n u a l e a r n i n g s a r e also a r o u n d 2 0 - 2 5 per i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r e a n d s o c i a l life. A s e r i e s o f
cent higher (Snipp a n d Sandefur, 1988). T h e treaties a n d legal a g r e e m e n t s have p e r m i t t e d
economic capacity o f reservations has been tribal groups a d e g r e e o f self-government on
limited by the marginal quality of land, cul- reservations that allows t h e m t o m a n a g e the
tural attitudes towards the exploitation o f the land according to their own traditions.
environment, the absence of industrialization H o w e v e r , t h i s r e a s s e r t i o n o f first n a t i o n r u r a l -
a n d a lack o f capital. A l t h o u g h m a n y reserva- ities is s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d t o t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f t h e
tion lands are r i c h in minerals and other reservations themselves. A more radical
natural resources, they have b e e n dependent p r o c e s s is t a k i n g p l a c e i n A u s t r a l i a i n t h e w a k e
o n e x t e r n a l capital t o f u n d e x p l o i t a t i o n s u c h t h a t o f t h e N a t i v e T i t l e A c t 1 9 9 3 ( w i t h t h e issue o f
m u c h of the wealth generated does not reach l a n d r i g h t s also h i g h o n t h e political a g e n d a i n
t h e first n a t i o n c o m m u n i t y . N a t i v e A m e r i c a n N e w Z e a l a n d ) . T h i s enables 'native title c o m -
reservations are therefore frequently associ- munities' of indigenous (Aboriginal) people
a t e d w i t h h i g h p o v e r t y levels. I n 1 9 8 9 , half o f to make title claims t o r u r a l t e r r i t o r i e s to
Native Americans in rural counties where which they can demonstrate a connection
t h e y are p r e d o m i n a n t lived b e l o w t h e p o v e r t y u n d e r the b o d y of traditional law and custom.
line, whilst in 1997 a majority o f t h e labour R e c o g n i t i o n o f a title claim gives t h e native
force were recorded as u n e m p l o y e d on a title c o m m u n i t y a r i g h t t o i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e
n u m b e r of reservations, including Cheyenne governance of the territory and hence
River Sioux Reservation (South Dakota, requires changes in practice from existing
28 7
All reservation s
Cheyenn e (MT)
Yakama (WA)
Rosebu d (SD )
Sa n Carlos (AZ)
Pine Ridge (SD )
Muckleshoo t (WA)
Mescaler o (NM)
Cochiti Puebl o (NM)
Fort Apach e (AZ)
Flathea d (MT)
Figure 20. 2 Chang e in the adult population o f selecte d reservation s with income s belo w
the official poverty level , 1977-198 9
Source: Base d o n Cornell, 200 0
o w n e r s of rural land and g o v e r n i n g authorities. o f t h e i r t r a d i t i o n al c o u n t r y. T h e claim

It c a n a l s o p o t e n t i a l l y b r i n g e c o n o m i c b e n e - p r o c e s s h a s m a d e t r a d i t i o n al o w n e r s h i p
fits through agreements negotiated over o f c o u n t r y, t he b a s i s o f i n d i g e n o u s la w
mining and exploration activity and from an d governanc e mechanisms , increas -

ingly m o re visible . T h e lega l limitations o n
compensation for certain past government
r e c o g n i t i o n o f native title a re m a k i n g t he
actions (Davies, 2003). B y J u n e 2 0 0 1 , m o r e
conservativ e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t n a t i ve title
than o n e thousand native claim applications
c l a i m s p r e s e n t a t h r e a t to n o n - i n d i g e n o u s
had been made covering much of rural
p r o p e r ty rights a n d i n t e r e s t s i n c r e a s i n g l y
Australia, including most land in Western
difficult to s u s t a i n . ( D a v i e s , 2 0 0 3 , p. 4 1 )
Australia, although the slow recognition
process m e a n t that only a handful h a d actually
b e e n d e t e r m i n e d . As Davies c o m m e n t s , the Yet, t h e recognition o f native title stops
programme has w i d e - r e a c h i n g implications short of returning land to indigenous peoples
for rural Australia a n d t h e place o f i n d i g e n o u s o r o f fully e m p o w e r i n g i n d i g e n o u s groups.
c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n it: Little o f t h e land h e l d by o r o n b e h a l f of

A b o r i g i n a l a n d Torres Strait Islanders o r g a n i -
R e c o g n i t i o n o f n a t i ve title h a s opene d zations u n d e r t h e Indigenous L a n d C o r p o r a t i o n
t he d o o r fo r i n d i g e n o u s peopl e to be has b e e n s u b m i t t e d for native claim b e c a u s e

i n v o l v e d a s c o l l a b o r a t o r s in m a n a g e m e n t t h e r e is p e r c e i v e d t o b e n o s i g n i f i c a n t a d d i t i o n a l
28 8
b e n e f i t . F u r t h e r m o r e , as D a v i e s a c k n o w l e d g e s , now live in urban areas. ' N a t i v e rights

t h e r e is a d i s j u n c t u r e b e t w e e n t h e g e o g r a p h y c o m m u n i t i e s ' m a k i n g claims t o territory n e e d
o f native title claims a n d t h e g e o g r a p h y of n o t b e resident in t h e lands they claim, such
w h e r e Australia's i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e actually t h a t t h e n a t i v e r i g h t s p r o c e s s i n itself d o e s n o t
live. A l t h o u g h indigenous people comprise p r e s e n t a f r a m e w o r k for r e d u c i n g t h e social
around a fifth of the 'outback' population, and economic deprivation of indigenous c o m -
nearly three-quarters of indigenous people munities in rural Australia.
Summary
T h e discursive association o f rurality w i t h n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y has c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e

m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n a n d e x c l u s i o n o f e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n s w h o d o n o t fit w i t h d o m i n a n t
constructions of national ethnicity. In m u c h of rural E u r o p e a n d m a n y rural parts of N o r t h
A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a a n d N e w Z e a l a n d w h e r e t h e p o p u l a t i o n is p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h i t e , t h e
r e p r o d u c t i o n o f such discourses reinforces t h e sense o f threat a n d exclusion e x p e r i e n c e d by
m a n y n o n - w h i t e residents a n d visitors. In regions w i t h a greater historical p r e s e n c e o f n o n -
w h i t e populations, including the majority black rural c o m m u n i t i e s of the s o u t h e r n U n i t e d
S t a t e s a n d first n a t i o n i n d i g e n o u s c o m m u n i t i e s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a a n d N e w
Z e a l a n d , t h e relative social a n d e c o n o m i c d e p r i v a t i o n o f these g r o u p s has b e e n intensified b y
histories o f oppression a n d e c o n o m i c , cultural a n d political marginalization. A l t h o u g h efforts
have b e e n m a d e in r e c e n t years t o a c k n o w l e d g e a n d c o r r e c t o r c o m p e n s a t e for historic
injustices, i n c l u d i n g strategies t o s u p p o r t e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , t o r e c o g n i z e native title
claims a n d to i n t r o d u c e greater degrees o f self-government, t h e situation o f m a n y n o n - w h i t e
p e o p l e in rural areas c o n t i n u e s t o b e m a r k e d b y p o v e r t y a n d isolation. M o r e o v e r , t h e
a s s o c i a t i o n o f r u r a l i t y a n d n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y still h a s p u r c h a s e , m a k i n g r u r a l a r e a s sites f o r
n a t i o n a l i s t i c a n d r a c i s t activity. I n t h e i r m o s t m o d e r a t e f o r m t h e s e i n c l u d e t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n
o f national symbols b y campaigns that have s o u g h t t o defend rural interests. F o r e x a m p l e , the
series o f m a r c h e s in L o n d o n o r g a n i z e d b y t h e C o u n t r y s i d e Alliance in d e f e n c e o f h u n t i n g
w i t h h o u n d s h a v e e m p l o y e d n a t i o n a l i s t i c i c o n o g r a p h y s u c h as flags, a n d h a v e i d e n t i f i e d t h e
p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t t o t h e i r r u r a l w a y o f life w i t h a t h r e a t t o ' B r i t i s h v a l u e s ' . M o r e e x t r e m e
e x a m p l e s i n c l u d e t h e r u r a l basis o f e l e c t o r a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e s h o r t - l i v e d a n t i - i m m i g r a t i o n
O n e N a t i o n p a r t y i n A u s t r a l i a at t h e t u r n o f t h e t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t
i n t h e r u r a l U n i t e d States o f e x t r e m e r i g h t - w i n g , racist 'militia' g r o u p s . T h e militia g r o u p s
f o r m o n e o f t h e ' a l t e r n a t i v e r u r a l lifestyles' c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r .
Further Reading
T he c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n rurality a n d n a t i o n a l identity h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d b y a w i de
r a n g e o f w r i t e r s. S t e p h e n D a n i e l s ' s b o o k Fields of Vision: Landscape Imagery and
National Identity in England and the United States (Polity P r e s s , 1 9 9 3 ) is a
28 9
c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y o f t he i m p o r t a n c e o f l a n d s c a p e to n a t i o n a l i d e n t i ty in E n g l a n d a n d
t he U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h i l s t C h a p t e r 8 o f J e r e m y P a x m a n ' s b o o k The English: A Portrait of
a People ( M i c h a e l J o s e p h , 1 9 9 8 ) is a n a c c e s s i b l e d i s c u s s i o n o f t he role o f rurality in
E n g l i s h n a t i o n a l identity. J u l i an A g y e m a n a n d R a c h e l S p o o n e r d i s c u s s t he e x p e r i e n c e o f
e t h n i c m i n o r i t i es in rural a r e a s a t l e n g t h in t h e i r c h a p t e r in P. C l o ke a n d J . Little ( e d s ) ,
Contested Countryside Cultures ( R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 7 ) , w i th a p a r t i c u l ar f o c u s o n t he U K.
M a t t h ew S n i p p ( 1 9 9 6 ) ' U n d e r s t a n d i n g r a c e a n d e t h n i c i ty in rural A m e r i c a ', Rural
Sociology, volum e 6 1 , page s 1 2 5 - 1 4 2 , meanwhile , provides a comprehensiv e overvie w
o f t he s t u d y o f r a c e a n d rural s o c i e t i e s in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e p r o c e s s o f n a t i ve r i g h ts
c l a i m s to l a n d in A u s t r a l ia is e x a m i n e d in d e t a i l b y J o c e l y n D a v i e s in ' C o n t e m p o r a ry
g e o g r a p h i e s o f i n d i g e n o u s r i g h ts a n d i n t e r e s t s in rural A u s t r a l i a ', Australian
Geographer, volum e 34 , page s 1 9 - 4 5 (2003) .
Websites
F u r t h er i n f o r m a t i on r e l a t i ng to a n u m b e r o f t h e t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d in t h is c h a p t e r c a n b e
f o u n d o n a r a n g e o f w e b s i t e s , i n c l u d i ng t h o s e o f p r e s s u r e g r o u p s a n d g o v e r n m e n t
a g e n c i e s i n v o l v e d w i th s o m e o f t he i s s u e s d e s c r i b e d . T h e s e i n c l u de t he B l a c k
Environmenta l Networ k (www.ben-network.org.uk) , a U K organizatio n that e n c o u r a g e s
g r e a t e r u s e o f t he c o u n t r y s i d e fo r r e c r e a t i o n b y e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s ; t he N a t i o n a l B l a c k
F a r m e rs A s s o c i a t i o n ( w w w . b l a c k f a r m e r s . o r g ) a n d t he B l a c k F a r m e r s a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l i st
A s s o c i a t i o n ( w w w . c o a x . n e t / p e o p l e / l w f / b f a a . h t m ) , b o t h l o b b y g r o u p s r e p r e s e n t i n g t he
i n t e r e s t s o f b l a c k f a r m e rs in t he U n i t e d S t a t e s ; a n d t h e N a t i o n a l N a t i ve T i t le T r i b u n al
( w w w . n n t t . g o v . a u ) , w h i c h is t he b o d y c h a r g e d w i th a d m i n i s t e r i n g t he p r o c e s s o f n a t i ve
title c l a i m s in A u s t r a l i a.
29 0
Alternative Rural Lifestyles
Introduction
T h e i d e a o f ' e s c a p i n g t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e ' is a n i m p o r t a n t r h e t o r i c a l n o t i o n i n
d i s c o u r s e s o f r u r a l i t y . T h e d e s i r e t o e s c a p e t h e c i t y is a s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p o n e n t i n
m i d d l e class c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n ( s e e C h a p t e r 6 ) , w h e r e i t is c o m m o n l y
c o n s t r u c t e d i n t e r m s o f f l e e i n g f r o m t h e stresses a n d i n t e n s i t y o f u r b a n life t o a
s l o w e r , m o r e p e a c e f u l e n v i r o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , as V a l e n t i n e ( 1 9 9 7 b ) argues,'the
focus w i t h i n rural g e o g r a p h y o n w h i t e middle-class visions o f a "rural idyll"
o b s c u r e s t h e f a c t t h a t " o t h e r " g r o u p s h a v e a l s o i d e a l i z e d " t h e r u r a l " as a p e a c e f u l ,
safe p l a c e a n d s o u g h t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r o w n v e r s i o n s o f " c o m m u n i t y " life a w a y
f r o m t h e city' (p. 119). F r e q u e n t l y , t h e 'rural idylls' p u r s u e d b y t h e s e o t h e r groups
involve n o t a lifestyle c h a n g e , b u t a n e s c a p e t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e i n o r d e r t o find
s p a c e ( b o t h p h y s i c a l l y a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y ) t o p u r s u e lifestyles w h i c h t h e y feel a r e
i n h i b i t e d b y p r e j u d i c e a n d social a n d e c o n o m i c pressure i n u r b a n areas. H o w e v e r ,
t h e aspirations o f s u c h 'alternative rural lifestyles' a r e n o t always c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o
t h o s e o f t h e m i d d l e class r u r a l i d y l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e y c h a l l e n g e conventional
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f p r o p e r t y rights o r p r o m o t e n o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l sexualities, such
that conflict c a n b e generated. This chapter explores three examples o f alternative
r u r a l l i f e s t y l e s - n e w a g e t r a v e l l e r s i n t h e U K ; experimental Utopian c o m m u n i t i e s
based o n ecological principles o r sexuality; a n d t h e militia m o v e m e n t i n t h e
U n i t e d States.
Travellers and Rurality rural culture t h r o u g h e v e n t s s u c h as h o r s e
Despite the popular representation o f rural fairs. S i m i l a r l y , C r e s s w e l l ( 2 0 0 1 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e
c o m m u n i t i e s as p l a c e s o f s t a b i l i t y a n d e v e n historical experience of the tramp in
i n s u l a r i t y , t h e r e is a l o n g h i s t o r y o f m o b i l e America, whose existence was b o t h urban
populations in t h e countryside. In Europe, a n d r u r a l , i n s o m e cases r e l y i n g o n a g r i c u l -
g y p s i e s h a v e p u r s u e d a d i s t i n c t i v e lifestyle a n d tural work and following harvest cycles
c u l t u r e t h a t has b e e n p a r t o f t h e r u r a l e x p e r i e n c e through the Mid-West or down t h e west
for c e n t u r i e s , i n t e r s e c t i n g w i t h mainstream coast, a n d in others m o v i n g t h r o u g h rural

s p a c e as t h e y j o u r n e y e d b e t w e e n cities. T h e life ( ' J e r e m y ', traveller, E n g l a n d , q u o t e d b y

o f b o t h t h e gypsy a n d t h e t r a m p w e r e r o m a n t i - M c K a y, 1 9 9 6 , pp . 4 7 - 4 8 )
c i z e d as e m b o d y i n g t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e o p e n
countryside think for instance of Toads O n e traveller q u o t e d b y L o w e a n d Shaw
adventure with the gypsy cart in Kenneth ( 1 9 9 3 ) e v e n i d e n t i f i e d t h e lifestyle w i t h that
G r a h a m e s Wind in the Willows. B u t b o t h g r o u p s p o r t r a y e d i n The Archers, a l o n g - r u n n i n g B B C
w e r e also s u b j e c t e d t o c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c r i m i n a - radio soap opera centred o n a rural village
t i o n a n d o p p r e s s i o n a n d w e r e o f t e n p o r t r a y e d as which once branded i t s e l f as ' a n everyday
a t h r e a t t o m o r e s e d e n t a r y r u r a l lives w i t h p r e - story o f c o u n t r y folk':
judice stoked by b o t h their mobility and their

The Archers .. . is s o p o p u l a r. It's a bit o f
' o u t s i d e r ' status ( M a c L a u g h l i n , 1 9 9 9 ) .
a c u l t w i th t r a v e l l e r s . It's m y s o a p h a b i t. It
T h e e m e r g e n c e o f n e w n o m a d i c c u l t u r e s as
f e a t u r e s p e o p l e like u s . ('Jay', traveller,
a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e r n lifestyles h a s b e e n i n s p i r e d
England , quote d by L o we an d Shaw ,
by the romantic vision o f the itinerant rural
1 9 9 3 , p. 5 9 )
t r a v e l l e r , b u t also c o n f r o n t e d b y s u s p i c i o n a n d
hostility from o t h e r rural inhabitants. A m o n g T h e identification o f the rural w i t h freedom
t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t o f t h e n e w n o m a d s are is f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h i s d i s c o u r s e , b u t t r a v e l l e r s
t h e ' n e w age travellers' in t h e U K , a c o u n t e r - frequently find that their freedom to pursue
c u l t u r e t h a t d e v e l o p e d f r o m t h e festival c i r c u i t t h e i r i d y l l i z e d r u r a l lifestyle is c o m p r o m i s e d b y
in the 1970s (McKay, 1996). In rejecting h o s t i l i t y from l a n d o w n e r s a n d l o c a l r e s i d e n t s . A s
m o d e r n , c o n s u m e r i s t society, t h e traveller c u l - such, they challenge the principles of private
ture developed an identification with a p r o p e r t y a n d t r a d i t i o n a l biases o f r u r a l s o c i e t y :
romantic ruralism and adopted a semi-
n o m a d i c lifestyle t h a t is m a i n l y p e r f o r m e d i n
I d o n ' t t h i nk it s h o u l d b e a c r i me to w a n t
rural space. B y t h e late 1980s, t h e traveller to live like t h a t, to w a n t to live in a rural
community throughout the UK was esti- a r e a r a t h e r t h a n in a b ig city. A n d it's
m a t e d to n u m b e r 8,000 p e o p l e , travelling a n d i m p o s s i b l e to g o o u t a n d r e n t a c o t t a g e
living in s o m e 2 , 0 0 0 vehicles (McKay, 1996). o r a f a r m h o u s e o r b u y o n e . A p a rt f r om
A n u m b e r o f n e w age traveller g r o u p s b e c a m e p e o p l e w h o a re b o r n to it, rural B r i t a in is
involved in protests against t h e construction for t h e r i c h. It's f o r p e o p l e w h o c a n a f f o rd
o f n e w roads in t h e late 1980s a n d 1990s, w i t h to b u y t h e m s e l v e s a w e e k e n d p l a c e or
t h e traveller c o m m u n i t y g a i n i n g n e w m e m b e r s g o a n d retire in t he c o u n t r y. Fo r m e , if I
w a n t to live w i th s p a c e a r o u n d m e an d
from the ranks of eco-protesters.
t r e e s a n d hills a n d w o o d s , t he o n l y p o s -
T h e discourses o f rurality articulated b y trav-
s i b l e w a y a p a r t f r om s l e e p i n g o u t is to
ellers d r a w h e a v i l y o n t h e i d e a o f t h e r u r a l idyll, b u y a v e h i c l e a n d live like that. ( ' S h a n n o n ' ,
frequently employing language and imagery traveller, quote d by L o we an d Shaw ,
t h a t w o u l d r e s o n a t e w i t h t h a t o f m i d d l e class 1 9 9 3 , p. 2 4 0 )
in-migrants:
It's blatant. T h e s h e e p h a v e it all. W e h a v e
n o t h i n g . L o o k ou t o f t he w i n d o w . Every
t he appea l is q u i te r o m a n t i c. It's t he field y o u loo k in h a s go t s h e e p in it .. .
E n g l i s h d r e a m really isn't it? - t he f a n - T h e y ' re no t actuall y e a r n i n g thei r keep ,
tas y mos t Englis h peopl e have : trees , t h e y jus t si t in t he field a n d say , a m a
f i e l d s , al l t h o s e image s f r om [Thomas s h e e p . T h is is a s h e e p field, t h e r e f o re
H a r d y ' s] Tess of the d'Urbervilles. n o t h i ng e l s e is a l l o w e d in here' . Yo u c a n ' t
29 2
Alternative rural lifestyles
w a l k y o u r d o g t h e r e , y o u can' t e v e n g o in a l a s t i n g t wo o r t h r ee d a y s , s h o w i n g a tota l
s h e e p field. It's jus t s o o b v i o u s to m e h o w disregar d for t he area . (Quote d by
m u c h lan d t he s h e e p have , s o m a n y a c r e s H a l f a c r e e , 1 9 9 6 , p. 6 2 )
pe r s q u a r e s h e e p [sic], a n d h o w little lan d
w e have . ('Decke r J o h n ' , traveller, q u o t e d T h e y w e r e also p o r t r a y e d as a ' v i s u a l m e n a c e '
by L o we a n d S h a w , 1 9 9 3 , p. 104 ) o r ' a n u n t i d y a s p e c t o f u r b a n life' ( H a l f a c r e e ,
1996, p. 63), that disrupted the rural landscape,
T e n s i o n s b e t w e e n travellers a n d l a n d e d r u r a l a n d t h e y w e r e a c c u s e d o f d i s r u p t i n g t h e spatial
interests d e v e l o p e d m o s t e x p l i c i t l y i n t o open a n d social o r d e r o f rural space, for e x a m p l e , b y
c o n f l i c t o v e r access t o t h e a n c i e n t s t o n e circle at refusing t o c o n f o r m t o p r o p e r t y c o n v e n t i o n s :
S t o n e h e n g e . F r o m t h e early 1 9 7 0 s , travellers h a d
c o n v e r g e d o n S t o n e h e n g e , a n a t i o n a l i c o n t h a t is N e w a g e t r a v e l l e rs a p p e a r to h a v e no
s t e e p e d i n m y s t i c i s m , f o r a n a n n u a l festival at w i s h to e s t a b l i s h t h e m s e l v e s o r r e s i d e o n
m i d s u m m e r . T h e increasing n u m b e r s attending a u t h o r i s e d s i t e s , bu t s i m p l y w a n t to r o a m
t h e festival i n t h e 1980s, however, provoked t h r o u gh t he countryside unchecked .
o p p o s i t i o n from l o c a l l a n d o w n e r s a n d from t h e (Membe r of Parliament , quote d by

H a l f a c r e e , 1 9 9 6 , p. 5 8 )
h e r i t a g e a g e n c y r e s p o n s i b l e for m a n a g i n g the
site w h o t o o k legal a c t i o n t o p r e v e n t t h e t r a v -
Significantly, n e w age travellers w e r e e x p l i c -
ellers from r e a c h i n g S t o n e h e n g e . A s a n e x c l u -
itly r e p r e s e n t e d as not the same as g y p s i e s , p o s i -
sion z o n e was created a r o u n d S t o n e h e n g e at
tioning them outside the rural community,
midsummer, stand-offs developed in several
in part because of a perceived n o n - c o m p l i a n c e
y e a r s b e t w e e n p o l i c e a n d travellers a t t e m p t i n g
w i t h an imagined rural w o r k ethic:
t o r e a c h t h e site, n o t o r i o u s l y e r u p t i n g i n t o a
s k i r m i s h i n 1 9 8 5 t h a t w a s later k n o w n as ' t h e
b a t t l e o f t h e b e a n f i e l d ' , w h i c h Sibley ( 1 9 9 7 ) s u g - T r ue gypsie s hav e bee n w i th us fo r
gests w a s t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t i n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s centuries . T h e y hav e b e e n tolerate d -

i n d e e d w e l c o m e d - in t he rural c o m m u n i t y ,
t h e travellers' p l a c e i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e .
w h e r e the y regularly a s s i s t e d with t he har-
The conflict at S t o n e h e n g e was hence a
ves t a n d did othe r c a s u a l j o bs a r o u n d t he
significant factor in t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f legisla- f a r ms a n d h o u s e s . Bu t t o d a y t h e y hav e
tion to control a n d regulate mobility in the a c q u i r e d thei r parasites , t he hippie s or
countryside, particularly in the C r i m i n a l Justice d r o p - o u ts - genericall y referred to a s N e w
a n d P u b l i c O r d e r A c t 1 9 9 4 (Sibley, 1 9 9 7 ) . A s A g e travellers - w h o d o no t w o r k, w h o d o
Halfacree (1996) describes, t h e parliamentary no t w a n t to w o r k, but w h o believ e tha t
debates o n t h e A c t articulated the anxieties o f b e c a u s e t he g y p s i e s h a v e t he apparen t
m i d d l e class r u r a l B r i t a i n a b o u t t h e t h r e a t t h a t right to r o a m t he c o u n t r y s i d e a t will, the y
t h e y p e r c e i v e d t o b e p o s e d t o t h e i r r u r a l idyll c a n d o the s a m e a t t he e x p e n s e o f t he
loca l taxpayer . ( M e m b e r o f t he H o u s e o f
by travellers. T h e s e included a number of
Lords, q u o t e d by Halfacree , 1 9 9 6 , p. 59 )
e l e m e n t s . Travellers w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d as d i s r u p t -
ing the tranquillity o f rural life, w i t h one
M e m b e r of Parliament claiming that,
Alternative Rural Communities
T h e n e w a g e travellers d i s p l a y e d s o m e W h i l s t n e w age travellers e m b o d y a strategy
dreadful antics : the y invade d peacefu l of s e m i - n o m a d i s m in the countryside, alter-
c o u n t r y s i d e , d e c i m a t e d p e a c e f u l villages , native rural lifestyles are also performed

w e n t o n t he rampag e an d ha d rave s through the development of n e w forms of
29 3
settled communities, albeit based on very w e r e selected b y t h e lesbian separatists b e c a u s e

different principles from t h e traditional n o t i o n of the potential to control an extensive terri-
of the rural c o m m u n i t y . S o m e of these c o m - torial space a n d thus t o develop radical f o r m s
m u n i t i e s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d as a n o f f - s h o o t o f social a n d e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n :
of the traveller counterculture described
above. M o s t famous is T i p i V a l l e y in west W e v i e w o u r m a i n t a i n i ng l e s b i a n s p a c e
Wales, a c o m m u n i t y of a r o u n d t w o hundred a n d p r o t e c t i n g t h e s e a c r e s f r om t he r a pe
r e s i d e n t s a c c o m m o d a t e d i n s o m e fifty t o s i x t y o f m a n a n d his c h e m i c a l s a s a political
t e n t s i n a r e m o t e r u r a l valley, e s t a b l i s h e d in a c t o f a c t i v e r e s i s t a n c e . S t r u g g l i n g w i th
e a c h o t h e r to w o r k t h r o u g h o u r p a t r i-
1976. W i t h an obvious reference to Native
archa l conditioning , a n d attempting to
A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e , T i p i Valley r e p r e s e n t s itself
w o rk a n d live t o g e t h e r in h a r m o n y w i th
as a n e x p e r i m e n t i n a f o r m o f eco-friendly
eac h othe r an d nature. (Residen t of
r u r a l l i v i n g . Y e t , as M c K a y ( 1 9 9 6 ) o b s e r v e s , b y
W i s c o n s i n W o m y n 's L a n d C o - o p e r a t i v e ,
' d e l i b e r a t e l y p l a c i n g itself at t h e m a r g i n s , a w a y
q u o t e d b y C h e n e y , 1 9 8 5 , p. 1 3 2 )
from the centre of majority culture almost
from any culture - it h a s d e v e l o p e d i n t o a W i t h i n t h e separatist c o m m u n i t i e s , a t t e m p t s
c e n t r a l s p a c e i n h a b i t e d b y authentic veterans were made to construct a lesbian feminist
a n d i d e a l i s t s , s u r r o u n d e d b y its o w n m a r g i n a l society that was non-hierarchical and self-
t y p e s , p r o b l e m cases' (p. 5 7 ; o r i g i n a l e m p h a s i z e ) . s u f f i c i e n t . O l d skills s u c h as fire-making and
T i p i V a l l e y h a s a l s o b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r its l a c k producing herbal medicine were rediscovered
o f self-sufficiency and dependence on state a n d t h e c o m m u n i t i e s actively fostered a dis-
benefits a n d outside resources; a n d has faced tinctive w o m e n ' s culture expressed through
a t t e m p t s at e v i c t i o n b y t h e l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t language, music, literature and histories. As
authority w h i c h claimed that the c o m m u n i t y such,Valentine (1997b) notes,'they constructed
w a s ' a n u n a u t h o r i s e d shift f r o m a g r i c u l t u r a l t o v e r y p o l i t i c i s e d v i s i o n s o f a " r u r a l i d y l l ' " (p. 1 1 2 ) .
residential land use' (McKay, 1996, p. 52).
Y e t , V a l e n t i n e also d o c u m e n t s t h e tensions
T h e p i o n e e r s at T i p i Valley w e r e p a r t o f a a n d differences that e m e r g e d w i t h i n t h e c o m -
l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f Utopian g r o u p s w h o have munities, with conflicts developing around
appropriated the seclusion, space a n d isolation issues i n c l u d i n g t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e l a n d ,
afforded b y rural locations t o establish com- the practice of monogamy versus non-
munities that have sought to p r o m o t e new m o n o g a m y , and the presence in the commu-
ways o f living. T h e s e have i n c l u d e d , for e x a m - nities o f m a l e children. T h u s , Valentine (1997b)
ple, various religious g r o u p s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s c o n c l u d e s , 'lesbian separatist a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b -
identified w i t h particular forms o f farming or lish " i d y l l i c " w a y s o f l i v i n g i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e
environmental management. They also appear to have unravelled because, in c o m m o n
i n c l u d e initiatives d e s i g n e d t o establish com- w i t h traditional w h i t e middle-class visions o f
munities that can liberate members from "rural c o m m u n i t y " , attempts to create unity
oppressive structures of racism, ableism or and c o m m o n ways o f living p r o d u c e d b o u n d -
h o m o p h o b i a . Valentine ( 1 9 9 7 b ) discusses t h e aries a n d exclusions' (pp. 1 1 8 - 1 1 9 ) .
creation o f separatist lesbian c o m m u n i t i e s in
t h e rural U n i t e d States, w h i c h d e v e l o p e d i n t o Militant Reactionary Ruralities
a significant m o v e m e n t in t h e 1970s. D e s p i t e The e x a m p l e s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e all represent
t h e c o m m o n association o f rural society w i t h attempts to develop what might be labelled
h o m o p h o b i a (see C h a p t e r 1 7 ) , r u r a l l o c a t i o n s b r o a d l y p r o g r e s s i v e a l t e r n a t i v e lifestyles i n r u r a l
29 4
Alternative rural lifestyles
areas a n d t h e conflicts t h a t h a v e b e e n noted ethnic groups in the labour market (Kimmel

have often arisen w h e n t h e progressive values a n d Ferber, 2000).Yet, t h e militia c o m m u n i t y
of the n e w communities have collided with has gravitated t o w a r d s r e m o t e rural areas, w i t h
t h e c o n s e r v a t i s m o f t r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l society. a particular presence in M o n t a n a and Idaho.
H o w e v e r , alternative rural c o m m u n i t i e s have K i m m e l a n d Ferber argue that militia mem-
also b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b y m o r e r e a c t i o n a r y , r i g h t b e r s m o v e t o r u r a l areas b e c a u s e
wing g r o u p s , for whom the countryside is
attractive i n p a r t b e c a u s e o f its association as a the y see k companionshi p w i th like-
' p u r e ' r u r a l s p a c e a n d relatively monocultural minde d persons , in r e l a t i v e ly remote
s o c i e t y (see C h a p t e r 2 0 ) , a n d i n p a r t b e c a u s e area s fa r f r om large numbers of non -

whites an d Jews , where the y ca n
isolated l o c a t i o n s offer t h e p o t e n t i a l o f o p e r a t i n g
organize , t r a i n, an d b u i ld protective
b e y o n d t h e s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e state. T h e m o s t
f o r t r e s s e s . M a n y g r o u p s s e e k to e s t a b l i s h
p r o m i n e n t s u c h g r o u p is t h e militia m o v e m e n t
a r e f u g e in rural c o m m u n i t i e s , w h e r e t h e y
i n t h e U n i t e d States. A s K i m m e l a n d Ferber
ca n p r a c t i ce military tactics , stockpil e
( 2 0 0 0 ) n o t e , t h e militia m o v e m e n t is a l o o s e f o o d a n d w e a p o n s , h o n e thei r survivalis t
c o l l e c t i o n o f p a r a m i l i t a r y g r o u p s w h o share a skills, a n d b e c o m e self-sufficien t in p r e p a -
distrust o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d a p a r a n o i a t h a t g l o b a l ration for A r m a g e d d o n , Y 2 K, t he final rac e
politics are c o n t r o l l e d b y a n elite conspiracy, a n d war, o r w h a t e v e r c a t a c l y s m t h e y e n v i s -
w h o h a v e a r m e d t h e m s e l v e s t o fight b a c k . Its a g e . ( K i m m el a n d Ferber , 2 0 0 0 , p. 5 9 0 )
w o r l d - v i e w is racist a n d a n t i - S e m i t e , c o n s t r u c t e d
on particular notions of masculinity, and In advance of the year 2 0 0 0 (Y2K), s o m e
informed by a fundamentalist interpretation of militia g r o u p s established ' c o v e n a n t c o m m u n i -
Christianity. M a n y militia m e m b e r s also b e l i e v e ties' i n p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e a r r i v a l o f n o n - w h i t e
that they b e c o m e sovereign individuals b y taking r e f u g e e s w h o m t h e y b e l i e v e d w o u l d l e a v e cities
actions to r e m o v e themselves from t h e authority for the American countryside as computer
o f t h e federal g o v e r n m e n t , for e x a m p l e b y refus- systems collapsed a n d welfare p a y m e n t s ceased.
i n g t o p a y taxes. T h e y assert t h e r i g h t t o d o this I n t h e anticipated fight for f o o d supplies, t h e
b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o b e ' n a t u r a l citizens', 'covenant communities' were armed and
b o r n a n d b r e d i n t h e U n i t e d States, as o p p o s e d t r a i n e d t o ' d e f e n d ' t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e i r all-
to 'Fourteenth Amendment citizens', who w h i t e m e m b e r s ( K i m m e l and Ferber, 2000).
i n c l u d e i m m i g r a n t s w h o swear their allegiance Additionally, the extremist groups have
to the constitutions and Americans w h o accede identified r u r a l a r e a s as r e c r u i t i n g grounds.
t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e federal g o v e r n m e n t b y T h e m y t h i c history of t h e militia m o v e m e n t
p a y i n g taxes, r e c e i v i n g social s e c u r i t y cards a n d makes connections to a strong tradition of
o b t a i n i n g d r i v e r s ' l i c e n c e s , b i r t h certificates a n d rural producer radicalism in the United
t h e like ( D y e r , 1 9 9 8 ) . States, based o n ideologies of localism and
T h e , mostly male, m e m b e r s o f t h e militia v i g i l a n t i s m ( S t o c k , 1 9 9 6 ) , s u c h t h a t it p o s i -
m o v e m e n t are d r a w n f r o m across t h e U n i t e d t i o n s i t s e l f as d e f e n d i n g ' r u r a l A m e r i c a ' .
States, often f r o m the lower-middle classes, T h i s message has an alluring appeal in rural
s u c h as s m a l l f a r m e r s , s h o p k e e p e r s , c r a f t s m e n c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t h a v e suffered f r o m t h e f a r m
and skilled w o r k e r s - occupational groups crisis, d e p o p u l a t i o n , t h e loss o f s e r v i c e s and
w h o feel a g g r i e v e d a t t h e t a x b u r d e n a n d l a c k infrastructure, environmental degradation,
o f e c o n o m i c assistance f r o m g o v e r n m e n t , o r poverty a n d ill-health (Dyer, 1998; K i m m e l
threatened by competition from non-white a n d Ferber, 2 0 0 0 ; Stock, 1996). As D y e r (1998)
29 5
remarks, sovereigntist ideas of withholding explicit threat a b o u t the relationship b e t w e e n

taxes have f o u n d favour with rural people rural A m e r i c a and the U S g o v e r n m e n t : 'This
struggling to make ends m e e t and w h o per- i d e a is t h a t i f t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t won't
ceive g o v e r n m e n t expenditure to be biased help rural America, then rural A m e r i c a will
towards (non-white) urban communities. simply govern itself by ignoring federal
T h u s , D y e r locates in t h e militia discourse an a u t h o r i t y ' (p. 1 7 4 ) .
Summary
N o o n e has exclusive o w n e r s h i p o f the 'rural idyll'. For a diverse range o f g r o u p s from very
different b a c k g r o u n d s a n d w i t h v e r y different ideological, cultural a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l
i n f l u e n c e s , t h e c o u n t r y s i d e offers a n e s c a p e f r o m t h e p r e s s u r e s a n d d e m a n d s o f c i t y l i v i n g a n d
p r o v i d e s t h e s p a c e i n w h i c h t o c o n s t r u c t a n e w , i d e a l i s t i c , w a y o f life. A s s u c h , r u r a l a r e a s
i n c r e a s i n g l y p l a y h o s t t o a d i v e r s i t y o f a l t e r n a t i v e lifestyles a n d c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t d o n o t
c o n f o r m t o c o n v e n t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f r u r a l life a n d r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s . M a n y o f t h e
p a r t i c i p a n t s i n s u c h c o m m u n i t i e s w h e t h e r t h e y b e f i x e d p l a c e s e t t l e m e n t s s u c h as T i p i V a l l e y
a n d t h e s e p a r a t i s t l e s b i a n c o m m u n i t i e s ; l o o s e r n e t w o r k s o f m o b i l e p o p u l a t i o n s s u c h as t h e
n e w age travellers; o r regionally f o c u s e d g r o u p i n g s b a s e d o n p a r t i c u l a r i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s
a n d w a y s o f life, s u c h as t h e m i l i t i a m o v e m e n t - b e l i e v e t h a t t h e o p e n s p a c e s o f t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e will p e r m i t t h e m sufficient a u t o n o m y a n d seclusion t o a l l o w t h e m t o p u r s u e t h e
lifestyle o f t h e i r c h o i c e w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e . H o w e v e r , t h e p r a c t i c e s o f s u c h a l t e r n a t i v e r u r a l
lifestyles a r e f r e q u e n t l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h m a n y o f t h e v a l u e s , p r i n c i p l e s a n d p r e j u d i c e s o f
established rural c o m m u n i t i e s , c r e a t i n g t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s . As s u c h , r u r a l areas
c a n b e less o f a p l a c e o f e s c a p e t h a n a p l a c e o f c o n f l i c t i n w h i c h p o w e r s t r u g g l e s a r e p l a y e d
o u t b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t lifestyle g r o u p s , e a c h i n p u r s u i t o f t h e i r o w n ' r u r a l i d y l l ' .
Further Reading
T h e c o n t e s t e d rural lifestyle s o f t he n e w a g e t r a v e l l e rs a n d t he e x p e r i m e n t a l a l t e r n a t i ve
c o m m u n i t y a t T i pi V a l l e y a re b o t h d i s c u s s e d in m o r e d e t a i l b y G e o r g e M c K ay in his
b o o k Senseless Acts of Beauty ( V e r s o , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e d e p i c t i o n o f t r a v e l l e rs a s a t h r e a t to
t he m i d d le c l a s s rural idyll b y B r i t i sh p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s , m e a n w h i l e , is e x a m i n e d b y K e i th
H a l f a c r e e in O u t o f p l a c e in t he c o u n t r y s i d e : t r a v e l l e rs a n d t he "rural idyll"', Antipode,
v o l u m e 2 9 , p a g e s 4 2 - 7 1 ( 1 9 9 6 ) . Fo r m o r e o n l e s b i a n s e p a r a t i s t c o m m u n i t i e s in t he
rural U n i t e d S t a t e s , s e e Gill V a l e n t i n e ' s c h a p t e r in P. C l o ke a n d J . Little ( e d s ) , Contested
Countryside Cultures ( R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e r i g h t - w i ng e x t r e m i s t militia m o v e m e n t in
t he rural U n i t e d S t a t e s is d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h b y a n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s , bu t s e e
p a r t i c u l a r ly J o e l D y e r 's b o o k , Harvest of Rage (Westview , 1998 ) a n d Michae l Kimmel
a n d A b b y F e r b e r 's a r t i c le " ' W h i te m e n a re t h is n a t i o n ": r i g h t - w i ng militias a n d t he
r e s t o r a t i o n o f r u r al A m e r i c a n m a s c u l i n i t y ', in Rural Sociology, volum e 65 , page s
5 8 2 - 6 0 4 ( 2 0 0 0 ) . C a r o l M c N i c h o l S t o c k ' s b o o k Rural Radicals: Righteous Rage in the
American Grain ( C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 9 6 ) p r o v i d e s a d e t a i l e d h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t .
29 6
Part 5
CONCLUSIONS
Thinking Again About the Rural
The Differentiated Countryside and economies from urban societies and

There are many different countrysides. They economies.Yet, it does not mean that the con-
are distinguished by different landscapes and cept of the 'rural' is devalued for geographers
natural environments; by different histories, and social scientists. 'Rural' is still a tremen-
settlement patterns and densities of popula- dously powerful concept in modern society
tion; by relative isolation or proximity to metro- and the different ways in which people and
politan centres; by different economic institutions socially construct 'rurality' have a
structures, types of farming, industrial devel- very real effect on the restructuring of those
opments and experiences of economic areas that are claimed to be rural, on the
change; and by different patterns of migration responses that are adopted, and on individuals'
and population recomposition. Even within a experiences of rural change.
single rural territory people will have very The diversity of the countryside is not new.
different ideas about what it means to be The differences indicated above have a long
rural. Some will claim that rural people need historical presence, in spite of attempts by geo-
to be born into the countryside, that they graphers and social scientists to impose strict
Heed to be steeped in traditional rural folk definitions of 'rurality', or those of policy-
knowledge and to practise traditional rural makers to reduce the rural to manageable
pursuits such as hunting. Others will assert unifying concepts such as agriculture. Yet, it
their right to buy into the countryside, pur- can be argued that economic and social
chasing property or enjoying rural recreation restructuring in recent decades has increased
in pursuit of an idea of rural life that is often the differentiation of the countryside, whilst
strongly influenced by media representations. reducing the differentiation between rural
Experiences and expectations of rural life are and urban space.
informed by an individual's socio-economic
status, gender, age, ethnicity and sexual orien- Processes, Responses and Experiences
tation, and by other personal characteristics. This book has sought to analyse contemporary
This diversity means that it is difficult to rural restructuring by examining in turn the
produce a single, objective, definition of'rural' main processes of restructuring, the responses
that can be employed to delimit rural and of communities and governments, and the
urban spaces, or to differentiate rural societies experiences of people living in, working in or
Conclusions
c o n s u m i n g rural space. T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y era G l o b a l i z a t i o n is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o modern-

o f r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g is s e t a p a r t f r o m e a r l i e r i z a t i o n , o n e o f t h e effects of modernization
c h a n g e s i n t h e r u r a l w o r l d b y t h e pace and per- being the compression of time a n d space. As
sistence o f c h a n g e a n d b y t h e totality and inter- n o t e d in C h a p t e r 3 , there are m a n y different
connectivity o f c h a n g e as e x p e r i e n c e d during strands o f globalization a n d t h r e e in particular
t h e t w e n t i e t h a n d early twenty-first c e n t u r i e s . h a v e i m p a c t e d o n r u r a l areas. First, e c o n o m i c
T h e s e characteristics in t u r n are an expression globalization m e a n s that food and o t h e r agri-
o f t h e w a y in w h i c h r e c e n t rural c h a n g e has c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s , as w e l l as o t h e r traditional
been driven by two over-arching processes r u r a l p r o d u c t s s u c h as t i m b e r , a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y
of transformation that have impacted on traded in a global market a n d that t h e eco-
both rural and urban areas: modernization n o m i c circumstances of farmers and rural p r o -
and globalization. d u c e r s are strongly influenced b y t h e c o n d i t i o n s
Many processes of rural restructuring of the global market (Chapters 3 and 4).
involve a n o t i o n of m o d e r n i z a t i o n . Changes Additionally, these markets t e n d to b e domi-
to farming practices, for example, were n a t e d b y a small n u m b e r o f transnational c o r -
advanced under the banner of 'agricultural porations and 'commodity chain clusters'.
modernization', which meant mechanization, Secondly, the globalization of mobility has
specialization, larger farm units a n d t h e use increased the flow o f p e o p l e in, o u t a n d t h r o u g h
of agri-chemicals and other technologies to rural space n o t just o n regional a n d national
m a x i m i z e p r o d u c t i o n ( C h a p t e r 4). As a c o n - scales, b u t also i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . A number of
sequence, the n u m b e r of people employed in r u r a l areas h a v e b e c o m e h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t o n
a g r i c u l t u r e p l u m m e t e d , s u c h that f a r m i n g lost foreign tourism (see C h a p t e r 12); whilst in
its p l a c e as t h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f r u r a l e m p l o y - several r u r a l areas, s i g n i f i c a n t a m o u n t s o f p r o -
ment, and problems of over-production and perty have b e e n purchased by non-nationals
environmental degradation were created. as p e r m a n e n t o r s e c o n d h o m e s . A t t h e other
Elsewhere in the rural e c o n o m y , n e w e m p l o y - end of the economic scale, f o r e i g n migrant
m e n t opportunities were created by ' m o d e r n - workers c o m p r i s e a crucial part of t h e labour
ization' in o t h e r industries and sectors w h i c h force for seasonally intensive f o r m s o f a g r i c u l -
e n a b l e d t h e r e l o c a t i o n o f p l a n t s a n d offices t o ture, including fruit-farming and viticulture
r u r a l areas ( C h a p t e r 5 ) . ' M o d e r n i z a t i o n ' i n t h e ( C h a p t e r 18). Thirdly, a globalization o f values
form of technological innovation changed the has e r o d e d historic rural cultures. T h e conser-
p a t t e r n s o f e v e r y d a y life i n t h e countryside, vatism and conformity of traditional rural
particularly t h r o u g h developments in trans- society has b e e n challenged b y t h e assertion o f
port, food preservation and communications. values o f plurality a n d tolerance, expressed p a r -
O n the one hand, such developments raised ticularly t h r o u g h a r e w o r k i n g o f rural g e n d e r
t h e q u a l i t y o f life i n r u r a l a r e a s , m a k i n g t h e m relations a n d attitudes towards sexuality and
m o r e desirable places t o live a n d e n c o u r a g i n g r a c e (see C h a p t e r s 1 5 , 1 7 a n d 2 0 ) . Similarly, t h e
c o u n t e r u r b a n i z a t i o n ( C h a p t e r 6); o n t h e o t h e r ascendancy o f globalized values o f conservation
hand, technological innovations that enabled a n d a n i m a l r i g h t s o v e r r u r a l lay d i s c o u r s e s of
p e o p l e t o b e c o m e m o r e m o b i l e a n d t o b e less nature has b o t h supported the adoption of
d e p e n d e n t o n s h o p p i n g l o c a l l y f o r fresh f o o d m o r e stringent measures to protect the rural
removed trade from village retailers, con- environment and generated conflicts over
tributing to the rationalization and closure of farming practices, resource m a n a g e m e n t and
m a n y rural shops a n d services ( C h a p t e r 7). h u n t i n g (Chapters 13 a n d 14).
30 0
Thinking again about the rural
T h e effects o f r e s t r u c t u r i n g h a v e d e m a n d e d change) requires 'fundamental readjustments

responses b o t h f r o m t h e state a n d f r o m rural i n a v a r i e t y o f s p h e r e s o f life, w h e r e p r o c e s s e s
communities and residents. T h e state - of change are causally l i n k e d ' (p. 4 2 ) , and
including national, regional a n d local g o v e r n - w h i c h have b o t h a quantitative and a qualita-
m e n t and other public agencies charged w i t h tive expression. As t h e c h a p t e r s in t h e final
m a n a g e m e n t of elements of the rural economy, p a r t o f t h i s b o o k d e m o n s t r a t e d , t h e r e is s u b -
society a n d e n v i r o n m e n t has an interest in s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e o f a q u a l i t a t i v e shift i n t h e
responding to rural restructuring not just experience o f life i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , with
f r o m a welfare p e r s p e c t i v e , b u t also in t e r m s c h a n g e o f t e n e x p e r i e n c e d as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f
o f s u p p o r t i n g capitalist a c c u m u l a t i o n , a n d for a n u m b e r o f inter-locking processes. M o r e o v e r ,
practical g o v e r n m e n t a l reasons o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e r e is a g a i n n o o n e c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e o f
order by addressing regional inequalities and rural c h a n g e , rather m a n y different, situated,
avoiding unmanageable population move- stories.
ments. T h u s responses adopted b y the state T h e m y t h o f t h e rural idyll m i g h t suggest
include the reform of agricultural policy to t h a t r u r a l life is safe, p e a c e f u l a n d p r o s p e r o u s ,
encourage a transition away from produc- b u t t h e r e are m a n y rural residents for whom
tivism (Chapter 4); actions to regulate w o r l d life is r e s t r i c t e d or constrained by poverty,
trade in agricultural and other commodities p o o r h o u s i n g , ill h e a l t h , p r e j u d i c e a n d l a c k o f
(Chapter 9); investment in rural d e v e l o p m e n t o p p o r t u n i t y ( C h a p t e r s 1 6 - 2 0 ) . I n s o m e cases,
p r o g r a m m e s ( C h a p t e r 10); t h e regulation of t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f rural r e s t r u c t u r i n g has b e e n
land use a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a n d initiatives t o e m p o w e r i n g t h e r e is g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r t o l e r -
protect the rural e n v i r o n m e n t (Chapter 13). a n c e n o w t o w a r d s racial a n d sexual diversity
The state response to restructuring also in rural communities; and there are more
involved c h a n g i n g the way in w h i c h rural e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s for rural women.
s p a c e is g o v e r n e d ( C h a p t e r 11) a n d i n c o r p o - I n o t h e r cases, h o w e v e r , r u r a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g has
rating new actors into the policy-making compounded problems of unemployment and
process (Chapter 9).Yet the response to rural t h e a b s e n c e o f a p p r o p r i a t e l y skilled w o r k , p o o r
r e s t r u c t u r i n g h a s n o t b e e n left t o t h e state accessibility t o services a n d w o r k p l a c e s , a n d a
a l o n e . A t a grassroots level, rural c o m m u n i t i e s s h o r t a g e o f affordable h o u s i n g ( C h a p t e r s 16
and people themselves have responded a n d 18).
t h r o u g h a variety o f locally based self-help
a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l activity, t h r o u g h v e n t u r e s
Re-thinking Rurality
to exploit the commodification of the c o u n -
Tracing through the processes of rural
tryside (Chapter 12) and through political
restructuring and their consequences might
m o b i l i z a t i o n t o d e f e n d a s p e c t s o f r u r a l life,
lead us t o r e - t h i n k the way in w h i c h we
culture and environment that they perceived
a p p r o a c h t h e ' r u r a l ' as s t u d e n t s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s .
t o b e u n d e r threat ( C h a p t e r 14).
T h e c o n c e p t o f t h e r u r a l as a s o c i a l c o n s t r u c -
T h e processes o f rural restructuring a n d the t i o n , as d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 1 a n d f o l l o w e d
response to t h e m have fundamentally changed t h r o u g h t h e b o o k , is v e r y u s e f u l i n r e v e a l i n g
the experience of living in the countryside. difference a n d conflict in t h e countryside, b u t
T h i s is s i g n i f i c a n t as it is b y e x p l o r i n g the m o r e recently rural researchers have started to
experiences of rural change that we can m o v e b e y o n d perceptions a n d representations of
respond to Hoggart and Paniagua's (2001) the rural to try to grasp the ways in w h i c h the
c h a l l e n g e t h a t restructunng (as o p p o s e d t o m e r e r u r a l is performed and constituted.
30 1
Conclusions
Examining the performance of rurality T he c o u n t r y s i d e is h y b r i d. To s a y t h is is

enables t h e researcher to move away from to emphasis e that it is define d by
t h i n k i n g o f t h e r u r a l as a s p a t i a l l y fixed e n t i t y n e t w o r ks in w h i c h h e t e r o g e n e o u s enti-
a n d to focus o n t h e w a y in w h i c h rurality (or t i e s a r e a l i g n e d in a v a r i e ty o f w a y s . It is
p a r t i c u l a r l y w a y s o f b e i n g r u r a l ) is e m b e d d e d a l s o to p r o p o s e t h a t t h e s e n e t w o r k s g i v e
rise to s l i g h t ly d i f f e r e nt countrysides :
in social practices. T h u s , for e x a m p l e , t r a d i -
t h e re is n o s i n g l e vantag e point f r om
tional family-based farming may be regarded
w h i c h t he p a n o p l y o f rural o r c o u n t r y s i d e
as a p a r t i c u l a r way of performing a rural
r e l a t i o ns c a n b e s e e n . T h u s , a ' r e g i o n -
lifestyle, as m a y p a r t i c i p a t i o n in 'traditional
alised ' perspectiv e ca n b e adopte d only
rural sports' such as h u n t i n g or shooting.
in t he k n o w l e d g e t h a t n e t w o r k a n d f l u id
Seeing these activities as p e r f o r m a n c e s of s p a c e s will e s c a p e its p u r v i e w ; a f o c u s
rurality may help us to understand why o n n e t w o r k s a n d f l u id s p a c e s will d i s r u pt
perceived threats to their practice can g e n e r - t he notions o f easil y d e m a r c a t e d an d
ate deep anger and political mobilization f i x e d rural s p a c e s b u t will g e n e r a t e c o n -
(Woods, 2003a). A t a m o r e collective level, t r a s t i ng an d sometime s c o n t r a d i c t o ry
L i e p i n s ' s ( 2 0 0 0 a ) m o d e l o f c o m m u n i t y , as d i s - understanding s of r u r al processes .
cussed in C h a p t e r 7, allows us e n t r y p o i n t s t o ( M u r d o ch a n d L o w e , 2 0 0 3 , p. 2 7 4 )
thinking about the performance of rural

c o m m u n i t y , b o t h t h r o u g h everyday practices F o c u s i n g o n hybridity, n e t w o r k s a n d 'fluid
and through literal performances of fairs, space' resonates w i t h other developments that
shows and community e v e n t s . Finally, the are already o c c u r r i n g in rural research. First,
consumption of the commodified country- there has b e e n a r e n e w e d c o n c e r n w i t h the
side increasingly involves n o t just t h e focusing inter-relation of nature and rurality, which
of the tourist gaze o n representations of an involves b o t h t h e analysis o f c u l t u r e s o f n a t u r e
i m a g i n e d ' r u r a l idyll', b u t also active e n g a g e - (see Milbourne, 2003c), and collaboration
ment with embodied rural performances between human and physical geographers
through forms of adventure tourism (Cater (and social and natural scientists more
and Smith, 2003). broadly) - t h e latter b e i n g the objective of
Meanwhile, the re-examination of the a major research p r o g r a m m e launched in the
c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e rural has b e g u n t o t h i n k U K in 2003.
a b o u t t h e r u r a l as a ' h y b r i d s p a c e ' , a s e t o f S e c o n d , t h e r e are n e w a t t e m p t s t o e x a m i n e
c o m p l e x inter-relations o f social a n d natural the interplay o f the city a n d the countryside
entities. T h e countryside, it is argued, is a n d instances o f urbanrural hybridity. T h i s
co-constructed by the agency of both h u m a n m i g h t involve, for e x a m p l e , investigating h o w
a n d n o n - h u m a n actors (think, for example, t h e processes s h a p i n g rural spaces also w o r k
about the place of animals in the country- t h r o u g h u r b a n space and h o w finding solu-
side, o r a b o u t t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e i m p a c t of tions to policy problems m i g h t involve b o t h
d i s e a s e s s u c h as B S E a n d f o o t a n d m o u t h , o r rural and urban action. Counterurbanization
of extreme weather events). Once again, evidently involves m i g r a t i o n from u r b a n dis-
e x p l o r i n g t h e r u r a l i n t e r m s o f its h y b r i d i t y t r i c t s as w e l l as m i g r a t i o n t o r u r a l districts.
serves to highlight the diversity and Similarly, t h e relocation of some types of
dynamism o f the countryside. As J o n a t h a n manufacturing industry and service sector
M u r d o c h suggests, e m p l o y m e n t t o r u r a l l o c a t i o n s is i n t r i n s i c a l l y
30 2
Thinking again about the rural
connected to processes of urban economic r e s t r u c t u r i n g discussed i n this b o o k c a n also

restructuring. F u r t h e r m o r e , the use of rural be found in particular contexts w i t h i n the
space b y u r b a n residents, particularly for r e c r e - developing world. Furthermore, a n u m b e r of
a t i o n , c r e a t e s sets o f o v e r l a p p i n g u r b a n and t h e p r o b l e m s faced b y r u r a l areas i n t h e c o n -
rural interests. S o m e rural research has b e g u n temporary developed world have developing
t o e x p l o r e these c o n n e c t i o n s , for instance b y world dimensions. For example, the resolu-
tracing the various c o m p o n e n t s of the food tion of negotiations about global trade in
chain from production to consumption, but agriculture will have a significant i m p a c t on
t h e r e is s c o p e f o r m o r e s t u d i e s o f t h i s n a t u r e . farming communities in b o t h the developed
T h i r d , t h e r e is a g r o w i n g c o n c e r n w i t h t h e and the developing world (Chapter 9).
i n t e r a c t i o n o f g l o b a l a n d l o c a l scales i n r u r a l Similarly, migrant workers often form a
restructuring, and thus with questions about bridge between the developed world rural
rural change beyond the developed world. e c o n o m i e s in w h i c h t h e y w o r k a n d rural areas
This book has deliberately focused on the in developing w o r l d countries from which
r u r a l areas o f t h e d e v e l o p e d w o r l d - defined they have c o m e (Chapter 18).These c o n n e c -
as N o r t h A m e r i c a , E u r o p e , A u s t r a l i a , New tions have b e e n recognized by campaigning
Zealand and Japan and excluded any c o n - organizations that have formed linkages
sideration of the rural developing world. between groups in the developed and the
D e s p i t e t h e differences discussed above, there developing worlds and o n e of the key chal-
are a n u m b e r o f structural characteristics that l e n g e s f o r r u r a l g e o g r a p h y is t o e n g a g e m o r e
are c o m m o n t o r u r a l areas i n m o s t o f the substantially with the interconnections of
d e v e l o p e d w o r l d . First, a g r i c u l t u r a l produc- the rural experience in the developed and
tion and other economic activity in rural developing world.
s p a c e is a l m o s t e n t i r e l y f o r c o m m e r c i a l pur- As a student of rural geography, o r a related

poses rather than self-sufficiency. Secondly, r u r a l social s c i e n c e , y o u n e e d n o t b e a passive
c o m m e r c i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f r u r a l r e s o u r c e s is observer of these developments, but can m a k e
p e r f o r m e d i n a c a p i t a l i s t free m a r k e t e c o n o m y . your own contributions. T h e chapters and
T h i r d l y , all b u t t h e m o s t r e m o t e r u r a l a r e a s a r e sections in this book have provided an
p r o v i d e d w i t h basic infrastructure including inevitably brief introduction to a range of
electricity a n d w a t e r supply. F o u r t h l y , t h e state themes and topics in contemporary rural
accepts the principle o f a universal entitle- geography. B y following the suggestions for
m e n t t o p u b l i c s e r v i c e s a c r o s s its territory. further reading y o u will b e able to find out
Fifthly, t h e p o p u l a t i o n as a w h o l e is suffi- m o r e a b o u t subjects that interest y o u , b u t y o u
ciently affluent t o p a y for t h e commodifica- will n o t find definitive statements that leave
t i o n o f r u r a l l a n d s c a p e s , lifestyles, a r t e f a c t s a n d n o t h i n g m o r e t o b e said. O n - g o i n g p r o c e s s e s
e x p e r i e n c e s . F i n a l l y , t h e r e is a s h a r e d con- of restructuring may have c h a n g e d the situa-
sumption of film, television, literature and tion, or n e w policies m a y have b e e n a d o p t e d
music that informs perceptions o f the rural. since t h e articles w e r e w r i t t e n . O b s e r v a t i o n s
N o n e o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is f o u n d u n i - m a d e in o n e rural context m a y n o t apply in
versally in t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d . However, another. A n d there is a l w a y s the potential
there are places in the developing world t o find n e w p e r s p e c t i v e s o n a t o p i c , n e w w a y s
w h e r e s o m e of t h e above characteristics do of looking at o r thinking about an issue.
apply, a n d t h u s m a n y o f t h e features o f rural Hopefully, t h e n , this b o o k will h a v e inspired
30 3
Conclusions
you to ask y o u r own questions about the positions of various rural campaign groups
contemporary countryside and the ways in and agencies. W i t h these resources y o u can
w h i c h it is c h a n g i n g . T h e w e b s i t e s i n d i c a t e d carry o u t y o u r o w n rural research for u n d e r -
at t h e e n d o f c h a p t e r s w i l l e n a b l e y o u t o l o o k graduate and postgraduate projects a n d con-
f o r y o u r s e l f at u p - t o - d a t e statistics a n d d a t a , t o tribute to our broader understanding of the
read first-hand a c c o u n t s a n d press r e p o r t s , t o d i v e r s e , d y n a m i c a n d c o m p l e x p l a c e t h a t is
find o u t a b o u t policies a n d t o discover the the twenty-first century countryside.
30 4
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32 0
Index
accountability, governanc e 16 9 agriculture cont.

active citizenshi p 167- 9 Ne w Zealan d 1 4 0 - 1 , 2 2 4 - 5
adventure tourism 1 8 2 - 3 overproduction 5 2
advertising 183- 4 post-productivis t transition 5 4 - 7
affordable housin g 2 3 4 - 6 rural conflict 210 , 2 1 1 , 212 , 2 1 5 - 1 6
Agricultural Wate r Quality Protectio n Program 20 5 rural policy 130- 1
agriculture 14 , 7 1 sociolog y 2 0
agri-environmenta l scheme s 117 , 2 0 2 - 6 specializatio n 48 , 4 9
agri-ruralist discours e 1 2 stat e intervention 4 5 - 6
California 4 3 - 5 stres s 23 8
Canad a 4 5 - 6 , 47 , 4 8 supermarkets ' powe r 3 7
capitalis t enterprise 2 3 technologica l innovation 3 1 , 3 2
chang e 4 2 - 6 1 US dus t bow l 113-1 4
commodificatio n 174- 5 US farm crisis 5 2 - 4 , 138 , 13 9
concentratio n o f 4 7 - 8 US protectionis m 141- 2
crime 24 0 Agriculture Act (1947 ) 4 6
declin e 15 agri-environmenta l scheme s 117 , 2 0 2 - 6
developmen t control 20 1 Agyeman , J. 283 , 28 4
elderly peopl e 25 2 Alaska Lands Act (1980 ) 18 9
employmen t 42 , 4 3 - 4 , 4 8 - 9 , 62 , 2 5 6 - 7 , Albrow, M. 3 3
2 6 0 - 1 , 2 6 2 - 4 , 30 0 alcoholis m 238 , 24 9
environmenta l chang e 111-12 , 113-17 , Alexandra 2 4 9 - 5 0
121-3 , 12 5 American Agricultural Movemen t (AAM) 21 2
ethnicity 28 5 Anderson , S . 24 0
EU diversification 14 1 animals 64 , 2 0 6 - 7
extensificatio n of 54 , 56 , 57 , 20 2 bird declin e 116 , 11 7
farm diversification 5 5 - 6 , 57 , 60 , reintroductions 2 0 6 - 7
141 , 173 , 175- 6 rights 30 0
farmers' markets 39 , 153-4 , 15 5 welfare 2 1 6 - 1 7
foo d miles 3 3 - 4 Anne of Green Gables 181- 2
geographica l tradition 1 8 anthropologica l tradition 2 1 - 2
globalizatio n 3 3 - 5 , 5 7 aquife r depletio n 118-1 9
globa l regulatory frameworks 3 7 Archer Daniel s Midland (ADM) 3 6
globa l trade 139-4 0 Areas o f Outstanding Natural Beaut y
intensification o f 47 , 4 9 (AONB) 19 6
lifestyle s 2 2 3 - 4 aspirationa l migration 7 7
migrant workers 38 , 4 3 aspirationa l ruralism 21 9
modernizatio n 20 , 30 0 Associatio n of America n Geographer s 18
nationa l parks 19 2 Austin, P. 13 , 2 2 8 - 9
Rural geography
Baldwin, Stanle y 28 1 children 229 , 2 4 4 - 5 5

banks neglecte d geographie s 22 7
California 4 4 safet y 2 4 4 - 5
distanc e to 10 3 Christaller, 1 9
Barker, J. 24 7 CJD 5 1
Barnard, M. 23 8 Clark, G. 6 9
Bell, D. 25 0 Clark, M.A. 7 0
Bell, M. 13-15 , 22 , 84 , 111 , 2 2 5 - 6 climate chang e 1 2 1 - 4
Berry, B. 73 , 7 5 Cloke , P. 19 , 86 , 8 7 - 8 , 16 9
biotechnolog y 50 , 11 4 adventure tourism 1 8 2 - 3
bird populations declin e 116 , 11 7 commodificatio n 174 , 17 5
biso n re-establishmen t 20 7 cultural turn 24 , 2 5
Black, A. 15 7 housin g 23 4
Bonnen , J.T. 13 0 poverty 269 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 4 - 5 , 27 6
bottom-up developmen t 158 , 17 0 reforestatio n 2 0 3 - 4
bottom-up regeneratio n 149 , 15 1 rural indice s 7 - 8
Bourne , L. 7 3 Cocklin, C. 23 9
Bove , Jos e 4 0 Les Combrailles 15 3
Bowler, I. 55 , 5 6 Comite de s Organization s Professionelle s
Boxford 8 8 Agricoles (COPA) 134 , 13 8
brands 18 3 Commissio n o n Country Life 2 0
Browne , W.R 13 0 commodificatio n 174-5 , 1 7 7 - 8 1 , 183 , 18 4
Bruinsma, J. 3 4 - 5 , 3 6 commodit y 23 , 174 , 18 3
BS E 35 , 5 0 - 1 , 13 1 commodit y chain s 4 8
Buffalo Common s project 20 7 agriculture 5 8
burglary 240 , 2 4 1 , 24 2 cluster s 30 0
bus service s 98 , 104 , 24 8 Commo n Agricultural Polic y (CAP) 46 , 52 ,
Butler, R.69 , 17 3 137 , 20 2
Buttel, F. 2 3 farmers' protest s 21 2
grants 11 6
Cade s Cov e 179-8 1 reform 14 1
Cairns Group 133 , 14 2 communitie s 22 , 30 2
Campagne , P. 5 6 alternative 2 9 3 - 4
Campaig n to Protec t Rural Englan d (CPRE ) climate chang e 1 2 3 - 4
121 , 122 , 135 , 137 , 214 , 21 5 covenan t 29 5
Canadia n Whea t Board 4 6 developmen t 14 9
cannabi s 23 9 elderly peopl e 25 4
capitalis m 22 , 23 , 6 2 engagemen t 1 6 7 - 9
agriculture 4 2 - 5 , 46 , 57 , 6 0 gende r 22 9
powe r 3 3 governanc e 167-7 1
service s disappearanc e 9 6 policy 135 , 136 , 1 3 7 - 8
capita l restructuring hypothesi s 6 6 restructuring service s 9 1 - 1 0 9
Carmarthenshire 15 3 sens e o f 1 4
Carrefour 3 7 separatis t 29 4
cars 3 1 Souther n Englan d 2 2 5 - 6
children 2 4 7 - 8 studie s 2 1
service s disappearanc e 98 , 10 4 commuting 3 1 , 2 6 4 - 6
Carson , Rache l 11 4 concentratio n o f agriculture 4 7 - 8
Cavendis h 1 8 1 - 2 conceptua l theorie s 1 7
censu s 6 Confederatio n Paysann e 40 , 212 , 21 8
centra l plac e theory 19 conflicts 2 1 0 - 2 0
Chalmers , A.I. 25 3 conservatio n 64 , 186-209 , 30 0
Chasse, Peche, Nature et Tradition party 3 9 animals 2 0 6 - 7
Chemainu s 69 , 1 7 7 - 8 rural conflict 2 1 5 - 1 6
childcare 2 4 6 - 7 Conservatio n Complianc e policy 20 5
Childerley 13-14 , 15 , 22 , 111 , 2 2 5 - 6 Conservatio n Reserv e Program (CRP ) 20 5
32 2
Index
constraine d locatio n hypothesi s 6 6 discourse s o f rurality 12-1 3

consultativ e partnerships 16 7 diseas e
Contemporary Agriculture an d Rural Land agriculture 5 0 - 1
Us e Specialit y Group 18 BS E 35 , 5 0 - 1 , 13 1
Cork Declaratio n 151- 2 CJD 5 1
Cornell, S . 28 7 foo t an d mouth 5 1 , 69 , 13 1
corporate landowner s 4 9 doctor's surgeries , distanc e to 103 , 23 7
corporatist model s 13 5 Dollywoo d 1 7 8 - 9
counci l housin g 2 3 6 - 7 Douglas , Roge r 14 0
counterurbanization 37 , 7 3 - 8 4 , 30 0 Dowe r Repor t 19 2
environmenta l chang e 12 5 drugs 2 3 8 - 9 , 24 9
Gowe r 8 7 Duaringa 9 4 - 5
greenbelt s 19 8 Dudley, Kathryn Marie 5 3
socia l clas s 8 4 dus t bow l 113-1 4
Country Landowners'Associatio n 13 7 Dyer, J. 2 9 5 - 6
Countryside Agenc y 134 , 15 6
Countryside Alliance 5, 11-12 , 29 , 39 , 134 , economi c chang e 23 , 6 2 - 7 1
217 , 218 , 28 9 economi c globalizatio n 3 3 - 7
Countryside an d Rights o f Way Act (2000 ) 19 2 educatio n
countryside stewardshi p 56 , 14 5 chang e 3 2
covenan t communitie s 29 5 highe r 32 , 82 , 25 2
Crang, M. 18 1 see also school s
Cresswell , T. 29 1 Edwards , B. 165 , 166 , 16 8
Crewkerne 9 7 - 8 Edwards , G. 7 - 8
crime 2 3 1 - 4 3 elderly peopl e 8 3 - 4 , 89 , 2 4 4 - 5 5
Criminal Justic e an d Public Order Act (1994 ) 29 3 embodie d experience s 182- 3
Cross , M. 10 5 Emerson , Ralph Waldo 18 6
Crump, J. 7 6 - 7 empirical theorie s 17
cultural globalizatio n 3 8 - 9 employmen t 2 5 6 - 6 7
cultural turn 2 4 - 5 agriculture 42 , 4 3 - 4 , 4 8 - 9 , 62 , 2 5 6 - 7 ,
2 6 0 - 1 , 2 6 2 - 4 , 30 0
Daniels , S . 280 , 28 1 economi c chang e 6 2 - 7 1
Davies , J. 2 8 8 - 9 migrant workers 38 , 43 , 2 6 2 - 4 , 30 0
Davis , J. 24 8 modernizatio n 3 2
Dawe , S. R 25 2 poverty 272 , 27 4
decentralizatio n 74 , 7 9 seasona l 3 8
Decker , PR . 10 1 servic e secto r 6 7 - 9
deconcentratio n 74 , 7 9 teleworking 6 9 - 7 0
delivery partnerships 166 , 16 7 Tennesse e Valley Authority 14 7
Deloraine 15 7 Endangere d Specie s Act 2 1 5 - 1 6
demographi c chang e 7 2 - 9 0 endogenou s developmen t 149-54 , 158 , 17 0
Departmen t o f the Environment, Foo d an d Englis h Nationa l Fores t 20 3
Rural Affairs (DEFRA) 132 , 13 3 environmenta l chang e 110-2 6
depopulatio n 7 2 - 3 , 8 1 Environmentally Sensitiv e Areas (ESAs ) 203 , 20 5
France 9 9 Environmental Partnerships in Communitie s
United State s 9 9 - 1 0 0 (EPIC) 1 6 8 - 9
deregulation , NZ agriculture 140- 1 Errington, A. 26 5
developmen t 145-5 9 Estall, R.C. 6 6
contestin g 2 1 2 - 1 4 ethnicity 38 , 2 7 9 - 9 0
control 197-8 , 2 0 0 - 2 ethnographic/essenc e approac h 9 2
envelope s 19 9 Europea n Union (EU) 46 , 133 , 137- 8
environmenta l chang e 119-2 1 agri-environmenta l programme 203 , 205 , 20 6
Japa n 148- 9 BS E 5 1
Developmen t Board for Rural Wale s (DBRW) 14 8 developmen t initiatives 16 6
Directorate Genera l for Agriculture (DG VI) 13 8 diversification 14 1
discourse s of experienc e 2 4 foo d mountains 5 2
32 3
Rural geography
Europea n Union (EU) cont. foo t an d mouth diseas e 5 1 , 69 , 13 1

G M foo d 5 8 Fores t Enterprise 1 7 6 - 7 , 20 3
LEADER 145 , 150-3 , 16 4 forestry 62 , 6 3 - 5
Objective 1 146 , 15 0 environmenta l chang e 11 2
set-asid e 5 4 - 5 globalizatio n 3 5
Structural Funds 1 4 5 - 6 , 148-5 3 promotion 1 7 6 - 7
value enhancemen t 5 6 - 7 reforestatio n 2 0 3 - 4
see also Commo n Agricultural Polic y (CAP) rural conflict 21 5
Evans , N. 5 7 Forestry Commissio n 20 3
exclusio n 104 , 2 6 8 - 7 8 Forsyth, A.J.M. 23 8
ethnicity 2 8 2 - 3 Forth, Gordon 15 8
governanc e 16 9 Frankenberg , R. 2 1
extensificatio n of agriculture 54 , 56 , 57 , 20 2 free trade 37 , 14 0
Friends o f the Earth 13 5
Fabes , R. 27 0 front- an d back-region s 2 1
factory farming 4 4 Frouws , J. 12
families 22 9 Fulton, J.A. 83 , 8 4
Farm Bill (1985 ) 20 5 Furuseth , O. 26 8
Farm Bill (2002 ) 141 , 14 2
Farm Burea u 134 , 13 7 Gant, R. 25 3
farm crisis 5 2 - 4 , 138 , 13 9 Garfagnan a 15 3
farm diversification 5 5 - 6 , 57 , 60 , 141 , 173 , 1 7 5 - 6 Gemeinschaft 9,9 1
farmers' markets 39 , 153-4 , 15 5 gende r 2 2 8 - 9
farmland preservatio n scheme s 20 1 employmen t 2 5 9 - 6 2
Farmland US A 17 9 roles 25 0
farm parks 17 6 gentrification 8 7 - 8
Farm Securit y Act (1985 ) 20 2 Gesellschaft 9, 9 1
Farm Securit y an d Rural Investmen t Act Glendinning, A. 245 , 2 4 7 - 8
(2002 ) 20 1 globa l corporations 3 6
Farm Woodlan d Schem e 203 , 20 4 globalizatio n 2 9 - 4 1 , 30 0
Federa l Farm Loan Act (1916 ) 4 5 agriculture 3 3 - 5 , 5 7
Federate d Farmers o f Ne w Zealan d 134 , 14 0 resistanc e 3 9 - 4 0
Federatio n Nationale de s Syndicat s d'Exploitants value s 39 , 207 , 216 , 30 0
Agricoles (FNSEA ) 13 4 globa l regulatory frameworks 3 7
Fellows , W. 2 5 0 - 1 globa l trade, agriculture 139-4 0
feminis m 22 8 G M technolog y 32 , 36 , 5 7 - 8
Ferber, A.L. 29 5 Goathlan d 18 1
fertilizers 47 , 117-1 8 Goffman, Erving 2 1
fiction 3 8 - 9 , 181-2 , 24 4 Goodwin , M. 86 , 163 , 16 4
film location s 18 1 governanc e 160-7 1
filter-down hypothesi s 6 6 Grange 105 , 13 7
financial service s 69 , 10 4 Grant, W. 13 5
California 4 4 Gray, I. 33 , 23 8
distanc e to 10 3 Grea t Bea r Rainfores t 21 5
first nation groups 2 8 5 - 9 Grea t Smok y Mountains 179 , 189 , 1 9 5 - 6
fishing 62 , 6 3 - 5 Green , B. 115-1 6
Fitchen , J.M. 53 , 67 , 83 , 84 , 100 , 234 , 236 , 2 7 5 - 6 greenbelt s 8 1 , 119 , 1 9 8 - 9 , 20 2
foo d 3 7 greenhous e gase s 12 1
GM 58 Gregory, Dere k 1 2 - 1 3
modernizatio n 3 2 gypsie s 2 9 1 - 2 , 29 3
mountains 5 2
organic 5 9 habitat los s 48 , 1 1 5 - 1 7
regiona l 5 6 - 7 Hajesz , D. 25 2
foo d chai n cluster s 36 , 5 0 Halfacree , K. 5 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 76 , 77 , 29 3
foo d chai n complexe s 5 9 Halliday, J. 24 7
foo d miles 3 3 - 4 Hall, P. 19 8
foo d tourism 153- 4 halo effec t 20 6
32 4
Index
Halseth , G. 23 2 incom e
Harper, S . 77 , 25 3 elderly peopl e 25 3
Hart, Joh n Frase r 18 , 1 9 gentrification 8 7 - 8
Hart, K. 20 6 migration flows 8 4
Harvey, G. 5 6 poverty 2 6 8 - 7 8
healt h 2 3 1 - 4 3 indigenou s people s 2 8 5 - 9
healthcar e 2 3 7 - 8 Industrial Developmen t Authority (IDA) 14 7
Heartbeat 18 1 industrialization 49 , 7 2 - 3
hedgero w remova l 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 1 7 information technolog y 6 9 - 7 0
hedonis t discours e 1 2 insecticide s 11 4
Heffernan, W. D. 3 9 inside r groups 13 7
Held, D. 3 3 Institute of British Geographer s 1 8
Hendrickson , M. 3 9 intensification o f agriculture 47 , 4 9
Herbert-Cheshire , L. 158 , 17 1 Intergovernmenta l Pane l o n Climate Chang e
herbicide s 47 , 58 , 114 , 116 , 11 7 (IPCC) 12 1
heritage 177-8 1 Internet
marketing 18 3 shoppin g 1 0 5 - 7
Heritage US A 178 , 17 9 teleworking 7 0
Highland an d Islands Developmen t Board isolatio n
(HIDB) 14 8 healthcar e 23 7
Hillel, D. 12 3 wester n Ireland 10 5
Hinrichs, C.C. 18 3 issu e networks 135 , 136 , 13 8
hi-tec h industries 6 7
Hodge , 1.13 2 Jim Crow laws 28 4
Hoggart, K. 10 , 4 0 - 1 , 223 , 262 , 263 , 30 1 Johnsen , Sara h 2 2 4 - 5
holiday home s 3 8 Jones , N. 25 4
Holloway, L. 153- 4 Jones , 0 . 1 3 , 14-15 , 166-7 , 169 , 244 , 2 4 5 - 6
homelessnes s 2 7 6 - 7 Jones , R. 2 3 1 , 2 3 2 - 3
homosexualit y 2 5 0 - 2 , 29 4 Jones , R.E. 7 7
Hopkins, J. 17 5 Joseph , A.E. 25 3
Hopwood , B. 2 2 3 - 4
hospital s 6 8 Kansa s City Foo d Circle 3 9
housin g 2 3 1 - 4 3 Kennedy , J.C. 6 4
affordability 2 3 4 - 6 Kenyon , P. 15 7
environmenta l chang e 112 , 119-2 0 key settlement s policy 19 9
greenbelt s 198- 9 Kimmel, M. 29 5
holiday home s 3 8 Klamath Basi n 2 1 5 - 1 6
homelessnes s 2 7 6 - 7 Kneafsey , M. 57 , 153- 4
mobile home s 23 6 Kontuly, T. 73 , 76 , 7 8
quality 2 3 3 - 4 Kramer, J . L 2 5 1 - 2
rural conflict 213 , 2 1 4 - 1 5 Kurow 9 4 - 5
secon d home s 38 , 8 8 - 9
socia l 2 3 6 - 7 Landcare programme 205 , 20 6
housin g association s 23 7 Land Grant College s 14 6
Howkins, A. 28 1 land ownershi p 161- 2
Hugo , G. 8 4 landscap e 18
Humphries, S . 2 2 3 - 4 agriculture effect s 48 , 6 0
Hunter, K. 26 0 commodificatio n 17 5
hunting 3 8 - 9 , 216-18 , 28 9 countryside stewardshi p 5 6
hybridity 30 2 degradatio n 6 4
nationa l identity 28 0
Icelan d 5 9 nature 11 1
identity 5 land us e mode l 19
cultural turn 2 5 land us e planning 197-20 0
nationa l 2 7 9 - 9 0 Lange , David 14 0
rural conflict 21 1 Lapping, M.B. 14 7
llbery, B. 55 , 5 6 Lash , S . 8 5
32 5
Rural geography
Lawrence , G. 33 , 23 8 migration cont.

Laws , G. 25 3 property prices 23 5
lay discourse s of rurality 1 3 rural conflict 2 1 3 - 1 4
LEADER schem e 145 , 1 5 0 - 3 , 16 4 socia l clas s 8 4
leadershi p training 1 6 8 - 9 youn g peopl e 32 , 8 2 - 3 , 89 , 25 2
legitimacy , governanc e 16 9 see also counterurbanizatio n
Le Heron, R. 140- 1 Milbourne, R 268 , 270 , 27 4
leisure activities , environmenta l chang e 11 2 militia groups 289 , 2 9 4 - 6
leisure service s 6 8 - 9 minimalist approach , communitie s 9 2
Lewis , G. 7 4 - 5 mining 62 , 6 3 - 5 , 7 1
Lichfield, J. 9 9 Ministry o f Agriculture, Fisherie s an d Foo d
Liepins, R. 9 2 - 6 , 108 , 30 2 (MAFF) 13 7
lifestyle s Mitchell, C.J.A. 26 4
alternative 2 9 1 - 6 Mitchell, D. 44 , 26 3
changin g 2 2 3 - 3 0 mobile home s 23 6
light pollution 12 1 see also trailer accommodatio n
Lincoln, Presiden t Abraham 18 8 mobility
Little, J. 13 , 166-7 , 169 , 2 2 8 - 9 , 247 , 250 , 260 , 26 1 cultural turn 2 4
localities 10 , 2 3 elderly 25 3
Lockie, S . 20 6 globalizatio n 3 7 - 8 , 30 0
Logan , M. 7 3 modernizatio n 30 0
Looker, E.D. 25 9 service s disappearanc e 96 , 98 , 10 3
Lowe , R. 2 9 2 - 3 see also migration
modernity 2 9 - 4 1 , 11 2
McDonagh , J. 15 8 modernizatio n 20 , 30 0
McDonalds , anti-globalizatio n protest s 4 0 Monk, S . 258 , 259 , 26 5
MacEwen , A. 19 2 Montgomery, L.M. 1 8 1 - 2
MacEwen , M. 19 2 moral geographie s 11 1
McKay, G. 29 4 morality, cultural turn 2 5
McManus, P. 6 4 Mordue.T. 18 1
McNary-Hange n Bill (1927 ) 4 5 Mormont, M. 4 , 1 1 , 20 , 1 0 1 , 2 1 0 , 21 1
mail orde r 1 0 5 - 7 Morris, William 18 6
Malik, S . 28 4 Murdoch, J. 69 , 86 , 199-200 , 30 2
manufacturing industry 6 5 - 7 Museu m o f Appalachi a 179 , 18 0
developmen t 1 4 7 - 8
employmen t 6 2 Narrogin 2 3 2 - 3
marginalization, youn g peopl e 2 4 9 - 5 0 Nationa l Farmers ' Federatio n 13 4
marketing 1 8 3 - 4 Nationa l Farmers ' Union (NFU) 134 , 137 , 13 8
Market Town Healthchec k 15 6 nationa l identity 2 7 9 - 9 0
market towns 15 6 Nationa l Main Stree t Programme 15 7
Marsden , T. 69 , 86 , 199-20 0 nationa l parks 187 , 188-9 6
Martin, Tony 24 2 Nationa l Parks an d Acces s to the Countryside
Marxism 17 , 22 , 2 3 Act (1949 ) 19 2
Massey , D. 6 2 Nationa l Rural Developmen t Counci l 16 6
Matless , David 3 0 Nationa l Rural Developmen t Partnership
Matthews , H. 24 6 (NRDP ) 1 6 5 - 6
Mattson, G.A. 16 1 Nationa l Rural Health Alliance 23 8
media , cultural globalizatio n 3 8 - 9 Nationa l Rural Health Associatio n 13 5
Mendoza , C. 262 , 26 3 Nationa l Sceni c Areas 19 6
menta l healt h 23 8 Nationa l Trust 186 , 19 2
migration 30 0 Native Title Act (1993 ) 2 8 7 - 8
aspirationa l 7 7 Natural Resource s Conservatio n Servic e
elderly peopl e 8 3 - 4 , 89 , 2 5 2 - 3 (NRCS ) 13 4
ethnicity 282 , 2 8 4 - 5 nature 1 4
globalizatio n 3 7 - 8 bac k to 3 2
incom e 8 4 commodificatio n 17 5
migrant workers 38 , 43 , 2 6 2 - 4 , 30 0 countryside stewardshi p 5 6
32 6
Index
nature cont. Popper , Debora h 20 7

environmenta l chang e 110-2 6 Popper , Frank 20 7
rurality 110-1 2 popula r discourse s of rurality 1 3
societ y relations 2 4 population siz e 5 - 6
Nature Reserve s 19 6 Porter, K. 2 7 1 , 27 2
neglecte d geographie s 2 2 6 - 8 Positiv e Rural Futures conferenc e 16 8
Nelson , M.K. 2 6 1 - 2 postmodernit y 3 2
neo-Marxis m 2 2 pos t offices , distanc e to 10 3
Newby , Howard 2 2 - 3 , 3 1 , 25 6 post-productivis t transition 5 4 - 7
Newstea d 9 4 - 5 poverty 2 6 8 - 7 8
Ni Laoire, C. 25 2 elderly peopl e 25 3
nitrates, pollution 117-1 8 ethnicity 28 5
nois e pollution 12 1 reservation s 28 7
North American Free Trade Agreemen t power , globalizatio n 3 3
(NAFTA) 13 3 pressur e groups 134- 5
North, D. 65 , 66 , 6 7 price supports 37 , 45 , 46 , 52 , 14 0
Novartis 3 6 production control 20 5
nuclea r wast e 12 1 production cos t hypothesi s 6 6
Nutley, S . 10 5 productivism, agriculture 4 6 - 5 2 , 5 7
progressiv e ruralism 21 9
Oliveira Baptista , F. 162- 3 protecte d area s 187-9 7
orchards 11 6 protecte d designatio n o f origin (PDO ) 5 6 - 7
organic farming 5 8 - 9 , 11 7 protecte d geographica l indication (PGI) 5 6 - 7
outside r groups 13 7 protectionism , US A 141- 2
OxyContin 23 9 public transport 98 , 103- 4
bus service s 98 , 104 , 24 8
Pahl , R . E . 9 - 1 0 children 24 8
Panelli , R. 2 4 9 - 5 0 employmen t barriers 2 5 8 - 9
Paniagua , A. 4 0 - 1 , 223 , 30 1 railways 7 3
partnerships 165-7 , 169-7 0
part-time employmen t 69 , 26 1 quality of life 66 , 77 , 85 , 2 3 1 , 28 4
paternalis m 160 , 161-3 , 17 0 quarrying 62 , 6 3
Patrons of Husbandry see Grange
Paxman , J. 28 1 racis m 38 , 77 , 263 , 279 , 2 8 2 - 5 , 28 9
People' s Millennium Forest s 203 , 20 4 railways 7 3
Perkins , H.C. 182- 3 Ramet , S . 28 0
pesticide s 114 , 11 6 Ray, C. 15 2
Phillips, M. 8 6 reactive ruralism 21 9
Philo, Chris 227 , 24 2 recreatio n
Pieterse , J. 3 3 environmenta l chang e 11 2
Pinchot , Gifford 18 6 ethnic minorities 2 8 3 - 4
planning syste m 8 1 - 2 , 119 , 197-20 0 nationa l parks 19 4
pluralist model s 13 5 refrigeration 3 1 , 9 6
pluriactivity, agriculture 5 5 - 6 regeneratio n 145-5 9
policy 129-4 4 Regiona l Australia Summi t 13 2
communitie s 135 , 136 , 137- 8 regiona l developmen t 15 0
discourse s 12 Reimer , B. 27 1
networks 135 , 1 3 6 - 7 reintroductions 2 0 6 - 7
political-economi c approac h 2 2 - 4 , 25 , 4 3 - 4 religion, declin e 3 1 - 2
politics rent ga p effec t 8 8
rural conflict 2 1 1 - 1 9 researc h tourism 2 5
youn g peopl e 25 0 reservation s 2 8 6 - 7
Pollard, Ingrid 28 3 residentia l preferenc e hypothesi s 6 6
pollution 6 4 resourc e conflicts 2 1 5 - 1 6
agriculture effect s 4 8 retirement migration 8 3 - 4 , 89 , 2 5 2 - 3
environmenta l chang e 11 2 return migration 83 , 8 4
watercourse s 117-1 8 Ridge , T. 24 8
32 7
Rural geography
right-to-buy legislatio n 2 3 6 - 7 Shaw , G. 17 3

Riney-Kehrberg, P. 26 0 Shaw , W. 2 9 2 - 3
Roche , M. 140- 1 Shields , Ro b 28 6
Roosevelt , Presiden t 20 , 14 6 shop s
Rosenberg , M. 23 2 closure s 37 , 69 , 96 , 9 7 - 8 , 30 0
Rosenzweig , C. 121 , 12 3 environmenta l chang e 11 9
Rousseau , Jean-Jacque s 28 0 rural France 9 9
Rowles , G. 2 5 3 - 4 Short, J.R . 13 , 279 , 28 0
Rural Challeng e 166-7 , 16 9 Sibley , D. 29 3
Rural Coalition 135 , 2 1 8 - 1 9 Sierra Club 135 , 13 7
Rural Developmen t Commissio n 146 , 16 6 Silent Spring 4
Rural Econom y an d Societ y Stud y Group 2 3 Site s o f Specia l Scientific Interes t
Rural Geograph y Specialit y Group 1 8 (SSSI ) 1 9 6 - 7
Rural Geograph y Stud y Group 1 8 situate d knowledge s 22 6
rural idyll 13 , 14 , 111 , 154 , 176 , 30 1 slow-foo d movemen t 3 9
advertising 18 4 smal l town regeneratio n 1 5 4 - 7
alternative lifestyle s 2 9 1 , 292 , 29 6 Smith, F. 24 7
fiction 18 1 Smith, J. 25 3
gende r 2 2 8 - 9 Smith, M J . 135 , 137 , 13 8
gentrification 8 8 Snipp , C M . 2 8 4 - 5 , 286 , 28 7
healt h 23 7 Snowdoni a nationa l park 195- 6
housin g 23 1 socia l chang e 3 1 - 2 , 7 2 - 9 0
lifestyle s 22 4 socia l clas s 23 , 8 9
nationa l identity 2 8 1 - 2 gentrification 8 7 - 8
nostalgi a 17 7 migration flows 8 4
poverty 2 6 9 - 7 0 planning syste m 199-20 0
rural conflict 213 , 21 5 recompositio n 8 4 - 7 , 27 1
separatis t communitie s 29 4 rural conflict 21 3
socia l clas s 8 5 - 6 socia l collective s 9 2 - 3
Rural Polic y Researc h Institute 6 socia l constructio n 1 1 - 1 2 , 15
rural-urban continuum 9 - 1 0 , 2 1 communitie s 9 2
Ruskin, Joh n 18 6 rurality 11 1
socia l exclusio n 104 , 2 6 8 - 7 8
safet y 2 4 4 - 5 socia l housin g 2 3 6 - 7
school s 6 8 socia l representatio n 1 0 - 1 3
Australia & Ne w Zealan d 10 6 socio-cultura l approac h 9 - 1 0 , 2 1
closure s 97 , 98 , 1 0 1 - 2 sociologica l tradition 19-2 1
distanc e to 10 3 soi l erosio n 48 , 118-1 9
Internet 10 6 Somerse t
Scot t Repor t 19 2 County Counci l 16 2
secon d home s 38 , 8 8 - 9 housin g 2 1 4 - 1 5
see d Spain , D. 21 3
globa l market 3 6 specializatio n o f agriculture 48 , 4 9
G M farming 5 8 Spencer , D. 8 1 - 2
Selby , E.E 2 6 3 - 4 Spooner , R. 283 , 28 4
sellin g the countryside 172-8 5 Squire , S.J . 1 8 1 - 2
separatis t communitie s 29 4 stat e 23 , 30 1
servic e clas s 8 5 - 6 governanc e 160-7 1
service s stat e intervention 14 5
disappearanc e 9 6 - 1 0 2 , 108 , 253 , 30 0 agriculture 4 5 - 6 , 6 0
distanc e to 1 0 3 - 4 top-dow n developmen t 1 4 6 - 9
restructuring 9 1 - 1 0 9 statis t era 160 , 1 6 2 - 3
US discrimination 28 4 Stoneheng e 29 3
servic e secto r 62 , 6 7 - 9 , 85 , 25 7 Storey , D. 15 2
set-asid e schem e 5 4 - 5 Strauss , A. 7 5
sexuality , youn g peopl e 2 5 0 - 2 stres s 2 3 8 - 9
Seymou r Demonstratio n Fores t 17 7 structural-functionalist approac h 9 2
32 8
Index
subsidie s 37 , 5 7 transport cont

EU 14 1 poverty 27 5
Ne w Zealan d 14 0 see also cars ; public transport
suga r cane , Louisiana 14 2 travellers 2 9 1 - 3
Sumner , D.A. 14 2 Treaty o f Rom e (1957 ) 4 6
supermarket s 3 7 trickle-out effec t 15 6
bus servic e 10 4
California 4 5 unemploymen t 272 , 27 5
distanc e to 103 , 10 4 reservation s 28 7
globalizatio n 3 3 see also employmen t
imports 11 6 unions 67 , 137 , 14 0
organic farming 5 9 farmers' protest s 21 2
symboli c countryside 17 5 farms 26 3
symboli c texts 2 4 NFU 134 , 137 , 13 8
symbolism , communitie s 92 , 9 3 urbanization 7 2 - 3 , 78 , 1 1 9 - 2 1 , 28 1
environmenta l chang e 11 2
tax incentives , developmen t control 20 1 housin g 21 4
technologica l innovation 3 1 , 32 , 30 0 Urry, J. 85 , 86 , 17 3
agriculture 4 7 US Departmen t of Agriculture (USDA ) 45 , 130 ,
hi-tec h industries 6 7 133 , 137 , 205 , 28 5
nature 111-1 2 US Fores t Servic e 13 4
service s disappearanc e 9 6 US Nationa l Parks Servic e 189 , 19 6
travel 3 7 US Office of Budge t an d Managemen t 6
telecommunication s technolog y 3 1 utilitarian discours e 12
teleworking 6 9 - 7 0 utilitarianism
Tennesse e Valley Authority (TVA) conservatio n 18 7
146-7 , 14 8 environmenta l chang e 112 , 12 5
Thomson , M.L. 26 4
Thoreau , Henry 18 6 Valentine , G. 245 , 250 , 2 9 1 , 29 4
Thrift, N . 8 5 - 6 , 18 3 Vallieres 9 9
Tillberg Mattson, K. 247 , 24 8 value s
Tipi Valley 29 4 agricultural enhancemen t 5 6 - 7
Tir Cymen schem e 20 5 developmen t 15 3
Tonnies , Ferdinand 9 , 9 1 globalizatio n 39 , 207 , 216 , 30 0
Tonts, M. 2 3 1 , 2 3 2 - 3 vandalis m 240 , 24 9
top-dow n developmen t 146- 9 vanity projects 148 , 14 9
top-dow n planning syste m 20 0 Velcourt 4 9
tourism 38 , 62 , 69 , 7 1 , 30 0 Vermont 183 , 2 6 1 - 2
climate chang e 12 3 vertical integration 5 0
environmenta l chang e 112 , 12 5 Vining, D. 73 , 7 5
foo d 153- 4 violenc e 240 , 28 3
nationa l parks 192 , 19 4 Von Thunen , 19
sellin g 172-8 5
vehicl e change s 3 1 Walker, G. 8 6
wome n 26 1 Walker, R.A. 4 3 - 4 , 6 3
tourist gaz e 173 , 174 , 18 1 Wal-Mart 37 , 10 0
Town an d Country Planning Act (1947 ) 19 8 Walmsley , D.J. 77 , 17 3
trade liberalization 3 7 Ward, C. 227 , 246 , 24 8
trade wars , agriculture 5 2 watercourses , pollution 117-1 8
tradition 3 0 - 1 Waterford 15 3
trailer accommodatio n 2 7 5 - 6 Weekley , 1.8 1
see also mobile home s Welch , R. 16 9
tramps 2 9 1 - 2 welfare-le d migration 8 4
transport welfare syste m 2 7 7 - 8
children 2 4 7 - 8 Westholm , E. 16 6
elderly peopl e 253 , 25 4 Wetlands Reserv e Program 20 5
employmen t barriers 2 5 8 - 9 Whatmore, S . 22 8
32 9
Rural geography
White Paper s 131-2 , 138 , 139 , 156 , 16 8 World Trade Organizatio n (WTO) 37 , 133 ,
Wilcox, S . 2 3 5 - 6 141 , 14 2
wildernes s 186 , 188 , 2 8 0 - 1 Worster, D. 1 1 3 - 1 4
Williams, A.M. 17 3
Williams, Raymon d 4 Yarwood, R. 24 0
Wilson, A. 178-8 1 Yellowston e Nationa l Park 186 , 188 , 18 9
Wilson, G. 57 , 20 6 Yosemit e 188 , 18 9
wind powe r 12 4 youn g peopl e 2 4 4 - 5 5
Winter, M. 135 , 20 6 crime 24 1
Wirth, Louis 9 highe r educatio n 32 , 82 , 25 2
wolf reintroduction 20 7 migration 32 , 8 2 - 3 , 89 , 25 2
Woodlan d Grant Schem e 20 3
Woodlan d Trust 20 3 zonin g laws 20 0
Woodward, R. 270 , 27 4
Wordsworth, William 18 6
World Conservatio n Union (IUCN) Indexed by Caroline Eley
187 , 188 , 18 9
33 0

Rural Geography: Processes, Responses and Experiences in Rural Restructuring

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Rural Geography

First publishe d 200 5

Apart from an y fair dealin g for the purpose s of researc h o r

SAG E Publication s Ltd

SAG E Publication s Inc.

SAG E Publication s India Pv t Ltd

SAG E Publication s Asia-Pacifi c Pte Ltd

A catalogu e record for this boo k is available

ISBN 97 8 0 761 9 476 0 8

Typese t by C&M Digitals (P ) Ltd., Chennai , India

PART 1 INTRODUCING RURAL GEOGRAPHY 1

1 Defining the Rural 3

2 Understanding the Rural 17

PART 2 PROCESSES OF RURAL RESTRUCTURING 27

3 Globalization, Modernity and the Rural World 29

5 The Changing Rural Economy 62

6 Social and Demographic Change 72

7 Changing Communities: Restructuring Rural Services 91

8 Environmental Change and Rural Areas 110

PART 3 RESPONSES TO RURAL RESTRUCTURING 127

9 Rural Policy and the Response to Restructuring 129

10 Rural Development and Regeneration 145

11 Rural Governance 160

12 Selling the Countryside 172

13 Protecting the Countryside 186

14 Rural Conflicts 210

PART 4 EXPERIENCES OF RURAL RESTRUCTURING 22 1

15 Changing Rural Lifestyles 223

16 Living in the Countryside: Housing, Health and Crime 231

17 Growing Up and Growing Old in the Countryside 244

18 Working in the Countryside 256

19 Hidden Rural Lifestyles: Poverty and Social Exclusion 268

20 Rurality, National Identity and Ethnicity 279

21 Alternative Rural Lifestyles 291

22 Thinking Again About the Rural 299

Foreword by Pau l Cloke xi

PART 1 INTRODUCING RURAL GEOGRAPHY 1

1 Defining the Rural 3

2 Understanding the Rural 17

PART 2 PROCESSE S OF RURAL RESTRUCTURING 27

3 Globalization, Modernity and the Rural World 29

State intervention in agriculture 45

5 The Changing Rural Econom y 62

6 Socia l and Demographic Chang e 72

7 Changing Communities : Restructuring Rural Service s 91

8 Environmental Chang e and Rural Areas 11 0

PART 3 RESPONSE S TO RURAL RESTRUCTURING 12 7

9 Rural Polic y and the Respons e to Restructuring 12 9

10 Rural Developmen t and Regeneratio n 14 5

Bottom-up rural regeneratio n 14 9

12 Sellin g the Countryside 17 2

13 Protecting the Countryside 18 6

PART 4 EXPERIENCES OF RURAL RESTRUCTURING 22 1

15 Changing Rural Lifestyles 22 3

16 Living in the Countryside: Housing , Health and Crime 23 1

17 Growing Up and Growing Old in the Countryside 24 4

18 Working in the Countryside 25 6

19 Hidden Rural Lifestyles : Poverty and Socia l Exclusio n 26 8

20 Rurality, Nationa l Identity and Ethnicity 27 9

21 Alternative Rural Lifestyles 29 1

22 Thinking Again About the Rural 29 9

F i g u r e 1.2, r e p r o d u c e d f r o m P. C l o k e ( 1 9 7 7 ) ' A n i n d e x o f r u r a l i t y for E n g l a n d a n d

i n d e x ' , Regional Studies, 2 0 , f i g u r e 2 , p . 2 9 3 , b y k i n d p e r m i s s i o n

Why Bother with Rural? S o d e e p is t h i s c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n t h a t d i f f e r -