Th e C on c r e t e

n g i n e e r s H an d b o o k
5
A C ON VE N I E N T R E FE R E N C E BOOK
Fo r A ll P e rs o n s I n t e r e s t e d I n

emen t , Pl a i n an d R ein f o r ce d C o n c re t e ,
Bu i l di n g C o n st ru t i c o n , Ar c h i t e c t u re ,
C on c r e t e Bl c ks o , M i ll Bu i l di n g ,

O i c e Bu i l d i n g , Firepro f o
H o u s e s , Et c
0
.

BY

I n t e rn at i o n a l C o rr e s pon de n c e S c h oo l s
S C R AN T O N , P A .

w \ Ed i t i on , 1 2 t h Thou s a n d 24 I mm u
, i on

D S C R AN T O N , PA .

2) I N T ER N AT I O N AL T EXT BO O K C O M P AN Y

2 1 91 2
 C P R I G HT
R
O Y , 1 91 1 , BY
IN TE A T I O N A L T E X T BO O K C O M PA N Y
R N
R
E N T E ED A T S T A T I O N E S H A LL L O N D O N
R
'
,

ALL R I G H T S R E S E V ED

PR I N T E D IN THE UN I T ED ST A T E S
234 1 8
 PREFAC E
Th e bl i he h v e t tt e m pt ed in t hi s
ok od e o de ed y lo ed i ove
p u s r s a n o a
w r
b o d eld f o e e e i ee i
t o pr uc a c n n s c c p a c r

i n g th e t g, b u t
bli
r a O c n cr n g n r n
hey h v e im ed e e to to the
h dy efe e e book o v e i e
t a a pr s n t pu c a
y t to in
o ke o ke book e li y
an r r n c c n n n c a rr

th e p c t in r a t a n d con
le fo m l ble
t a p c
i i u a s , ta di m
an d
of e e d eeded b y
ta n n g r u s , r s, a gr a s
h an d n hi e t ct s ,
o e e e i ee i e o
t a t a re t n us a rc
e i e de
n s p c t r s , su p r n t n n ts ,

fo em e o o d f me
c n cr t n g n rs ,

e e c n t r a ct r s
h o e ow e o e i ve h o e
r n , ca r p n t r s , ra t s , n ,
de i e r s a n d pr s p ct

ow e
s gn rs , us n us
rs ; in
f e ve y e ed i n a n y pr o
de o e ed i h b i l d i of
n a ct . r on e n ga g
fe s s i o n o r t r a c n n ct w t u n g con
cr t , o r i n a n y
e e w i e e ed he e i
m of bl i he bee el e
a y n t r st t r n .

Th e a i t h e pu rs ha s
f om mo of m e i l h d o ly
s n to s ct
v
the a st a at r a
o io w h h m o li kel y b e ed
r un t on an n
h ic is st in
o e i o wi h d il y w o k h i h w i ll b e
t a t p rt n to us

Al ho h
or w
mo t f e e ly o
c n n ct n t a r ,
c
c n sul t
ed e the tr a t
o f om e mbje o f e e i y b ief
s r qu n t t
. ug
me cts i s it
b ee b e
n t s su n c ss t r ,

ha s the a i di s t ri e t h e s pa c
v i l bl e h wo l d o v e m o e im o
n to so ut
t a t it r the
bje f ll y o ible b ee f o d p rt a n t
a a a u c r

I t ha s
i bl e ble h of
su ct s a s u a s p ss . n un
im ive s f o r t h e s t r n gt
e
o e e be m
p r a c t ca
l b be e
to g ta
s an d s a e e the s tr s s s
e m lo yed b je i y e l io il
c n cr t a s, ca u s
Un t
l e i ie d o i f o m e i e m e
p a r e s u c t to c t r gu a t n s .

the a rg c t s a h
ble o om e i t o e e l pt u n
ble
r r qu r n t s , su c
T h e ta
e l e ed h o h o hi wo k ho e m o
ta s ca n n t c n g n r a u se . s
ut t st in
li io o f le
s ct t r ug s r a re t s
de m d an , a n d t h e a pp ca t n s th e ru s a n d

iii
iv P R E F CE A
o
f rmu a s o l m y e by i l
h wn in
l ol io o e he w i h p r a c t ca
a re s an ca s s
e xa m p e s d ut t g t e xp la
o
an s n s ,
r t
n a ti n s
m e i l i o ve ie l y
.

Th e at ed t for
i l o b ee
r a s c n n n a rr a n g
e dy efe e e e Pa rt ti has
o f v io m e i l M o
r a r r n c . cu a r a tt n n n
i ve we i h to the g ts at

ble w e i h i om l e e
g n ar us r a s . st
fe d it is
h o m e i m e b ef o e
ta s on g ts a re n c p t an O t n
e e y e to we i h th e g t
of i l m e i l b e e i ed
n c ssar s arc s t r

at rt a n
h o ed h h i v ol m e w ill ob v i e ed i o
an y pa r t cu a r r a ca n a sc .

It is t at t
w o k o f h i ki d
p t at s u us

e io o f em e ill b e f o d
r t s n .

Th e e sts t w to
o i ef l i fo m io h lly f o d
s ct n on t c n un
t a t i s u su a
o ly e i l e i e b je
c n ta n us u n r at n un
n in sp c a tr at s s on the su ct .

I COR R E S P O N S C H O O LS
J ly o
N T E R N AT I ON A L D EN CE ,

u ,
191 1 . S cr a n t n Pa , .
 IN D EX

A Area of surface Of frustum

rec tangul ar pyram i d
A ccelerated test 213 3f}
,
.
,

tes ts for soundness 3 60 , .

of surface Of parallelo
Acc i dental load 5 6 , .

pi ped 5 5
A ggregate D en i t i on o f , .

, ,
o f surface o f pri sm 5 5
2 30
, .

.
Of surface Of rec tangular
other than sand 2 3 1 , .
pyram i d 5 4
S elect i on o f 2 3 2
.
,

,
.
Of surf ac e Of sphere 5 3
Si ze of 2 3 1
.
,

o f trapezo i d 5 1
.
,

S pec i cat i ons for 3 68 o f trapez i um 5 1

, .

A ggregates C o m p a r a t i v e
.
,
, .

, O f tri angle 5 1
value Of d i ff erent 2 34
.
,

, .
Areas and we i ghts Of s q uare

I
Allowable l i ve load on oors and round bars 2 5 3
i n d iff erent c i t i es 63 , .
rregular 5 5
, .

Analys i s o f cement 2 2 9
, .

o f c i rcles C i rcu mferences

.
,

Angles havi n g equal legs

,

,
and 1 0
Propert i es of standard , .

,
Argi llac eous sand 1 9 7 , .

15 4 .
Austral i an woo ds Table of
hav i n g unequal legs Prop ,
we i ght of 79
,

e r t i e s Of standard
.
,
15 8 , .
Avo i rdu po i s we i ght 3
o r arcs M easure of 2
.
,

, , .

A xi s by means Of the pri n

Apparatus for neness tests c i p le o f moments LO
v
,
,
223 .
cat i ng neutral 9 7
gr a i ty tests , .

fo r s pec i c - ,
N eutral 9 7 1 4 3 , , .

225 .

Ar e,
L engt h 5 1 of , .
B
Arc R e i n f o r c e d -concrete
ob
i ,

B ar Columb i an 2 6 2
, , .

Arcs M easure
, of angles and , Corru gated 2 5 7 , .

2 D e M ann 2 5 5 , .

Area of c i rcle 5 0 , . D i am ond 2 60 ,

Of c i rcul ar segment 5 2 , . H yatt 2 5 5 , .

Of elli pse 5 1 , . i ron Plai n 2 5 4

, , .

of parallelogram 5 1 , . J ohnson 2 5 8 , .

Of rec tangle 5 1 , . Kah n cup 2 5 7 , .

of ri n g 5 2, . Kah n trussed 2 60 , .

of sec tor Of c i rc le 5 1 , . L ongi tud i nal column 2 5 0 , .

Of s r f a c e o f c i rcular ri ng M a i n re i nforcement 2 5 0
g
, , .

5 M onol i th steel 2 6 1 , .

Of surface Of cone 5 3 , . Of spec i al construc t i on ,

of surface o f cyli nder 5 2 , . 25 5 .

of surface Of frustum Of Quad 2 5 5 , .

cone 5 3 , . Ransome 2 5 6 , .

o f su rf a ce o f f r ustum Of Rero lled 2 5 4 , .

cyli nder 5 3 , . S hear 2 5 0 , .

vi I DEN X

B ar S hri nka ge 2 5 0 . B eam sockets 3 2 8 .

We i ght Of 1 70
, , ,

Si amese 2 5 5 , .
, .

S pi ral 2 5 6 , . B eams B end ing moments

,

S pl i ce 2 5 0 , . Of , 1 10 .

Square tw i sted 2 5 6 -
, . Cont i nuous 1 20 , .

S quare tw i sted lug 2 5 7

-
, . D i agram for bend i ng mo
S taff 2 5 5 , . ment o n 1 1 4 , .

Table O f propert i es of c o r xed at both ends 1 00 , .

ru g ated o r J ohnson 2 5 8 , , . Forces act i ng on 9 9 , .

Table of p r o p e r t i e s Of Formulas for m axi mum

D i amond 2 6 0 , . shear and bend ing m o
Table Of p r o p e r t i e s o f ment Of 1 1 6 , .

Kahn cup 2 5 7 , . H omogeneous 1 2 9 , .

Table Of p r o p e r t i e s Of L oads on 1 00 , .

Ransome 2 5 6 , . over equal spans B end ,

Table of p r o p e r t i e s Of i ng moments for con

square tw i sted lug 2 5 8 -
, . t i n u ou s , 1 2 0 .

Table o f p r o p e r t i e s of over equal spans R e a c ,

Thacher 2 5 9 , . t i ons for cont inuous ,

Table Of p r o p e r t i e s Of 1 19 .

un i versal 2 5 9 , . P os i t i ve a n d n e g a t i v e
Tens i on 2 5 0 , . shear o n ,
1 05 .

Th acher 2 5 5 2 5 9 , , . Propert i es of s tandard I ,

Ti e 2 5 0 1 48
React i ons on 1 00
.

Trus Con 2 6 1 -
, .
, .

Trussed 2 5 0 , . re i nforced at t o p and

U 263 , . bottom 2 9 5 , .

U ni t 2 5 5 , . S hear d i a g rams of 1 07 , .

U n i versal , 2 5 8 S tyles of 9 9 .

W e i ghts and areas Of a

. ,

B eari ng value of foundat i on

square and round 2 5 3 , . so i ls 3 1 1 3 1 3
, , .

B arrett spec i cat i ons for B eari ngs for concrete beam s
waterproong 3 45 , . and gi rders 33 2 , .

B atch m i xers 3 47 Ben d i i g moment d i agram

i
.
, ,

B eam and gi rder B eari ngs , l 4 .

for a concrete 3 32 , . moment for cont i nuous

Concrete 2 98 . beams over equal spans ,

Cont i nuous 9 9 , . 1 20 .

Cont i nuous concrete 2 9 4 , .

-
moment formulas 1 6 7 , .

Deect i on of 1 7 4 , . moment of beams For ,

Formula f o r des i gn Of a , mulas f o r m a x i m u m

1 67 . shear and 1 1 6 ,
.

Formulas for deect i on of moments 1 1 0 ,

.

a 1 72 , . stress i n concrete Table ,

L oads suddenly appl i ed of, 284 .

on , 1 76 . stress Of vari ous m ateri als ,

Pla i n concrete 2 8 2 , . Table of 2 8 3 ,

.

Rectangular concrete 2 9 1 , . B i gelow socket 32 8 ,

.

Re i nforced concrete 2 9 0 -
, . B i tum i nous concrete 2 30 , .

Restra i ned 1 00 , . membranes 3 4 5 , .

S hear on 1 04 , . B o i ler I nstruct i ons for start

,

Si mple 9 9 , . i ng and managi ng a 2 5 5 , .

 v ii

B o i l i ng test 2 1 8 C ement Chem i cal analys i s

volume of
,

W all forms W i th
.
,

B olts of, 229 .

clamp 338 ,
.
Constancy Of ,

B ond and shear 300 2 29 .

F i neness of 2 2 9
.
,

B race for wall forms 3 4 1 , .

for waterproong 3 44
.
,

B rayton re i nforcement 2 8 0 . ,
.

H ard set Of 2 2 2
,

B ri ck fac i ng 3 2 7 .

Crushing
,

I mproved 1 9 5
.
,

masonry ,
.

I n i t i al set o f 2 2 2
,

strength of 2 8 8 ,
.

I nspect i on Of 2 2 9
.
,

B ri quet Form f o r 2 1 7 ,
.

mortar M ateri als requ i red

.
, ,

M ethods Of maki ng a 2 1 8 ,

per cub i c yard O f 2 03

.
,

S torage of 2 1 8 ,
.

Measurement o f e xp a n
.
,

Table o f tens ile strength

o f a cement 2 2 1
s i on o f 2 1 1 ,
.

Method Of maki ng n e
.
,

B u ild i ng detai ls 3 2 2
ness test o n 2 2 4
.
,

laws 3 5 7 ,
.

Method of mak i n g s pe c i c
.
,

materi al S trength of 1 2 4
grav i ty test o n 2 2 6
.
, ,

materi al Table o f we i ght ,

.

Mi xed 1 9 5
,

of 5 9 ,
.

M olds for 2 1 8
.
,

B u i lt u p sec t i on 9 8
- ,
.

mortar 2 01
.
,
.
,

C mortar Table of tens i le ,

strength Of 2 04 ,
.

C a lcareous sand 1 9 7 , .
- mortar tests S and for 2 1 7 , ,
.

Calc i nat i on 1 9 2 ,
. mortars Li me and 1 9 9 , ,
.

Cant i lever foundat i ons 3 1 8 , .

N atural 1 9 4 ,
.

Capac i ty M easure of 5 , ,
.
N ormal cons i stency of ,

Carl i n cube m i xers 3 4 7 . 216

C ast i r n column W ood and
, .

N ormal test of 2 1 1
g
-
, , , .

l7 P ackages for 2 2 8 , .

a
i ron columns 1 8 3 , . Portland 1 9 4 , .

-
i ron columns D i mens i ons , Propert i es Of 1 9 5 , .

o f standard connect i ons Protect i on Of 2 2 9 , .

to 1 9 0 , . Puzzolan 1 9 4 , .

i ron columns S afe l oad

-
, Results Of tests for s ound
on 1 8 8 ,
. ness Of 2 1 5 , .

Cement 1 9 4 , . Results of t i me Of sett i ng

Accelerated test f o r , tests o n 2 2 3 , .

A c c e l e r a t e d tests f o r S and 1 9 5 , .

soundness of 3 6 0 , . Secondary tests f o r 2 2 1 , .

and sand 1 9 2 , . S et of 2 2 9 , .

Apparatus for neness test S lag 1 9 5

, .

for 2 2 3 , . spec i cat i ons 2 2 7 36 7 , , .

Apparatus for s p e c i c S team test for 2 1 4

grav i ty tests on 2 2 5
.
,

, . Table o f requ i rements Of

B o i l i ng test for 2 1 3 , . h i g h g rade 2 2 8 -
, .

bri quet Form fo r 2 1 7 -

test i ng mach i ne 2 1 9
bri quet M e t h o d s o f
, , .
, .

, Tests for neness o f 2 2 3 ,

.

m ak i ng 2 1 8 , . Tests for spec i c grav i ty

bri quets S torage o f 2 1 8 Of 2 2 5
bri quets Table o f tens i le
, , .
, .

, Tests for tens i le strengt h

strength O f 2 2 1 , . of 2 1 5
, .
v iii I N DE X
Cement Tests of natural and
, Co l umn D i m e n s i o n s O f
,

slag 2 2 7 standard connect i ons to

EE
.
,

Tests on 2 08 ,
. cast i ron 1 9 0 -
, .

T i r i e Of sett i ng test for ccentri cally loaded 2 8 8

- -
, , .

z l ccentri call y loaded con

W e i ght Of hydrauli c 1 9 6 ,
. crete 306 , .

Cement i ng m ateri al 1 9 2 , . foot i ngs P l a c i n g re i n ,

Center of grav i ty 9 5 forcement i n 3 1 4

E
.
, , .

of gr a vi t y o f plane gu res
'

, formulas 1 8 7 , .

9 fj re i nforcement mp i ri cal ,

Centeri ng for con c rete 33 3 ,

. rules f o r strai ght 304 , .

Centrally loaded c olumns , re i nforcement H o O p e d ,

28 5 . 3 02 , 305 .

Channels P r o p e r t i e s O f,
re i nforcement , S trai ght ,

standard 1 5 1 3 02 3 03
Chatel i er ask Le 2 2 5 rods L ongi tud i nal 2 5 0
.
, ,

, , .
, , .

Chem i cal analys i s of cement , S afe load on a cast i ron -

,

229 . 1 88 .

C i nder concrete 2 30 , . S pread foot i ngs for out

C i rcle A rea Of 1 0 5 0
, , , . s i de 3 1 5 , .

C i rcumference o f 1 0 5 0 , , . Table Of constants for a

Chord o f 5 2 , . rec tangu lar w 0 0 d e n
D i ameter Of 5 0 , . 184 .

Rad i us o f 5 0 , . ti es 2 5 0
W ood and cast i ron 1 79
, .

S ector o f 5 1 , .
-
, .

Segment of 5 2 Common l i mes 1 9 3

C o m p o i t i o n G ran ul ometri c
.
, , .

C i rcular ri ng S urface of 5 3
g
.
, , , ,

ri ng V olume Of 5 3
, , . 19
C i rcumference Of c i rcle 5 0 , . Of forces 8 8 , .

and areas of c i rcles 1 0 , . C o m p r e s s i v e strength o f

C i t i es U n i t working values
, b ri ck m asonry 2 8 8 , .

o f concrete allowed by strength of concrete 2 33 , ,

vari ous 2 40 28 6
Clamp bolts W all forms fo r
.
, .

, , stren g th o f stone and

3 38 . stone m asonry 2 8 7 , .

Clampi ng dev i ce fo r forms , stress 1 2 2 , .

3 40 Concentrated load 1 00
Clay W aterproo ng by add
. .
,

, Concrete allowed by vari ous

i ng l i me o r 343 , . c i t i es U ni t worki ng ,

Cli nton w i re cloth 2 68 , . values o f 2 40 , .

Coarse sand 1 9 8 , . arches Re i nforced 306 , .

Cockburn m i xer 3 5 2 , . beam Cont i nuous 29 4

, , .

Cold weather Concret i ng i n , , beam Rec tangu lar 2 9 1

, , .

2 47 . beams and g i rders B ear ,

weather L ay i ng mortar i n , , i n g for 33 2 , .

2 06 . beams Pla i n 2 8 2 , , .

Collaps i ble forms 336 , . beams re i nforced at t o p

Colori n g of mortar 2 08 , . and bottom 2 9 5 , .

Columb i an bar 2 6 2 , . B i tum i nous 2 30 , .

Column Cast i ron 1 8 7,

-
, . by we i ght P roport i on i ng , ,

Centrally loaded 2 8 5 , . 235 .

Concrete 2 8 5 , . C i nder , 2 30 .
 IN D EX ix
Co ncrete columns 2 8 5 3 02
columns
loaded 3 06
ccentri cally
,
E .
, , . Concrete U sual r o po r t i o n s
o f m ateri al
W ater for 2 3 6
,

o r 2 35

, .
, .

Comparat i ve v alue of d i f W aterproong o f 3 42 .

We t 28 5
,

f e r e n t aggregates used , .

i n 2 34
,
. w i th new J o i n i ng of Old , ,

Compress i ve strength o f , 2 47
W orki ng stresses
.

2 33 . of, 2 38 .

Cost Of 3 5 7 3 6 4 , , . Concret i ng at h i gh temper

Crush i ng strength of 2 8 6 ,
. atures 2 46 ,
.

D am p 2 8 5 i n freez i ng weather 2 4 7 .

E
, . ,

D ry 2 36, . Cone Frustum o f 5 3

, ,
.

ff ect o f re o n 2 3 7 , . S urface of 5 3 ,
.

E ec t Of therm al chan ges V olume of 5 3

EF asten
.
,

in , 2 38 . Connect i on to cast i ron col -

f fect Of v i brat i on on , 2 38 . umn s D i mens i ons of

,

i ngs in , 32 7 standard 1 9 0 , .

for waterpro on g M i xi ng , Cons i stency N ormal 2 1 6 , ,

.

of 3 42
, . Constancy of volume 2 1 0 ,
.

Fuller s rule for quant i t i es

Of volum e of cement 2 2 9 , .

for 2 42 ,
. Construct i on and n i sh of
Li me 2 3 0 , . form work 3 3 3 ,
.

M ateri als used for 2 3 0 Corn i ce 3 4 3

measurer and feeder G i l
.
, .
,

,
Cont i nuous beam 9 9 1 2 0 , , .

b r a i th , 3 5 3 . beams over equal spans ,

M ed i um 2 8 5 , . B end i ng moments for ,

M ethod s of measuri n g i n 1 20 .

gr e d i e n t s for 2 42 , . beams over equal spans ,

m i xer ,
Cockburn 3 5 2 ,
. React i ons for 1 1 9 , .

m i xer ,
Cont i nuous 3 5 1 , . concrete beam 2 9 4 , .

m i xer , Cube 3 4 7 ,
. i nserts 330 , .

m i xer , D rake 3 5 1 , . m i xer 3 5 1 , .

m i xer , Quant i tat i ve 3 5 3 , . Convers i on Of i nches to fe e t ,

m i xer ,
Ransome 3 48 , . Table Of 1 4 , .

m i xer , S m i th 3 49 , . tables 6 , .

m ixer , S tart i ng and opera Chord L ength Of 5 2

, , .

t i ng 3 5 6 ,
. Co r n i ce construct i on 3 4 3 , .

m ixers 3 4 7 , . Corn i ces and eaves 3 2 5 , .

m i xers O perat i on o f 35 4
, , . Corru g ated bar 2 5 7 , .

M i x i ng a n d wo r ki n g O f 2 42 , . o r J ohnson b ar Table o f , ,

M i xi ng Of 2 46 , . propert i es of 2 5 8 , .

M od u l i of rupt u re o f 2 8 4 ,
. Cost data 36 4 , .

Pla i n 2 30 , . o f concrete 35 7 ,

P rope rt i es o f 2 3 7 ,
Crush i ng strength o f bri c k
Quant i t i es f o r 2 44 , . m asonry 2 8 8 , .

S pec i cat i ons f o r 3 5 7 3 6 7 , , . strength of concrete 2 8 6 , .

S tone 2 30 , . strengt h o f stone and

T beams 2 98 , . stone m asonry 2 8 7 ,
.

Table o f ul t i m ate strengt h Cube m i xers 3 47 , .

Of 2 4 1 , . m i xers Carl i n 3 4 7 , , .

Transverse st r ength o f , root 2 7 , .

284 . Cubes and squares 2 8 , .

X I DE N X

Cub i c measure E ccentri call y loaded concrete 2

E
.
,

C u m m i n g s re i nforcement columns 3 06

E
.
, ,

2 78 . last i c propert i es , 1 23 .

Cup bar Kahn lectri cally welded fabri c 25 7

E
.
, , ,

bar Table of propert i es

, Of 2 68 .

Kahn lements of usual sec t i ons

25 7

E
, .
,

Curi ng D en i t i on of
,
2 36 , . 1 30 .

Cyl i nder Frustum lli pse rea of 5 3 A o f, 5 1

E longat
. .
, , ,

S rface of
u Peri meter of
5 2 , .
, 5 1 .

V olume i on
of, 5 2 .
,
1 22 .

lt i mate D U ,
1 24 .

E mir t ly hydraul i c l i me
izl
ri
D amp concrete 2 8 5
E mpreiriical
,
.
, l

D ead load 5 6 , .

ru es for stra i gh t l
D ec i mal equ i valents 1 4
E quOfivalentstoDec
nforcement 3 04
, .

Dec i mals o f a foo t for each i mal

, .

14
fract i on o f an i nch 1 4 feet Table
, , .

o f,
{i ch
.
,
r e
Deect i on Of beams 1 7 4 , .

s
,

Of beams Formul as for E vo l i and i nvolut i on

2g
, ,
i1 on
1 72
E xpanded
,
.

D e M ann bar 2 5 5 , .

metal 2 63
Des i gn Of beams Formulas ,
metal err i ng bone H
,

-
.

2 66
for 1 6 7
.
, ,
,

of concrete s t r u c t u r a l
.

metal Kahn 2 6 5 , , .

members 2 8 2 metal Tabl e Of prope rt i es

,

of foot i ngs Formulas for

, .

of 2 6 4 , .

31 6
, ,
metal Table of propert i es
,

o f Kahn 2 6 5
D etai ls B u i ld i ng 3 2 2
.

.
,

E xp a n s i o n M easurement O f
.
, ,

Di g B end i ng moment , ,

i lrf
a ar , ,
21 l

S hear 1 07 F
E lec tri ca l y welded
.
,

D i ameter o f c i rcle 5 0 Fa b r l
8
.
,
c,
D i amond bar 2 6 0 , .
,

bar Table of propert i es Of

, ,
Lock woven w i re 2 6 7
-

2 60
.
,

T i e locked w i re 2 6 7
D i mens i on
.
-

of standard con
.
,

Fabri cated system of re i n

n ec t i o n s to cast i ron -

forcement 2 7 7
columns 1 9 0
.
,
, .

Fac i ng B ri ck 3 2 7
Of standard T ra i ls Prop
.
, ,
,
Factor O f safety 1 2 4
e r t i e s and r i n c i p a l 1 66
.
,
,
.

Fa i lure Re i nforcement to r e
D i spos i t i on o f o a d s 8 5 , .
,

s i st l i nes o f 2 5 1
D i stri bu ted load 1 00
.
,
, .

Farm products Table o f

Double re i nforced concrete we i ght O f 7 1
,

beam 2 9 5
.
,

,
.

F asten i ngs i n concrete 32 7

D rake m i xer 3 5 1
.
,

,
.

Fat l i me 1 9 3
D ry concrete 2 36
.
,
,
.

Feebly hydraul i c l i me 1 9 4
measure 3 , .

Ferro i nclave 2 6 7
D ryer S and 1 99
.
,
.
,

, , .
F i eld i nspec t i on 2 08 , .

EE ccentr
aves and corn i ces
i cally loaded column
E
, 32 5 .

,
operat i ons 3 4 7
F i ne sand 1 9 8
F i neness of cement 2 2 0
,
,

.
.

,
.

test Apparatus for

, ,
 I DE N X xi
F i nenes s Test for 2 2 3 Fo r m i la , B end i ng moment

.
, , ,

tests M ethod o f m aki ng

0

, , 1 7 .

224 . c ast i ron columns 1 8 7

fo r -
, .

F i n i sh of form work Co n for deec t i on Of beams

E
, ,

struct i on and 3 33 , . 1 72 .

F i re o n concrete ff ec t of , , for des i gn o f beams 1 6 7 , .

2 37 . for long posts 1 8 1 , .

Fi xe d t both ends B eam Fo rmulas 1 6

g
, , , .

1o for ma xi mum shears and

Flask L e Chatel i er 2 2 5
, ,
. bend i ng moments o f
Floor and test load 3 68 , . beams 1 1 6 , .

systems Form s for 3 3 4 , , . Foundat i on Cant ilever 3 1 8 , , .

Floors i n d iff erent c i t i es , so i ls B eari ng value o f

, ,

Table Of allowable l i ve 31 1 , 31 3 .

loads on 6 3 , . Foundat i ons 3 1 1 , .

Foo t for each frac t i on Of an Frames P i n connected gi r

,
-

i nch Table Of dec i m als

,
der 2 78 , .

of a 1 4 , . Freez i ng weather Concret ,

Foot i ngs Form ul a for des i gn

,
i ng i n 2 4 7 , .

Of a 3 1 6 , . weather L ayi ng mortar ,

for o u t s i d e c o l u m n s , i n 2 06, .

S pread 3 1 5 , . F rustum Of cone 5 3 , .

P lac i ng re i nforcement i n o f cyl i nder 5 3 , .

a column 3 1 4 , . o f pri sm V olume o f 5 5 , , .

S pread 3 1 4 , . of rectangu lar pyram i d ,

Force Of w ind Table Of , S urfac e O f 5 4 , .

veloc i ty and 8 2 ,
. Of rectangul ar pyram i d ,

Representat i on o f a 8 7 , . V olum e o f 5 4 , .

Forces 8 7 Fu11 e r s rule for quant i t i es

.
, ,

act i ng o n beams 9 9 , . 2 l1 2
Compos i t i on of 88 .

G
,

M oment o f 9 3 ,
.

Parallelogram o f 88 , .

G abri el system o f re i nforce

Resolut i on Of 9 1 , .
ment 2 74
Resul ta nt of several 8 9 , .

, .

G i lb i t h measurer
r a and
Tri angle o f 8 9 feeder 3 5 3
G i r d e r f r a m e s Pin
.
,

Fo r m B races for wall 3 1 4 , .

.
, ,
c on
Clampi ng d ev i ces for a ,
n e c te d 2 78
,

3 40 G i rders B eari ngs for

, .

con
Collaps i ble , 3 36 .
,

crete beams and 3 3 2

constructed o f planks Gra n i m e t r i c com pos i t i on
, .

gg
,

33 4
,
.

i
fo roor systems 33 4 ,
.

G rav i ty Center o f 9 5
R
Partly collaps i ble 3 3 7 G rou t i ng 2 07
, , .

.
,

Plank holders for a 3 40 G yrat i on ad i us Of 1 42

, .

.
,

S pandrel wall 3 4 1 , , .

w i l clamp bolts W all

.
,

8 H
, ,

w i th w i re t i es W a ll , , 3 38 . H ancoc k i nsert 3 2 8 , .

work 333 H ard set 2 2 2

Ef ect of
, .
, .

work construct i on and H eat changes i n concrete ,

n i sh 3 33 , . f , 2 38 .
xi i I N DE X
H el i x L engt h o f 5 2
, , .
J
H e r r i n g - b o n e expanded te i nmetz socket
J
g
en n r s -S
metal 2 66 , .
,

H i gh carbon steel 2 5 2
-
, .
J ohnson bar 25 8
temperatures Concret i ng , .

,
bar Table Of propert i es
at 2 46 , .

of,
25 8
,

H omo eneous beams 1 2 9

.

g
H ooke 3 law 1 2 3
, .
J oi in n g o ld and new work ,
, .

2 47
H ooped column re i nforce
.

ment 302 3 05 , , .
K
H o t weather Concret i ng i n , ,
Kahn cup bar Table O f ,
2 46 .

propert i es O f 2 5 7
H yatt bar 2 5 5
, .

, .

expanded metal Table o f

H ydrated l i me 1 9 3
,

propert i es o f 2 6 5
We i ght
.
,

H ydraul i c ce ment
, .

,
system Of re i n forcement
of 1 9 6 , .

271
,

l i me 1 9 3
.

, .
trussed bar , 2 60 .

I L
I mperv
I i ousness E f ect
beams P ropert i es of
,

f
, 1 48
of
. La t h
Gg
I e rr i n g -
bone metal ,

IInch
,

strength and , 2 34 . L aw , H oo k e s 1 2 3

, .

mproved cement ,
1 95 . for steel 3 6 1 ,
.

Table Of dec i mals a Of for walls 36 1

L aws
, , .

f ot for fract i on Of an B u i ld i ng 3 5 7
o , .
, ,

ll L ayi ng mortar i n freez i ng

I nert i a M oment , Of , 1 29 . weather 2 06 , .

I ngred i ents for concrete ,

Le Chatel i er ask 2 2 5 , .

2 44 . L eg s Propert i es Of stand ard

,

Methods of measur i ng ,
an g les hav i ng equal ,

2 42 . 15 4 .

Proport i on i ng Of 2 3 4 , . Propert i es of standard

I n i t i al set 2 2 2 , . an g les hav i ng unequal ,

I nsert Cont i nuous 330 15 8

I
. .
, ,

H ancock 3 2 8 , . L en g th arc 5 1 Of , .

nspect i on F i eld 208 , , . Of chord 5 2 , .

o f cement 2 2 9 , . o f hel i x 5 2 ,
.

I ntegr al method O f water o f sp i ral 5 4 , .

proong 3 42
I nvolut i on a n d evolut i on
, .

! L en g ths M easure of 5
Li me and cement mortars
, , .

I ron castcolumn
,

25 1 99
W ood
. .

, and Common 1 93 , .

1 79 . concrete 2 30 ,
.

columns Cas t 1 8 7 Fat 1 9 3

column D i mens i ons Of
. .
, ,

H ydrated 1 93
standard connect i ons to
.
, ,

H ydraul i c 1 9 3 , .

cast 1 9 0 . M ea g er 1 9 3 , .

column S afe load on mortar 2 00

or clay W aterproong by
.
, ,

cast ,

P la i n bar 2 5 4 , . add i ng 3 4 3 , .

I rr egu lar are a s 5 5 , . P oor 1 9 3 , .

 I N DE X xiii
L i me Ri ch 1 9 3 M
R
.
, ,

S laked 1 9 3 , .

Li near measure 1 , . M achi ne te , a of l o a d i ng

Li ntel and spandrel c o n s tr u c testi ng 2 20
, .

t i on 3 2 2 , . Test i ng , 219 .

Li qui d measure 3 , . M a i n re i nf orc in g rods 2 5 0 ,

.

Li ve load 5 6 6 1 , , . M asonry Cru shi ng streng t h

,

lo ads o n oors i n d i ff erent Of b ri ck 2 8 8 , .

c i t i es Table o f 6 3 , , . Crush i ng strength Of

Lo ad Acc i dental 5 6
, ,
. stone 2 8 7 , .

Concentrated 1 00 , . M ateri al Cement i ng 1 9 2

, , .

Dead 5 6 , . requ i red per cub i c yard of

D i stri buted 1 00 , . mortar 2 03 , .

Floor and test 368 , . S trength Of b ui ld i n g 1 2 4 , .

from oor t o oor R e ,

Table o f we i ght Of bui ld
duct i on Of li ve 8 6 , . i ng 5 9 , .

Li ve 5 6 6 1 , , . Table o f we i ghts o f m i s
on cas t i ron c o l u m n s -
, c e lla n e o u s , 68 .

S afe 1 8 8 , . used for concrete 2 30 , .

o n oo rs i n d i ff erent c i t i es , U sual proport i ons Of ,

T b le o f allowable l i ve 2 35
g
, .

6 M athemat i cal tab l es 1 0 , .

S now 5 6 , . M athemat i cs 1 6 , .

S uddenl y appl i ed 1 76 ,
. M atri x De n i t i on of 2 30
, , .

Table o f w i nd 8 2 , . M axi mum shea rs and bend

U n i form 1 00 i ng moments Of beam s
W i nd 5 6
, .
,

Formulas for 1 1 6
W ind and snow 8 1
, .
, .

M c C a r t y separa t or 3 40
L o ad ing test i ng m achi n e
. .
, ,

, M eager l i me 1 9 3 , .

Rate of 2 20 ,
. M easure Cub i c 2 , , .

L oads D i spos i t i on Of 8 5
, , . D ry 3
, .

i n structures 5 6 , . Li near 1 , .

o n beam 1 00 Li qu i d 3
Locat i ng neutral axi s by
, .
, .

Of angles o r arcs 2 , .

means of the pri nc i ple Of capac i ty 5 , .

Of moments 9 7 , . o f len g th 5 , .

L ock woven w i r e f a b r i c
-
, o f surface 5 , .

267 . Of volume 5 , .

L ong posts 1 8 1 , . o f we i gh t 6 , .

ton we i ght 3
-
, . S quare 2 , .

L ongi tud i n al colum n rod s , S urveyor s 1

, .

25 0 . S u r veyor s square 2

, .

L oop tru ss C u m m i n g s M ea S i r em en t o f expans i on

i
, , ,

2 78 . l
L oose rod syste m
-
of re i n Of moments 9 3
Gil
.
,

forcement 2 6 9 , . M easurer and feeder ,

Lo w temperature L ay i ng , b ra i th 35 3
M easures W e i g hts and 1
, .

m ortar at 2 06 , .
, , .

L u g 1 a r Square tw isted -
, M easu ri ng i n g r e d i e n t s ,

25 ; M ethod o f 2 4 2 , .

bar T able
, of propert i es of M ec hani cs 8 7 , .

tw i sted ,
25 8 . M ed i um concrete 2 8 5 , .
xi v IN E
D X
M ed i um steel 2 5 2 ,
. M i xi n g Of concrete 2 4 6 , .

M embrane method Of water M i xtures S and and i t s 1 9 7

, , .

proong 3 4 5 , . M odul i Of rupture Of con

M ensurat i on 4 9 , . crete Table of 2 8 4 , , .

M erchand i se i n b ul k Table ,
M odulus Of ru pt ure 1 24 , ,

Of we i ght O f 6 4 , . 1 69 .

M erri ck system o f re i nforce S ect i on , 1 4 5

E
.

ment 2 7 4 , . M olds for mortar 2 1 8 , .

M etal xpanded 2 6 3 M oment D i agram for bend

H erri ng
.
, , ,

bone expanded ,
i ng , 114 .

2 66 . for cont i nuous beams over

Kahn expanded 265 , . equal spans B end i ng , ,

re i nforcement S heet 2 6 7 , . 1 20 .

Table O f propert i es of form ul as ,B end i ng 1 6 7 , .

expanded 2 6 4 , . M easurements Of 9 3 , .

Table Of propert i es Of of beams Form ulas for ,

Kahn expanded 2 6 5 , . maxi mum shear and

M etall i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t , bend i ng 1 1 6 , .

Characteri st i cs Of 2 5 2 , . of forces 9 3 , .

M etals Table Of ult i mate

,
Of i nert i a 1 2 9 , .

strength of 1 2 6 , . Resultant 9 5 , .

Tables o f we i ghts Of vari M oments B end i ng 1 1 0

, , .

ou s , 67 . L ocat i ng neutral axi s by

M etri c capac i ty 5 , . means o f the pri nc i ple
convers i on tables 6 , . Of , 97 .

len g ths 5 , . N egat i ve and pos i t i ve 9 4 , .

surface 5 , . M onol i th steel bar 2 62 , .

system 4 , . M ortar bri quets M ethod O f ,

volume 5 , . maki ng 2 1 8 , .

we i ght 6 , . bri quets S torage Of 2 1 8 , , .

M i ld or soft steel 2 5 2
, , , . Cement 2 01 , .

M i scellaneous m a t e r i a l s Colori ng Of 2 08 , .

Table Of we i ghts o f 6 8 , . Cons i stency o f 2 1 6 , .

re i nforcement 28 0 , . i n freez i n g weather L ay ,

Mi xed cement 1 9 5 , . i ng 2 06, .

M i xer Carl i n cube 347

, , . Li me 2 00 , .

Cube 3 4 7 , . Li me and cement 1 99 , .

Cockbu rn 3 5 2 , . M ateri als requ i red per

Concrete 3 4 7 , . cub i c yard o f 2 03 , .

Cont i nuous 3 5 1 , . M olds f o r 2 1 8 , .

D rake 3 5 1 , . Retemperi ng o f 2 06 , .

Operat i on of concrete ,
S hri nki ng i n 2 07 , .

35 4 . Table of tens i le strength

of cement 2 04
ag
an t i t a t i v e , 35 3 .
, .

m e 3 48
n so , . test S and for 2 1 7
, , .

S m i th 3 4 9 , . M ushroom system Of re i n
S ta rt i ng and operat i ng a ,
forc ement 2 7 5 , .

35 6 .

M i xi ng and worki ng Of con

N
crete 2 42 , .

concrete f o r waterproof N atural and slag cement ,

m g 3 42 , . Tests Of 2 2 7 , .
 I DE N X XV

N atu ral cement 1 9 4 , . P os i t i ve and negat i ve mo

N eedle Vi cat 2 2 2, , . ments 9 4 , .

N egat i ve and pos i t i ve mo and negat i ve shear 1 05 , .

ments 9 4 , .
Post L ong 1 8 1
, , .

shear Pos i t i ve and 1 05

, ,
. S hort 1 8 0 , .

N eutral ax i s 9 7 1 4 3 , , . Table o f constants for a

axi s by means Of the pri n rectangul ar w 0 0 d e n
c i p le Of moments LO 1 84
Wooden
.
,

cat i ng 9 7 , . , 1 79 .

N e w J o in i ng of Old concre te
,
P owers roots and
, , r eci pr o
wi th 2 4 7 , . cals 3 1 , .

N ormal cons i stency 2 1 6 ,

. P reparat i on of sand 1 9 9 , .

tests 2 1 1 , . P ressure Table of norm al

,

w i nd pressure Table Of , ,
w i nd 8 3 , .

83 . Pri mary tests 2 1 0 , .

0 P r i n c i p a l d i mens i ons Of
O ld new work J o i n i ng stand ard I ra i ls 1 6 6 '

gg;
t , .

Pri sm S urface o f 5 5
, ,

.
, ,

O perat i on of m i xers 3 5 4 V olume Of 5 5 , .

V olume o f frustum of 5 5
.
,

Or d i ri i ly hydrauli c l i me
z
ai ,
, .

lg Pri smo i d V olume of 5 3 , , .

Outs i de columns S pread Propert i es and pri nc i pal

d i mens i ons Of standard
,

foot i ngs for 3 1 5

I ra i ls 1 6 6
.
, ''
.
,

P o f rolled steel shapes 1 4 6

v
.
,

P ac kage for cement 2 2 8 , . o f sect i ons 1 29 , .

for waterproong Of standard angles ha i ng

gi ri
Pa r a ,

equal legs 1 5 4 , .

P ara llelogram Area Of 5 1 , ,

. o f standard angles hav i ng
of forc es 88 , . unequal legs 1 5 8 ,
.

lo p i md , S urface Of , o f standard channels 1 5 1

gg
Pa ra , .

o f standard I beams 1 48 , .

V olume o f 1 bars
'
of, 55 1 64

E
. .
,

P ercentage o f vo i ds 1 9 7 , . Of Z bars 1 6 2 , .

Peri me t er o f ell i e 5 1 P ro erty last i c 1 2 3

op
.
, . , ,

Ph i l i pp i ne w Table of cement 1 9 5 , .

we i ghts o f 7 9 , . o f concrete 2 37 , .

Pi n conn e cted gi rder frames

-
, Of s a n d , 1 97 .

2 77 . P roport i on Of m a t e r i a l s ,

P i t sand 1 9 7 , . U sual 2 3 5 , .

Pla i n bar i ron 2 5 4 , . P roport i on i ng by we i ght ,

concrete 2 30 , . 2 35 .

P lane g ures Center o f , of i n g red i ents 2 3 4 ,

.

grav i ty Of 9 6 , . Proport i ons o f i n g red i ents

P la n o r m s const ructed of for conc rete 2 4 4
f g , .
,

P r otect i on o f cement 2 2 9 , .

holders for forms 3 40 , . Purpose and class i cat i on Of

P olygons Regu lar 5 5 , ,
. cement tests 2 1 0 , .

Poor l i me 1 9 3 , . Puzzolan cement 1 9 4 , .

Portland cement 1 9 4 , . Pyram i d S u rface Of f ru s

,

cement S pec i cat i ons for , , tu m O f rec tan g ular 5 4 , .

227 . Su rface o f rectan g u lar 5 4 , .

xv i IN E
D X
P yram i d V olume of ,

tum O f rectangu lar 5 4 ,

fr u s
.
Reinforcement
t i cs metall i c Of
, Ch a r a c te r i s
, 25 2 .

V olume of rectangular 5 4 Cumm i ngs 2 7 8

EE
.
, , .

dened Parts of steel 2 5 0 , , .

Q lements o f steel 2 48 , .

uad bar 25 5
m p i r i c a l r u l e s for
uan t i t a ti v e
,

m i xer 3 5 3
.

strai ght column 3 04 , .

u a n t i t i e s for concrete
, .

Fabri cated system of ,

,
2 77
Table of 2 4 4 , .

G abri el system of 2 74
Fuller s rule for 2 42

, .

H ooped column
,

3 02 , 3 05
.

, .

R
i n column foo t i ngs Pla ,

c i ng 3 1 4 , .

Rad i us Of c i rcle 5 0 , . Kahn system Of 2 7 1 , .

o f gyrat i on 1 42 , . L oose rod system Of 2 69

-
, .

Rai l Propert i es and pri n

, M erri ck system Of 2 7 4 , .

c i p a l d i mens i ons Of M ushroom system o f 2 7 5

R
.
,

standard 1 6 6 , . of spec i al construc t i on ,

ansome bar 2 5 6 , . 25 5 .

bar Table Of prope rt i es Of

, , Pi n connected gi rder 2 78
-
, .

25 6 . Pla i n bar 2 5 4 , .

m i xer 3 48 , . S hear frame 2 7 9 , .

Rate Of load i ng test i ng S heet metal 2 67 -

,

mach i ne 2 2 0 , . S quare and tri angu lar

React i ons for cont i nuous mesh w i re 2 68 , .

beams over equal spans , S tra i ght column 3 02 , .

119 S tructural shapes used for

R
.

On beams 1 00 , . steel 2 63 , .

ec i proc al s 30 , . to res i st l i nes Of fa i lure ,

Powers roots and 3 1 , , , . 25 1 .

Rectangle Area o f 5 1 , , . Tr us s i t 2 6 7 , .

R e c t i gu la r concrete beam Typ es o f steel 2 5 4

g 1
.
, ,

U n i t system O f 2 7 7

Resteel
.
.
,

pyram i d Surface o f 5 4 , , . Vi s i nt i n i 2 8 1 , .

pyram i d Surface o f f ru s , i nforc i ng rods a i n , M , 25 0 .

tum O f 5 4 , . S pec i cat i ons

, for ,

pyram i d V olume Of 5 4 , , . 3 68 .

p yram i d V olume Of f r u s , Repres entat i on o f a force 8 7 , .

tum o f 5 4 , . Rerolled bars 2 5 4 , .

wooden posts Table o f Res olut i on O f forces 9 1

R
, , .

constants for 1 8 4 , . Restra i ned beams 1 00 ,

.

educt i on Of l i ve loads from Resultant moment 9 5 , .

oor to oor 8 6 , . Of several forces 8 9 , .

Re gu lar polygons 5 5 , . Retemperi ng o f mortar 2 06 , .

Re i nforced at top and bot R i ch l i me 1 9 3 , .

tom Concrete beam , , R i ng A rea O f 5 2

, , .

29 5 . R i ver sand 1 9 7 , .

con c rete arches 306

-
, . Rod Longi tud i nal column
, ,

concrete beam 2 9 0
~

,
. 25 0 .

concrete column 302

-
, . M a i n re i nforcement , 25 0 .

Re i nforcement B r a y t O n ,
of spec i al construct i on ,

28 0 . 25 5 .
xv i i . IN D E X

S m i th m i xer 3 49 , . S qu a r e measure S u r veyor s ,

'
,

S now and w i nd load , 81 . z

load 5 6 , .
-
mesh w i re re i nforcement ,

S ocket B eam 32 8 , , . 2 68 .

B i gelow 3 2 8 , . root , 2 6 .

J enn i ngs S te i nmetz 3 2 8 -

, . tw i sted b ars 2 5 6
-
, .

S heet steel 3 30 -
, . tw i sted lug bar 2 5 7
-
, .

U ni t 32 8 ,
. wooden posts Table o f ,

S oft or m i ld steel 2 5 2
, , , . constants for 1 8 4 ,
.

S o i l B eari ng value o f a
, S quares and cubes 2 8 , .

foundat i on 3 1 1 3 1 3 , , . S taff bar 2 5 5 , .

S oundness A ccelerated tests , S t a n d a r d angles havi ng

for 36 0 , . equal legs Propert i es ,

Results Of tests for 2 1 5 , . Of 1 5 4 , .

Tests for 2 1 0 , . an g les hav i ng unequal

S pan D en i t i on o f 9 9
, , . legs P ro r t i e s of 1 5 8
, , .

S pandrel and l i ntel construe channels r o pe r t i e s Of , ,

t i on 32 2 , . 15 1 .

wall forms 34 1 , . connect i ons to cast i ron -

S pans B end i n g moment for

, columns D i mens i ons of , ,

cont i nuous beams over 1 90 .

equal 1 2 0 , . I beams , P ropert i es Of ,

React i ons f o r cont i nuous 1 48 .

beam s over equal 1 1 9 ,

. rolled sec t i ons V alues for , ,

S pec i al construct i on B ars O f , , 1 36 .

25 5 rolled steel shapes P rop

i ty tests A ppa
.
,

S p ec i c - grav , e r t i e s of 1 4 6 ,
.

ratus for 2 2 5 I ra i ls Propert i es and

''
.
, ,

grav i ty Tests for 2 2 5 , , . pri nc i pal d i mens i ons o f ,

-
grav i ty tests M ethod of , 1 66 .

mak i ng 2 2 6 ,
. S tart i ng and managi ng bo i l
S p e c f a t i o n s for aggregates ers I nstruct i ons for
ggg ,

35 5
,

.
,

for cement 2 2 7 3 6 7 , , . and Operat i ng a m i xer ,

for concrete 3 6 7 , . 35 6 .

for oor and test load S team test 2 1 4

S t e a r a t e W aterproo n g
.
, ,

3 68 .

for re i nforc i ng steel 368 , . w i th metall i c 3 44 , .

for waterproong B a r , S teel angles hav i ng equal ,

rett 3 45 ,
. legs Propert i es of 1 5 4 , , .

S phere S u rface o f 5 3 , , . angles hav i ng unequal

Volume of 5 3 , . legs Propert i es O f 1 5 8, , .

S p i ral bar 2 5 6 , . bar M onol i th 2 6 2

, , .

L ength of ,
channels Propert i es o f , ,

S pl i ce rod 2 5 0 , . 15 1 .

S pread foot i n g for ou ts i de H i gh carbon 2 5 2 , .

columns 3 1 5 , . I beams Propert i es , Of , 1 48 .

foot i ngs 3 1 4 , . L aws for 3 6 1 , .

S quare and round bars M ed i um 2 5 2

We i ghts and areas Of
.
, ,

,
Plai n bar 2 5 4 , .

25 3 . re i nforcement Character ,
~

measure , 2 . i s ti c s Of , 25 2 .
 IN D E X xix
S teel re i nforc ement de ned S lt r e n h g t o f vari ous m a
E
,

Parts Of 2 5 0 , . t e ri a ls , Table o f trans

re i nforcement lements ,
verse 2 8 3 , .

of, 2 48 . O f wood U lt i mate 1 2 8 , , .

re i nforcement o f spec i a l Tens i le 1 2 2 , .

construct i on 2 5 5 ,
. Tests for tens i l e 2 1 5 , .

re inf orcement S truc tural ,

tests Result Of tens ile
,

shapes used f o r 2 6 3 ,
. 220 .

re i nforcement Types o f , , U lt i mate 1 2 4 , .

25 4 S tress Compress i ve 1 2 2
Propert i es o f
.
, , .

s ha es S heari ng 1 2 2 , .

rol ed 1 4 6 ,
. U ni t 1 2 2 , .

shapes Propert i es O f S tresses and stra i ns 1 2 1

o f concrete W orki ng 2 38
.
, ,

S tructural 1 48
S tring courses Terra
.
, , , .

so cket S heet 33 0 ,
.
-
cotta , ,

Soft o r m i ld 2 5 2
, , . 32 7 .

S pec icat i ons for re i n S tru ctural members D es i gn ,

f or ci n 3 68 . Of concrete 2 8 2 , .

T bars r Ope r t i e s o f 1 6 4
, , . shapes used f o r stee l re i n
T rai ls Propert i es and
,
forc ement 2 6 3 , .

p r i nc i pal d i mens i ons of s t e e s h a p e s P ropert i es o f

1 66 .
,

l s i , ,

2 bars P ropert i es Of 1 6 2
, , . S tru c tures Lo ad s in 5 6 , , .

S t i rrup 2 5 0
, . S uddenly appl i ed load 1 7 6 , .

S tone and stone masonry , S ull i van pressed steel plank

Crush i ng strength Of , holder 3 40 , .

28 7 . S u pe rc i al method o f water
concrete 2 30 , . proo ng 3 4 4 , .

S torage Of bri quets 2 1 8 , . S u rface M easure o f 5 , , .

S tra i ght column re i nforce Of c i rcular ri ng 5 3 , .

m en t 302 , . Of cone 5 3 ,
.

S tra i n U n i t 1 2 2
, , . o f cyl i nder 5 2 , .

S tra i n and stresses 1 2 1 Of frustum Of cone 5 3

E
, .
, .

S trength and i m perv i ous of frustum of cyl i nder 5 3 , .

ness ff ect o f 2 34
, , . of frustum o f rectangu lar
o f bri ck m asonry 2 88 pyram i d 5 4
of r a lle lo p i pe d A rea Of
, .
, .

o f bu i ld i ng materi al 1 24
E
g
.
, , ,

o f c e m e n t bri quets ,

Table o f tens i le 2 2 1 , . of pri sm , 5 5 .

o f concrete Compress i ve of ec ta n g u la r pyr am i d

I
, , ,

2 33 . 5 (

of concrete C r u s h i n g , , Ofsphere 5 3 , .

S u rveyor s measure 1
'
28 6 .
, .

Of concrete S afe 2 38 , , . square measure 2 , .

Of concrete Table Of , S ylvester process O f wate r

transverse 2 8 4 ,
. proong 3 4 3 , .

of concrete Table o f , S ystem M etri c 4 , , .

ul t i mate 2 4 1 , .

o f metal s Table o f ult i ,

T
mate 1 2 6 , .

of stone and sto ne m a T bars Propert i es Of 1 6 4

, , .

s on ry Crushi ng 2 7 8, , . beams Concrete 2 9 8 , , .

xx I DEN X

Theaded bolt for concrete

-
Table of l i near measure 1 , .

fasteners 32 7 , . o f l i qu i d measure 3 , .

headed bolt for cont i nu o f l i ve loads 62

O f long
-
.
,

o u s i nsert 33 0 , . ton we i ght 3 , .

ra i l Propert i es and pr i n
,
of materi als requ i red per
c i p a l d i m e n s i o n s of cub i c yard Of mortar ,

standard 1 6 6 , . 2 03 .

Table of allowable l i ve loads Of measure of angles o r

on oors i n d iff erent arcs 2 , .

c i t i es 6 3 ,
. of measure o f capac i ty 5 , .

of areas and we i ghts of o f measure of len g ths 5 , .

square and round bars , o f measure of surface 5 , .

25 3 . of measure of volume 5 ,
.

of avo i rdupo i s we i ght 3 ,

. o f measure of we i ght 6 , .

Of beari ng value o f d i ff er of modul i of rupture o f

ent foundat i on so i ls , concrete 2 8 4 ,
.

31 3 . of modul i o f ru pture of
of bend i ng moments for vari ous materi als 2 8 3 , .

cont i nuous beams over of powers roots and , ,

equal spans 1 2 0 , . rec i procals 3 1 , .

o f c i rcles 10 , . Of propert i es of stand ard

Of comparat i ve value o f channels 1 5 1 , .

d i ff erent a g g r e g a t e s Of propert i es O f c o r r u
used f o r concrete 2 3 4 ,
. gated o r J ohnson bar
, , ,

o f compress i ve stren g th o f 25 8 .

concrete made o f d i f of propert i es of d i amond

f e r e n t s i zed stone 2 33
-
bar 2 6 0
of propert i es o f expanded
.
, ,

Of constants for r e c t a n g u
lar wooden posts 1 8 4 ,
. metal 2 6 4 , .

Of crush i n g strength Of o f propert i es of Kahn cup

concrete 2 8 6 , . bar 2 5 7
,

Of c rush i ng strength o f of propert i es of Kahn

bri ck m asonry 2 8 8 ,
. expanded metal 2 6 5 , .

of crush i n g strength of of propert i es Of Ransome

stone and stone m a bars 2 5 6 , .

s on r y, 28 7 . of propert i es of square
of cub i c measure 2 , . tw i sted lu g bar 2 5 8 , .

o f dec i mal equ i valents 1 4 ,

. of propert i es o f standard
Of dec i m als of a foot for angles hav i ng equal
(e ch fract i on Of an i nch legs 1 5 4
a
.
, ,

l o f propert i es of standard

of d i mens i ons of standard angles hav i ng unequal

connect i ons to cast i ron -
legs 1 5 8
, .

columns 1 9 0 , . of propert i es o f standard

o f dry measure 3 , . T ra i ls 1 6 6 , .

o f elements of usual sec of propert i es of T bars 1 6 4 , .

t i ons 1 3 0
, . of propert i es o f T hacher
o f formulas for deect i on bar 2 5 9
,
.

of beams 1 7 2 ,
. of propert i es of un i versal
o f formulas for m ax i mum bar 2 5 9
,
.

shears and bend i n g mo Of propert i es of Z bars ,

ments of beams 1 1 6 , . 1 62 .
 I DEN X xxi
Table of quant i t i es for con Table Of we i ghts o f wood 7 4 ,
.

crete 2 4 4 ,
. T ables Convers i on 6
, , .

o f react i ons f o r cont i nuous M athemat i c al 1 0

beams over equal S pans
E
.
,

, Tem perature changes i n con

1 19 . crete ff ec t Of 2 38 , , .

Of reduct i on o f l i ve l oads L ay i n g mortar at low 2 06 ,

.

from oor to oor 8 6 ,

. Tens i le stren g th 1 2 2 , .

o f requ i rements Of h i gh strength Of cement br i

grade cement 2 2 8 , .
q u e t s Table of 2 2 1 , , .

Of safe loads o n c ast i ron -

strength o f cement mortar ,

columns 1 8 8 ,
. Table o f 2 04 , .

o f square measure 2 , . stren gth test Results o f

-
, ,

Of standard I beams 1 48 ,
. 220 .

o f surveyor s measure strength Tests for 2 1 5

'
1 , .
, , .

Of surveyor s square meas

Tens i on bar 2 5 0 , .

ure 2 , . Terra cotta stri ng courses

-
,

of tens i le strength of c c 32 7 .

ment bri quets , Test Accelerated

, ,
2 1 3 , 360 .

Of tens i le strengt h Of c c A pparatus for n eness ,

ment mortar 2 04 , . 2 23 .

o f troy we i g ht 3 , . Apparatus for S pe c i c

of ul t i m ate strength o f grav i ty 2 2 5 , .

concrete 2 4 1 , . B o i l i ng 2 1 3 , .

of ult i mate strength o f for neness 2 2 3 , .

metals 1 2 6 , . f o r soundness 2 1 0 , .

o f un i t wor k i ng values o f for soundness Results Of , ,

concrete allowed by 215 .

va r i ous c i t i es 2 40 , . fo r spec i c grav i ty 2 2 5 , .

o f veloc i ty and force Of fo r tens ile stren g th 2 1 5 , .

w i nd 8 2 , . loads Floor and 3 68

, , .

of ult i mate strength o f M ethod Of maki ng s p e c i c

woo d 1 2 8 , . grav i ty 2 2 6 , .

Of values f o r standard M ethod Of m aki ng the

rolled sec t i ons 1 36 , . n eness 2 2 4 , .

of we i ght Of Austral i an N orm al 2 1 1 , .

wood 79 , . Of natural and slag c e

of we i gh t o f bu i ld i ng ment 2 2 7 , .

m ateri al 5 9 , . o n cement 2 08 , .

of we i ght o f hydrauli c Pri mary 2 1 0 , .

cement 1 9 6 , . Pu rpose and class i cat i on

of we i ght o f merc hand i se of 2 1 0 , .

i n bulk 6 4 , . Resul t o f tens i le strength -

,

Of we i g ht o f Ph il i pp i ne 2 20 .

wood 79 , . Resu lts of t i me -

Of - sett i ng ,

O f v e i g h t o f roof tr usses , 223 .

sg S and fo r mortar 2 1 7 , .

Of we i gh ts of farm prod Second ary 2 1 0 2 2 1 , , .

uc ts , 71 . S team 2 1 4 , .

of we i g hts o f vari ous T i me Of sett i ng 2 2 1

- -
, .

m eta ls 6 7 , . Test i n m ach i ne 2 1 9 ,

.

o f we i g hts Of m i s cellane mac i ne Rate of load i ng , ,

o u s m ateri al 6 8 , . 2 20 .
xxii I N DE X
Thac her b ar 2 5 5 2 5 9 , , . U ni t worki ng values O f con

b ar Table Of propert i es Of
, , crete allowed by vari
25 9 o u s c i t i es 2 40

E
.
, .

Therm al changes i n concrete , U n i versal bar 2 5 8 , .

ff ec t of 2 3 8 , . bar Table o f propert i es of

, ,

T i e bar 2 5 0
-
, . 25 9 .

Column 2 5 0 , .

V
-
locked w i re fabri c 2 6 7
W a l l f o r m s w i th w i re
, .

, V eloc i ty and force Of wi nd ,

3 38 Table of 8 2

E
. .
,

T i me o i sett i ng test , 2 2 1
-
. V ert i cal shear 1 04 , .

-
O f sett i ng test , Resul ts o f ,
-
V i brat i on o n concrete ff ec t ,

223 . Of 2 38, .

T o n we i ght , Table o f long 3 . V i cat needle 2 22 , .

Transverse stren g th of c o n V i s i nt i n i re i nforcement 2 8 1 , .

crete Table of 2 8 4 , , . V o i d s Den i t i on of 2 3 0

, ,

strength o f vari ous m a Percentage Of 1 9 7 , .

t e r i a ls T able o f 28 3 , , . V olume Constan c y of 2 1 0

, , .

Trapez i um Area of 5 1 , , . M easure o f 5 , .

Trapezo i d A rea Of 5 1 , , . o f cement Constancy o f , ,

Tri angle Area Of 5 1 , , . 229 .

D i mens i ons o f 5 0 , . of c i rcular ri ng , 53 .

o f forces 8 9 , . of cone 5 3 , .

Tri angular mesh w i re re i n -

o f cyl i nder 5 2 , .

forcement 2 68 , . Of frustum Of cone 5 3 , .

Troy we i ght 3 , . of of cyl i nder ,

Trussed bar Kahn 2 60 , , . 5 3fru stum

bars 2 5 0 , . o f frustum Of pri sm 5 5 , .

Trus C o n b ar 2 6 1
-
O f frustum of rec tangu lar
Trusses W e i ght O f roof 5 6
.
,

, , . pyram i d 5 4 ,
.

T r u s s i t re i nforcement 2 6 7 , . o f parallelop i ped 55 , .

Tw i sted bars S quare 2 5 6 , . o f pr i sm 5 5 , .

lug bar S quare 2 5 7 ,

. o f pri smo i d 5 3 , .

lug bar Table Of proper Of e c ta n gula r

'
pyram i d
i
, ,

t i es O i square 2 5 8 . 5
Of sphere , 53 .

of wedge , 5 3 .

0 b ar 2 6 3 ,
.

U lt i mate elongat i on 1 2 4 , .

W
strength 1 2 4
W all form s B races for 3 4 1
.
,

strength o f concrete 2 4 1 , .
, , .

stren g th Of metals Table , form s S pandrel 3 4 1

, , .

Of 1 2 6 , . forms w i th clamp bolts ,

strength o f wood Table , 3 38 .

of , 1 28 forms w i th w i re t i es 338 , .

W alls L aws for 3 6 1

.

U n i form load 1 00 .

W ater for concrete 2 3 6

.
, , ,

U n i t b ar 2 5 5 . , .

W aterproon g B arrett spe

,

socket 3 2 8 , . ,

stra i n 1 2 2 , . c i c a t i o n s for 3 4 5 , .

stress 1 2 2 ,
. by add i ng l i me o r clay ,

system of re i nforcement , 3 43 .

2 77 . Cements for , 3 44 .
 I DEN X xx iii
Waterproong I ntegral W e i ght Troy 3 ,

W e i ghts and areas Of square

.
, ,

method o f 3 42 ,
.

M embrane meth od of 3 4 5 and round bars 2 5 3

E
, .
, .

M i xi ng concrete for 3 42 . and measures 1

Welded fabri c
.
, ,

o f concrete 3 4 2 , . lectri cally , ,

Para ffi n for 3 4 4 ,

. 2 68 .

S upe rc i al method o f 3 44 W e t concrete 2 8 5 .

Wi nd and snow load 8 1

, .
,

S ylvester proc ess of 3 43 , .

W axes f o r 3 44
.
,

, . load 5 6 , .

w i th metall i c stearates ,
pressure Table Of normal , ,

3 44 83 .

W axes
.

for waterproo ng , Table Of veloc i ty and

344 force of 8 2
Weather L ayi ng mortar Wi re cloth Cl i nton 2 68
.
.
,

in
fabri c L ock
, , ,
.

freez i ng 206 woven 2 67

W edge Volume Of 5 3
.
, , , .

fabri c T i e locked 2 6 7 -

We i ght A vo i rdu po i s 3
.
, , , , .

, , . re i nforcement S quare and ,

M easure of 6 tri angular mesh 2 6 8 -

t i es W all f o r m s w i t h
,
.
, .

of Austral i an wood Table , , ,

of, 79 338
Woo cl n d cast i ron column ,
. .

of beams 1 7 0
g
-
.
,

o f bu i ld i ng materi al Table ,
l7
o f, 59 . Table O f we i ght o f A u s t r a
Of prod uc ts Table of l i an 7 9
farm
.
, , ,

Table Of we i ght Of Ph il i p
of hydrauli c cement 1 9 6 ,
. p i ne 7 9 , .

of merchand i se i n bulk , Table o f we i ghts o f 7 4 , .

Table O f 6 4 U lt i mate strengt h o f 1 2 8

W ooden o s ts 1 79
.
,
.
,

of m i scellaneous mate ri als , , .

Table o f 68 ,
. posts able o f constan ts
,

Of Ph i l i ppi ne woods Table for rec tangul ar 1 8 4

Worki ng Of concrete M i xi ng
.
, ,

Of 79
, .
,

of roof trusses 5 6 , . and 2 42 , .

o f vari ous metals Table , stresses O f concrete 2 38 , .

of 6 7
, .

o f wood Table of 7 4
, , .

z
Proport i on i ng by 2 35 , .

Table Of long ton 3 -

, . T bars Propert i es of
, ,
1 62 .
2 US E E
FU L TA BL S

SQ U A RE E S RE M A U

1 44 square i nches (sq i n . .

) 1 square foot . . . sq . ft .

9 square feet . 1 squa r e yard . sq . yd .

3 01 square yards 1 square rod sq . rd .

1 60 square rods 1 acre . . A .

6 40 acres . 1 square m i le sq . mi .

sq . mi A
. sq rd . . sq .
yd . sq .
ft . s q. in .

1 6 40

SU RVEYOR
S S Q U AR E E R M AS U E

62 5 sq u are l i nks (s q . 1 square ro d sq . rd .

1 6 square rods . 1 square cha i n . . sq . ch .

1 0 square cha i ns 1 acre . . A .

6 40 square . sq . mi .

36 square m i les (6 m i .

square ) 1 townsh i p .

1 s q m i = 6 40 A
. . . sq . ch .
= sq . rd .

sq . 1i .

The acre conta i ns s q yd or . .

, sq . ft . and
, is
eq ua l to the area Of a square measuri ng ft . on a s id e .

C U B I C M AS U E RE
c ub i c i nches (cu i n ) 1 cub i c foot . . . .cu ft . .

2 7 c ub i c feet 1 cub i c yard cu yd . .

1 2 8 c ub i c cord .

2 4 % c ub i c feet 1 perch P .

1 c u y d = 2 7 cu f t = 4 6 6 5 6 cu i n
. . . .
, . .

M ASU R E E O F A GL E N S OR ARCS

60 1 m i nute

9 0 d eg rees . . rt . an g le or q ua d r a n t . . Cl
ci r .

1 ci r . 360
 E L A B LE
US FU T S 3

A VO IRD I S WE G UP O I HT
gra i ns (gr ) .
=1 Ounce . . . Oz .

l6 o u n c es

1 00 hundredwei ght
2 0 cwt o r .
, to n . . T .

1 T = 2 0 cwt
. . lb = 3 2 000 o z =
.
, . gr .

The avo i rdupo i s po und cont ai ns gr

E
.

LON G -
TON T AB L
lb .

1 12
2 0 cw t 0r 2 , 2 40 1b

Y WE G
.
,

TR O I HT
24 gra i ns pen nywe i ght
2 0 pennywe ights

1 lb 12 oz = 2 40 pwt gr
E E
. . . .

DRY M ASU R
2 p i nts
8 quarts

1 b u = 4 p k = 3 2 qt = 64
. . . pt .

The U S st r uck bushel conta i ns

. . cu .

cu ft B y law i t s d i m ensi ons are those Of a cyli nd er 1 8 ; i n

. . , .

i n d i ameter and 8 i n d eep The hea ped bushel i s equal to . .

I } struck bushels the cone be i ng 6 i n hi gh The d ry gallon ,

. .

co nta i ns cu i n bei ng i struck bushel . .

, .

Fo r approxi mat i ons the bushel may be taken at 1 } cu ft ; , . .

o r 1 cu ft may be co n s i d ered 1
.
, bushel
.
,
.

The B ri t i sh bushel contai ns cu i n c u ft . . . .

U S bushels . . .

4 g ills
2
4
. bbl .

2 ba r r els or 6 3 gallons , . . hogshead

1 hhd = 2 bbl = 63 gal . . .
= 25 2 p t = 2 , 01 6 g i
. .
4 US E F U L TA B L S E
The U 8 gallon conta i ns 2 3 1 cu i n
. .1 3 4 cu f t nearly ; . . . . .
,

o r 1 cu ft conta i ns gal The follow in g c yl i nders con

v
. . .

ta i n the g i ven m ea sures ery c losely :

Di a m . H ei gh t Di a m . H ei gh t
G i ll 1 % in . 3 in . G a ll on in
. . 7 . 6 in .

Pi n t 3% i n . 3 in . 8 gallons 1 4 i n . 12 in .

Q uart 3% in . 6 in . 1 0 gal l on s 1 4 i n . 15 in .

W hen water i s at i t s max i mum dens i t y 1 c u ft wei ghs , . .

1h and 1 gal we i ghs

. 1b . .

Fo r approx i mat i ons 1 cu ft Of water i s c ons i d ered equ al , . .

t o 7 % gal and 1 ga l a s wei gh i n g 8 % 1h

.
, . .

The B ri t i sh i mperi al gallon both l i qu i d and dry con , ,

ta i ns cu i n cu ft and i s equi valent to the

. . . .
,

volume Of 1 0lb of pure water at 62 F T0 r educe B ri t i sh to

.

.

U 8 li qui d gallons m ul t i ply by

. . Conversel y to convert
, ,

U S i nto B ri t i sh l i q ui d gallons d i v i d e by
. . or i ncreas e , ,

the number o f gallons One f t h -

.

TH E M ETR I C S YS TE M

R
The metri c system i s based o n the meter whi ch acc o r d i n g , ,

to the U n i ted S tates Coast and G eodet i c S urvey eport Of

1 8 8 4 i s equa l to
, i n The v al ue co mmon l y used .

is in and i s authori z ed by the U ni ted S tates govern

.
,

ment Th e meter w a s ori g i nall y i ntend ed to be o n e ten

.

m i ll i onth Of the d i stance fro m the pole to the equator ,

mea sured on a meri d i an pass i ng near Pa r i s Th i s d i stance .

was carefully calculat ed and a standard meter bar made ,

and depos i ted among the arch i ves Of France at P ari s I t

v
.
,

h a s s i nce been d i sco ered that the o ri g i na l calc ulat i ons were
at fault and the standard meter i s so mewhat short Of o n e
ten m i ll i onth Of the earth s q u adrant N evertheles s the
-
'
.
,

error i s s o small that i t w a s not cons i dered neces sary to

change the stand ar d to make i t correct and the ori g i nal ,

meter length i s sti ll preser v ed

There are three pri nc i pal un i ts the me te r the li ter (pro
.

~
,

n ou n c e d lee and the gr a m, the un i ts of l eng th

,

capac i ty and we ig ht respec t i vel y Mul t i ples of thes e un i ts

, , .
 US E FU L TA B L S E 5

are Obtai n ed by p re xi n g to the names o f the p r i nc i pal u n i ts

the G reek word s de ca and ki lo the
v
he c to
subm ul t i ples o r d i i s i ons are Obtai ned by p r ex i n g the
, ,

Lat i n words deci cen ti (f lu) and m i lli (n i b Thes e

prexes form the key t o the ent i re sys tem The abbr e i
,

. v

a t i o n s o f the pr i nc i pa l un i ts of these submult i ples beg i n w i th

a small letter and tho se o f the mult i pl es beg i n w i th a cap i ta l

,

letter .

E
M AS U R ES OF L E N GTH

i meters
1 0 mi ll =1 . cm .

1 0 cent i meters =1 . dm .

10
1 0 meters = 1 . Dm .

10
1 0 hectometers . . ki lo meter

E
M ASU R S OF E SU RFAC E (N OT LAN D )
1 00 sq u are mi ll i meters
(s q . 1 square cent i meter . . sq . cm .

1 00 square c ent i meters 1 square d ec i meter . sq . dm .

1 00 square d ec i meters 1 squa r e meter . . sq . m .

E
M ASU R S E O F VOLUM E
cubi c mi ll i meters
(cu mm )
. . 1 cub i c cent i meter . . cu . cm .

cubi c cent i meters 1 cubi c d ec i meter cu d m

. .

cubi c d ec i meters . 1 cubi c met er cu m . .

E RE
M AS U S OF C AP ACI T Y
cl

dl

Hl
1 0 hec tol i ters
The l i ter i s eq ual to the volume occupi ed by 1 cu . dm .
6 US E FU L TA B L S E
E RES
M AS U OF WE G I HT
10m i ll i g rams 1 cent ig ram cg .

10 . dg .

.
g .

10
1 0 d ecagrams hectogram Hg =1 . . .

1 0 hectograms . 1 ki l ogram Kg or ki lo .

ki lograms . 1 ton T .

The gram i s the wei ght O f 1 cu cm of pure d i st i ll ed water . .

at a temperature o f 3 9 2 F ; the k i logram i s the w ei ght O f

.

1 li t er O f water ; the ton i s the w e i ght of 1 cu m of water

E E . . .

C ON V RSI ON TAB L S
B y means of the tables on pages 8 and 9 metri c m easures
E
can be convert ed i nto ngl i sh and v i ce versa by s i mple add i ,
,

t i on All the gures Of the values g i ven are not requi red
.
,

four or ve d i g i ts be i ng all that are commonl y u s ed ; i t i s

only i n ver y exact calc ul at i ons that all the d i g i ts
are necessary U s i ng table proceed as follows :
.
,

Change ft i nto meters An y number as

. .
,

may be regard ed as
also , etc 3 048 .

H ence looki ng i n the left hand column O f the

,
-
2 43 8
upper part O f the tabl e pag e 8 for gure 6 (the , ,

rs t gure Of the g i ven number) we nd Opposi te ,

i t i n the thi r d column w hi ch i s hea d ed F eet to M et ers the

, ,

number N ow us i ng but ve d i g i ts and i n c r ea s

,

i ng the fth d i g i t by 1 (s i nce the next i s greater tha n we

get I n other words 6 ft m ; hen ce , ft . .
, .

X s i mpl y mov i ng the deci mal po i nt

three places to the ri ght Li kew i se 400 f t = . m ; ,
. .

70 ft m ; 1 . m ; and 8 m . . .

Add i ng as shown above we g e t , m .

Ag a i n convert
,
ki los i nto pounds The .

work sho uld be perfectly clear from the explana

t i on g i ven above The res ul t i s. lb .

The only d i ffi c ul ty i n applyi ng these tabl es li es 06 6 1

i n locat i ng the dec i mal po i nt I t may always be 01 1 0.

found thus : I f the gure cons i d ered l i es to the 43 2 8 7 5

l ef t o f the d ec i m al po i nt count each gure i n ,
 US E FU L TA B L E: 7

o r d er beg i nn i ng w i th uni ts (but call i ng uni t s place zero )

,

unt i l the d es i red gure i s reach ed ; then move the dec i mal
po i nt to the r i gh t a s many plac es as the gure be i ng cons i d e r ed
i s to the l eft Of the un i t gure Thus i n the rst case above
.
, ,

6 l i es three plac es to the left O f 1 w hi ch i s i n un i t s place ;

hence the dec i mal po i nt i s moved three places to the r i gh t

,
.

B y exchang i ng the words ri g ht and left the statement

w i ll al so apply to d ec i m als Thus i n the second case above

.
, ,

the 5 l i es three places to the r i gh t o f un i t s pl ace ; hence the

d ec i mal po i nt i n the number taken fro m the table i s moved

t h m places to the le f t .
 US E FU L TA B L S E
E
C ON V RSI ON T AB L E
E N GL I S H M E A S U E S R I N T O MET RI C

M etri c Metr i c M etr i c M etr i c

hS h
I nches to Feet to Pounds to G allons to
Meters M eters K i los Li ters

-
I

h . 02 5 3 998 . 3 04 79 7 3 . 45 3 5 9 2 5
N . 05 07 9 9 6 . 6 09 5 9 46 . 907 1 8 5 0
J
O . 076 1 9 9 3 . 9 1 439 1 9 1
h 1 01 5 99 1
H
.

O . 1 2 69 9 8 9
Q . 1 5 2 398 7
1 7 7 79 8 4
l
.

. 2 03 1 9 8 2
D
C . 2 2 8 5 98 0
HO . 2 5 3 9 9 78

M etr i c Metr i c M etr i c M etr i c

1398 Square S quare Cub i c Pounds per

llS h I nches Feet Feet S quare I nch
to to to to K ilo per
S quare S quare Cub ic S uare
M eters Meters M eters eter

H . 0006 4 5 1 5 0 . 09 2 9 01 39 4 . 028 3 1 6 09 4
N . 001 29 0300 . 1 8 5 8 02 7 8 8 . 05 66 3 2 1 8 8
J
O . 001 9 3 5 4 5 0 . 2 7 8 7 04 1 8 2 . 08 49 48 2 8 2
B 002 5 8 0600 3 7 1 605 5 7 6 1 1 32 6 43 76
H
. . .

O . 0032 2 5 7 5 0 . 46 4 5 06 9 7 0 . 1 4 1 5 8 04 7 0
Q . 0038 7 09 00 . 5 5 7 408 36 4 . 1 69 8 9 65 6 4
K 0045 1 605 0 6 5 03 09 7 5 8 1 98 2 1 2 6 5 8
I
. . .

W . 005 1 6 1 2 00 . 7 43 2 1 1 1 5 2 . 2 2 6 5 2 8 75 2
D
Q . 005 8 063 5 0 . 8 36 1 1 2 5 46 . 2 5 48 448 46
HO . 006 45 1 5 00 . 9 2 9 01 3 9 40 . 2 8 3 1 609 40
10 US E F U L TA B LE S

A
M TH E M TI C L T BLE S A A A
C IR CU M F E RE E NC S AN D RE S A A OF CIR CL S E FRO M
1 - 64 TO 1 00

D i am . C i rcum . A rea

D i am . C i rcum .

s . 04 9 1 . 0002
e . 098 2 . 0008
003 1

w
a .1 9 63 . 4
.39 2 7 . 01 2 3 4i
5 8 90 02 7 6 4
w
. .

.78 5 4 . 04 9 1

w
a .98 1 7 . 076 7 4
1 1 78 1
. . 1 1 04
1 3 74 4 1 5 03
w
. .

. 1 9 63 5
o
a 1 76 7 1 2 48 5 2 1 64 76
w
. . .

3 068 si
m
.

371 2 5
m
.

44 1 8
m
.

5 1 85
w
.

. 6 01 3 5
x . 6903
. 78 5 4 6t
. 9 9 40
6i 31 91 91
.

6i
1 767 1
. 6%
6 2 1 2 05 8
.

2 1 5 98 5
.

g
2
2
2%
2%
23 19
22
2l

1
1 1 044 7
.

1 1 7 933
.
 US E F U L TA B L S E 11

T A BL E C on ti n u ed )

D iam . C irc u m . A rea D iam . C ircum A rea

9% 1 9}
9f 1 9}
9% 20
20}
%
9
9 2 0}
9i 2 0}
9% 3 1 02 33
. 21
10 21 }
1 0} 21}
1 01 21 }
1 02 22 15 2
11 22 }
11} 22 }
11 22 } 7 1 47 1 4
.

11 23
12 1 23 }
12} 1 2 3}
12 23 }
12 24
13 2 4}
1 3} 24}
13 16 24}

32
13

;
14
1 4} 25 108
1 45 25 }
1 42 26
15 26} 5 4 1 1 90
.

15 } 2 6} 5 5 1 5 47
.

15 1 26}
15 2 27
16 2 7f
1 6} 5 1 05 1 0
. 2 7}
1 6} 2 7}
1 61 28
1 7 28 f
1 71 28 }
17 28 }
17 29
18 2 9}
18} 2 9}
1 8} 29}
18} 30
19 30}
1 9} 291 . 040 30}
12 US E L FU TA BL S E
TA B L E (C on ti n u ed )

D i am . C ircum . A rea D ia m . C ircu m . Area

30} H3
H3
H5 C

H3 0 s
H5
H3
H5
H3
1
H0
H0
1

H 000
1 1 1
o
t o
t

33 ; 88 1 4 1 5 H0
1
.

33 % H0
1

34 H
34} 9 2 1 32 3
. 45 } H 8
34 45 } H 3
34 H 8
15 H 8
35 } 4 6} H Og 8
)

35 } 46} H K m3
I

35 } H K 3? e 0
1
1
I
c

HK0 00 n
I 1
36 1 u

36 }
3
47} H R N o0
I
1
36 } 47} HK E
I
1
36 } 1 H S
37 1 H00 S
37 } 1 H S
37 } 1 H S
37 } 1 1 , H E
1 , 1 34 1 1 8
. H E
38 } 1 H S
38 } 1 H S
38 2 1 H S

39 1 N S
39 } 1 o o
t S
w'oS S
'

33%
1
1 O
[
A
S S
1 w' -S S
H

w'9 E
r

1 2 7 2 4 00
w3 S
.
.

40} 1
40% w3 S
1 w3 S
w3 EB
C

1
wA 3 S l
O

1 35 2 6 60
m
w mO-
.

1 . p
 US E FU L TA B L S E 13

TA B L E C on t i n ue d )

D i am . C i rcum .

A rea D iam . C ircum . A rea

ME 78 } a me m
57
5 7} S
58 S 23 3 %
$3 % nS % &w
a
59 3 c E
5 % a8 S 81} mmo w
60 3 c w S
" o
1
o
a n Pc h E 2 5 9 1 82

n mw m
N
.

61 P N S n
61 } o OS 2 6 2 32 4
a ow m
.

62 D S C B M
w} m

e ooKS
I

63 e -HN S
a
m
m
T

G B e Hg S
64 2 01 06 2 w S QS 78 m
wg Q S m
.

M} 2H 7 Q
65 wg WS 2 73 3 1 9 m

wg o S
.

6 M W4 $M

c o
66 w5 S 2 m m
4 o 21 4
w3 e S
s

o -

E
o
2 78 032
A
-
0 AO
1 I

9 u
w3 o S m aa m m
'v

w
.

i
67 6 HO
w3 o S m m u
'

67} o
a nr o 0 NU
w8 wS
i 6

68 Q7 M mw 0 KB
5uI
w$ mS mh 0 N 0N
u I

>
MBM
0

69 wh m oS % & % m% 0 8 9

69 } wh cwS % W 4% m3 0 0a 1 1 )

wm E w
'

70 &S a n g2 S
wS uS an e w m8
i

S
wem cS a 8 S
m mn w
i

p b Hu E a 8 S
wb HQ BW m 0:
0r S
y- g E
A
u
q ~o S
e em
r

0S B4
a
q S
ew mm m
i

90[ E
O 1 o uw 8 S
h S M qw 3 S
p S ME M M w 5 S
p N MI E qw 8 S
eu mm m
a qm 8 S
e H HS " qh 3 S
e qb 8 G
e i ub 3 S
h n 3 S
S um 2 S
14 US E FU L TA B L SE
D EC IM A L EQ I V LE
U A N TS

01 5 6 2 5 1 7 64
-
2 65 62 5 33 6 4 5 1 5 625 7 65 6 2 5

-
. . . .

1 32-
. 03 1 2 5 0 9 32
-
. 28 1 2 5 0 1 7 32 . 5 31 25 0 2 5 32 78 1 2 5 0
-
.

3 64 -
. 046 8 75 1 9 64
-
. 2 9 68 7 5 3 5 4f 4 . 5 468 75 5 1 6 4 79 68 7 5
-
.

1-1 6 06 2 5 00 5-16 3 1 2 5 00 9- 1 6 5 6 2 5 00 1 3- 1 6 8 1 2 5 00

. . . .

07 8 1 2 5 3 28 1 2 5 37 6 4 5 78 1 2 5 5 3 6 4 8 2 8 1 25

-
. . . .

3 -
32 . 09 3 7 5 0 1 1 32
-
. 3 43 7 5 0 1 9 32 . 5 9 3 75 0 2 7 3 2 8 43 75 0
-
.

75
64 1 09 3 75 2 3 64 35 9 3 75 39 6 4 6 09 3 7 5 5 5 6 4 8 5 9 3 75
- - -
. . . .

1 8 . 1 2 5 000 3- 8 . 3 75 000 5 -8 . 6 2 5 000 7- 8 8 7 5 000

.

9 -
64 . 1 406 2 5 . 3 9 06 2 5 41 64 -
. 6 406 25 5 7 6 4 8 9 06 25
-
.

5 -
32 . 1 5 62 5 0 1 3 32-
. 46 02 5 0 2 1 32 -
. 65 625 0 2 9 3 2 9 06 2 5 0
-
.

11 64

1 7 1 8 7 5 2 7 41 4 42 1 8 7 5 43 6 4 6 7 1 8 75 5 9 4f 4 9 2 1 8 7 5
- -
.
. . .

3 -
16 . 1 8 7 5 00 7 1 6 . 4 3 7 5 00 1 1- 1 6 . 68 75 00 1 5 - 1 6 9 3 7 5 00
.

13 64 2 03 1 2 5 2 9 6 4 45 3 1 2 5 45 6 4 7 03 1 2 5 6 1 -6 4 9 5 3 1 2 5

- - -
. . . .

7 -
32 . 2 1 8 75 0 1 5 32 -
. 46 8 7 5 0 2 3 32 . 7 1 8 75 0 3 1 3 2 9 6 8 75 0
-
.

. 2 3 43 7 5 3 1 - 6 4 . 48 43 7 5 47 45 4 . 7 3 4 37 5 ( 6 4 9 8 43 7 5
.

1-4 . 2 5 0000 1 - 2 . 5 00000 3- 4 . 7 5 0000 1

E
D CI M ALS OF A F OOT FOR E AC H 1 - 3 2 I
N CH

Inch 0
l

2

3

4

5

o . 08 33 . 1 66 7 . 2 5 00 . 33 3 3 . 4 1 67
e . 002 6 . 08 5 9 . 1 69 3 . 25 2 6 . 33 5 9 . 4 1 93
a . 005 2 . 08 8 5 . 1 71 9 . 25 5 2 . 338 5 . 42 1 9
e 0078 09 1 1 1 7 45 2 5 78 341 1 42 45
w
. . . . . .

. 01 04 . 09 3 7 . 1 77 1 . 2 604 . 3 4 37 . 42 7 1
a . 01 30 . 09 64 . 1 79 7 . 2 630 . 3 46 4 . 42 9 7
a . 01 5 6 . 099 0 . 1 823 . 2 65 6 . 3 49 0 . 43 2 3
e 01 8 2 1 01 6 1 8 49 2 68 2 35 1 6 4 3 49
w
. . . . . .

. 02 08 . 1 042 . 1 8 75 . 2 7 08 . 3 5 42 . 4 375
a . 02 3 4 . 1 068 . 1 9 01 . 2 7 34 . 3 5 68 . 4401
a . 02 6 0 . 1 09 4 . 1 92 7 . 2 76 0 . 35 9 4 . 44 2 7
a 02 8 6 1 1 20 1 95 3 2 78 6 36 2 0 445 3
w
. . . . . .

03 1 2 1 1 46 1 9 79 28 1 2 3 6 46 44 79
m
. . . . . .

. 0339 . 1 1 72 . 2 005 . 28 39 . 36 7 2 . 4 5 05
i 03 6 5 1 1 98 2 03 1 28 6 5 3 69 8 45 3 1
m
. . . . . .

039 1 1 224 2 05 7 289 1 37 2 4 45 5 7

w
. . . . . .

04 1 7 1 25 0 2 08 3 29 1 7 37 5 0 45 83
m
. . . . . .

. 04 43 . 1 2 76 2 1 09 . 2 9 43 . 3 7 76 . 46 09
a . 046 9 . 1 302 . 2 1 35 . 2 9 69 . 3 8 02 . 4 63 5
s 049 5 1 32 8 2161 2995 38 2 8 46 6 1
mW
. . . . . .

. 05 2 1 . 1 35 4 . 2 1 88 . 3 02 1 . 38 5 4 . 46 8 8
05 4 7 . 1 38 0 22 1 4 . 304 7 . 388 0 47 1 4
:
. . .

2 . 05 73 . 1 406 . 2 2 40 . 3 07 3 . 3 9 06 . 4 7 40
3
3 . 05 9 9 . 1 43 2 . 2 2 66 . 3 09 9 . 3 93 2 . 4 7 66
 U S E FU L TA BLES 15

I
.

D EC L
I M A S OF A F OOT FOR E AC H 1 - 3 2 N C H (C on ti n u ed )

I nch 0
1 2 3 4 5

. 06 25 . 1 45 8 . 2 292 . 31 25 . 39 5 8 . 47 9 2
n . 06 5 1 . 1 48 4 . 23 1 8 . 31 5 1 . 398 4 . 48 1 8
a 06 77 15 10 2 3 44 3 1 77 401 0 48 44
m
. . . . . .

07 03 1 5 36 2 37 0 3 2 03 4036 48 7 0
w
. . . . . .

. 07 2 9 . 1 5 62 . 2 39 6 . 32 29 . 406 2 . 48 9 6
e . 075 5 . 1 5 89 . 2 42 2 . 32 5 5 . 408 9 . 49 2 2
r . 078 1 . 1 61 5 . 2 4 48 . 32 8 1 . 41 1 5 . 49 4 8
c . 08 07 . 1 6 41 . 2 4 74 . 3 307 . 41 41 . 49 7 4

E
D CI M ALS OF A F OOT FOR E AC H 1 - 32 I N CH

I nch 10

6 7 8 9 11

. 5 000 . 5 8 33 . 6 6 67 . 75 00 .8 333 . 9 1 67
. 5 02 6 . 5 85 9 . 669 3 . 75 2 6 28 3 5 9 . 9 1 93
. 5 05 2 . 5 885 . 67 1 9 . 75 5 2 .8 38 5 . 92 1 9
. 5 078 . 5 91 1 . 67 45 . 75 78 .8 41 1 . 9 2 45
. 5 1 04 . 5 937 . 6 77 1 . 7 6 04 .8 43 7 . 9 271
. 5 1 30 . 5 964 . 6 79 7 . 76 30 .8 46 4 . 9297
. 5 15 6 . 5 990 . 68 2 3 . 765 6 .8 49 0 . 9 323
. 5 182 . 6 01 6 . 6 8 49 . 768 2 .85 16 . 9 3 49
. 5 2 08 . 6 042 . 68 7 5 . 7 7 08 .8 5 42 . 9 3 75
5 2 34 . 6 068 . 6 9 01 . 7 73 4 .8 5 68 . 9 4 01
5 2 60 . 6 09 4 . 69 2 7 . 7 76 0 .8 5 94 . 9 42 7
5 28 6 . 6 1 20 . 69 5 3 . 7 78 6 .8 6 20 . 9 45 3
5 312 . 6 1 46 . 6 9 79 . 78 1 2 .8 6 46 . 9 47 9
5 33 9 . 6 1 72 . 7 005 . 78 3 9 .8 6 72 . 9 5 05
5 36 5 . 6 1 98 . 7 03 1 . 78 6 5 .8 6 98 . 95 31
5 39 1 . 6224 . 7 05 7 . 78 9 1 .872 4 . 95 5 7
5 41 7 . 62 5 0 . 7 08 3 . 79 1 7 .8 75 0 . 95 83
5 443 . 62 76 . 7 1 09 . 7943 .8 7 76 . 9 6 09
5 469 . 63 02 . 7 1 35 . 7 66 9 .8 8 02 . 9 635
5 49 5 . 6 328 . 71 61 . 7 99 5 .8 8 28 . 9 66 1
5 5 21 . 6 35 4 . 7 1 88 . 8 02 1 .88 5 4 . 9 68 8
5 5 47 . 6 38 0 . 72 1 4 . 8 04 7 .88 8 0 . 97 1 4
5 5 73 . 6 406 . 7 2 40 . 8 07 3 .8 9 06 . 9 7 40
5 5 99 . 6 432 . 7 2 66 . 8 09 9 .8 932 . 9 766
5 625 . 6 45 8 . 7 29 2 . 8 1 25 .895 8 . 9 79 2
5 65 1 . 6 48 4 . 73 1 8 . 815 1 .898 4 . 98 1 8
5 677 . 65 1 0 . 7 344 . 8 1 77 . 9 01 0 . 9 8 44
5 7 03 . 6 5 36 . 7 3 70 . 8 2 03 . 9 03 6 . 98 7 0
5 729 . 6 5 62 . 739 6 . 8 2 29 . 9 06 2 . 98 96
5 75 5 . 65 89 . 7422 . 825 5 . 9 08 9 . 9922
5 78 1 . 66 1 5 . 7 44 8 . 8 28 1 . 91 15 . 9 9 48
5 8 07 . 66 4 1 . 7 47 4 . 8 3 07 . 9 1 41 . 9974
16 M A TH M A TI C S E
MATH EM ATI CS

FOR M U L S A
-
l} =

The term for m ula as used i n mathemat i cs and i n t e c h n i

,

cal books may be d ened a s a r ule i n whi ch s ymbols a r e u s ed

,

i n s te ad of wor d s ; i n fact a formul a may be regard ed as a

,

s ho rthand method o f express i ng a rul e .

Most persons hav i ng no kn owledge Of al g ebra r egard for

mulas w i th d i strust ; they thi nk that a person must be a good
algebra i c scholar i n ord er to be able to use form ul as Th i s .

i dea however i s erroneo us As a rul e no knowledge Of

, , .
,

any branch of mathemat i cs except ari thmet i c i s requ i red to

enable one to us e a formula An y formul a can be express ed .

i n words and when so expressed i t becom es a rul e

, .

Formulas are much more conv eni ent than ru l es They .

S how at a glance all the o perat i ons that are to be performed ;

they do no t have to be rea d three or four t i mes a s i s the case ,

w i th most rul es to enable o n e to und erstand thei r mean i ng ;

,

they take up l ess S pace both i n the p ri nted book and i n

,

one s notebook than r ul es ; i n short when ever a rul e can

, ,

be expressed as a form ula the form ula i s to be preferred , .

'
I t i s the i ntent i on i n the follow i ng pag es to show how to
use such formulas as are l i kely to be encountered i n hand

books or other works of l i ke nature

,

.

The si gn s used i n fo r mul as are the ord i nary s i gns i nd i ca

t i ve Of Operati ons and the si gns Of aggreg at i on All these .

s ig ns are used i n ari thmet i c but to refresh the read er s , ,

memory thei r natu r e and uses w i ll be expla i ned before

,

proceed i ng further .

The s i gns i nd i cat i ve of O perat i ons are s i x i n number v i z : ,

.

X | and V, ,
.

The Si gn i nd i cates add i t i on and i s called plu s ; when ,

placed between two quant i t i es i t i nd i cates that the two ,

quanti t i es are to be added Thus i n the expressi on 2 5 + 1 7

.
, ,

the Si gn shows that 1 7 i s to be add ed to 2 5 .

l8 M A TH E M A TI C S

d esi red to i nd i cate that all the quant i t i es i nclud ed by them

are to be subj ected to the same o perat i on Th u s suppose .
,

that the sum of 5 and 8 i s to be mul t i pl i ed by 7 and that ,

th e add i t i on i s to preced e the m ul t i pl i cat i on An y o n e .

o f the four s i gns O f aggregat i on may be employed to i n d i c a t e

the Operat i on Thus .

,

X 7 The v i nc ul um i s pl aced above the quant i t i es that are

to be treat ed a s o n e quant i ty and subj ected to the same
O perat i ons .

W hi l e any one Of the fo u r s i gns may be used a s shown

above custom has restri cted thei r use somewhat The vi n c u
, .

lum i s rarely us ed except i n connec t i on w i th the rad i cal S i gn .

Thus i nstead Of wri t i n g

, o r {1

fo r the cube r oo t of 5 pl u s 8 all o f whi ch wo ul d be c o r rec t , ,

w
I
the v i ncul um i s nearl y always used 5 + 8 , .

n cases where onl y o n e s i gn Of aggregat i on i s need ed

(except of co urse when a root i s to be i nd i cated ) the
, , ,

parenthes i s i s always used H ence X 7 woul d be the

.
,

u sual way o f express i ng the product Of 5 plus 8 by 7 .

I f two s i gns Of ag gregat i on are need ed the brackets and ,

parenthes i s are used so as to avo i d havi ng a pa r enthes i s

,

w i th i n a parenthes i s the brackets be i ng placed outs i d e Fo r

5 ) 3] X 9 means that the d i ff erence between
.
,

example ,
+

2 0and 5 i s to be d i v i d ed by 3 and th i s res ult mult i pl i ed by 9

,
.

I f three s i gns O f aggregat i on a re requi red the brace , ,

brackets and parenthes i s are used the brace bei ng pl aced

, ,

outs i de the brackets next and the parenthes i s i ns i de For

5 )
.
,

3] X 9
,

example , 21
} 8 means tha t the quo
t i ent Obta i ned b y d i v i d i ng the d i ff eren ce betw e en 2 0 and 5
by 3 i s to be mul t i pl i ed by 9 and that 2 1 i s to be subtracted,

fr om the product thus Obta i ned and the resul t d i v i ded by 8 , .

S hould i t be necessary to use a ll four s i gns O f aggreg a

t i on the brace would be put outs i d e the brackets next
, , ,

the parenthes i s next and the v i ncul um i ns i de For example

.
, ,

{ l( 2 o 5 21] 8
}-
X 12 The rea s on for us i ng the
-
.

brace i n thi s last i nstanc e wi ll be ex pl ai ned a s i t i s not ,

generall y u nderstood .
 M A TH E M A TI C S 19

v
When se eral quant i t i es are connected by the vari o us
s i gns i nd i c at i ng a dd i t i on subtract i on mul t i pl i cat i on and
, , ,

d i v i s i on the operat i on i nd i cated by the s i gn of mul t i pl i cat i on

,

must always be pe r form ed rst Thus X 4 equals .

,

1 4 3 be i ng m ul t i pl i ed by 4 before add i ng to 2 S i m i larly

1 0
, .
,

2 2 X 5 eq ua ls 1
-
si nce 2 X 5 equals 1 0 and 1 0 1 0 equals 1
, , .

H ence i n the preced i ng case if the brace were om i tted the

, , ,

resul t would be whereas by i nsert i ng the brace the

, ,

result i s 36 .

Follow i n g the s i gn Of m ul t i pl i c ati on c omes the s i gn of

d i v i si on i n i t s ord er o f i m portance For example 5 .
,

equals 2 9 be i ng d i vi d ed by 3 before subtract i ng from 5 The

, .

si gns o f add i t i on and subtracti on are of equal value ; that i s

v
i f se eral quant i ti es are connec ted by plus and m i nus s i gns
,

the i nd i cated o perat i ons may be perform ed i n the order i n

whi ch the quant i t i es are placed .

There i s one other s i gn used whi ch i s nei ther a s i gn Of ,

aggregat i on nor a S i gn i nd i cat i ve Of an Operat i on to be per

form ed ; i t i s and i s called the S i gn Of equa li ty; i t mea ns
that all o n one s i d e O f i t i s exactl y eq u al to all o n the other
s i de For example
. 5 , 5 X (1 4 9) = 25 .

H av i ng d escri bed the s i gns us ed i n form ulas the form ulas ,

themsel ves w ill n ow be ex pla i ned F i rst cons i der the well .
,

known rule for nd i ng the safe load that a rectan g ular

whi te o a k po st w i ll carry whi ch may be stated as follows :
-
,

Fr om un i ty s u btr ac t 1 o n e - hu n d r ed th o f the di vi d e n d
o bta i n e d by d i vi di n g the le n g th of the pos t i n i n c he s by the
lea s t d i me n s i o n of i ts cr os s s ecti o n i n i n ches-
M ulti ply the .

r e m a i n d e r by ti me s the a rea of the pos t s ecti o n i n s qu a r e

i n c he s . Th e r e s ult i s the sa ef lo a d th e pos t wi ll ca r r y .

Thi s rule i s rather compl i cated and i t can be grea tly ,

s i m pl i ed by putt i ng i t i n the form of a formula .

An exam i nat i on o f the rul e w ill show that three qua nt i t i e s

(v i z .
,the area o f the secti on the len gth and the lea st , ,

d i men s i on o f the c r oss sect i on ) are i nvolved H ence t h e

-
.
,

rule m i ght be ex pres sed a s follows :

S afe load = 1 000> <area of sec t i on i n square i nches
,

l ength i n i nches
20 M A TH EM A TI C S

This expression could be shortened b y representing ea ch

quantit y by a single letter Thus repres enting the safe load .
,

by W the area o f the cross section of the post in square

,
-

inches b y A the length of the post in inches by L the least

, ,

dimension of i ts cross section in inches by D and s u b s t i

-
,

tuting these letters for the quantities tha t they repres ent ,

the preceding expression would reduce to

L
W
1 00X B
a much simpler and short er expression Thi s last expression
f
.

is call ed a or m ula .

As a further example consider the rul e a s explained o n

,

page 300 for n ding the safe resisting mom ent o f a rein
forced concrete beam whi ch i s a s follows :
f
-
,

M u lti ply the a rea of the s teel r ei n orceme n t i n s qu a re i n c he s

f
by the d i s ta n ce rom the ce n te r of the s teel to the to p of the bea m
M
.

ulti p ly th e pr od uc t by The res u lt i s the s a fe res i s ti n g

mo me n t of the bea m i n i n ch -
p ou n d s .

In thi s case let M represent the safe resisting moment

,

in inch pounds ; a the area o f the steel in square inches ;

-
, ,

and d the distance in inches from the c enter o f the rein

, , ,

forcement to the top of the beam Then the preceding .

,

rul e may be ex pressed by the following form ula :

The formula j u st given shows as w a s stated in the begin ,

ning t hat a formula i s reall y a shortha nd m ethod of express

,

ing a rule It is customary however to omit the sign o f

.
, ,

m ul tiplication between two o r m ore quantities when they

are to be m ul tiplied together o r betw een a number and a ,

le tter representing a quantity it bei n g always und erstood ,

that when tw o letters are adj acent with no sign between

them the quantities represented by these letters are to be
,

m ul ti pli ed Bearing thi s fact in m ind the formula j ust

. ,

given can be further simplied to

M 1 3 , 7 60d a
The sign of multiplication evidently cannot be omitted , ,

betw een t wo o r m ore num bers as it would then be impossible ,

t o distinguish the num bers A near appr oach to this how . ,

e ver m a y be attained by placing a dot be t w een the numbe r s

.
 M A TH E AI A TI C S 21

tha t are to be multiplied together and this i s frequen tly done

,

in works on mathematics when it i s desired to economi ze

space In such cases i t is cus tomary to put the dot hi gher
.

than the posi tion occupi ed by the d ecimal po int Thus 2 3 .

,

m eans the sam e a s 2 X ; 5

3 42 -
7 4 9 l 006 indicat es that the
-
,

num bers 5 42 7 49 and

, , are to be m ultipli ed to gether .

It is al so customary to omit the sign of mul ti plication in

ex pressions si m ilar to the following :a X Vb + c 3 X (b i c )


, ,

etc writing them a

.
, b lc etc
-
, .

The si gn is not omi tt ed when several quantiti es are incl uded

by a vinculu m and it is d esired to indi cate that the qu antities
,

so includ ed are to be m ultiplied by another quantity .

For example 3 X b + c
, , etc are always .
,

written a s here printed .

Before proceeding further it m a y be well to ex plain o n e

,

other device used by form ula m akers and w hich i s apt t o ,

puz zle o n e who encounters it f o r the rst time It is the .

us e o f w hat mathem atici ans call pri me s and s ub s and what

f
printers call s u peri or and i n eri or characters As a rul e .
,

form ula m akers d esigna te quantities by the i n i tial lett ers o f

the names o f the quantities Fo r example they represent
.
,

m o m ent by M stress by 5 length by 1 etc

, , T h is practic e , .

i s to be co mm end ed a s the letter itself serves in many cas es

,

t o identify the quantit y that it repres ents S ome authors .

carry the practice a li ttle further and represent all qua ntiti es
o f the same nature by the same letter throughou t the book ,

always ha ving the sam e letter repres ent the same thing .

N ow thi s practice n ec essi tates the u s e of the pri mes and

,

subs above men tioned when two quantities have the s ame
.

name but repr esen t d i e ren t things Thus consid er the

, .
,

word mome n t a s appli ed to beam s The safe moment equals .

the ul timate mom ent divid ed by the factor o f safety If it .

i s deci d ed t o d esignate a ll momen ts by M it will be necessary ,

t o m ake a distinction betw een the M that refers to s afe

mo m ent and the M
that refers t o ultimate m oment Th is .

may be eff ect ed by designating the safe moment a s M and

the ultimate mo ment a s u M
The formula may then b e
.
s ,

written in whi ch F equals the factor of safety .

22 M A TH E MA TI C S
The m ain thing be remembered i s that whe n a or m ula i s
to f
gi ven i n whi ch the s a me le tter s occu r s ever a l ti mes a ll li ke le tter s ,

h a vi n g th e s a m e p ri m es or s u bs r epr e s en t the s a me qu a n ti ti es
ff f
.
,

wh i le th o s e whi ch d i er i n a n y r es p ect repr es en t di f eren t

qu a n ti ti es Thus in the form ul a
.
,

R represents the radius gyr ation o f a section co m posed o f

I
of

four parts ; I 1 2 I3 and I 4 represent the moment of inertia

, , .

o f the respective parts about the same axis around which R i s

t aken ; and A represents the total area of the section .

It is very easy to apply the above formul a when the

val ues of the quantiti es represented by the di fferent lette r s
are known All that is requi r ed is to substitute the numerical
.

values o f the letters and then perform the indicated o per ,

a t i on s
. Thus suppose that the values of I ] 1 2 I 3 and I 4
, , , ,

are and respectively and that A is equal ,

to 8 sq in Then the value o f R m ay be found by s u b s t i

. .
,

tuting in the above formul a ; thus ,

Attention is call ed to one or two other facts relating to

formulas
E
.

xpressions similar to
gg
E sometimes occur the heavy line,

25
indicating that 1 60i s to be divid ed by the quotient obtained
by dividing 6 60 by 2 5 If both lines were light it would be .
,

66 0
impo ssible to tell whether 1 6 0 w a s to be divided by or
25

28
1
whether was to be divid ed by 25 . If this latter result
(5
1 60
660
were d es i red the expressi on wo uld be wri tten In ever y
E
.
,

case the heavy line indicates that all above it is to be divided

by all below i t .

1 60
In an express ion li ke the heavy line is not n e c e s

660

5
 MA TH E M A TIC S 23

sary bec ause it is i m po ssible

,
to m istake the o peration tha t
lls 66O
g
-

ha s to be perform ed . But , since , if

5
1 75 660
5 2 is substitut ed fo r the hea v y li ne beco m es
necessary in order to m ake the res ul ting ex pression clear .

Thus ,

1 60 1 60 1 60
91 0 8 35
H
25 25 25
Fractional ex ponen ts are sometim es us ed instead o f the
rad ical sign ; tha t i s inst ead o f indicating the square cube , , ,

fourth root etc of so me quantity a s 3 7 by V3 7

, .
, , ,

etc those roo ts are indicated

.
,
etc S hould .

the numerator of the fractional exponent be some quantity

other than 1 thi s quantity whatever it may be indicat es
, , ,

that the quantity aff ected by the ex ponent is to be raised to

the power indicated by the num erator ; the denomi nator is
a lwa ys the ind ex o f the roo t H en ce instead o f expressing
the cube root o f the square of 3 7 a s W it m a y be expressed
. ,

the d enomi nator being the index o f the roo t ; in other

words W = 3 7 L ikewise { K
,
l + 02b)3 m a y also be writ
.
,

ten (1 a much simpler expression .

S everal examples showing h o w to apply so me o f the m o r e

d i fc ult formul as will now b e given .

The ar ea of any segment o f a c ircl e that i s less than (o r

equal to ) a se m i circle i s expressed by the form ula
1rr 2 E c

in w hi c h A = area of segm ent ; 1 r = 3 1 4 1 6 ;r = r a d i us ; B = angle .

obtained by drawing li nes from the center to the extremi ti es

of arc of segment ; c = c h o r d of segm ent ; and h = h ei g h t of
segment
M E XA PL
.

E What is the area of a s egm ent whose chord is

.

1 0 in long angle subte n d ed by chord i s

.
, radius i s
and height of segment i s in ?
L
ih

.
,
.

S O UT I O N Applyi ng the form ula j us t given

.
,

11

s 5 2 X 83 46 . 10

sq . ih .
, nearly
24 MA THE MA TIC S
The area o f any tri angle m a y be found by m eans o f the
following formula in which A = th e area and a b and c
, , , ,

represent the lengths o f the sid es :

A:
EXA M PL E What is the are a of a tri angle whose sid es are
and 5 0 ft long ?
O L UT I O
2 1 ft 46 f t

. .
.
, ,

S N I n ord er to apply the form ula assum e that

.
,

a represents the sid e that i s 2 1 ft long ; b the side that i s 5 0 ft .

, .

long ; and c the side that i s 46 ft long Then substitut i ng

, . .

in the form ula ,

50

nearl y sq . ft .
,

The above operations have been extend ed much fu rt her

than was nec essary in order to show every step of the proces s .

The R ankine Gordon formula for det erm ining the least
-

load in poun d s that will cause a long colum n to break is

SA

in which P = load (pr es s ur e )i n pounds ; S ul timate strength ,

i n pounds per square inch o f material com posing colu m n ; ,

A = area of cro ss section o f column in square inches ; q = a

-
,

facto r (mul tiplie r ) whose v al ue depends on the shape o f the

end s o f the column and on the mate ri al composing the column ;
l = length of the column in inches ; G least radius of gyration
,

of cro ss sec tion of column

-
.

The m eaning of the term G is ex plained on page 1 42

EXA PLM E What is the least load that will break a ho llow
.

steel column whose outside diameter i s 1 4 i n insid e diam .

,

eter 1 1 i n length 20 f t and whose end s are at ?

L UT I O
.
, ,
.

S O N .
F0 r steel , S and q =
1
fo r a t
26 MA THE MA TIC S
It will be more conven ient to explain rs t how to use the
table for nding squa r e and cube roots
S quare R oot First point o ff the given number into periods
.

of two gures each beginning with the decimal point and

,

proceeding to the left and right The following numbe rs .

are thus pointed o ff : 1 2 703 ,

2 2 0000 , . 000442 ,

H a v ing pointed o ff the number move the decimal point ,

s o that it will fall between the rst and second periods o f the

signi cant pa r t of the number In the preced ing numbe r s

.
,

the decimal point will be placed thus :

If the number ha s on l y three (or less ) signicant gures ,

nd the signicant part of the num be r in the column headed n ;

the square roo t wi ll be found in the column headed \ ln o r
W according to whether the part to the left of the
,

d ecimal point contains one gure or two gures Thus .

,

and V = The d ecimal

point is located in all cases by reference to the ori ginal
num ber after pointing o ff i nto periods .

The re wi ll be as m a n y g u re s i n the root p reced i n g the d eci m a l

p oi n t a s ther e a r e per i od s precedi n g the d eci m a l poi n t i n the
gi ven n u mb er ; i f the n u mb e r i s en ti rely d ec i m a l the ro ot i s
e n ti rely d eci m a l a n d the re wi ll be a s m a n y ci pher s ollowi n g the f
,

d eci m a l p oi n t i n the r oot a s the re a r e ci phe r per i o d s ollow i n g f

the d e ci m a l p oi n t i n the gi ven n u mbe r .

Appl ying this rul e W c = 46 9 04 and # 000442

,

The operation whe n the given number h a s more tha n

three si g nicant gures is best explained by an example
EXA PL M E (a ) V3 1 4 1 6 =
.

V m = ?
L
b
() 23
S O UT I O N (a ) S ince the rst period contains onl y one
. .

gur e the r e is no need of movi n g the decimal point Look

, .

in the column headed n 2 and nd two consecutive numbers ,

o n e a little g r eater and the other a little less than the given

number ; in the p r esent case and ,

The rst three gures of the root are therefore 1 77 Find the .

d i ff erence between the two number s between which the

given number falls and the diff erence be t ween the smaller
,
 M A THE MA TIC S 27

number and the given num ber ; divide the second d i ff erence
by the rst di ff erenc e carrying the quoti ent to t hr ee d ecimal
,

places and increasing the second gure by 1 if the third

i s 5 or a greater digit The two gures of the quo tient
.

thus det erm ined wi ll be the four th and fth gures of the
roo t In the present example dropping d ecimal poin ts
. , ,

in the remainders , the rst d i ff erence ;

the second d i ff erence ;
or 2 5
. .H ence \ f3 ,

b
() V2 3 4 2 9 = ? P ointed o ff into periods the number
.
,

appears as and by moving the d ecimal point the ,

number appears as the rst thr ee gures of the root

are 48 4 ; the rst d i ff erence is th e
second di ff erence is 03 5 + .

or 04 H en ce
C u b e R oot
. .
,

The cu be root o f a number i s fo und in the

.

same manner a s the square root except the given number i s ,

pointed o ff into periods of thre e gures each The followi n g .

numbers woul d be pointed o ff thus :

6 7 29 6 428 , . 00000002 1 7 ,

H avi ng pointed o ff m ove the d ecim al point so that i t will

,

fall between the rst and second periods of the sign icant
part o f the number a s in squa r e root In the above
, .

numbers the d ecimal point will be placed thus :

and
If the g iven num ber h as but th r m (or les s ) signicant
gures nd the signicant part of the number in the
,

column h ead ed n ; the cube roo t will be fo u nd in the column

-

head ed i li i f i fe or QI OOn according to whether o n e

, , , ,

two o r three gures preced e the d ecimal point after it h as

,

been moved Thus the cube root o f

. will be found oppo
,

site in column head ed while the cube roo t o f

will be found in the colu m n head ed i n and the cube root
o f 2 1 7 in the column head ed 2 m
,

all on the same line , .

If the gi ven n u mber contains more than t h n ee signicant

g ures proceed exactly a s d esc ri bed fo r square root but us e
, ,

the column h ead ed n 3

E m m a (a ) { 000006 2 4 1 7 = i (b) f 5 09 32 6 76 = l
.
28 MA THE M A TIC S
SO L UT I O N .

( )
a P oin t ed periods t he num ber
o ff i n to ,

appears a s and by m oving the d ecimal

point the num ber appears a s The number fall s
betw een and the rst di ff er
ence i s 1 02 1 3 ; the second di ff erence i s 6 2 29 5 0
= l 2 20; or 1 2 the fourth and fth .
,

gures o f the root The d eci m al . i s located by the rul e

previously given ; hence 2 000006 2 4 1 7 01 8 4 1 2 , . .

b
() V 0
5 9 3 2 6 6
7 = ? As the n u mber contains m ore t han
s i x signicant g ur es red uce i t to s ix signica nt gures by
,

replacing all afte r th e sixth gure wi th ciphers increasing ,

the sixth g ure by 1 when the seventh i s 5 o r a grea t er

d igi t In other words the rst ve gures o f 25 09 32 700 and
.
,

o f 25 0 9 32 6 76 are the same P oint ed o ff into periods the

.
,

num ber appears a s and by m oving the d ecimal

po int the number appears a s
, w hi ch fall s be t ween
and the rst diff erence
i s 4 1 1 8 ; the second diff erence i s 2 79 7 ;
or .68 The integral part of t_
.
h e roo t evidently contains

three gures ; hence co rrec t to ve

gures

.

Sq u a re s a n d C u bes I f the given num ber contains but

three (or less ) signicant g ures the square or cube i s found ,

in the colu m n head ed n 2 or n 3 opposite the given num ber in ,

the column headed n If th e gi ven num ber contains more

.

than thr ee signicant gures proceed in a manner similar to ,

that described for extracting roo ts To s quare a num ber .

,

place the decimal point betw een the rst and second s i g n i
cant gur es and nd in the column head ed V; or W two
consecutive num bers o n e o f w hi ch shall be a little great er
,

and the o ther a li ttle less than the gi ven num ber The .

rem ainder of the work i s exactly a s heretofore descri bed To .

locate the d e cimal point emplo y the principle that the squa r e
,

o f any numbe r contai n s ei ther twice a s m any gures a s the

n umber sq ua red o r tw ice a s many less o n e I f the column

.

hea d ed Vl ( nT i s used the square will contain tw ice a s many

,

g ures while if the colum n head ed I; i s used the square will

, ,

contain twi ce a s m any gures a s the number squared l ess ,

on e . If the num ber contains an integral part the princi ple ,

 MA THE MA TIC S 29

is appli ed to the integral part onl y ; if the num ber i s wholl y

decimal there will be twice a s many ci phers following the
,

d ecimal in the square or twice as man y plus o n e a s in the

number squa r ed d epending o n whether W or \ hi column

,

i s us e d. For example will contain ve gures

,

in the int egral part ; will contain eight g ur es in the

integral part all after the fth being denoted by ci phers ;
,

002 9 45 32 2 will have ve ci phers following the decimal point ;

05 2 436 2 will have two cip hers following the d ecimal point
EXA PLM E (G)
.

L (b)
S O UT I O N (a ) P lacing the d eci m al point between the rst
.

and second signi cant gures the resul t i s , thi s

number occurs between V7 4 7 and VT E .

in the column head ed V5 The rst di er en c e i s

'

the second diff erence i s

1 07 ; and or 58 H ence . .
,

correct to ve signicant gures .

(b) S hi fti ng the d eci m al point to between the rst and .

second signicant gu res the num ber , i s obtained .

Thi s falls be tween V2 I 4 and V2 7 5 The

rst di ff erence i s 9 5 4 ; the second diff erence is 9 1 0; 9 1 0 2
.

95 4 -

or 95 H ence
. .
, to ve sig
n i c a n t gures .

A nu m ber i s cubed in ex actl y the same m anner using the

W or w
,

col um n head ed l OOn according to whether

, ,

the rst pe riod of the signi cant part o f the num ber contains
o n e two o r t h ree gures res pe t i v e ly
, , , If the number co n .

tains an integral part the num ber o f gur es in the integral

,

part o f the cube wi ll be three times a s many as in th e given

num ber if column head ed {0 700 71 i s used ; it will be three

tim es a s many less 1 if the column head ed VII)? i s used ;
and it will be th ree times a s m a ny less 2 if the col um n
head et i s used If the given num ber i s wholly deci mal
.
,

the cube will have ei ther th r w tim es three ti m es plus ,

o n e or thr ee times plus tw o as m any ciphers following the

, ,

d ecimal a s there are ciphers followi n g the d eci m al po int in

the given number
EXA PLM E (a )
.

3= 0 3=

L
.
()b 7 6 4 4 2 ()
c 3 242 5 . .

S O UT I O N .
(a ) P laci n g the d ecimal point between t h e
-
30 MA TH E MA TIC S
rst and second signicant gures the nu m ber is
WE and WE The
,

found between .

rst diff erence i s 1 9 8 ; the s econd di ff erence i s 2 0; and 2 0 1 9 8

. 1 01 or 1 0 H ence the rst ve signicant gures are
. .
,

2 1 8 1 0; the num ber of gures in the integral part o f the cube

i s 3 X3 and correct to ve sig
n i c a n t gures .

(b) occurs between 7 6 4032 = 6 and.

. 7 The rst di ff erence is 5 7 1 ; the second di ff erence

i s 3 8 8 ; and or 68 H ence the rst ve . .
,

signicant g ures are 4 46 6 8 ; the number o f ciphers following

the decimal point is 3 X and 76 442 3 = 448 66 co r rect to
. .
,

ve signicant gures .

(c) 3 2 4 2 5 falls between i 21 1 and

The rst di ff eren ce is 3 1 7 ; the second di ff erence
i s 289 ; or 9 1 H ence the rst ve sig
. .
,

n i c a n t gures are 3 4 0 9 1 ; the number o f ciphers following

the d ecimal point is 3 X and 032 42 5 3 = 00003 409 1 . .
,

correct to ve signicant gures

R eciprocals The r eci p roc a l of a number i s 1 divid ed by
.

the number By using reciprocals division i s changed into

.
,

1
mul tiplication since , The table gives the
reci procal s o f all numbers expressed b y thre e signicant
gures correct to s i x signicant gures B y proceeding in a .

manner similar to that j ust d escribed for powers and roots ,

the reci procal of any number correct to ve signicant

gures may be obtained The d ecimal point in the resul t
.

may be located as follows : If the given number has an

integral part the number of ciphers following the decimal
,

point in the reci procal will be one less than the number of
gures in the integral part of the given number ; and if the
given number is entirely d ecimal the number of gures in ,

the in tegral part o f the reci procal will be one grea ter than
the number of ciphers f ollo u i n g the d ecimal point in the
given number For example the recipro cal o f 33 70 00029
.
,
.

6 7 3 6 and of 35 6 . .

When t h e number whose reci pr ocal is d esired contains

more than three signicant gures express the nu m ber to ,
 E
P OW R S , R OO TS , A N D R EC I P R OC A L S '

31

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32 P O WERS , ROO TS A ND REC I PR
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34 PO WERS , R OO TS , A ND R EC I PR O C A L S

1 5 8430 1 35 902 39840

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 PO WERS ROO T S , A ND REC I PROC A LS 35

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36 P OWERS , ROO T S , A ND RE C I PROC A LS

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 ROO T S . AN D REC I PROC A L S 37

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38 P O WER S , ROO T S , AN D REC I PROC A L S

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 PO WERS R OO TS A N D
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44 P O WERS ROO S , T , AN D REC I PR OCA L S
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 P O WERS R OO TS
, , AN D REC I P R O S
CA L 45

1
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46 PO WERS , ROO T S , A ND REC I P R O C A LS

H
3 n 2 71 3 W; 9 1 077 . 77: 91 073 @1 007} 0

0
1 1 75 0
t

9 od
r . 9
0
9 o a . 1 1 7371
0 t
9 o w 2 9 2062
. . 1 1 72 33
0 rt
9 c s . 1 1 70 96
0
9 aa e . 1 1 695 9
0
1 1 68 2 2

n
9 .

9
9 . 1 1 6686
1 1 65 5 0
0
9 6 31 6 2 9
. .

0
9 0
: 2 04801
. . 1 1 6 41 4
0
9 8 2 0
. 488 0 . 1 1 62 79
0 :
9 d 2 . 9 342 8 . 1 1 61 44
0
9 35 9 8 1 1 6009
a
0b 2 . .

0
9 2 . 9 376 9 . 1 1 5 8 75
0 :
9 a 2 . 9 39 39 . 1 1 5 741
9 . 1 1 5 607
0
9 8 . 1 1 5 473
0
0
4
- 65 1 7 1 4 . 1 1 5 3 40
m
.

0
0 2 05 5 1 3
. . 1 1 5 207
0
0 o 1 1 5 075
t
.

1 1 1 49 43
0
0 a
0 ::
01 2 05 75 0
. . 1 1 48 1 1
0 1-
03 w 2 05 8 2 8
. . 1 1 46 79
0 o
0 3 4c 2 05 907 . 1 1 45 48
-
.

0
9 4 e 2 05 9 86
. . 1 1 441 7
n
0
9 4o 2 0
. 606 4 . 1 1 42 86
0 z : 1 1 41 5 5
0L a .

0
0 -
-
I a
. 1 1 402 5
0
0i
f o
c 2 06 2 99 . 1 1 389 5
0
9 ao . 1 1 3766
0
9 wc . 1 1 36 36

wo
o5
0
. 1 1 35 07
0w 1 1 3379
n 0

g .

wn
a 2
0
1
. 1 1 32 5 0
mg . 1 1 31 2 2
mm
'

1 1 2 994
3
1
2 .

n
o ' g . 1 1 2 86 7
m 5
0 I
. 1 1 2 740
mg . 1 1 2 61 3
o
c g . 1 1 2 486
n
u g . 1 1 2 360
o
a ' . 1 1 2 233
o
ol
o
9 62 6 2 0 . 1 1 2 1 08
o
p m . 1 1 1 98 2
o
p
e 1 1 1 85 7
H
.

o
g . 1 1 1 732
0
9 wo
o
. 1 1 1 607
0
9
c-

l
. 1 1 1 48 3
0 on
9 e . 1 1 1 35 9
0
0 w
w . 1 1 1 2 35
9
3 oO . 111111
 PO W ERS , ROO TS , AN D REC I PR O S
CA L 47

1
3 ,1 ? n3 V17 9 1 0n 077
10 1 1.

3 . 1 10 988
8 . 1 1 0865
8 . 1 1 0742
3 . 1 10 6 20
8 . 1 10 49 7
0
2 8 . 1 1 0375
0
5 3 . 1 1 025 4
6 8
3 . 1 1 01 32
9 8 . 1 10 01 1
0
2 8 . 10 9 890

9 : 2 0885 2
. . 109 770
9 37 2 08 929
. . 1096 49
4 35 . 109 5 29
9 2 . 109 40 9
9 5 . 109 290
9
3 3 . 10 9 1 70
03
2 . 10 905 1
0
9 5 . 1 089 33
0
2 8 . 10 88 1 4
9
3 8 . 10 8696
o
s . 10 85 78
b
s . 10 8460
o
s . 10 8 342
o
s . 1 08225
w . 1 08 1 08

03
2 . 1 0799 1
0
9
3
2 . 1 078 75
0
9 8 . 1 07 75 9
9 8 . 1 076 43
9
3 8 . 1 075 2 7

. 1 0741 1
. 1 072 96
. 1 07 1 8 1
. 1 070 66
. 10 695 2
9
3
?
3 . 10683 8
9 3 . 106 724
0 38
3 . 1066 1 0
08
2 . 106496
9
2 5 . 106383

. 106 2 70
. 10615 7

. 10 5 932
. 1 05 82 0
9 10 5 708
;
2 3 .

9 3
2 . 10 5 5 97
03
2 . 10 5 48 5
6 $
3 . 10 5 3 74
. 1 05 2 63
48 P O WERS R OO TS
, , AN D RECI PROC A LS

72.

P . 10 5 153
N . 10 5 042
W . 1 0493 2
B

J
. 1 048 2 2

O . 10 471 2

8 . 1 04603
2 . 1 0449 3
8 . 1 04384
8 . 10 4 2 75
8 . 10 41 67
8
8 . 10 39 5 0
8 . 1 038 42
8 . 1 03734
8
8 . 10 35 2 0
8 . 1 034 1 3
8 . 10 3 30 6
O8 . 1 03 1 99
N
3

. 10 298 7
. 1 02 88 1
. 1 02 775
. 10 2 669
. 1 025 64

. 1 02 45 9
. 10 2 35 4
. 1 0225 0
. 1 021 45
. 1 020 41

. 1 01 93 7
. 1 01 833
. 1 01 72 9
. 1 01 62 6
8 . 1 015 2 3

8 . 1 01 42 0
3
9 . 1 01 31 7
8 . 1 01 2 1 5
8 . 1 01 1 1 2
8 . 1 01 01 0

. 100807
. 100705

8
3 . 100301
8 3 1 5 91 1 . 100200
8 . 1001 00
8
50 M A TH E M A TI C S

C I R C LE

p : 1r d = 3 1 4 1 6d
.

p 2M
p = 2 V1r A VA
2A 4A

d= . 3 1 8 3p

d ==2 1 2 8 4 VA

"
_2 1 5 9 2
2

= 5 6 42. V71

A . 7 8 5 4d 2
4
A= 1 rr 2 = 3 1 4 1 67 2
pr 12 d
A
2 4

TRI AN G L S E
D = B+ C
B = D C
E = E B '= B
The above l etters re fe r to ang les .

For a ri g ht tri ang l e 6 be i ng the hypotenuse

,

c = le n g t h s i de oppos i te
of

an acute ang le o f an
obl i que ang led tri angle
-

Va 2 + b2
.

c = 255
h V8 3 2 7
c = 1e n g t h of s i d e oppos i te an obtuse
ang le o f an obl i que an g led-

tri angle .

c = Va 2 + b2 + 2 be
h = \ la z e2
For a tri angle i nscri bed i n a sem i c i rcle ;
i e any ri ght tri angle
. .
, ,
 MA TH E MA TIC S 5 1

c z b zz a z h

czb
h = __ ce

0 a

a zb+e =e za = h zc
b h 2:
: h :
e
Fo r any tri ang l e ,

R E CTAN GLE AN D PA R LLEL GR

A O AM
A ab

TR AP EO Z ID
A 4h (0 b)

TR A Z U M PE I
D i v i d e i nto two tr i angl es and a t r apez o i d .

A bh

+ h ) + ch ;
or , A a (h + h )]

O r d i v i d e i nto two tri angl es by d r aw

,

i ng a d i agonal Cons i d er the d i ag onal

.

a s the base of bo th tri angles call i ts ,

length I ; call the alt i tud es o f the tri angles h, an d 1 2 ; th e n

A 90 1 1 1 2 )

ELL PSE I

*
p =w
r

A
E D d = 7S s 4D d .

S ECTOR
A 417
'

A
1rr 2 E
008 7 2 7 r 2 E
I len th of arc
36 0
.

i ll i d tly i ih
g

l i
ly t
i ii i
'
T b e p e r me t e r o f a n e p s e c a n n o t b e e xa c t m n ed w t
l l l ou
e er
y e ab o r ate c a c u at o n a n d t h i s f o r m u a i s me r e a p p r o xi m a
ly l l
a ve r . an
. t o n g v n g fa r c os e re s u ts .
52 M A TH E MA TIC S
S EGM EN T
lr
A = }[ c (r h )]
a
-

m eE

c
A
3 60

01 7 5 7 E

d )
A=
E (D 2 2

C H ORD
c l ength o f chord
4122 e2

8h 2h

Se
approx i mately
c
l=

3
2
,

H E LI X
Tc cons truct a hel ix :
l = len g th o f hel i x ;
n number of turns ;
t==p i tch .

I
\ l1 r 2 a 2 + 72

C
C YL ER IND
1 rdh

5 2 1r r h 2 17 7 2
17
1r dh + d2
2
 M A THE MA TIC S 53

FR U S TR UM OF C Y LIN D ER
h s um o f greatest and l east he ights
C ph 1r dh

5 u
1 dh + 7 92 area of ell i pt i cal to p

Z
V = Ah = d h 2

C ON E

C 4m] !
S = 1 rr l + 1 r r 2 = a Z
+ h 2
+ 1 rr 2
1r d2 h
V= X
T 3

FRU S TU M OF C ON E
C = M P + p)
gap + d )

5 = + d)

Xih

. 2 6 1 8 h (D 2
+ D d + )
d2

SP H E R E
S 1rd2 = 4rrr 2 =
. 5 2 3 6d 3 = 4 1 888 r 3
.

C IR C U L AR R I N G
D m ean d i ame t er ;
R m ean rad i us .

S 4 1r 3R r 9 8 69 6 D d
.

V 2 1e 2 4 67 4D d 2
.

WED G E
V
P R I S M OI D

A pri smo i d i s a sol i d havi ng tw o parall el plane ends the ,

edges of wh i ch are conn e ct ed by pla ne tri angu lar o r quadri

lateral surfaces .
54 M A TH E M A TI C S
A = area of one end ;
c = area o f other end ;

m = area of section m idway between ends ;

l = p erpend icular distance b e tw een e n d s .

The area m i s not
the two ends but its
,
ing lengths o f the ends
V = % l(A + u + 4 m )
in general a m ean betw een the areas of
sides are m eans between the correspond
.

A
Approxi m ately , V

R E G UL AR PYR AM ID
P peri m eter of base ;
A area o f base .

c :
m
S = P Z+ A
Ah
V 3
To obtain area o f base divid e it into tri angles and n d
, ,

their s u m .

The form ula for V applies to any pyr a m id whose base is

A and altitu d e h .

F RUSTUM OF R E UL AR
G P YR AMI D

a area= upper base ;

of

1 A = area o f lo w er base ;

I =
p p e r i m e t e r o f upper base ;
P = pe r i m e t e r o f lower bas e .

V = h (A + a + #71 5 )
The form ula for V appli es to the frust u m o f any ra
py m id .

L E N GTH OF S P IR A L
D +d = of coils ;
n u m b er
l 7m
( )
n
_
2 = length of spiral ;

t = pi tch .
 M A THE MA TIC S 5 5

P R IS M OR P AR ALL LO P IP E ED
C ph
5 ph 2A
V Ah
For pris m s with regul ar polygon a s
bases 17 = length of o n e side X nu m ber of sid es
,
.

To obtain area of base if it is a polygon divide it into tri

, ,

angles a n d n d s u m o f partial areas

,
.

FR U S TU M OF P RIS M
If a section perpendicular to the edges i s a t ri
angle sq uare parallelogra m o r regula r polygon
, , , ,

V
nu m ber of edg es
R EGU LAR P O LYGON S
D ivide the polygon into equal triangles and the s u m of n d
the partial areas O therwise square the length o f o n e side
. ,

and m ul tiply by pro per nu m ber fro m the following table :

N a me N o S id es M ulti pli er .

Triangle 3 433 . .

S quare 4
P entagon 5 .

H exagon 6
H eptagon 7
O ctagon 8 .

N onagon 9
D ecagon 10

IRR EG U L AR AR E AS
D ivid e the area i nto
trapezoids triangles parts , ,

o f ci r cles etc and n d the s u m o f the part ial areas

i
.
, .
,

I f the g ure i s very irregular the approx m ate

area ma y be found a s fo llows : D i d e the g ure
,

vi
into t r apezoids by equi distant parallel lines b c d , , ,

etc The lengths of these lines being m easured

.
,

then calling a the rst and n the last l ength and

, ,

y the

+b+
2
56 L OA DS IN S TR UC T U R E S

LO A D S I N S RU C U RES T T
The load s that a structur e h a s to carr y ma y be d i id ed v
into v e classes nam el y the dead load the live loa d the
, , ,

accidental load the snow load and the wind load

,

i
.
,

The d ea d loa d i s the weight o f the m ateri als o f wh ch the

st ructure is co m posed as the weight of the bea m s colu m ns
, , ,

walls oors and the like

,

i
.
,

The li ve loa d i s the weight of the vario us articles n the

b uilding t hat are not part of the struct u re its elf such a s
i
furniture m ater al stored f the bui lding i s a storehouse
, , i ,

the occupants of the building light m achinery etc , , .

The a c ci d e n ta l loa d i s o n e whose application i s d oubtful

or whose m ag n i tud e i s great and i t s eff ect local As exa m .

ples of s uc h loads m a y b e class ed the load that would be

g enerat ed if the ropes o f an elevator broke and the safet y
v
de i ce w as sudden l y brought nto action and the load t hat i
i
would b e c r ea t a l o n a stairwa y n a m ill if there w a s a pan i c
,

a m ong the e m ployes a s dur ng a r e As an accidental

, i .

load m a y al so be classed such loads a s wo uld be caused by

an especially heavy o f ce safe o r piece o f m achi nery M an y .

engin e ers no long er consider an accid ental load T he load .

that wo ul d co m e fro m an extra larg e crowd as on a stai r

i i
-
,

wa y n a r e they class a s part of the l ve load S uch load s

, .

a s woul d occur fr o m a large safe they us uall y cl ass as part

o f the dead load becaus e the safe would be to o hea y to be

,
,

v
m oved T herefore onl y that part o f the structur e in the
v
.
,

ici n i t y o f the safe need be strengthen ed .

The s n ow and wi n d loa d s are as the na m es i m ply loa d s t hat

v
are cause d res pecti el y b y snow and wind
,

.
,

D EA D
LOA S D
E
W IGHT OF R OOF TR U SSES
Th edead load m us t be calculat ed for each m em ber o f a
struct ure by m eans o f tabl es that give the w eights of build
ing m aterials s uch as thos e o n pa g es 5 9 6 1
, H owe er it . v ,
58 LOA D S IWI S TR UC T U R E S

8 c m u ~ m mm w o m n m o w ~ h m w w m m
m Q wo m m h o mw mmo mw mm o o g
:
m
3 m d mm m m m m v w m m m m w v w m m w c
c
o

w 8
n 3
5
m

a
o

:
y
o 8
5
o m
w a
0 3
0 3
m a
m 5
D B %
M a
H n
d
m 3
0 3
0 m
% m
m e
G
o S
O
S a
i
a
m

;
M
H
<
S
H
N
O
m
m
m
<
3
2 8
8 %
3 2 L
o
+ u
o
o u
o
c a
.

a u 3
s 0
a 3
S o n
o
g G
o
?
P
A
 L OA D S IN S TR UC T U R ES 59

WEI GH T OF B UI L D IN G M ATER I ALS E

P R CUBI C FOOT
Average W eight

N am e of M aterial
P ounds Pounds
per per
C ubic Inch C ubic Foot

Asphalt
pave m ent co m position 1 30
Bluestone 1 60
Brick best pressed
, . 15 0
Brick co m m on and hard
, . 1 25
B ri ck paving
, 15 0
Brick soft inferior
, , . 1 00
B ri ckwork in li m e m ortar (average )
, 1 20
Br i c k\v o r k in cem en t m ortar (aver
,

age) 1 30
B rickwork pressed bri ck thin j oints
, , 1 40
C e m en t Portland packed
, , 1 00 to 1 2 0
C e m ent natural packed 7 5 to 9 5

v
, , .

C oncrete cind er , . 1 05
C oncrete gra el , . 1 40
1 35
C oncrete , 1 40
C oncrete reinforced (average ) 15 0

E
,

E a r th d r y a n d
, 7 2 to 8 0
arth dry and m oderately ra m m ed
, 9 0 to 1 0 0
15 0
Gra n i t e O O O O O O C O I O O O O O O O . I O O O O O O O O 1 6 5 to 1 70
1 1 7 to 1 2 5
Iron , 2 60 45 0
2 77
1 46 t o 1 68
M arble .
'
1 68
M asonry , squared granite or li m e
stone . 1 65
M aso nry g ranite o r li m es t one rubble
, 150
M asonry grani te or li m estone dry
,

rubble . 1 38
Masonry , 1 45
M ineral wool . 12
Mort ar hard en ed
, 9 0 to 1 00
Quickli m e ground loo se or s m all
, , ,

53
ground thoroughly
r
,

75
S and , pu e quartz dry , . 9 0 to 1 06
60 L OA D S IN S TR U C T U R E S
W EI GHT OF B UI LD IN G M AT ERI ALS E
P R CUB I C FOOT
(C o n ti n ue d )

Average W eight

N am e Of M a te ri al Pounds Pounds
Per P er
C ubic Inch C ubic Foot

S andstone , b uilding dry , . 1 3 9 to 1 5 1

S late . 1 6 0 to 1 8 0
S now ,fresh fallen . 5 to 1 2
S teelstructural
, . . 28 3
Terra cotta . 110
Terra cotta m asonry work
-
. 1 12
1 1 0to 1 2 0

WEI G H T OF B UI L D IN G M ATER I ALS E

P R SQ U AR E FOOT

Average
W eight
N am e of M ater al i P ounds
per
S uare
F oot

No 16
'

No 18.

N o 20
rruga e v i
.

Co t d (Z ak i n ) -
. gal an zed iron g3
N o 26
.

No 27

r i
.

N o 28
.

C or ugated galvanized ron N o 2 0 , .

, average
a m ount of sid e lap unboard ed ,

Co per roo ng 1 6 o z standing sea m

l
-
, .
,

Fe t and pitch without , sheathing .

Glass i in thi ck
H em lock sheathing 1 in thick
. .
,

Lead about in
.
, .

Lath and plaster ceiling (ordinary)

.
,
- -

M a c ki t e 1 in thick with plaster

, .
, .
 L OA D S IN S TR U C T U R ES 61

W EI G H T OF B UI L D IN G M AT ER I ALS E
P R SQ U AR E FOOT
(C o n ti n ue d )

Average
W eight
P ounds
N am e of Mater i al p er
S quare
Foot

N eponset roo ng felt two layers

, .

S pruce sheathi ng 1 in t b i c k
i in
.
,

in .

S late , s i ngle thi cknessthick

thick
3inin .

i .

f in thick .

i in thi ck
S hi n gles co mm on 6 in X 1 8 i n 5 in to w eather
.

S ky l i ght of glass
.
, , , . .

to in including fram e , .
,

7 } in . to w eather
g in .
, 5 } in to .

W hite pine sheathi ng 1 in thick

-
, . .

Y ellow pine sh eathing 1 in thi ck

-
, . .

Gravel roof and four pl y -

Gravel roo f and v e ply -

R oo ng t h r m ply ready (asphalt r u b b er o i d

,
-
, ,

etc ) 6 to 1 0
P urlins wood en with 1 2 to 1 6 f t span
.

, ,
-
. . 2
C hestnut o r m aple sheathi ng 1 in thi ck , . 4
As h hickory or oak sheathing 1 in thick
.

, , , . . . 5
S heet iron in thi ck ,
. 3
Thatc h

L IV E LO A DS
If t he li ve load consists of heavy m ate ri al such m er
i n a warehouse i , as

c ha n d is e and f the a m ount o f t h is m ateri al ,

and i ts loc ation are kno w n the live load i s us ually cal cul ated
fro m the table o f weights o f m ateri als given on pag es 64
,

v
81 .

If howe er t he st ructure is to be us ed as a dwelli ng a hotel

, , , .
 62 LOA D S IN S TR UC T U R ES
or a warehous e for general m erchandise the character o f
which is yet unknown i t is custo m ar y to assu m e the live ,

load to be a certain nu m ber of po unds per square foot o f

oor space and to d esign the structure for thi s load The .

following table gives the load s per square foo t of oor space
often em plo yed :

LI VE LO AD S P R S Q U AR E FOOT E IN B UI L D I N G S

C haracter of Building P ounds

Dw ellings 0
O f c e s g
H otels and apart m ent houses . 78
Theaters . 1 20
C hurches . 1 20
Ballroo m s and drill halls . 1 20
fro m 1 5 0 up
fro m 1 5 0 to 2 5 0

The load o f 7 0 lb wil l probabl y never be realiz ed n

. i
dwellings ; but inas m uch as a cit y house m a y at ti m es be us ed
fo r so m e purpose other than that of a dwelling it i s not ,

generall y advisabl e to us e a light er load In a country

hous e a hotel o r a building o f like character a li e load
, ,
.

, v
o f 40 lb pe r sq ft of oor surface is am pl e for a ll roo m s
iv
. . .

not us ed for public asse m bl y Fo r asse m bl y roo m s a l e .

,

load of 1 00 1b will be su f cient If the d esks and cha irs

i
. .

are xed as n a schoolroo m o r a church a l ive load of

, ,

m ore than fro m 4 0 to 5 0 lb will never be attained R etail . .

stores should have oors proportioned for a liv e load of

1 00 lb and upwards
. W hol esal e s tores m achine shops etc
.
, , .

sho uld have the oors proportioned for a li v e lo a d of not ,

l ess than 1 5 0lb per sq ft The oors of printing hous es and

. . .

binderi es shoul d be proportioned for a live load of at l ea st

2 5 0 lb per sq f t
. S pecial prov i sion should be m ade in such
. .

oor system s f o r heavy presses t ri m m ers and cutters and , , ,

the bea m s sho uld be proportioned for twice the static load
likel y to occur fro m such m achines The static load i n .

factori es seldo m exc e eds fro m 40 to 5 0 lb per sq ft of oor . . .

 L OA D S IN S T R U C T U R ES 63

surface ; therefore i n the m aj orit y o f c as es a li ve load of , ,

1 00 l b i s a m ple
. The conservative rule is in general to .
, ,

assu m e loads not less than thos e j us t given and to propo r ,

tion the bea m s so as to avoi d excessive deection S ti ffness .

is a s i m po rt ant a factor as strength

V
.

ALLOW AB LE LI E LO ADS ON FLO OR S I N D I FFER EN T

C I TI ES

P ounds per S qua re Foot

C haract er of B uilding
Y
N ew
ork C h i cago
Phila
d elph ia Bos t on

B for publi c as
90 100 1 20 15 0
B uildings for ordinary
s tores light m a n uf a c
,

turing and light storage 1 20 100 1 20

Dw ellings a p a r t m e n t
,

houses tenem ent houses , ,

and lodging hous es . 60 40 70 50

Of ce buildings rst floor ,
15 0 1 00 1 00 100
O f ce buildings above ,

75 1 00 1 00 100
P ublic bui lding s , except
schools 150
Roofs pi tch less than 2 0 25 *
.

50 25 30
R oofs pitch m ore tha n 2 0 25 *
,

,

30 25 30
S chools or plac es o f i n
struction . 75 80
S tables or carri age houses
less than 5 00 s q ft in . .

75 40
S tables or ca rriage hous es
m ore tha n 5 00 sq ft
v
. .

75 1 00
S tores for hea y m aterials ,

warehouses and fac ,

15 0 150 25 0
300

d d
N OT B t l
I n t h e a b e t h e v a u e s g v e n f o r o o ts a r e f o r s n o w a n d
l l
l i
d d r
it h
d l d d l dl
f
.

w n i lo a s I n t h e a s c o u m n . t h e r oo lo a s m a r k e w t t h e a s te
ri l
.

sk d o n ot n c ud e th e w n i
; t h e b u d n g la w s o f Bo s to n i i i
r th t r l r r
oa
i a a p o pe r a l o w a n c e f o r t h e w n i i
l h ll
e qu r e e xe r t n g a p e s s u e
rf r f
oa
o f 30 lb p e r s q f t o f ve r t c a
. su ace s
. a . i
b e m a d e i n d e s g n n g oo s i i
64 L OA D S IN S TR U C T U R ES
In proportioning the live loads on oors the eng ineer ,

cannot al w ays exercise hi s o w n j udg m ent for if the buil ding ,

is to b e erect ed in a larg e cit y the live load m ust co m pl y ,

with the bui lding laws As such laws are not unifo rm in the
.

several cities the t able on page 63 is given t o show the sti p

v
ula t e d l i e load s i
n t he four larg es t cit ies in the U nit ed
S tates .

WEI GHTS OF M ER C H AN D I SE, I N B U LK F OR , C ALCU

LATI N G LI VE LOADS
M easure Ap ro xi m a t e
m ents eights
,
L. H
a e

32
,

N am e of M aterial e
e s s p
a

:t
r c
r
d
A t n

t
s

i
a e e u n 3 O
e b d
u e o u
a
e
r u
F n
a F s

t o
ql n C T u
oS '
Po (I) 0
o 0
Fo Co
l

C otto n , e tc
B e al of c o m m ercial cotton 0
1 04 4 2 O 5 1 5 64 12

:
0

i
. .

B ale o f co m pressed cotton

. $ 1 02 1 60 5 5 0
. . 1 34 25
Ba o f Am er can C otton
g
) A 00 1 1 00 2 6 3 . 66 24
P lanters C o m press
.

B
o
a e of
e
t 30 7 . . 20 25 4 1 10 35
Ba l e of j ute e 40 9
t . . 90 3 00 1 25 30
B al e of j ute lashi ngs e 60 1 0
f 50 45 0 1 72 43
w20 1 0
. .

Bale of m anila . . . 90 88 26
Bal e of
o
o 7 03 4 70 7 00 81 20
m30 1 7
. .

Bal e of sisal 00 75 24
C o tto n Good s :
. .

Bale of unbleached j eans . a 00 1 2 5 0 3 00 75 24

w1 0 2
. .

Piece of duck 30 7 5 68 33
w6 0 1 0
. .

Bal e of brown sheetings 1 0 23 5 65 23

m8 0 1 1
. . .

C ase o f bleached shee tings . . 40 3 3 0 69 29

C ase o f quilts . n 20 1 9. . 00 2 9 5 41 16
Bale o f pri nt 010 n 0 0 9 . . 30 1 7 5 44 19
C ase o f prints a 5 01 3 40 42 0 93 31
w30 8
. .

Ba le of . . 8 0 32 5 99 37
I3u r la 1 30 30
pgg i
s
I ute 1 a n g H 40 1 00 71 19
Gr a i n :
. .
.

W heat h
t . 20 1 65 39 39
Flour in barrels on side .
l
. 10 218 53 40
66 L OA D S I N S TR UC T U R ES
W EI G H T OF M ER C H AN D I SE, IN B U LK, FOR CAL
C U LATIN G LI VE OA S (C o n ti n ue d ) L D
M easure Ap r oxi m a te
m ents e i ghts
r
,

H
a
,

s e e
N am e of Material e
r
e
r n c l
d
s
p e
r
p
c
A
t t Ft to o
a

t t
i
a e s i
e
b e n s a
u e e u d u d b
r
o q F n u
oC T
n q
uS Fo n u
uC Fo
oS P
C
F o
P Po
M i s cella n e o u s :
e
i q m 1 39 5 1 2 78
C rate o f crockery o
g o a 1 , 6 00 1 6 2
C asket of crockery wa m 6 00 45 14
B ale of leather q w b 1 90 26 16
Bale of goat skins . ww h 3 00 27 18
Ba le o f raw hi d es o 4 00
b
. e b 67 13
B ale o f raw hid es , co m
:
d o o 7 00 1 1 7 23
B ale of sole leather e
t a m 16 22
m
.

Barrel of granulated sugar o o

b 3 1 7 1 06 42
B arrel of brow n sugar m b a 33 9 1 1 3 45
H ogshea d of bleaching
.

powder Hwm b l 2 00 1 02 31
-o m
,

H ogshead of soda ash

.

b 1 67 62
mb
h

Box of indigo b 38 5 1 28 43
w
.

Box o f s u m ac H b 1 6 0 1 00 39
mw
-
m
.

C austic soda in iron d ru m 1 40 88

wb m
.

Barrel of starch 25 0 83 24
wb m
.

B arrel of pearl alu m 35 0 1 1 7 33

Box of extract logwood ww m 5 7 5 2 71
Barrel of li m e . wa m 225 63 50
100
B arrel of Portland ce m ent . m 3 76
1 20
75
Barrel of natural ce m ent 282 to
95
80
Barrel of slag ce m ent 3 30 to

ce m ent
E
Barrel o f nglish Portland 0
0
O
O
I
J
l

U 1 05
1 00

73
-
C

Barrel of plaster

0
K D
32 5 88 5 3
I

. 0 C I

Barrel 3
0 O D
C O 43 0 1 43 48
B arrel o f lard o i l $ O
C N
O
O 42 2 98 34
Books in library . 30
1 34
to
 L OA D S IN S TR U C T UR ES 67

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 L OA D S IN S TR U C TU R ES 69

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70 LOA D S IN S TR UC T U R ES

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 LOA D S I N STR UC TURES 75

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m m m mn m 2 m m m m m v o o mmmm0 n mn v v v mv m .

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 LOA D S I N S TR UC T U R E S
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78 L OA D S IN S TR U C T U R E S

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 LOA D S IN S TR UC T U R E S 79

WEI GHT O F P HI LIP P IEW N OO D S , DR Y

:
Average Average
ht
823i F33
7
N ame of Tree N ame of Tree
P ounds Po unds

37 Li u s i n
A mug ui s 35
Api t o ng 41 Ma c a a s m
Aranga . .
'5 4 M a la s o n to l
B alacat 33
i
.

Ba la c b a c a n 34 M ayap s 25
53 M olave 49
33 Narra 36
Bat i t i nan . 49 Palo M ari a 39
Bet i s . 49 37
Calantas 27 S a s a li t 5 5
Dungon 49 45
G ui jo
.

. 30
47
Lauan . 52

WE I G H T OF AU STR ALI AN W OO DS , DRY

Average
N am e of Tree
P oun ds
Acac i a d e albata (s i lver wattle )
Acac i a d ec urrens (c o m m o n wattle )
Acac i a
Acac i a melanoxylon (blackwoo d ; l ightw oo d ) .

Acac i a moll i ss i ma (s ilver wattle )

Acac i a pyc n ant h a (g o ld en wattle )
Acaci a sali c i na
A raucari a cunn i ngh am ii (pi ne ) .

Aster a r g o ph y llu s (m usk tree ) .

Banks i a i nt eg ri fol i a (co ast honeysuckle tree )

marg i nata (c o m m o n honeysuc kl e tree )
.

Banks i a .

Banks i a serrata (heath honeys uckle tree )

Call i tri s verrucosa (d essert sandarac pi ne , or

li
w oo
il i
N O T E - O u a c co u n
ds, t s ta h e g ve s ih i b i
ota n c a
t
o f t h e u n s e tt e d
bl l
n ame s . w t

p o s s b e , i n p a r e n t e s s a lt e r t h e b o t a n c a n a m e
l
i li h
l
n o me n c a t u r e o f A u s t r a
c o m m o n n am e s . s o f a r
.
an
as
 80 LOA D S IN S TR U C T U R ES
W E I G H T O F A U ST R LI A AN W OOD S ,
Y
DR (C on ti n ued )

Average
N ame of Tree We ight pe r
Cub i c Foo t
P o un d s

C as ta n as p e r m u m australe (black bean )

Casuarin a t o r ulu s a (fores t oak )
Casuari na qu a d r a v alv i s (droop i ng s h e o a k ) .

Cedrela austral i s (c e dar) .

Ceratope talum apetalum (coachwood )

D acryd i um cupress i num (ri mu )
D i s s ili a r i a b a lo g h i o i d es (teak )

E
D ysoxylon muelleri (red bean )
uc al ypt u s amygd ali na regnans (mountai n as h
or p p e r m i n t tree )
E u e y p t us botryo i d es (b l ue g u m G i pps land
.

EE
,

m ahogany o r bastard mahogany)

, .

ucal yptus corymbosa (bloodwood )

uc alyptus c o r yn o c a lyx i gar gu m )
EE
ucal yptus d i v er s i co lo r g rr i )

EE
.

ucal yp tus globulus (blue gum ) .

ucal yptus g o m ph o c e p h a la (tuart ) .

ucaly ptus g o m o c al yx (basta r d b o x spotted

EE
,

gum )
u c alyp tus h a ew a s to w a (spott ed g u m )
ucalypt u s h e m i p hlo i a (canary w ood W hi te b o x
.

EE ucal
, ,

ucalyptus la r gi o re n slaty s (
yptus l eucoxylon iron bark ( r ed o w en n g,

EEucal
,

or black i ron bark ) .

yptus lon fol i a tree

w o llyb u t t )
ucalyptus maculata E
gi

EE ucalyptus s otted gum

m argi nata arrah
8
p
)
) .

EE ucalucal yptus
m e lli o d o r a
yptus m i crocorys ta low wood
e llo w
l
b o x) .

)
E ucaly tus ppiilular
.

ucalyptus obl i qua m ssmate stri ngy bark

( e , ) .

p i s lackbutt
(b , or i n two o d ) .

E u c al p t u s peri ta blackbutt( h i te stri ng W

EE ucucalalyptus
,

bar
res i ni fera (m a h o g a r )
yptus robusta swamp m g
EE ucucalyyptus
p tus rostrata red
(
( tree gu m
o ga n
)
y)

EEucal
.

al sali g a ray gum

n (g )
yptus
s i d e ro p h lo i ai ron bark ( ) .

ucal yptus s i eberi a n a i ron bark ( , g u m to p

istr ngy bark mountai n ashes
, )
82 L O A D S I N S TR U C T U R E S

det ermi ned that the pres s ur e per sq uare foot o n a vert i cal
s urface i s approxi matel y repres ented b y the form ul a
p = 0
.04 9 2 V2
,

i n whi ch p i s the pres s ure i n pound s per sq uare foot o f ver

, ,

t i ca l surface and V i s the veloc it y of w i nd i n m il es per hour

, , .

Careful records ext end i ng over a peri o d of years show

, ,

that the veloc i t y o f the w i nd seldom atta i ns 1 00m i per h r . .

probabl y not more than once i n the l i fet i me o f a structure .

The follow i n g table w as c al c ulated b y m ea ns of the pre

ced i ng formula Though the table i nd i cates that for 1 00 m i
. .

an hr . the pressure per squa re foot i s nearl y 5 0 1h modern .

,

pract i ce often a ll ows on l y 40 lb per s q ft for l arge s ur faces

. . . .

VELO CI TY AN D FOR C E O F WI N D I N P OUN D S P R E

S Q U AR E FO OT, ON A VE ,

R T I C AL SU R FAC E

Force
m
Mil es Feet
Feet P o d s
Wi n d en
S tren g th of per
g
gour M i nute S econd S quare
el
pe r

Foo t

H ard l y percept i ble . 88 . 005

1 76 . 02 0
J u st percept i bl e 2 64 . 04 4
35 2 07 9
G ent l e breeze
.

4 40 . 1 23
880 . 49 2
Pleasant breeze
B ri sk gale 1 , 760

H urri cane or cyclone .

Curved and at s urfaces not i n a vert i cal plane are sub

je c t e d to less pressure than at vert i cal s urfac es The pres .
 LOA D S I N S TR U C T U R ES 83

sure o n a c yl i ndri c al s urface i s about one half the pressur e -

o n a at s urface ha v i n g the same

W i dth as the d i ame ter of the c yl

i nder and the same he ight .

If p,
'
F i g 1 repres ents the
.
,

d i rect i on and streng th o f the

w i nd pres sure aga i nst the roof a bc ,

i t i s the normal com ponent p that

m ust be ascerta i ned i n order to
calcul ate the tot al pres s ure nor
Fm 1
mal to the roo f or to determ i ne

the stresses i n the mem bers o f a roof fram e or tru ss The .

other com ponent i s act i ng upward s and i n a d i rect i on

parall el w i th the slope The latter force is n o t taken i nto
.

cons i derat i on The w i nd wh i ch i s us uall y suppos ed to

'

.
,

exert a h ori zontal pressure of 40 1b stri kes the roof at an .

,

an g le ; conseq uentl y the press ure p norm al to the slo pe i s

, , ,

l es s tha n 40 lb .

The full d i scus s i on o f the relat i on between p and p is

'

somewhat more complex tha n the one g i ven here however , .

W hat h a s bee n sai d sho ws i n a general way w hy p is more

nearl y eq ual to p when a roof i s s t m p tha n when a roo f is

at I n the d es i gn o f roof trus ses a hori zo nta l w i nd pres

.
,

sure o f 4 0 l b i s us uall y assumed

. .

N OR M AL W IN D P R ESS UR E FR OM H OR I Z ON TAL PR ES
SUR E OF 40 LB P R SQ FT . E . .

H ori zo ntal Pi tch W i nd Pressure

335 385
Ri se per 1 1 ,

N orm al to S lo pe
Foot 81 1
P ro {t i on
~

H ori zontal
0 Ri se P ounds r
I nches t0 S pan S quare oo t

4 18 26

21 48
6 26
3 4
'
8 33 41
12 45
0
'
16 5 3 8

18 5 6 19

24 63 2 6

 84 LO A D S IN S TR UC T U R ES
neces sary data f o r calc u lati n g the w i nd pres s ure o n a
All
r oof w i th any o n e of the c us tomary p i tches and a hori zon

t al w i nd pres sure of 4 0 l b per s q ft are g i en i n the

. . . v
table o n page 8 3 .

The d i agram shown i n F ig 2 faci l i tat es the nd in g of the

.

norm al press ure p for the us ual slopes and for hori z o nt al
w i nd press ures o f 2 0 3 0 and 40 l b per s q ft
, , . . .

n
o
z
i
r
o
H
.
h t
H
u
w
r
o
c
/5
e
e
t

e
l
g
n
A

Wi n d P rm urc /
N or m a l to S lop e 0/8 00 i n P ou n d :Per Squ a r e Eh
FI G 2 .

The values o f the normal press ur e for a g i ven s 10p e and a

hori zont al w i nd pressure o f 2 0 3 0 or 40 1 h ma y be fo un d , , .

as follows : Assume that the n orm a l press ures o n a roof hav

i ng an angle w i th the hori zont al of 40 i s to be d eterm i ned

.

Proceed alon g the horiz o n tal li ne m arked 40 unt i l i t i nter

sec ts the c urve marked 2 0 1b whi ch repres ents a hori zont a l

.
,

w i nd pressure of 2 0 lb The po i nt o f i ntersect i on ind i cat es

v
.

the norm al pres s ure p the alue o f whi ch i s found by draw

,

i n g an i m a g i nary vert i cal l i ne to the base l i ne whi ch i s ,

mar k ed 03 i n po un ds o f pres s ure per sq ua r e foot It is .

86 L OA D S IN S TR U C T U R E S
The econom y obtai ned by th i s d i spos i t i on o f the li e l oad is v
observed from the follow i ng ta ble w hi ch g i ves the d i s ,

t r i b u t i on o f the assum ed l i ve loads o n the col umns i n the

several t i ers of an ei ghteen story ofce bui ld i n g -
.

R E D U CTI ON OF V
LI E LOAD S FR OM FLOOR TO FLO OR

2a Ea ]
Floors 01 . 9 00 2a 2 al
2a

R oo f 20 2 0 00
.

18 60 80 8 0 00
m
.

17 60 1 40 1 3 4 00
16 60 48 60 . 1 8 2 60
. h
15 60 2 60 2 2 6 34
. 12 o .

14 60 39 3 7 32 0 2 65 7 1 17 o
m
.

13 60 35 43 3 80 3 01 1 4 20
w
.

12 60 4 40 333 03 24
m
.

11 60 3 0 00 3 6 3 03 27
m
. .

10 60 5 60 3 9 3 03 29
m
. .

9 60 62 0 4 2 3 03
. 31 .

8 60 68 0 4 5 3 03
. 33 . a
7 60 3 O 00 7 40 4 8 3 03
. 34 . q
6 60 5 1 3 03
. 35 . o
5 60 8 60 5 4 3 03
. 36 . o
60 920 5 7 3 03 37

q
4 . .

3 60 980 6 03 03
. 38 .

2 60 3 0 00 1 040
, 633 03. 39 .

1 60 1 1 00 663 03. 39 .

The follow i ng may serve to explai n the d ata g i ven i n the

table : (1 repres ents the l i ve load on each oor i n pou n ds ,

per squa re foot ; a l the l i ve load o n each oor i n pounds ,

per square foot red uced by , as d 1 = 9 0 a ; 2 a the sum . ,

of all l i ve loads i n pounds per square foot o n a column

, ,

from all oors above i f n o red uct i on i s m ade ; and

, the
sum o f all l i ve loads i n pounds per sq ua re foot o n a column
, ,

from all oors above i f 1 0% reduct i on i s made

v
.
,

The theoret i cal percentag e of sa i ng res ult i ng from the

o
reduct i on of 1 0% o n the upper oors i s found by the for
20 2 01
are g i ven i n
-

m ula These percent a ges of sa v mg

2 a

the last col um n of the table .

 M E C HA N I C S 87

It sho ul d be un derstood that each column o f a b ui l d i ng

supports a g i ven oo r area and tha t the load com i ng o n each
,

col u mn w i l l depend o n the extent o f thi s area m ul t i pl i ed by

the l i ve load i n po unds per square foot of oor
, ach . E
column carr i es n o t alone th i s l oad but also the loads trans ,

m i t t e d d i rectl y from column to column Thus the column .

,

support i n g the fteenth oor suppo r t s also fo ur other

columns above w i th al l the i r l oads .

W hi le th i s s ystem of grad uat i ng the l i ve l oads o n the

col um ns from oor to oor i s generall y pract i ced the amount ,

of reduct i on at each oor i s a matter that depends o n the

j udgment o f the des i gner The percentage of reduct i on i s
.

oft en x ed b y c i t y b ui ld i n g laws w i th whi ch the des i gner ,

mus t compl y .

ME C H A N I C S

FOR C ES
Two force s may be compared whe n the three fol low i ng
facts about each forc e are kn own : 1 ) The po i nt of appl i ca
t i on or po i nt at wh i ch the force acts ; (2 ) the d i rec t i on of
,

the fo r ce or l i ne along wh i ch i t acts ; and (3 ) the magn i tude

of the force when compared w i th a g i ven standard .

I n engi neer i ng wor k i n A mer i ca the un i t of force i s always ,

taken as the pou n d

Repre se n ta ti on o f a Forc e A force may be repre sente d
.

by a l ine Thus i n F i g 1 let A be the poi n t of appli c a ti on

. , . ,

o f the forc e ,le t the l ength of the l i ne A B .

A 8
represent i ts m a g n i tu de and li n e of a c ti on
to any conven i ent s elected s cale a s for FI G 1 , ,
.

i nstance 1 i n equals 1 0 1h and let the arrowhead

, . .
,

i nd i cate the d i r ecti on i n wh i ch the force acts Then the .

l i ne A B full s the th r ee requ i red cond i t i o n s i n regard to

po i nt o f appl i cat i on di re c t i on and i ntens i ty an d the forc e i s
, , ,

fully rep r e sented .

88 M EC H A N I C S

CO MP OSI TI ON OF FO R C ES
If evera l forc es act on a body and if they ar e rep l aced by
s ,

a s i ngle force that h a s the same e ff ect i n mov i ng the body

through space a s the sever a l forces comb in ed the s i ngle force ,

i s called the r es u lta n t o f th e several forc es ; and c onversely , ,

the severa l forces are called the compon en ts o f the s i ngle

force The process o f n d i ng the resultant when the var i ous
.

components are known i s c alled the c ompos i ti on of for c es .

Parallelo gram of For c e s W hen .

-

two forc es act o n a body at the

1 same t i me and at the same po i nt ,

but at d iff erent angles the ir nal ,

e ff ect may be obta i ned a s follow s :

I n F i g 2 l et A be the com .
,

mon po i n t of a pp li c a ti o n o f the
two f o r c e s and let A B and ,

FI G 2
A C represent the m a g n i tu de and
di r ecti on of the forces Le t for i nstance the line AB r e p r e
. , ,

s e n t the d i stance that the force A B wo u ld cause the body to

move i n a certai n length of t i me ; s i m i larly le t A C repre s ent ,

the d i stance that the force A C wou ld cause the body to move
i n the same length of t im e when both forces ar e ac t ing ,

separate ly A fundamental l aw of mechan i cs states that the

.

m ot i on i s proport i onal to the force appl i ed and ther efore , , ,

wh i le A B and A C represent the mag n i tude of the forces to

some scale they are also proport i onal to the d i stances these
,

forces would move the same body i n the same length of t im e .

The force AB act i ng alone wo ul d c ar ry the body to B I f

, , .

the force A C were now to act o n the body i t wo uld carry i t ,

along the l i ne BD parallel to A C to a po i nt D at a d i stan c e

, , ,

from B equa l to A C J o i n C and D then C D i s p a rallel to

.
,

A B and A BD C i s a paral lelogra m Draw the d i agonal A D . .

The body w i ll stop at D whether the forces act separately ,

or together but i f they act together the path o f the body

, ,

w ill be along A D the d i agonal of the parallelogram More

, .

over the length o f the l i ne A D represents the m agn i tude o f

,

a force wh i ch act i ng at A i n the d i rect i on A D would cause

, , ,

the body to move from A to D ; i n other words A D measu red , ,

to the same scale a s A B and A C represents the magn i tude ,

90 M EC H A N I C S
E X A M PL E Fln d the resultant of all the forces ac t i ng o n
.
-

the po i nt 0 F i g 4 the length of the l i ne s be i ng proport i onal

, . ,

to the magn i tude of the forces .

S O L U T I ON D r a W OE para llel and equal to A O and E F

.
-

parallel a n d equal to BO ; then OF i s the resultant of these

two forces and i ts d i rect i on i s from O to F Cons i der OF as
, .

replac i ng OE and E F and draw FG parallel and equal to ,

C O ; 06 w i ll be the resultant of OF and F G but OF i s the

resultant of OE and E F ; hence 00 i s the resultant of O E E F , , ,

a n d FC ,
and l i kew i se of A O B0 and C O The l i ne FG , , .
.

parallel to C O could not be drawn from the po i nt 0 to the

,

r i ght of OE for i n that case i t would be Opposed i n d irect i on

,

to OF ; but FG m ust have the s ame d irect i on as OF .

FI G . 4
For the same reason draw C L parallel and equal to D O ,
.

J o i n O and L and D L w i ll be the resultant of all the forces

,

A O BO C O and D O (both i n magn i tude and d i rect i on )

, , ,

act i ng at the po i nt 0 I f L O i s drawn parallel and equal to

.

0L and hav i ng the same d i rect i on i t w i ll repre sent the e e c t
, ,

produced o n the body by the comb i ned ac t i on of the forces

A O BO C O and D O
, ,
For brev i ty the term s forces A O
, .
, ,

B O e tc and resultants OF 00 and OL have been used i n

, . , ,

th i s solut i on I t should be remembered however t h a t t h e s e

.
, , ,

a r e merely l i nes that repre sent the forces i n magn i tude and

d i rect i on .
 M EC H A N I C S 91

In F i g 4 the forces O E E F e t c al l po i nt i n the same

, , , . ,

d irect i on ; that i s a body at O acted o n by these forces i n

,

suc cess i on wo ul d move from O to L The r esultant therefore .

ac ts from O to L and not from L to O Th i s l in e of reason

, .

i ng wi ll gi ve the d i rect i on of the resultant i n a force d i agram .

I n F i g 4 the forces were taken i n the order A O BO C 0 and

.
, , , ,

D O H owever the magn i tude and d irect i on o f the resultant

.
,

OL wo ul d be the same no matte r i n what order the force s ,

were taken .

R ES O LU TI O N O F FO R C ES
S i nce two forces can be co mbi ned to form a s i ngle res ultant
force a s i ngle force ma y al so be t reat ed a s i f i t were the
,

res ultant o f t wo fo r c es whos e j o i nt act i on o n a bo d y w i ll be

the sam e a s that of a s i ngle force Thus i n F i g 5 the force .
, . ,

OA ma y be reso l ved i nto two forces OB and B A '

, .

I t w i l l be o bs e r ved t hat o n e res ul ta nt forc e m a y have an

I
i nnum erable num be r o f co mbi nat i ons of compo nents .

ns tead of O B and B A
,

F i g 5 OB o r B A o r OB
.

,

and B A ma y be tak en as
"

c o mponents

v
I t i s c us .

to m a r y howe er to make 5
'
, ,

OB and B A pe r p en d i c u
'

lar t o each other as ,

shown i n the i ll ust r a

t i on .
F IG 5 .

F r equent l y the pos i t i on, magn i tude and d i rec t i on of a

, ,

certa i n force are kno wn and i t i s d es i red to know the effect ,

o f the fo r c e i n some d i recti on o ther than that i n w hi ch i t

acts Thus i n F i g 6 suppose . , .

,

that OA r e p r e s e n t s to some ,

s cal e the magni tude d i rect i on , , ,

2 and li ne o f act i on o f a force

i acti ng o n a bod y at A and ,

that i t i s des i r ed to kn ow what

e ff ect OA p r o d u c e s i n the
FI G 6
d i rect i on BA Fro m A draw a
.

li ne AB i n the requi red d i rect i on ; fro m O d r aw a l i ne per

p en d i c ula r t o A B Then BA i s the co m ponent requ i red
. .
92 M EC H A N I C S
It is neces sary of co urse tha t OB be at ri ght angles to B A
, , ,

so that a ll the effect o f D A i n the req ui red d i rec t i on may be

repres ented by B A and none of i t by OB Thus OB and
.
,

B A altho ugh co m po nents o f OA and altho ug h one of them

, ,

i s i n the requi red d i rect i on wo uld not be a correct soluti on

,

o f the p r o blem bec ause bes i d es B A OA exerts some more

,

,

e ff ect i n the li ne BA na mel y a pa rt of O B i s i n that d i rc o

, ,

t i on wi th a n a mo unt
E X A M P L E If a bod y wei ghi ng 2 00 l b rests o n an i n c l i n ed
. .

pl ane whose angle of i ncl i nat i on to t h e ho r i zontal is

wha t force does i t exert perpend i c ular t o the plane and what ,

force d oes i t exert paral l el to the plane tend i n g to sl i de i t ,

downwards ?
S O L U T I O N Le t ABC F i g 7 be the plane the ang l e A ,

v
.
.
,

be i n g and let W be the wei ght D raw a ert i c al li ne .

FI G 7 . FI G 8 .

FD = 2 00 1h to r epres ent the mag n i tude o f the we i ght

,

E
. .

Thro ug h F draw FE pa rall el to A B and thro ugh D draw D ,

perpend i c ul ar to E F the two l i nes i nte r s ec t i ng at E FD i s

, .

n o w r esolved i nto two components o n e FE tend i n g to p ull

the we i ght down the i ncl i ne and the o ther D act i ng a s a

,
,

E
perpend i c ul ar pressure o n the pl ane On mea su r i n g FE .

w i th the same scale by wh i ch the wei ght FD w as l a i d o ff ,

i t i s found to be about lh and the perpend i cular pres

E ,
.

su r e D on the plane i s found to meas ur e lb .

As i t i s often nec essary t o resolve a force i nto two c o m

po n e n t s at rig ht angles to each other a s i mple method o f ,

solut i on i s employed I n F ig 8 let OA be the force i t i s

v
. .
,

d es i r ed to resol e i nto two components at ri ght a n gles to

94 M EC H A N I C S

product o f the magni tud e of the force and the length of the
lever arm Th i s product i s called the mo me n t o f the force
.

w i th res pect to the po i n t i n questi on Thus i n F i g 1 the .

, .
,

moment o f the force W w i th respect to the po i nt a i s the

product obta i ned by mult i ply i ng the magn i tude lh , .
,

by the perpend i c ular d i stance 1 0f t from the po i nt a to the , .

,

li ne of act i on of W .

The po i nt a F i g 1 that i s assumed a s the center around

, .
,

wh i ch there i s a tendency to rotate i s call ed the ce n ter or , ,

o r i gi n , o f mo me n ts .

The perpend i cular d i stance from the center o f moments

to th e l i ne along wh i ch the force acts i s the lever a r m o f the ,

force or the lever a ge o f the force

, .

Si nce the un i t o f force i s the pound and the ord i nary un i t

of length i s the foot the un i t of mo m
,

ent w i ll be a deri ved

,

uni t the foo t pou n d (abbrevi ated to ft

,
-
and moments .

w i ll usuall y be express ed i n foot pounds I n F i g 1 for -

. .
,

exampl e the moment o f the force W w i th respect to the

,

po i nt a i s 1 0000X

, f t 1b .
-
.

The moment o f a force may be expressed i n i n c h po u n d s -

(i n foot pou n d s or foo t ton s (ft

-
depend i ng on the
,
-
.

un i t of measurement used to d es i gnate the magn i tud e of the

force and the len gth o f i ts lever arm For i nstance i f the .
,

magni tude o f a force i s m easured i n pounds and the le v er ,

arm through w hi ch i t acts i n i nch es the moment w i ll be i n ,

i nch pounds ; aga i n i f a forc e of 1 0 T acts t h rough a lever

-
, .

arm of 2 0 f t the moment o f the force i s 1 0X 2 0= 2 00 f t T

v
-

Pos i ti e a n d N egative M o m e n ts I n order to d i sti ngu i sh

. .
.
,

between the d i recti ons i n whi ch there i s a tend ency to

produce rotat i on the s i gns and ,
may be us ed Thus .

i f a force t ends to prod uce ri ght hand rotat i on that i s rota -

, ,

t i on i n the same d i rect i on a s the hands of a clock i t i s called ,

pos i ti ve and i ts moment takes the s i gn

,
a force tha t tends
to produce rotat i on i n the oppos i te d i rect i on i s called n e g
a ti ve and i ts moment tak e s the s i gn
, The selecti on o f
o n e d i rect i on for pos i t i ve and another for neg at i ve i s m erel y

an arbi trary d i sti nct i on to show that the d i recti ons are
oppos i te I t has however been adopt ed by eng i neers and
. , , ,

should always be used a s g i ven .

 M EC HA N I C S 95

R es ul ta n t M ome n ts
I a F i g 2 i s shown a l ever com
. .

pos ed o f two arms at ri ght angl es to each other and f r ee to .

tu r n abo ut t he cen t er C A forc e A a c ts on the hori zontal

.

arm i n s u ch a manner that i t tends to produce l eft ha nd -

rotat i on i ts moment be i n g
, f t lb w h i ch s i nce .
-
.
, ,

i t tends to pr od uc e l eft hand rotat i on wi ll be c all ed negat i ve

-
, .

A no ther force B whose moment w i th res pect to the c enter C

,

i s 1 2 X 3 = 3 6 f t lb t en d s to p ro du ce r ight ha n d rotat i on
.
-
.
,
-
.

8 1 12

FI G 2
.

-
14 f t -lb
. .
, w hi c h is th e r es ulta n t

mome n t and h as the s ame turn i n g c ec t

, as the two m oments

I
al read y g i ven .

f i ns tead o f the two fo rc es j ust c on s i de re d there i s a b od y

, ,

t hat i s acted on b y an y number o f forc es whos e momen ts

about a g i ven c enter a re kn own the r esultan t mo ment o f ,

thes e for c es will be the alg ebra i c s u m of the mom ents o f the
g i ven forces .

The cen ter of gr a vi ty o f a bod y or o f a s ys te m o f bodi es , ,

o r for ces i s that po i nt at whi ch the bod y or sys t em ma y

,

be bala n c ed or i t i s the po i nt at whi ch t h e whole we i ght

,
96 M EC H A N I C S

of the bod y o r bo d i es may be cons i dered a s concentrat ed .

I f the bod y o r syst em were s uspended from any o ther po i nt

v
than the center of gra i ty and i n such a manner a s to b e
,

free to tur n a bout the po i nt o f suspens i on i t woul d rotate ,

unt il the cen ter of grav i ty reached a pos i t i on d i rectly under

the po i nt o f suspens i on
v
Cen ter o f Gra i ty o f Pla n e Fi gur e s I f the plane gu re
.

h a s on e ax i s o f symmetry th i s ax i s passes through i ts center

,

o f grav i ty. I f the fi gure has two a xes o f sym metry i ts center ,

o f grav i ty i s at the i r po i n t of i ntersect i on .

The center o f grav i ty o f a tr i a n g le l i es on a li ne drawn from

a vertex to the m i ddle po i nt o f the oppos i te s i de and at a ,

d i stance from that s i de equal to on e th i rd the length o f the -

li ne ; or i t i s at the i nters ect i on of l i nes drawn from the ver

texes to the m i ddle of the Oppos i te s i des The perpend i cul ar
'

d i stance o f the center o f gravi ty of a tri angle from the ba s e

i s equal to on e th i rd the alt i tude
-
.

The center of grav i ty o f a p a r a lle logr a m i s at the i nter

sect i on o f i t s two d i agonals ; consequent l y i t i s m i dway ,

between i ts si des .

The center of grav i ty o f a n i r r egu la r fou r s i de d gu r e may -

be found a s follows : F i rst d i vi de i t by a d i agona l i nto two

, ,

tri angles and j oi n the c enters o f g rav i ty o f the tri angles by a

stra i ght l i ne ; then by means o f ,

the other d i agonal d i v i de the g ,

ure i nto two other tr i angles and ,

j oi n the i r centers o f g ravi ty by

another strai ght l i ne ; the center
o f grav i ty o f the gu re i s at the

i ntersect i on of the l i nes j o i n i ng

the centers of grav i ty of the tw o
sets o f tri an g les . .

Another method by wh i ch to
locate the center of g ravi ty o f an
irregular four s i ded gure i s i llus -

FI G 3
tr a t e d i n Fi g 3 Draw the d i ag

. .

o n a ls a c and bd and from the i r i ntersect i on e measure the

, ,

d i stance to any vertex as ae From the oppos i te vertex

, . ,

l ay off th i s d i stance as at of Then from f draw a l i ne to

, . ,
98 M EC H A N I CS
Bu i lt U p S e c ti on F i g 4 shows a s e c t i on of the rafte r
-
. .

member o f a large roof truss formed of a 1 6 web plate

-

and a % X 1 2 ange plate the two j o i ned by two 4 X 4 X

,

angles I t i s des ired to know the d i stance from the neutra l

.

ax i s of the sect i on to the top edge of the ange plate By .

means o f the pr i nc i ples g i ven the centers of g rav i ty o f the two

,

rectangular plates are eas i ly located as shown The c enters .

o f grav i ty o f the angles m i ght also be located by apply i ng the

rul e g i ven i n the preced i ng paragraph ; th i s however i s , ,

u nneces sary because the pos i t i on o f the c enter o f grav i ty

a
r

l
d
i
L

FI G 4 .

can be obta i ned d ire c tly by referr i ng to the tables of t h e

propert i es of rolled sect i ons furn i shed by the var i ous stee l
manufacturers By referr i ng to any of these tables the
center o f gra i ty of a v .

angle i s found to be
,

i n from the back o f a ange thus g i v i ng the d i stance

.
,

or about i n from the top edge of the ange

.

plate to the ax i s through the centers of grav i ty o f the angles .

From the same tables i t i s also found that the area o f the
se ct i on of a angle i s sq i n . .

The area of the sect i on of the ange plate i s X 1 2 = 4 5 .

sq i n and of the web plate i X

. .
,
-
sq i n ; the area of the
, . .

whole sect i on i s therefore 2 X 3 7 5 s q in . .

 M EC H A N I C S 99

The m oment s o f the areas o f the s ep a rate s e c t i on s wi th ,

r e sp ec t t o th e l i ne a b are as follows : ,

Flange plate 4 5 X 8 4 , . .

TW O angles 2 X 3 7 5 X 1 %4= 1 , .

W e b plate -
6 X8 = 5 5,

To ta l 6 9 ,

The d i stance c from the t o p edge of the ang e plate to the

neutr a l axi s de o f the sect i on i s therefore in .

F OR C ES A C TI NG ON BEA M S
STYLES OF B EAM S
A beam that h a s two po i nts of support on e at e ac h en d , ,

as shown i n F i g 1 i s known as a s i m ple be a m

.
, Th e d i sta n ce .

be tween the po i nts of s u p

por t i s ca lle d the s p a n .

A beam that h a s m or e
than t wo s u p p o r t s a s FI G J ,

shown i n F i g 2 i s known ,

a s a c on t i n uou s be a m The .

poi nt o f suppor t o f the

m i ddle support i s c o n
s i d e r e d to be at i t s cen
ter as at 0 Co nt in uous
, .

beams ex ce pt i n re i n
,

forced c on cre te work have

-
,

not t o u n (1 m uch favor

am ong engi neer s i n the FI G 3 .

last few years .

A c an t i lever be a m i s
one w i th only one s u p
port w h i ch i s a t the
,

m i ddle or any p a rt o f
FI G 4
,

a be am that projects

out beyond i ts support A common form of cant ilever i s .

shown i n F i g 3 Thi s beam proj e c ts from a wall or s ome

. .

other sol i d stru c ture and h a s n o su pport at i t s ou ter end .

1 00 M EC H A N I C S

When a beam i s r ig i d l y he l d or xed at both ends , , , as

shown i n F ig 4 i t i s c alled a r es tr a i n ed
. ,
bea m , or ,
more c om

m o n ly a beam xed a t both e n d s

, .

LO AD S ON B EAM S
The forces due to the we i ghts that a beam supports are
kn own a s loa ds I f the whole load i s appl i ed at o n e po i nt
.
,

or pr a c t i cally o n e po i nt i t i s called a c on ce n tr a te d loa d ; i f i t

,

extends over a port i on of the beam i t i s called a di s tr i buted ,

lo a d ; an d i f i t i s equally d i str i bute d over the beam s o that ,

e ach un i t o f length has the same load i t i s c a ll ed a un i for m ,

loa d .

There are c ertai n methods b y wh i ch such l oads may be

represente d graph i c ally These methods m ay best be i llus.

t r a t e d by referri ng to F i g 5 wh ic h shows a s im ple be am

. , .

S tart i n g at the left the ,

po int of the a r r o w
shown at R I i s the
po i nt of support The .

FI G 5 .
arrow a represents a
c on c entrate d load A t bb i s shown a un i for ml y d i stri buted

.

l oad o f a c ertai n num ber of pounds per foot o f beam that

, ,

ex tends from b to b At c d and f are shown other con e en

.
, ,

t r a te d loads s i m i lar to the o n e at a From e t o e i s a d i s tr i b

.

u te d load represented by the shaded tri angle un der c c that

, ,

starts from noth i ng at e and i ncreases to a g i ven n umber o f

pounds per f oot of b eam at e
A t gg i s a d i stri buted load.

,

start i ng from noth i ng a t g and i ncreas i ng to a m ax i mum

at g and then de creas i ng to noth i ng at g

,
A t R 2 i s shown
.

the r i ght hand support

-
.

R E ACTI ON S

A beam w i th any l oads i t may c ar ry i s held up by the

supports ; that i s the beam presse s on i ts supports at the ends
, .

The supports res i st th i s pre ssu re and prevent the beam from
falli ng Th i s upward forc e exerted b y e ac h support i s
.

kn own as the r e acti on .

Ther e ar e tw o fac ts susc ept i ble to proof i n regard to a

b e am : (1 ) The res ultant of a ll the forces ac t i n g on a body
1 02 M EC H A N I C S

d i recti on ; the s um o f thei r momen ts i n foot po unds w i th ,

-
,

res pect to the as sumed center ma y be co mput ed a s follows :

,

8 000X 5 =
, 0000
4
6 000X 1 9 =
, 1 1 4 000
2 000X 2 7 =
, 5 4 000

Tota l 2 08 000
v
,

Th i s i s the to ta l negat i e momen t abo u t the po i n t b The .

pos i ti ve moment about th i s po i nt i s of co urs e R 1 X 30 .

S i nce the res ul tant moment i s zero the pos i t i ve moment ,

m us t eq ual the negat i ve momen t or R , or ,

l b The s u m of a ll the loads i s

.

lb Thi s i s also the s um of .

the rea ct i ons Therefore R 2 = 1 6 000

.
, 1b , .

I n thi s problem the wei ght of the beam i tself h as be e n

,

neglected .

EX AM P L E 1 W ha t i s the rea c t i on at R 2 i n F i g 7
-

S O L U T I O N Ln computi n g the moment due to a u n iform

. .

.
,

o r evenl y d i stri buted load a s at a , t he l ever arm i s a lways

, ,

cons i dered a s the d i stan c e fro m the cent er o f moments t o

r o f Gr a v i t y

L O l of r J 0

3 0

FI G 7 .

v
the c en ter o f gra i ty of the load The amo un t o f the u n i .

form load a i s 3 000X , 1b and t he d i stance of i ts .

,

center o f grav i t y from R I i s 1 3 ft Therefore the momen ts .

,

of the l o a d s o n th is beam about R I i n foo t poun ds are as ,

-
,

follow s :
30000X 1 3 = 3 9 0000
,

4 000X 4 =
, 000
1 6
9 000X 2 0=
,
l 8 00 00

To ta l , 5 8 6 000
 M EC HA N I C S 1 03

This i s the s um of the moments o f a ll the load s ab o u t R 1

as a cent er . v
The le erage of the rea ct i on R 2 i s 30ft H ence .
.

the react i on at R 2 i s 1b .

run n i n gft .

3 0f t .

FI G 8

.

E X A M P L E 2 A bea m is l oad ed as shown i n F i g 8 Co m

. . .

pute the rea c t i ons R I and R 2 .

S O L U T I O N - Con si der sa y R 2 a s the cent e r of m oments

. , , .

Then the negat i ve moment s o f the l oad s abo u t R 2 i n foot

, ,

po un d s , ,
a re

2 0, 000X 2 7 = 5 4 0000
2 , 000X 1 2 = 2 4 000
8 = 2 4 000

Tot al , 5 8 8 000
N ow the pos i t i ve moment s
, of the load s a b o u t R2, in foot
pounds are ,

1 000X 6 X 3 = 1 8 000
,

5 000X 6
,
= 3 0000

Tot al 4 8 000
The res ul tant mo ment of the load s abo u t
,

R 2 is n egati v e

and Is f t lb .
v
.
; + 30
1h whi ch i s the value o f R I
.
, .

The s u m o f the l oads i s

2 0000
2 000
3 000
6X 6 0O 0
5 O 00

3 6 000
R2 lb .
1 04 M EC H A N I C S

V
SH E AR
ER TI CAL

In any bea m a s for i nstance t he o n e shown i n F ig 9 there
,

are forces ei ther loads or rea cti on s a c t i ng both upwards

.
,

and downward s I n thi s g ure the l eft han d reacti on R 1

.
,
-

FI G 9 .

ac ts upwards and t end s to pus h the end o f t he b ea m up .

On accoun t o f the stren gth of the bea m however the end , ,

rem ai n s stati on ar y I f the bea m were suddenl y c u t o n the

.

li ne ab the l eft hand port i on of the beam wo ul d move up

,
-

i n relat i on to the rig ht hand po rt i on Thi s acti on of t he

-
.

forces on a beam i n tend i ng to ma ke the s urfaces at an y

i mag i na ry secti on s li de pas t ea ch o ther from i ts s i m il ar i t y ,

to a sheari n g act i on i s call ed s he a r

,

Cons i der n ow the bea m shown i n F ig 1 0 S i nce the l oads . .

a re symmetri ca ll y appl i ed each rea c t i on i s equa l to 40l b o r

, .

o n e ha lf the to ta l l o a d o n the bea m

-
Cons i deri ng therefore
.
,

5 a
g c 6

FI G 1 0.

any transverse sect i on o f the beam between R I and the po i nt

o f appl i cat i on o f the load n i t is evi dent t hat the part of the
,

beam at the left of th i s transverse sect i on i s subj ected to an

upwar d thrust o f 40 1 b whi le the part at the ri g ht i s sub
.
,

je c t e d to an equal down ward thru st The res ul t i s a shear

.
1 06 AI E C H A N I C S

c an read i l y be seen that i n a cant i lever beam the con

v
It
d i t i on s are somewhat revers ed ; t hat i s i n a beam ha i ng ,

o n e support at the m i ddle the shear i n the pa rt to the left

,

o f the sect i on taken to the l eft of the support i s negat i ve

,

whi le i f the sect i on i s taken to the r i ght of the support i t i s ,

pos i t i ve Li ke i n a s i mple beam however there i s

.
, ,

i ntermed i at e po i nt where the shear changes S i gn .

:
o

O

I.

8 s c
g g
l of t
Q
1 0 .

FI G 1 1 .

E X A M P L E At what po i nt i n the beam l oaded as shown

i n F ig 1 1 does the shea r change s i gn ?
S O LUT I O N x
.

Compute the react i on R I as fol lows : Wi th

the center of moments at R 2 the moments of the loads i n , ,

foot po unds are

-
,

10 9 0000
= 1 04 00 0
l 7 = o 1 0 O 00

Total , 7 04 000

The reacti o n at R , i s therefore lb .

Proceed i ng from R 1 the rst load that occur s i s c o f

, lb .

Then ,
l b The next load that .

occ urs o n the beam i s the uni fo r m load o f lb per .

runn i ng ft There be i ng altogethe r

. lb i n t h i s load .
,

i t i s evi d ent that the load w ill more than co unteract the
rema i n i ng amount of the react i on R 1 ; the po i nt where the
change o f s i gn occurs m ust consequentl y be somewhere i n
t ha t part of the beam co vered by the uni form load The .

load be i ng lb per runn in g f t i f the rema i n in g part

. .
,
 M EC H A N I CS 1 07

of the react i on 1h i s d i v i ded by the

, .
, 1b the .
,

res ul t w i ll b e the n um ber of feet o f the u n i form l oad requ i red

to co unteract the r emai n i n g part o f the rea ct i on and th i s ,

w ill gi ve the d is tance o f the sect i on beyond w hi ch the result

ant o i the forces at the left becomes negati e fr om the edge
,

v ,

of the un i form l o a d at a ; thus ft , .

The d i stan c e from R I to the edge o f the un i form lo a d i s 8 ft .

The ent i re d i stance to the sect i on o f change o f s i gn o f the

shear i s th e refo re
,
ft fro m R I
, . .

Sh ear Di a gr a m I t i s som et i m es necessary to plot the

.

shear o f the forces act i n g o n a beam i n a d i agram kn own a s

the s hea r di a gr a m I n order to i llustrat e how t hi s may b e
.

FI G 1 2 .

d on e the bea m s h own i n F i g 1 2 (a ) the span o f whi ch i s

.
,

1 2 feet w i l l be cons i dered

, Si n ce the beam i s symm etri c a ll y
.

l oaded each react i on i s eq ual to on e hal f the s um o f the

,
-

400+
l oads ; that is , each react i on is eq ual to
2
= l 000 lb
The shear at R I i s eq ua l to the rea c t i on o r
. ,

lb To plot the di agram procee d a s foll ows : D raw

,

.
,

a l i ne ab to any c onven i ent scal e to re p resent the l en gth o f

1 08 M EC HAN I C S

t h e b ea m Thi s li ne w ill a ls o repres ent the bas e or d a tu m

.

li n e o f t h e s hea ri n g forc es pos i t i e v v

al u es b ei n g l a i d o ff
, ,

v v v ,

a b o e an d n egat i e al u es be l ow the bas e li n e Th e shear

v
at R I b ei n g pos i t i e a n d eq ual to dr aw fro m a
.

v
lh .
,

u pw ar d s a ert i c a l li n e a c equa l to lb ac cord in g to

v
.
,

any c on en i ent s c ale Fro m c draw to the s am e scal e a s ab

.

a ho ri zontal li ne a t e q ual t o 3 ft O rdi n ates drawn fr o m

.

_
I
.

FI G .

po i nt on the li ne ab t o cd w ill b e of eq ua l l en g ths s how

v
an y ,

i ng that the shear reta ins t he a lu e o f l b fr o m the .

react i on R 1 to the rst l oad of 400 l b A t thi s po i nt t h e

.

shear i s reduced by the l oad o f 4 00 1b ; ther efore from d

.
, ,

draw downwa rds a vert i cal l i ne d e o f a l ength co r res po n d i n g

to 4 0 0 1b a s shown i n the d i agram
.
,
.

The shear i s then uni form until the central l oad is r ea c hed ,

and ma y b e r epres en ted by the d i stan c e of th e li ne ci fr om

1 10 M EC H A N I C S

at p The shear at t hi s po i nt j us t to the l eft o f the c o n

5 00
.
,

c e n t r a t ed l oad

v lb
is , .

Thi s al ue l a i d o ff above a b g i ves the po i nt g D raw fg . .

F ro m g la y o ff vert i c al l y downward s 2 00 l b to the po i nt h . .

F rom a o n the l i ne ab lay o ff 1 1 f t a s at q The shear at q

5 00 2 00= 8 5 2 l b Fro m q lay
.
, , , .

v
is .

o ff , ert i call y 8 5 2 l b to i downward s i n thi s cas e bec a us e

, .
,

the shear i s negat i ve J o i n h and i If correct l y drawn

. .
,

h i sho uld be parall el to fg F ro m i draw i i hori zont al and

v
.

e qual to 4 ft ; from 1 draw i h ert i ca ll y downwards equal

'

.
,

I
lb ; from k draw kl hori zonta ll y eq ua l to 6 f t ;
v
to .
, .

from draw lm ert i call y downwa r d s equal t o lh ; , .

and fr o m m draw m n hori zontally equal to 4 ft Then i f , .

,

the d i agram i s corre c tl y const ructed bn should be vert i ca l and ,

equ al to R 2 o r l b Then o ed e
,
m n b i s the shear
.

d i agram and ord i nates drawn fro m any po i nt on ab acros s

,

th e d i agram wi ll when m easured by the proper sc a le in d i

, ,

cate the shear at t hat sec t i on wh i ch is pos i t i ve i f above the ,

li ne ab and negati ve i f below i t .

B EN D IN G M OM EN TS
In order to i llus trate the method
cal c ul a t i ng the ben d of

i n g mo me n t or t h e moment o f a force tha t tends to bend

,

a beam the bea m shown i n F ig 1 4 w i ll be cons i dered At

, . .

the po i nt a i s a j o i nt or hi n ge I t i s ev i dent t hat when loads

, .

FI G 1 4 .

a re appl i ed a s shown by the arrows the beam w ill b end

, ,

at t he joi nt and take the pos i ti on i nd i cated by the dotted

li nes ; or to be more exact w i ll bend st ill farther unti l i t
, ,

falls o ff the support s enti rel y .

The loads and react i ons (and wei ght o f the bea m i tself i f ,

thi s i s cons i dered ) are what cause the beam to bend Con .
 C
M E H AN I C S 111

s i d e ri n the port i on o f the bea m to the l eft of the j oi nt t hi s

g ,

port i on moves cl oc k w i se and the moment t hat moves i t i s ,

therefore posi t i ve The mag n i tude o f the mo m en t tend i ng

.

to move the l eft hand part of the bea m i s R l l Wll s i nce

-
,

the l oad W acts i n the oppos i te d i r ect i on to R I .

I t w ill th u s be seen that no mat ter i n wha t pa r t o f the

beam the j oi nt a i s pla c ed the bea m w ill co ll aps e The r e
v
.
,

fore i t i s e i dent tha t i n an y beam c arryi n g loa ds thes e

, ,

l oad s and the rea ct i ons exert a moment at any t ransvers e

sect i on that te nds to bend the beam I t is on l y on account .

o f i ts o w n st r ength tha t a beam does no t brea k A bea m i s .

therefore d es igned t o w i ths tand t he bend i n g moment o f the

forces act i ng on i t and for t his reas on the e n g i neer must at
,

a ll t i mes be able t o nd t hi s moment W i th a s i mple bea m .

the ben d i n g moment (cons i deri ng a s us u a l the part to the , ,

l eft o f the s ect i on ) i s alwa ys pos i t i ve whi le w i th cant i lever ,

beams i t i s negat i ve .

FI G 1 5
.

As an ill ustrat i on t he ben d i ng moment aro un d vari o us

,

s ect i ons o f the bea m shown i n F ig 1 5 w ill be cons id ered . .

I t i s of co u rse rst ne c essary to n d the react i ons s o that ,

the m oments may be calc ulated To nd R 2 take mo m en ts .

,

about R , The pos i t i ve moments i n foo t poun ds are

.
,
-
,

X3 3 6 00
7 5 6 00
2 , 000X 1 8 = 3 6 000

Total , 1 1 5 2 0O
Th e span is 24ft . Therefore ,
lb .

The s u m o f is the loads + 2 lb .

Therefore R 1 = , lb
The bend i ng moment at any s e ct i on of t he bea m ma y n ow
be fo und For ex am ple nd the ben d ing mom ent aro und
.
,
1 12 M EC H A N I C S

po i nt a d i rect l y under the rs t l oad . The moment here ,

on the left ha nd part o f the beam

-
, is R 1 X 3 5 600X 3
,

f t -lb
. .

Then nd the moment on the l eft ha nd port i on of the bea m -

a round po i nt b H ere the pos i t i ve moment is R 1 X 1 0l or

.
,

f t lb There are however tw o neg

.
-
.
, ,

at i ve moments act in g and thes e mus t be subtracted fro m

,

the pos i t i ve moment i n ord er to get the res ul ta nt moment .

O ne of thes e moments i s t hat due to the concentrated load

of 1b and the other i s that due to the part o f the di s
.
,

tri but ed load to t he left of the po i nt b Th e n egat i ve momen t .

o f the concentrat ed load i s therefo r e 1 2 0 0X f t lb ,

.
-
.

The port i on o f the d istri but ed lo a d cons i dered i s 800X 4

l b I ts moment a rm ma y be con s i dered to extend
.

f r o m t h e po i nt b to the cen ter o f the port i on under c on s i d

e ra t i o n or, 2 = 2 1 ft
I ts mom en t i s therefore
. X2 3 ;
f t lb The res ul tant moment of the l eft hand
.
-
.
-

s ect i on about b i s therefore

f t -1 b
. .

The bend i ng mom en t abo u t 0 i s 5 600X l 8 ,

-
1 , 200X 1 5
(8 00X 9 ) X 7 1} f t lb
.
-
.

The bend i n g mom en t of the forces a c t i n g o n a bea m ,

tendi n g to brea k i t at any se c t i on ma y be c alc ul at ed fr om ,

ei t her en d o f the b eam I t i s cus tom a ry to ca ll the bend i n g

.

mom ent po si t i ve i f i t t en ds to turn the l eft hand part i n the -

di rec t i on of the hand s of a cl ock and n egat i ve i f i t t ends to ,

turn i t i n the Oppos i te di rect i on H owever the moment .

,

ma y b e c a l c ul ated fr o m e i ther en d rememberi ng that i f i t ,

i s ca lc ul at e d f r om the ri ght hand en d the b eu d i n g moment

v
-

acts i n an oppos i t e d i re c t i on and wi ll therefore recei e a s i gn

oppos i t e t o t ha t gi ven the left ha nd e n d of the bea m -
.

As h a s been stat ed the reas on a be am d oe s n o t b r ea k i s

,

be caus e i t s st ren gt h a t any transvers e sect i on i s su f ci ent to

res i st the mom ent o f the forc es about that s ec t i on I t h as .

al so be en shown that t h e ben di n g m oment i s d i ffe r ent at

d i fferent po i nts a long a b ea m I t i s therefore i mportant to .

nd o u t around wha t po i nt the forces acti n g o n a beam

exert thei r max i mum moment and then by the method
a l r ead y gi en v t o nd t h i s m axi m um momen t
,
, ,

.
114 M EC H A N I C S

6 S OX 5 f t lb -
and tha t about the po i nt
from the l eft hand end i s 6 8 0X 1 05 00X 8 8 00X 5
. .
,

1 0 ft .
-

f t lb I t i s thus s een tha t the greater of the

.
-
.

two max i mum bend i ng moments occu rs about the po i nt

5 ft from the left hand end
.
-
.

Bend i n g M om ent D i a gra ms

-
The bend i ng moments that
act at vari ous po i nts o f a loaded beam m
.

ay be r e pr e
sented graphi call y i n the same manner i n wh i ch the shear
i ng forc es were shown For exampl e a bea m 5 0 ft long .
, .

1 0f t . . l 15 f t .

(b )
FI G . 17

supports two concentrated loads of the magni tud es and i n

the pos i t i ons i nd i cat ed i n F i g 1 7 N o w assum i n g t hat . .
,

F i g 1 7 (a ) i s drawn to scale d raw the ho r i zontal l i ne a b and

.
,

p rod uce the l i nes i nd i cat i ng the reac t i ons and concentrated
loads unti l they i ntersect l i ne ab at a c d and b B y c al
the momen t s a bout the left
.
, , ,

c u la t i n g ha nd react i on the ,

moment for the load W1 i s found to be 1 0000X 1 0= ,

f t lb
.
-
and that for W2 6 000X 2 5 = 1 5 0000 f t lb The
.
, , ,
.
-
.

r ea c t i on R 1 is 1 lb .
 M EC H A N I C S 115

The ben d i ng moment at W; i s 1 1 000X f t lb ,

.
-
.
,

and tha t at W2 i s X 2 5 ) (1 0000X 1 5 ) f t lb , .

-
.

La y 03 the li ne cc l to an y conven i ent scal e t o repres ent

the bend i n g moment at W1 and at d d , to repres ent t ha t at
,

W2 Connect po i nts a cl d1 and b as shown a n d the d i a

.
, , , , ,

gra m i s compl ete .

As another ill ust r at i on ass um e t hat i t i s des i red to plot

,

the bendi ng moment d i agram o f the beam shown i n F i g 1 8

-
. .

Thi s bea m is 5 0f t l ong and h as a uni fo r m l oad of

. lb .

per run n i n g ft .

F i rs t di v i d e the beam i nto any n u m ber of s maller parts

, ,

each for i ns tance 1 0 ft long and then nd the bend i ng

, , .
,

r
5 0f t
r 1

.

1 0l t 1 0i t + 1 0i t a 1 0i i -u
10
r
a .

(b )

FI G . 18

moment for ea ch of thes e parts I n th i s i n stance the .

,

rea ct i ons R I and R 2 are each equal to o n e half the to tal load -
,

or l b The bend i ng moment at c i s

.

(2 5 000X 1 0)
, X 1 0X 5 ) ft lb ; at d i t i s .
-
.

X 20) X 2 0X 1 0) f t lb In a s i m i lar .
-
.

manner i t w i l l be found tha t the bend i ng moments at po i n ts e

,

and f are and f t lb res pect i vel y .

-
.
, .

On layi n g o f?these ben d i ng moments at 6 1 6 2 d l dz etc and , , .

connect i ng po i nts a c; b the d i agram i s complete

, , Th e .
FO R M U L AS FOR M AXI MUM S H E AR AN D B EN D IN G
M O MEN TS ON B E AM S

o f Lo ad i ng Ma l m M
Me thod
ggg iggi
n
C ase
s c

W Wl

II W V
I
:
III W V
I
:
IV W

V W 147
2
!
V1
VI W 3
VI/l
VI I W Z

V
V
VIII
2

W? Wx n
l l l

1 16
118 M EC H A N I C S

outl i ne o f t hi s d i agram however i s on l y approx i matel y cor

, ,

rect To nd i ts t rue form the beam sho uld be d i v i d ed i nto

.
,

an i nn i te num ber of parts i n w h i ch case the l i nes a c l ol d l

d l el e l fl and fl b wo ul d be parts o f a cur e shown dotted
, ,
,

v ,
, ,

i nst ead o f a se r i es o f shor t broken li nes , .

M OMEN T T AB LES
The methods of nd i ng the shear and max i m um moment
occurri ng i n s i mpl e and i n cant i le er beams have been v
expla i ned I n thes e c al c ulat i ons the wei ght o f the bea m
.

i tself i f o f wood or s teel i s often omi tted The va ri o us

, , .

unusua l load i ngs were a lso cons i dered and the method o f ,

nd ing the maxi mum bend i n g moment was expla i ned .

These methods will be found us e f t i f such c as es ever ari se .

H owever i n pract i ce the l oads o n the beams are often more

,

u n i form and i f the we i ght o f the bea m i tself i s neglected

, ,

the form ul as g i ven i n the accompany i ng table may be used .

Beams w i th xed ends o r even wi th o n e end xed and o n e

s i mpl y supported are also g i ven i n the table .

I n each case i n the table the total l oad on the beam i n , ,

pounds i s d enoted by W If there are two separate and

,
.

equal loads on the bea m each on e i s called so as to make

E
, ,

the total load W I f the load i s un i formly d i stri buted over

.

the ent i re length o f the beam the load per foot w i ll be ,

W s lengt h o f beam i n feet The length Of the beam i s

'
-
.
,

denoted by I I f I i s taken i n i nches the mo ment w i ll be i n

.
,

i nch pounds ; but i f taken i n feet the moment w i ll be i n

-
,

foot pounds
-
.

The u sual method o f i nd i cat i ng load i ng i s adopted A .

s i mple support under a beam i s shown by the convent i onal

arrow whi le a cant i lever o r a beam xed at the ends i s
,

shown as i n Cas e I or X V I I respect i vel y Cases X V and , .

X V I i nd i cate a beam xed at one end and supported at the

other .

The max i mum shear o n a cant i lever or on a beam x ed

at the end depends somewhat on the method of hold i n g i t i n
the wall and the leng th that extends i nto the wall H o w .

ever the max i mum shears g i ven i n the table are correct
,
 M EC H A N I C S 119

for us ual cas e s I n Case XX two values are g i ven fb r

.
,

bo th shea r and bend i ng moment and the maxi mum o f the

,

two values obtai ned mus t be t he o n e used T h e s i gn o f .

the shears or bend ing moments ha s not been put i n the table ,

but i t can be told b y i nspect i on whether they are pos i t i ve

o r negat i ve a s every da y ex peri ence should ena ble the eng i
,
-

neer t o determ i ne whether the loads w i ll bend the beam up

or down .

The po i nt o f max i mum shear i s marked o n the beam at

the po i nt a whi le max i mum bend i n g moment i s at the
,

R E AC TI ON S FOR C ON TIN U OU S B EAM S O VE R EQ U AL

S P AN S

(C oefci en ts of W)

N um
N um ber of E cha S upport
ber of
S p a ms
3d 4th 7 th 8 th 9 th l 0t h

2 i i
3 {a it m i

4 it it a
5 is ii a
6 as
i S
i m
m
i i; m ?
6 g
7

?
'

4 2

w
ii i m i iii
i i i i:5 33
4
8

9 ii i m L
*
s i i
4

po i nt b I n some c as es e i ther of thes e val ues ma y r each

.
,

i ts max i mu m at tw o o r more places i n whi ch cas e i t i s s o

,

mark ed .

The foll ow i ng example wi ll serve to show the us e o f the

table :
EX A M P L E A s i mple beam on a span of 1 3 ft 2 4 i n carr i es . .

a un i form l y d i stri bu t ed lo ad of 8 5 l b per ft W ha t i s the

. .

maxi mum shear and the maxi mum bend i ng mom en t devel
oped ?
1 20 M EC H A N I C S
'
S O LUT O N I .
The length the bea m reduced to feet i s
of , ,

The to tal load W i s therefore 8 5 X 1 3 2 083 .

say lb Referri n g to Case X I the max

.
,

W 1 1 2 3
i m u m shear lb Likew i se t he ma xi mu m
3 7
.
,

ben d in g moment i s
Wl X
s ay f t -lb . .

8 8

C ON TIN U O U S B EAM S
Wh en a s in gl e beam extends o er three o r m qre s upports v
i t i s sai d to be cont i nuous The bend i ng moments produc ed
v
.

are ery d i ff e r en t fr om those i n an ord i nary bea m For thi s .

rea s on the t r eatmen t of thi s c las s o f bea m s m us t be con

,

s i d e r e d separatel y .

B EN DIN G M OMEN TS F O R C ONTIN U OU S BEAM S O ER V

EQ U AL SP AN S

N um
N umber of Ea h c S uppor t
b e r of
S pam
ls t 2d 3d 4t h 7 th 8 th 9 th l ot h

2 0 o
3 0 1 % 1 0 o 3~

5% s
2
4 0 33 3

5 0 3% 3% a
6 0 t a ; r 7g a
l
m
7 0 re ; 1 %3 m

0
i l
8 0 see 7 s a ase 0
3 5 6 a %
8 2 1 4
9 0 3 3 0

The rs t o f the tables o n page 1 1 9 g i ves the c o ef ci ents

, ,

fo r the reacti on s of the beam at i t s suppo rts The v al ue

v
.

gi en i n the ta bl e m ul t i pl i ed by W w hi ch repres ent s the l oad

per span w ill gi e the re acti on
,
v B y kn ow i ng the reac ti on s.
,
1 22 S TR ES S ES AN D S TR AI N S
that pro duces an alterat i on i n the fo rm o f a bod y and th is ,

alterat i on o f form i s called the s tr a i n .

I n accordance w i th the d i rect i on i n whi ch the forces act

w i th reference to a bod y the stres s prod uced may be e i ther ,

te n s i le co mpr e s s i ve or s h ea r i n g
, , .

Te n s i le s tr es s i s the e ff ect produced when the external

forces act i n such a d i rect i on tha t they tend to st r etch a bod y .

C o m pr es s i ve s tr es s i s the eff ect prod uced when the t en d enc y

of the forc es i s to compress the bod y .

S he a r i n g s tr es s i s when t he forces act so as to produce a

tend ency for the pa rt i cles i n one sect i on o f a bod y t o sl i de
over the part i cl es o f the adj acent sect i on .

Whe n a beam i s loaded i n such a manner that the r e i s i n i t

a ten d ency to ben d i t i s subject ed to a be n d i n g s tres s
, In .

th i s ca se there i s a combi nat i on of the t hre e stres s es alread y

,

ment i oned (tens i on co mpres s i on and shear) i n d i ff erent

, ,

parts o f the beam .

The u n i t s tr es s (c alled also the i n te n s i ty o f stress ) i s the

, ,

n ame g i ven to the stress per un i t of area ; o r i t i s the to tal ,

stress i n a t i e ro d column o r the l i ke d i vi ded by the area

-
, ,

of the cross sect i on -

.

Le t P repres ent the tota l st ress i n pounds ; A the a r ea o f , ,

c ross sect i on
-
i n square i nches ; and s the un i t stress i n
, , ,

pounds per sq uare i nch Then .

,

01
'
P AS

ST R AI N
When a bod y i s st retched sho r t ened o r i n any wa y , ,

deform ed t h rough the acti on of a force the defo r mat i on is ,

c alled a s tr a i n Thus i f a rod were elongated {a i n by a

.
,
.

load o f 1b the stra i n wo uld be 1 15 i n

.
,
W i thi n certa i n .

l i m i ts to be g i ve n he r eafter stra ins are proport i onal to the

, ,

stress es p r oduc i ng them .

U n i t s tr a i n i s the stra i n per un i t o f l ength o r of area but ,

i s usuall y taken per un i t of l en gth and c all ed fo r t ens i on the , ,

elo n g a ti o n per un i t of l ength I f the un i t of length i s taken

.

as 1 i n the un i t strai n i s equal to the total stra i n d i vi ded by

.
,

the l ength o f the bod y i n i nc h es .

 S TR E S S E S AN D S TR A I N S 1 23

Le t l repres ent the l ength of the bod y , i n i nches ; e the ,

defo r mat i on i n i nches ; and

, q, the un i t stra i n . Then ,

e
q = or e = lq
7
,

EL ASTI C P R OP ER TI ES
I t can b e proved by ex peri ment that when a certa i n un i t

I
stres s i s crea t ed i n a substance a certai n d en i te uni t strai n ,

i s develo ped f the u n i t stress i s d oubled i t w i ll be found

.
,

that the u n i t strai n also ha s doubled ; that i s the alterat i on ,

of shape or the stra i n i n a bod y i s pro port i onal to the force

appl i ed to that bod y Th is expe r i menta l fact i s kn own as
.

H oc he la w

s .

When a cert a i n stres s is creat ed i n a bod y a certai n stra i n

i s produced Wh en the stress i s removed the bod y ret u rns
.
,

to i ts o ri g i n a l sha pe prov i d ed the un i t s tr ess h a s not been

,

t oo great Fo r each subs ta nce however there i s a certa i n

.
, ,

m ax i mu m un i t stress that the substance w ill stand and st ill

return t o i ts o ri g i nal shape aft er the external forces are

I
remov ed Thi s u n i t stress is cal l ed the ela s ti c li mi t of the
.

m ateri al .f a bod y i s st rai ned be yond the ela st i c l i m i t ,

i t w ill ma i ntai n a permanent d i sto rt i on o r s et even af ter , ,

the stra i n forces are removed H oo k e s law w hi ch i s al most

.

exact for most mate ri als below the elast i c k m i t does not hold ,

good for these mat eri als abo ve the elast i c l i m i t as the ,

stra i n i ncrea s es m uch m o r e rapi d l y t ha n the stress Thus .

,

i f the un i t stress is doubl ed beyond the elast i c l i m i t the un i t ,

stra i n w i ll be more than doubled The un i t stres s t hat is .

s o great that the stra i n i ncreases greatl y w i th very l i ttle

i ncrement of stres s i s c alled the yi e ld poi n t Fo r all pr a c .

t i cal purposes w i th m an y materi als the yi eld po i nt co m

,

m e n c es at the elast i c li m i t .

To rest at e H o o k e s law the rat i o of the u n i t st r ess to the

un i t st ra i n for any su bstance i s constant below the elast i c

l i m i t Thi s rat i o of u n i t stress to un i t st ra i n i s call ed the
.

mo d ulu s of ela s ti ci ty or c oefc i e n t of ela s ti ci ty whi ch w ill b e

, ,

represented by the s ym b ol E I t i s .

q
1 24 S TR ES S ES A N D S TR A I N S

Fro m thi s equation when s and E are known q m a y be

, ,

found ; that i s if the m od ul us of elastici ty o f a certain s u b

stance and t he ,

un it stress are known t he unit strain can

i
read l y be found
,

TRE TE R L
.

TH B U L DI
NG OF I N G MA IA S
t h t nit t
S
ulti ma te of an y aterial
h h t su cient to break i t
Th e s tr e n gth m is a u s r es s

w ic i s jus f .

the tota elongation produced

u lti m a te e lo n ga ti o n i s

i n a un t l engt h of t he aterial by a unit st res s equa

Th e l

t he ti ate streng h of t he ateri al

i of m l to
ul m t m .

The mo d ulu s dif ers f o the ti ate tensile m

co pressive st ress but
o f r u ptu r e f r ul m
m a quanti ty so eth ng like it m
used i n calculating t he st rength of bea s
or , is , i ,

that is m . I ts us e

is discuss ed under the heading H o m ogeneous B ea ms .

FACT OR OF S AFETY
A value tha t is taken for the ulti m at e strength any
r
of

m a te ial i s an average value of a nu m ber o f expe ri m ents

m ad e o n t he
m ate ri al As it i s i m possi ble t o get two sa m
x
.

pl es o f the sa m e m ate ri al e actl y alike s o is i t also i m po s

s ible t o get two sa m ples w i t h
the sa m e ul ti m ate strengt h
,

v
.

It i s therefore custo m ary in d esign to a oid stressi ng a

m a teri al up t o i t s ul ti m ate strength or even up to i ts
e lasti c li m it .

The f ac tor of s a fety or as it is so m eti m es called the

is t he , ,

ratio of the ulti m ate strength o f the

,

he
s a f ety f ac tor ,

m ateri al to the load that under usual conditions t , m ateri al ,

is call ed o n to carry S uppos e that the load required to

.

rupture a piece of steel is lh and tha t the load it is .

,

c all e d o n to carry i s lb ; then the factor o f safet y

v
.
,

m a y be o btai ned by di i ding the lb by the lb . .

Th us , whi ch i s the factor o f safet y of this

m ateri al .

Another factor to be con sidered i n selecting m aterials is

d eter i o ra ti o n which i s due to various causes In m etals
he
.
, ,

the r e i s corrosion o n account o f m oisture and gases in t

at m osphere .

Wood is sub j ect to d ec a y fro m either dry or wet rot ,

c aus ed by loc al conditions ; it m a y like iron and st eel be , ,

1 26 S TR E S SES AN D S TR A I N S
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 S TR E S S E S AN D S TR A I N S 1 27

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1 28 S TR E S S ES AN D S TR A I N S

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 Q E
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1 32
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.
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m
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.

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1 34
 H O M OG N E E O U S BE A M S i 1 35

pa rtic ular case of a rectang le whos e bas e b and alti tud e d

are equal The value of the area A is gi ven in the s econd
.

colum n The dis tance 6 given

.
,

in the t h i rd column is the d is ,

ta nce of the mos t remot e pa rt

o f the gure fro m the neutral
axis The section mod ul us and
.

radi us of gyra tion the charac t er ,

of w h ich w ill be explained late r ,

are given i n the last two colu mns

EXA PLM E What is the a rea
.

the d is tance from the neu tral ax is FI G 1

to the ex t re mit ies of the section and the m oment o f inertia ,

about the neutral axi s of the section i llustra ted in F ig l ?

L
S O UT I O N R eferr ing to the table it wi ll be seen that 131
.

'
.
,

= 4 in b = 1 0} i n
.
, and d = 7 in Therefore the area i s
. . ,
,

b + bl
X 1 05 + 4 X 7
.

2
L ikewi se the distance fro m the neutral axi s
,
to the long er
pa rallel side is
b
<
2 b1 d 0 2 X4 7
Ci '
> 2 977 . in .

b + bl 1 05
. x4 3
The d i s tan ce c w hich i s the dis tance , of the neutral ax i s
from the short er pa rallel side i s ,

_
_ b1 + 2 b d 4+2 X1 7
c X
b + bl 3 3
AS a check , 61 should equal d or 7 in thus
+c , .

in .
, w h ich indicat es that the prec edi ng solution is
co rrect .

Th e moment of inert ia is fo u nd by the formula

S ubs tituti n g val ues for the lette rs in thi s fo rm ula ,

1 05 2 + 4 X
.
X 4 + 42

In general it o n e o f the values o f c and cl i s found by m eans

,

of t he form ula the other may be fo u nd by subt ract ing the

.
 m n

E
m
u u

w
i
r
9
y

u

o x w
N G
u ww
mm
m
a u w
Q
o s
E S
.

+ a m
.
m m

i
3 u u

8 s
0 l
m
e

s . :

H
H
O
w
M
m m
m G
x
c
<a
:
2
n
u

i

k
m

u
C m
5 . l +3 8 m
0 u
l
h

u a e

2 o d e
\
t
5
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s
:xs
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f v a
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m n
d
: +
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m 5
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d
2 o
U e I
8 o

m
o

m a.

3
a

w
.
s
o a
+

w
n
s

c

1 36
 A
L

G
m S
u N m
g . . N
n
m
.

m m
.

w E S
3 X t
Q
3 3
:
0N x N
V
5

I 5
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a

S C

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N

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m n
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3 o
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N
c
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3 n
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0 d
V
N
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I

o So
S N
N
Q
a w
u

N
k a u

m m
8 "
5
G
M
8
m
o
m
m
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D l
A V lx A

< n W
> w
we
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+ +
s
n

n
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w

1 38
1 40 HO MO E EO G N US B A EM S

kn own o n e fro m d Thus after ha vi ng calcul at ed 0; in thi s

.
,

exa m ple 0 wo ul d be equal to d cl = 7

, in .
,

w hi ch value corres ponds to the o n e found by m eans o f the

form ula .

M any of the bea m s used in buildi ng cons truction are m ade

of steel Thes e steel bea m s are rolled w ith various cross
.

sectional shapes from whi ch they deri ve their na m es

, .

These shapes are s ta n d a rd ; that i s they are ro ll ed to con ,

form to certain sizes t hat have been adopted by m any o f t he

large st eel compani es In the rst column o f the a c co m
.

panying t able entitled Values for S tandard R olled S ections

, ,

are shown the cro s s sections of the va ri ous structur al sha pes
-
.

The rst section shown i s known a s an a n gle wi th equal legs ;

the second a s an a n gle wi th u n equ a l legs ; the third a s a
, ,

ch a n n e l; the fourth a s a bu lb bea m ; while the fth

, sixth , ,

and seventh sections are known res pectivel y as an I bea m , , ,

a T ba r and a 2 ba r
, .

In this table i s given the m o m ent o f inertia fo r ea ch s ec

t ion about at least t w o axes both of w hi ch pass t hro ugh ,

the center o f gravi t y o f the section ; that i s the m o m ents o f ,

inertia are given alwa ys with res pect to neutral a x es The .

moments of inertia with res pect to di ff er ent neutral axes are ,

i n general diff erent and a s a ru le there i s o n e neut ral axi s

, ,

about w hich the m oment of inertia i s less tha n i t i s about

any other With the channel bulb bea m I b ea m and 1 bar
'

.
, , , ,

the sm a ll est m oment of inertia is abo ut the axis y y o r the ,

vertical a xis H owever with both st yl es of angles and with

.
,

the Z bar there is another m oment of i nerti a abo ut a neu

,

tral axis not horizontal nor vertical that i s s m aller than t h e

, ,

moment o f inerti a about an y other neutral a xis ; that i s in ,

certain work mo re pa rti cularl y in the d esig n o f colu m ns it

, ,

is necessary to know abo ut w hat neutral axis the m oment o f

inertia will be smallest It i s also nec essary to know what .

thi s m om ent o f inertia wi ll be Therefo re in the section .

,

o f the angl e with equal legs the section o f the angle with ,

unequal l egs and the Z bar section the moment o f i nertia i s

,
-
,

also gi ven for the oblique axi s giving the small est m o m ent
o f inertia The position of this neutral axi s i s found by
.

hi gher mathem atics Wi th the angle with eq u al legs thi s

. ,
1 42 H OM OG N E EO U S BEA M S
The m o m ent o f inertia o f a compound section wi th res pect
to any axi s ma y be found by adding alg ebraicall y the , ,

moments of inertia with res pect to the same axis o f the

, ,

component parts of the gure

EXA PLM E Find the m o m ent o f inertia of the Z bars
.

shown in Fig 2 about the neutral axi s X X the d imensions

.
,

,

bei ng as shown
L
S O UT I O N The gure ma y be divided into the thr ee rect
.

angl es i gh
e , and jgi g
The moment o f inerti a of
.

ei g h abo ut an axis
thr oug h i ts center o f
gravity and parallel to
X X i s 1 1; a t3 ; tha t o f

abo ut an axis
thro ug h its cent er of
gravit y and parall el to
X X is also 3 ; a t The
1 '3
.

distance between this

axis and the X X axis

is (b t) The mo .

ment of inertia of the

rectangle ei gh and also
o f the rectangle
FI G 2
abo ut the axis X X '

i s then ,
a t3 + a t

(b The moment o f inertia

o f the rectangl e jgi g about the axis X X is 1 12 tb 3 The

.

m o m ent o f inerti a of the entire gure is therefore , ,

2
{ 1 3 '
1 , a t +a t [
l (1) 01 } +
2 1
1 2 tb3

Expandin g and reducing thi s expression ,

3 2 t)3
ab (b

a

12

R AD I U S OF G R ATI ON Y
The ra d i u s of gyr a ti o n of a section wi th res pect to an axis
i s a quantit y whose square m ultipli ed by the area of the
s ection i s equal to the moment o f inertia of the section wi th
respect to the same axis If r and I d enote respecti v el y
.
, ,
 HO M O E EO
G N US B AEM S 1 43

the radius o f gyr ation and the mo ment o f inert ia of a s ec

tion and A the area in squ a re inches then

, , ,

A = L

whence
E
The last colu mn of the table entitled le m ents o f U s ual
S ections gives radi i o f g yration corres ponding to the mo
m ents o f inertia given in the fourth colum n .

The rad ius o f gyration o f a s ection o r g ure ma y be fou n d

, ,

di rectl y fro m i ts mo ment of inerti a by means of the form ula

jus t given For example the radii o f gyration for the
.
,

re c tangle and the hollow square in the t able j us t referred to

are found a s fo llows :
For the rectangle ,

Fo r the hollow sq uare .

N E UTR AL AXI S
If in a cantil ever load ed as shown in Fig 3 any point x
, .
,

o n the c ent er line ab i s tak en a s a cen ter o f m o m ents and a .

FI G 3
.

section made by a v ert i cal plane cd through t his c en ter is

cons id ered i t will b e evi dent that the moment o f the force
,

due to the dow nward thrust of the load tends to turn t he

end of the bea m t o the right of c d around the cent er x The .
1 44 HO MO E E O
G N E M
US B A S

m easure o f this tend ency i s the prod uct o f the weight W

m ulti pli ed b y i ts distance fro m c d and since t hi s t end ency
, ,

is the moment o f a force that tends to bend the beam it is ,

call ed the ben d i n g m om en t .

A further ins pection of Fig 3 will show that throug h the

.

bend ing action of the load the upper part o f the beam is
subj ect ed to a t ensile stress w hile the lower part is sub
.

jec t ed to a c o mp r essive stress .

Fi g 3 also shows t ha t the greater the distance o f the par

.

t i cles in the assum ed section a bove or below the center at ,

the greater w ill be thei r displace m ent In other word s .

FI G 4 .

since the stress in a loaded bod y is directl y proportional to

the st r ain or relative d isplacement o f the particl es it fol
, ,

lows that the stress in a particle of any section is propor

t i o n a l to its d is tance fro m the center line a b and t hat the ,

g r eatest stress is i n the part icl es composing the upper and

lower surfac es of the bea m .

In Fig 4 let A BC D represent a cantilever A fo rce F

.
,
.

acts on i t at its e xtremit y A Thi s force will t end to bend

.

the beam into somet hing like the shape shown b y A BC D '
.

It is evid ent from wha t has preced ed that the eff ect of the
force F in bending the beam is to lengthen the upper bers
and to short en the lower ones H ence the upper part A B
.
,

is now long e r tha n it was b efore the force was applied ; that
is A 'B is longer tha n A B It is also evident that D C i s
, .

shorter than D C Fu r the r consideration wil l show that there

.

must be a ber a s , that is neither l engthened nor short

1 46 HO MO E E O G N US B E AM S

EXA M PL E .
P ro ve the form ul a for the mod ul us o f a section
as sho wn in Fig 5 to be co rrect as given in the table on
.

page 1 3 3
L
.

S O UT I O N According to the table the moment of inertia

.
,

b2 + 4bb1 + bl2

3 6 (b + bl )
c or Cl is the longer H owever
on exa mi ning the values
.
,

given for thes e two quantiti es

in the table it i s s een t ha t they ,

are t h e same wi th the ex ception ,

of the rst part of the nu mer ator .

Fo r c1 this pa rt o f the nu mer ,

ator i s b + 2bl whil e for c it i s ,

bi + 2 b In Fig 5 b i s greater . .
,

than b1 ; t h e r e f o r e bi + 2b i s ,

FI G 5 grea ter than b + 2bl and it fol .

lows that c is great er than c1 Accord ingl y the for m ul a i s .

,

I b2 + 4 bb1 + b1 2 b1 + 2 b a
d3
c 3 6 (b + b1 ) b + bl 3
d3 (b + bl ) 3 b2 + 4bb1 + b1 2
xd 2
36 (b + bl ) (b1 + 2 b ) d 12 (b1 + 2 b)
which is the same as the o n e given in the table .

P R OP E R TIES OF R OLLED S TEEL S H AP S E

The table of val u es for st andard rolled sections alread y
g i ven shows va ri o us cross sections o f st eel bea ms E ach
-
.

o n e o f thes e bea m s is mad e in various siz es and weights .

O n account o f the confus ion that ensu ed fro m using beams

o f d i ff erent siz es f r o m d i ff erent manufacturers the latter ,

a greed to adopt standard sizes which are known as A me ri c a n ,

s ta n d a rd Therefore knowing the d i mensions o f the section

. ,

o f any bea m that is rolled according to the A merican stand

ard the pro pert i es o f the section may be found by using the
,

table already given T hi s table however while quite accu

.
, ,

rate i s inconvenient to use because the fo r mul as it con

, ,

tains are long a n d co mplicat ed The following tabl es of .

p r O p e r t i es of standard sections are therefore given to diminish

t he labor required in b ea m d esign .
 H OM OG E EO
N E
US B A M S 1 47

The rs t of the following tabl es gives the pr o pert ies o f

s tand ard I beam s Th e bevel o n the i n sid e o f the ange
.

i s always ma d e 1 t o 6 . The sa me bevel is also us ed f o r

channels .

The tabl es d eali ng wi th I beams and channels give two

c olu m ns d ea li n g with the d eection o r sa g o f bea ms
, , .The
us e o f thes e co lu mns wi ll be explained o n pag e 1 74 .The
o ther values given in the ta bl es will be readily un ders too d .

(0)
FI G 6
.

Freq uentl y stee l bea ms a r e built u p o f several ste el s ec

,

ti ons ri vet ed together To n d the st reng th of a beam o f

.

thi s ki nd i t i s rst nec essary t o d et erm ine the mo m en t o f

i nertia o f the en tire section about i ts neu t ra l axis. This i s
done by the met hods previ ousl y d escri bed on pag e 9 7 but ,

i t ma y pro babl y be bes t ill ustrat ed by an ac tual pro blem .

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n 2 o 8 43 4 O 14 O

15 0 6 6 4i
. l 3 o 0 69 3 O 23 O
 H OMOGE NE OUS BE AM S 1 67

S o m eti m es the sections are not s ym m etrical and the neutral

,

axis itse lf m u st be found As an exa m ple consider the .

,

bea m s h own in F ig 6 (a ) I t i s co m pos ed o f an I bea m and

. .

a cha nnel rivet ed together S uch a b ea m is oft en us ed to .

carry the track o f a traveling crane

xi i
.

The r st pro ble m is to locate the neutral a s cd F g 6 (b)

xi
. .
,

Assu m e a n y a s as a b a bout whi ch to take ord inary

, ,

m o m ents of the areas The m o m ent o f each area a bout a b

.

is equal in each case to the product o f the area and the d i s

t a nce fro m i ts center o f g ravit y to ab The a reas and loc a
i
.

tion of the centers o f g rav t y o f the bea m and colu m n

i
s ec tions can be o bta ned fro m the ta bles Addi ng thes e .

m o m ent the W ork i s as fo llows :

s
,

Mo m ent of I = l8 5 3 1 .

Mo m ent of cha nnel X (1 8 78 ) .

Total .

T he to tal a rea o f the section i s s q in . .

Therefore the d is tance fro m the line ab to the neutral

,

axis cd is 5 6 in

re m ai ns b y the m ethod gi en to n d the m o m ents v

i
It n ow , .

o f inerti a o f the channel and the I bea m a bout the ax s c d

and t o ad d the m together This can be done with the help .

o f the tables a s fol lows : The m o m en t o f inertia of the

,

channel about cd i s 9 39 + 1 1 7 6 X
r
. .

Likewis e the m o m ent o f ine tia of the I bea m ab out the

xi
a s cd i s
,

therefore ,

the to tal m om ent o f inertia is 1 6 46 5 1 i n 4

FOR M U LAS FOR D ES I GN

BE N D IN G- M OME NT FOR M U L AS
I n an y hom og eneous bea m the m axi m um st ess at any r
sec tion o f the bea m developed by t he loa ds ma y be found
by t he follow i ng fo rm ul a :
S
M = -
I ,

in whi ch M is the ben d ing m o m ent at that point in i n ch ,

1 68 HOM OGE N E OUS BE A M S
po und s ; I the m o m ent of inertia o f the s ect on referred to
, i
the inch ; 6 the di stance i n inches fro m the neutral axis to
,

the m os t rem ot e ber ; a n d s the m a m u m stress i n poun d s

, ,

xi
per square i nch Thi s st ress o f cour se occurs n t he m ost
,

i ,

r , ,
.

em o te ber
r i xr
.

Thi s i s the gene al equat on fo r beam s I t e p ess es the .

bend ing m o m ent a bout any section caus ed b y the lo a ds

i
and reactions n term s o f th e m a m u m uni t stress at the
, xi ,

section and the di m ensions o f the bea m at that section

t is , The stress 5 ma y b e either tens on or co m pres i

i
sion but t i s always the m axi m u m stress in the section
,

v
.

I t i s e i dent that i f a b ea m i s going to break the brea k

i
w ll occur at that section about w hi ch the external bendi ng
,

m o m ent i s m a m u m xi
I f t h is section holds e e y other vr
i
.
,

part o f the beam w ll be stron g en ough Therefore it i s

the section o f a bea m about w h ch the ext ern al bending i . ,

m o m ent i s ma m um that is alwa ys n est g ate d xi iv i .

I
The quantit y is eq ual to the section mo d ulus ; therefore ,

i
6

the form ula is oft en wr tt en

M S
i n w ich the section o us
s ,

m d ul
i nertia etc are
h S is .

the preceding ta bles the o ents m m

gi ven with the inch
In of , .

a bas e and usua y asured in me

square i nch T herefore i n the p ece ing
as , s is ll
o un s
ust be gi v en i n i nch poun s in foot
p d p er .
, r d fo r
m ulas M m -
d an d n ot

EX M PL Wha t the ax u stress i n a si ple bea

po unds .

m im m m m
uni fo r y load ed with
A E is
ft lo g l b per ft ml
rectang ar i n s ection in broad
12 . n an d . . of

e g th The bea? m is 10
in d eep
l n ul , .

and
O L I O The tota oa
14 . .

S UT N .the bea l l d on m is 1 , 000X 1 2

lb The axi u bend ing o ent in foot m m m m m
W
.
,

In this case W
I
poun s d , is lb and ft ,
= 12 , 000 . l= 1 2 .

T herefore the a xi u ,o ent whi ch sha l be ca lled

m m m m m , l M ,
1 70 H OM OGE N E O U S BE A M S
S L
O T I O The
U N . m axi m u m external bending m o m ent is
WI 2 000X 1 3 7
,

in .
-
lb . The m odul us of rupture
4
for w hi t e oak i s and a factor of safet y o f 6 wil l be us ed .

Therefore s = , l b per sq in S ubstituting . . .

these values in the for m ula =S X and ,

bd 2
S = 6 8 5 00 S = therefore ei ther t he
,

F ; ,

bread th o r the depth of the bea m m a y be assu m ed and the

ot her d i m ensions found I t will also be noted that i n the
S
.

value of the breadt h is involved onl y as a rst power ,

w hile the dept h is squared Therefore to design an e c o n o m .

,

ical bea m the better plan is to m ake t he bea m narrow and

,

as deep as possi ble Of co urse there a re practical consid era

.
,

tio ns that govern t his m atter such as o btaining co m m ercial ,

s izes o f m at erial and the like .

I n the pro ble m at hand let is be assu m ed that the bea m ,

will be 1 0 in d eep . . Then ,

d = 1 0in .
, S = 5 8 71 =
.

bd 2 b 1 02

6 6
6X
and b= in . The next larger size of co m
1 00
m e r c i a l ti m ber is 4 in . X 1 0i n .
, and is therefore the size to be
us ed .

The m od ulus o f rupture o f m etals and ti m bers will be

found in the two t ables on pages 1 2 6 and 1 2 8 .

W IGHT O F BE AMS E
E very be a m whether it is m ade of w ood steel or s tone
, , , ,

h as a certain weight and the q uestion is whether it should

,

be considered or not N eglecti ng the weight of the bea m .

its elf i n bea m d esign does not m ake s o m uch diff erence o n
a short span wi th heavy loads as it does on a long span with
co m parativel y li ght loads J us t when the weight of the .

bea m i ts elf sho uld be consid er ed and j ust when it should

not is a m atter of experi ence and no s et rule can be laid
, ,

down U suall y however i f the weight of the bea m is less

.
, ,

t han 5 % of the load i t is intend ed to carry its weight m a y ,

be neglect ed .
 HOM OGE N E O U S BE A M S 1 71

S ince i n so m e cas es it h a s been deci d ed that t he w ei ght

, ,

of the bea m its elf m us t be taken into account the m ethods ,

of att ainin g thes e res ults will be considered As the w ei g ht .

of the bea m cannot be o btained until i ts s ize is known and ,

as the s iz e o f the bea m cannot be found until the total bend

ing m o m ent i s known thi s proble m can be solved onl y by
,

t rial The follo w ing exa m ple will s erve to i llustrat e the
.

m ethod to be p u r sued :
EX PL
AM E C alcul ate the size of I bea m requi red t o carry
i
.
,

bes id es i ts o w n lo a d a uniforml y d s t r i but ed load of 9 6 0 lb

, .

per ft over a s pan of 2 0 ft

L
SO UTI ON
. .

The tot a l load o n the beam exclusive o f i ts ,

x
.

o wn weight is 96 0x20= 1 9 200 lb The m a i m um ben d

, , .

W1 1 9 2 00 X 2 0 X 1 2
i ng m o m ent i s
,

ih lb .
-
.

8 8

M =Ss =
WI
-

8
Gi v ng i s a value of and
neglecting the weight of the bea m or ,

S = 5 76 000 . On consulting the table o n

page 1 4 8 i t will be s een that the value of 5 here found corre
,

s po n d s t o tha t o f a 1 2 i n lb I bea m T h is bea m wo uld

-
.
-
. .

satisfy the requi re m ents i f the w eight o f the bea m itself w ere
left o u t o f consideration but a s it is necessary to provide for ,

this additional load the nex t larg er si ze m a y be chos en and a

,

tri al calculation ma de to s e e w hether it wi ll suppo rt the co m

b i n e d load This bea m is a l 2 i n one w eig h ing 3 5 lb per ft
.
-
.
, . .

hence the weight of the bea m i s 3 5 X

, lb Fro m the .

WI
preced i ng form ul a the m ax i m um ben d i ng m o m ent due
0

to the weig ht o f the bea m alone is

700 X 20X 1 2 in .
-
lb .

8
The su m of this m o m ent and that of the external load is
in .
-
lb = M
. . M =S s , or

1 6 000X S ; therefore , S = 5 9 7 000+

, , the As
v alue given for S i n the tabl e i s great er than thi s the bea m ,

selected is of a m ple strength .

As w as stat ed it i s us uall y considered s afe t o neglect

,

the w eig ht o f the beam itsel f in calculations of bea m d esign .

1 72 HOM OGE N E OU S BE A M S
FOR MU L AS FOR D E FLE CTI ON OF BE AMS

C ase M ethod of Loading D eflec tion

Inches

W13
3 El

W13
II
8 E1

W13
III
1 5 El

W13
IV
48 E l

2 7 IE I

wx 4x )
VI 48 E l
(312 2

5 WI3
VI I
38 4 E l

VI I I 3 2 0E l
1 74 H OM OGE N E OU S BEA M S
As the a m ount o f load a bea m m ust carry part icularl y the ,

live load is very uncertain at best the ad dition of a slight

, ,

w eight due to the w eight of the bea m itself is seldo m con

s i d e r e d to be a fac tor of great i m port ance When bea m s .

carry oo rs i t is custo m ary to n d the weight of the oor

,

per square foot and then m ultipl y this val ue by the distance
between bea m s and by the span to g et the total load on the
bea m M any engineers a s sum e that the w eight o f the
.

bea m s them s elv es add a certain w eight per square foot to

the w eight of the oor This ad ded w eight is assu m ed to
.

be 8 l b for wood en bea m s and 6 lb for steel bea m s Th u s

. . .
,

i f all the m ateri als co m posing a oor exclusive of bea m s , ,

w ere cal c ulat ed to w eigh 1 2 l b per sq f t a w eight of 2 0 lb

. . .
, .

per sq ft w ould be taken to constitut e the to tal load o f a

i
. .

oor suppo rt ed by W ood en bea ms wh le 1 8 lb per s q ft , . . .

wo ul d be taken for the tot al load of one suppo rt ed by steel

bea m s This m ethod whi le not abs olutel y accurate is
. , ,

one way o f esti m ating the weight o f the bea m s in a oor .

In co n c r e te bea ms
bea m s , h owever the wei ght
an d s to n e , f the
o

f
bea m i ts el m u s t a lmos t a lwa ys be con s i de r ed .

D E FLE CTI ON

D e e cti o n is the na m e applied to the distortion or bend

ing produced in a bea m when subj ect ed to bending stresses .

The m easure of the d eection at any point on a bea m is the

vertic al displace m ent of the point fro m i ts o ri ginal position .

S ti ff n es s is a m easure of the abilit y of a bod y to resist

bending ; this pro pert y is very di ff erent fro m the streng th
of the m ateri al or its pow er to resist rupture .

The st i ff ness of a bea m does not depend so m uch o n the

el asticit y of the m ateri al of whi ch i t is co m posed as on its
length of span This propert y o f sti ffness is a s i m portant
.

in bui lding construction as m ere strength and the t w o ,

should be consid ered together ; thus the oor j oists of a ,

build ing m a y be strong enough to resist breaking but they ,

m a y also be so long as to lack sti ffness in w hi ch case the oor ,

w ill be spri ngy and wi ll vi brate fro m persons w alki ng on it .

I f there is a pl a stered ceiling on the und er sid e of the j oists

o f such a oo r the de ection of the j oists m a y caus e the
,
 H OM OGE N E O U S BE A M S 1 75

plast er t o crack and fall into the roo m belo w The allow .

able de ection of a plast ered ceiling is usuall y placed at

mm of the span o r 1
5 5 in for each foot o f span
, Where
. .

stiff ness is lacki ng i n the raft ers of a roof they will be li able ,

to sag thereby causing unsightl y ho llows in the surface in

, ,

which m oisture and snow ma y lodge .

The a m ount of deection that exists in bea m s loaded and

support ed in di fferent wa ys m a y be calc ul at ed by the for
m ulas given in the acco m panying table I n using thes e for .

m ulas a ll the loads sho ul d be expressed in pounds and the

,

lengths in i nches The m odulus o f elasticit y is denoted

.

by E and the m o m ent of inertia o f the section by I

EX PL,

E A 1 0 i n
.

AM 3 5 lb steel I bea m suppo rt ed at the

-
.
-
.

ends m ust sustain a unifor ml y d istributed load o f lb .

The span o f the bea m is 2 0 ft and its m o m ent of inertia is .

,

There is to be a plast ered ceiling on its un der sid e ,

the a llowabl e d eection of w h ich is : 66 in for each foot of .

span Will the de ec tion of the bea m be excessive ?

L
S O UTI O N
.

The for m ul a of the deection o f a bea m of this

.

5 W13
characte r fro m the table is
, The m od ul us o f elas
,

38 4 E l
of struct ural steel i s
ti c i t y S ubstituting the
values of the exa m ple in the form ula the deection equal s ,

5 X X 2 403
38 4 X X
the allowable deec tion is i ii 5 of the span the total
S ince -
,

allowable deection i s d u X 2 40= in This is greater than .

the calc ulat ed deection and the bea m therefore satis es ,

th e required co n ditions .

The val ues fo r N and N the coe f cients o f d eection for

'
,

uniform and center loads respectively given in the tables , ,

containing the pr o pe rti es of sections o f I bea m s channels , ,

5 Wl3
and 2 b ars were obtained fro m the form ul as N =
,

38 4 E l
W13
and N =
i n wh i ch W equals lb ;. I , 12 m ; E
.
,

4 8 E1
and I the m o m ent of inertia abo ut the axi s 1
, 1
Therefore , these co e i c i e n t s repres ent the deec tion in ,
1 76 HOM OGE N E OU S BE A M S
inches a bea m 1 ft long having a load o f
, of .lb Mul .

t i p ly i n g the pro per coe f cient by the cube of the span in

feet and by the nu m ber of
,
1b un ts in the gi en load -
. i v ,

w ill give the deection o f a bea m for any load and span
EX PL E W hat
.

AM i s the deection o f a 2 0 i n 65 lb
i
- -
. .

I bea m that carr es a center load o f lb a n d h a s a span .

2 0ft ?
L i i
of

I O N The a m ount o f deect on s obtained by m ul

.

S O UT .

t i p lyi n g the coef cient of deection f o r bea m s with center

loads (colu m n 1 3 in the table o f properties o f I bea m s )
by the cube o f the span in feet a n d the num be o f , , r
lb b y uni ts in the load
-
. H ence the deection equals .
,

000001 06 x203 2 3 7 in . .

S UDD N L Y E AP P L I ED LO AD S
In the form ul as and investigations s o far discuss ed i t ,

h a s been assu m ed that the loads o n the bea m s were laid

g ently in place This however is not always the case for
i
.
, , ,

the load m a y be suddenl y o r al m ost nstantaneo usl y appli ed

o r it m a y even be d ropped on the bea m O f course n d esign .
, i ,

ing such bea m s a large factor of safety m a y be e m ployed

,

r
but if the load is d opped or very suddenl y appli ed thi s ,
,

m ethod i s at b est a m atter o f guesswork and expe ri ence

i
.

Th e nvestigation o f sudden loads divid es i tself naturall y

into two cl asses The rs t includ es loads tha t are not
i
.

raised above a bea m and whos e we ght i s sudd en l y applied

to the bea m The second class of lo a d s nclud es those that i
v
.

fall vertic all y o n a bea m a s when hea y boxes o r crat es are ,

dropped o n the bea m s of a oor .

As the proble m s o f the rst class are the si m plest to solve

i
they w ll be taken up rst When a load i s placed sud d en l y .
,

on a bea m the stress prod uced is twice as g r eat a s if the

,

sa m e load had been at rest ; that i s a bea m to sustain a s u d ,

d en ly applied load should ha ve twice the transverse stren g th

requi red to sustain the sa m e load at rest
i i
.

Often a proble m occurs concern ng sud den l y appl ed lo a d s

,

in which the bea m h a s a quiet load whi ch i s the d ead load

and a sud d enly appli ed load which i s the li e load S uch a ,
,

v .
,

proble m sho ul d be solved as follows :

1 78 HOM OGE N E O U S BE A M S
Fro m the construction o f the for m ulas i t will b e noted ,

that the size of a bea m required to sustain a certain falling

load cannot be found direct The size o f bea m m ust be .

assu m ed ; then the for m ul as are used to ascertain whether

the bea m w i ll m eet the req u ire m ents
EX PL E A 1 2 i n
.

AM 40 lb I bea m carri es besides its

-
.
,
-
.
,

o w n weight a uniform load o f 2 6 0 lb per ft The span is

, . .

1 0 ft I f a load o f 400lb drops o n the bea m fro m a distance

. .

of 1 8 i n will it develop a unit stress beyond the safe unit

.
,

stress of lb ?
L
.

S O U TI O N The total static load per foot o n the bea m

.

is 2 6 0+ w eight of bea m per foo t = 2 60+ 40= 3 00 lb per ft . .

The total static load on the bea m therefore is 3 00X s p a n , ,

3 00X lb The deection d ue to the falling load

.

o f 40 0 1b accordi ng to colum n 1 3 of the table o n page 000

.
, ,

is 000005 05 X 1 O3 X
. in The constant a thus .

equals 1 1
_ 2 1 42
W2 3 000

1 + 48 9 1 + 48 9 x
W 400
Therefore ,

2 x 2 1 42 x1 8
W W
.

1
002 02
lb .

The m axi m u m bending m om ent d ue to this load is

25 1 1 7 X 1 0
,

The m ax i m u m bending m o m ent d ue to the static or d ead

3 000X 1 0
load i s
,

f t lb
.
-
.
, or 3 75 0X l 2 = 4 5 000 ln
, , .
-
lb .

8
The total bendi ng m o m ent o f both the static and sudden
load is therefore in .

Fro m the table on page 1 48 Therefore

= 4 l s and s = 7 9 8 5 1 0
, ,

, 41 lb per sq in
, . .

This i s g r ea ter than which was assu m ed as the

a llo w able unit stress ven if lb w ere taken as the
. E .

allow able unit stress the actual stress would still be too,

large and a bea m of larger size would have to be assu m ed .

 WOO D AN D CA S T I R ON
-
COL U M N S 1 79

W OOD AN D CAS T I R ON COLU M N S -

WOOD E N P OS TS

M AT ER I ALS

The kinds o f ti m ber usuall y e m ployed for colu m ns are the

long l eaf and short leaf yellow pines red pine w hite and
- -
, ,

red o a k spruce he mlock cypress r and redwood The

, , , , , .

ti m ber gener ally preferred is the yellow pine the long leaf ,
-

variety being stronger and m ore durable than the short

leaf The disadvantage o f thi s wood is that the resino us sap
.

m akes it very ina m m able

i
.

The compres s i ve s tren gth o f ti m ber var es greatly accord

ing to the a m ount o f m oisture t contains a d ecrease n i ,

i
m oisture resul ting in ncreased streng th i
The percentag e .
,

o f m oisture in wood i s usuall y reckoned fro m the dry weight

i
.

Thus if a certain p ec e of ti m ber that weighed 1 65 lb when

i
.
,

green weighs 1 00 1b when kiln d ried t would be said that

.
,

in thi s instance the wood w hen green contained 6 5 % o f

m oisture
i i
.

The dryi ng o f green wood does not e ff ect an ncrease n

strength until the m oisture is decreased to a value a m ounting
t o about 2 0 to 30% of the weight of the dry m ateri al ; that
i s the strength o f a piece o f green wood when b eing d ri ed
,

re m ai ns constant until the m oisture re m aining in the piece

i s red uced to fro m abo ut 2 0 to 30% o f the we i ght o f the dry
w oo d and fro m this stage the strength start s to increase
E , .

xperi m ents m ad e by Tie m an the results o f whi ch are ,

given in the P roceedings o f the Am erican S ociety for Testing

M aterials show for instance the following variations i n
, , ,

strength o f long leaf pine : If the strength of the green

-

w ood i s taken as 1 then the strength o f air dried wood con

,
-

taining 1 2 % moist ure i s and that of kiln dri ed wood -

containing m oisture i s
Thus it i s i m portant w hen consulting tables of strength
,

of ti m ber to kn ow the percentage of m oisture contained i n

1 80 WOOD AN D CA S T I R ON
-
COL U M NS
the sa m ples tested Generall y this percentage a m ounts ,

r
.

to about 1 8 % in ordinary co m m e ci al stock .

The table o n page 1 2 8 gives the ulti m ate co m pressive

strengt hs of the m ore co mm on k nds of ti m ber together i ,

with their m od uli of elasticity .

S H OR T P OSTS
A post or colu m n m a y in its elem en tary form be con
, ,

s i d e r ed as a cubical o r recta n gular block a s shown in Fig 1 , . .

I f the post does n o t exceed in length fro m s i x t o ten ti m es

the s m all est di m ension of
i ts cross sectional area i t -
,

i s d esignated a s a s hor t pos t ,

o r c olu m n .

The load that a short

post m a y safely carry m a y
be esti m ated b y m ultiply
ing i t s sectional area in ,

square inches by the safe ,

uni t co m pression o f the

m ater al parallel t o the i
grain The ulti m ate uni t .

values for co m pression are

g ven n the table o n page i i
1 28 A fac tor of safety .

o f 5 i s generally used but ,

i n so m e instances it m a y
FI G 1 .
be good pr actice to us e 6 .

The pro per factor o f safety to choose i s us u all y governed

by the conditions to be m e t
EX PL E i i i
.

AM A short post o f Georg a yellow p ne i s 1 2 n

i
.

square and 6 ft long What safe load will t support whi le

. .

standing o n end ? The factor o f safety is 5

S o LU r I oN The ul ti m ate strength o f Geo rgia yellow p ne i
.

1b ; hence the safe uni t co m pressive stress i s

i
is .
, 5
1 0001b
, .The area o f the post i s 1 2 n X 1 2 in 1 44 s q in . . . .

Th erefore the safe load i s 1 44 x

i
, lb .

P osts under co m pression d evelop m ore strength f the end

sur faces are true and level The tenden cy then is to resist
.
1 82 WOO D AN D CA S T I R ON COL U M N S
-

u = 3,5 00 = 2 6 6O 1b
, .

S ince the factor of safety is 6 the safe bearing value per ,

squar e inch of sectional area i s lb The .

area of the post being 1 00 sq i n the safe load is 1 00x443 % . .

,

lb .

The colu m n form ul as in general use do not give a direct

m ethod of calcul ating the d i m ensions of a post that will
safely suppo rt a given load The usual method o f obtain .

ing this inform ation is to assu m e values for the d i m e n

:
sio n s of the post substitute these values in the for m ula ,

and then solve for n the ulti m ate average co m pression per
,

square inch o f sectional area of po st I f the assu m ed d i m en .

sio n s give a value o f n that is satisfactory for the given con

d i ti on s ,they are accepted as correct If however the .
, ,

resul ting value of n is s m aller than d esirable it show s that ,

the sectional area i s too s m all Larger di m ensions m ust .

then be chosen and the solution repeated until a satisfactory

result i s obtained .

I f on the contrary the value of n is m uch greater than the

, ,

required ulti m ate strength per square inch of the post sec
tion a s m aller cross sectional area i s chosen and the corre
,
-

s p o n d i n g value o f n is found After a f e w trials a si z e that.

,

gives a satisfactory s t r e ss for the given conditions i s found

EX PL E D esign to the nearest inch a w hi te o a k post
.

AM -

that is to be 1 5 ft long and that is to carry a load of 4 0 000lb

.
, .

with a factor o f safety of 5 The post i s to be square i n .

cross section
L
-

S O U T I O N S ince a factor o f safety o f 5 is to be used

.

.
,

the required post m ust crush under a load o f 5 X 40000 ,

lb The ul ti m ate co m pressive strength of white

.

oak fro m the table o n page 1 2 8 is

,
lb As a trial , .
,

rst try a 7 X 7 post

.

S ubstituting the correct values in the preced ing for m ula ,

5 , 000X 1 5 X 1 2
100X 7
The ulti m ate strength o f the post is therefore
X 7 X 7 = 1 8 1 98 6 lb But the required ulti m ate strength is
, .
 W OOD A N D CA S T I R ON
-
C OL U M NS 1 83

lb Therefore a 7 X 7 po st is not strong enough

.
,

.

N ext try a 1 0 X 1 0 post Thus

, .
,

X 15 X 12
1 00X 1 0
The ulti m ate stre n gth of thi s post is therefore 4 1 00X 1 0 ,

X lb S ince thi s value i s greater than

.

t h e post is safe ; but perha ps a s m aller po st would also ll the

requi re m ents T herefore try an 8 X 8 post Th us

.
,

.
,

X 15 X 12
1 00X 8
The ul ti m ate s trength of this post is therefore X8X8
lb S ince thi s resul t is greater than the req u ired
.

ulti m ate strength the post i s strong enough Moreover , .

,

it has been found that a 7 X 7 post is not strong enough

.

Therefore unl ess the ti m ber be cut to fractions o f an inch

, ,

the 8 X 8 post i s the s m all es t pos t that will ful l the requi re

m ents .

I the for m ula j ust given is trans pos ed s o a s t o rea d

f

a = s the factor 1 may be calculated

fo r various values o f l and d and arrang ed in the fo rm o f a
table as shown o n pages 1 84 1 8 6 that wi ll prove o f grea t
,
-
,

assistance w hen using the form ula .

I n this table the rs t colu m n contains various lengths

,

o f pos ts in inches and in the to p hori zontal ro w are values

, ,

of th e l east thickness of a post i n inches I n o rd er to n d , .

the fac tor fo r a given post rs t n d the nea res t length in ,

the rs t colu m n : then proceed fro m thi s v al ue to the right

until a point is reach ed that is below the l eas t d i m ension
in width The value found at th i s point i s th e facto r d esired
EX PL E A 1 2 X 1 4
. .

AM G eorgia pine pos t i s 1 8 ft long

" "
- . .

W hat safe load w ill i t carry ?

SO L U TI O N
Acco rd ing t o the table the ul ti m ate st re n g th
.
,

per square inch for Georgia pine is lb The l e ngth of .

the post in inches i s 1 8 X l 2 = 2 1 6 and the area of the post

, , ,

is 1 2 X 1 4 = 1 68 sq in Accord ing t o the table the fac tor

. .
,

is . 82 1 . Inserting thi s
 e
H

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.

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 WO OD AN D CA S T I R ON COL UM N
-
S 187

The ulti m ate strength o f the post

is therefore 1 6 8 X 4 1 05 = 6 8 9 6 40 l b Wi th 5 as a factor o f
, , .

safety the safe strength of the post is

,

lb .

C AS T- I R ON C OLU M N S

CO LUM N FOR M U L AS

C a s t i ro n colu m n s
-
are m ost frequentl y used in buildings
o f m od era t e height but in s o m e cas es they ha ve been used
,

in buildings of sixteen and even m ore stories The un c e r

, , .

tain strength o f cast iron has co m pe lled the adoption o f a

lo w unit stress per square inch or in o ther words a high , , ,

factor of safety .

The saf e lo ads that c ast iron colu mn s w i ll carry can be -

obtained by the use o f the tabl e o n pag es 1 8 8 1 8 9 The .

rst colu m n o f this table gives the external dia m eters o f

various colu m ns and the second colu m n the several thick
, ,

ness es that the colu m n o f a given dia m eter is likely to

possess
EX PL
.

AM E A hollow cylindrical colu m n i s 1 8 ft long

, .
,

and h as an external dia m eter o f 1 4 in and an i nternal o n e .

o f 1 1 1; in (a ) What safe load will i t support ? (b) W hat

.

load w ill it support if the intern al dia m eter i s 1 1 i n ? .

SOLTI O
U ( ) N . a The thickness of the m etal is
14 1

i n the
2
in . P roceedi ng i n the table fro m 14 rs t
colu m n the value 1 } i n the second colu m n and then c o n
to ,

t i n u i n g to t h e ri ght until the colu m n head ed 1 8 i s r eached ,

the value 3 8 6 is found This shows tha t the colu m n will

.

support a s afe load of lb .

(b ) I n a colu m n having an internal dia m eter of 1 1 i n

1 1
,
.

the th i ckness of the m etal is

14
in . P roceed i ng

to the right fro m the value in the second colu m n o f the
table the value 45 4 is found in the colu m n headed 1 8 ; hence
, ,

the safe load fo r this colu m n is lb .

I t i s thus e vident that a diff erence i n the thi ckness of the

1 88 WOO D AN D CA S T I R ON C OL U M N
-
S
m
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S
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d e e e ww N N e He n e wwe wn
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O
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H H H H N H H N N

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.

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D I MEN SI ON S , IN IN C H ES , O F S TAN D AR D C
C O N N E TI O N S
TO C AS T -I R ON COLUM N S

0
3 w
E 2 w 0

w s 5-
3 o A B C D E F G H K 30 q m
0 m 3
o .

9 9
8 w

@ o
8m
1 0s} 1} 1% 2 1; 2 1 0
0
1 0% 1; 1% 2 1 1} 2 1 m
9% 1% 11 2 1; 1% 1 o

1 1} 1% 1 0
7 1% 2
3

2 5
a 0
0 m
S 2s 5
5 n
o
A B C D E F G H K 2 A
0 %
a w w
3 o
9 m
a

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3m
0
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m
m
 WOO D AN D C A S T I R O N C O L U M N -
S 191

metal of in g es an increas e in strength of . iv

lb .

The table may also be us ed for calculating the s trength

of colu m ns when a factor o f safet y o ther than 8 is to be used
W
.

Let be safe load given in the table ; W1 the safe load

corres ponding to another factor of safety ; and
factor o f s afet y Then
the new f ,

.
,

W 2 W1 = f 2 8 9

8 W
and W1
f
WJ
w:
8

EXAM PL E
A hollowcast iron column of 1 3 i n external
,
- -
.

diameter and l i i n metal is 1 8 ft lo n g Assuming that the

-
. . .

factor o f safet y is 6 nd the safe load

L
S O UT I O N Fro m the table IV = 3 43 000; hence accord
.
,

.
, ,

ing to the formula ,

8 x
W1 1b .
, nearl y .

6
Many concerns ha ve their o w n s tand ard d esigns for column
connections and brackets These are usuall y embod i ed i n .

tables that give the required di mensions The accompany .

ing table gives the standard di mensio ns o f brackets on

cas t iron c olumns for I beam connections bo th for dou bl e
- -
,

and for single be a ms The t o p surface o f t h e shelf should

.

have a pi tch away fro m the column of k in to the foo t to .

allo w for the d e ection o f the bea m The t o p surface of .

the shelf shoul d have a pi t ch away fro m the column o f i in .

to the foot to all ow f or the deection of the beam As the .

holes in the colu m n a r e co r ed it will usually be neces sary ,

t o ha ve the bea m s d ri ll ed in the eld in ord er to i nsu r e

alinement .

I n this table the values gi ven in the columns marked

A B C etc are the various di mensions for bra ckets thes e
, , .
,

dimensions being represented by co rresponding letters i n the

gures acco mpanyi ng the table Thus for a 1 2 i h I bea m .
,
-
.
-

connection the dis tance from the botto m o f the beam ange
,
1 92 S AN D AN D C EME NT

to the center of the outside bolt o t the vert ical lug should
be 3 i n ; the pitch of the bolts 3 i n ; the pr oj ection of the
.
, .

bracket beyond the colu m n 4 % i n ; the depth o f the ver , .

t ical leg o f the bracket 7 % i n ; etc , . .

SAN D AN D C EME N T
C EM E NTING MATE RI ALS
An y substance t ha t beco mes plas tic und er certai n treat
ment and subs equentl y reverts to a tenaci ous and inelastic
condition ma y in a broad sens e be term ed a c emen t H ow
, , .

ever nearl y all the cementing materials e m ployed in build

,
.

ing cons truction are obtained by the heating o r c alc i n ati on , ,

as it i s c al l ed of minerals com pos ed wholl y or in part o f li m e

, .

The di ff erent com position o f thes e m inerals as w ell as the ,

pro perti es o f the calcined produc ts enables th e vari ous ,

resulting substances to be classied as li mes hyd ra uli c .

ceme n ts pla s ter s and mi s cella n e ou s cemen ts Al though a ll

, , .

thes e materials have cementing properties the term ceme n t ,

i s co mm onl y used to appl y o n ly to the gro up m ade up of

hydrauli c cements h ydra uli c meaning that thes e substances
,

po s s ess the ability to s et o r beco m e hard under water

, , .

Li mes and hydraulic cements (commonl y called s imply

ceme n ts ) are compos ed essentiall y of oxi de o f calcium or ,

lime generall y called qu i c kli m e with whi ch may be com

, ,

b i n ed certain a rgillaceo us or clayey ele m ents notabl y silica

, , ,

and alumina i t being to thes e ele m ents that the hydraulic

,

prope rti es of cert a i n o f thes e m aterials are due Th e .

quantity of silica and alu mina present in these subs tances

enables t hem to be classied as com mon li me s hyd r a uli c li mes , ,

and ceme n ts .

The ratio of the quantit y o f si lic a and alu mi na pres ent in .

thes e materials to the quantity o f lime is called the hydr a u li c

i n d e x I n com m on limes this index i s l es s tha n 1 1095 ; in
.
,

hydrauli c li mes i t lies between 110% and {005 ; and in ce m ents

, ,

i t exceeds {5 95 Th es e li m es merge into each other so grad

.

n all y ho wever
, that it i s often di f c ul t to di sting uish the
,

dividing line betw een them .

1 94 SAN D A N D C EM E N T

considered a s divided into three classes namely eebly , , f

h yd r a u li c ordi n a ri ly h yd r a uli c and e mi n e n tly h yd ra uli c in
, , ,

proportion to the quantity of argillaceous materi als present .

The slaking qual iti es vary from slak ing in a few minut es
with considerable heat after water is add ed in the feebly ,

hyd raulic to slaking only after many hours with p ractically

, ,

no evolution o f heat and without cracking o r powdering in ,

the eminently hydraulic The time of setting under water .

also vari es from setting as hard as so ap in 2 years with the ,

feebly hydraulic to becoming a s ha rd as sto ne in 3 or 4 days

, ,

with the eminentl y hydraulic I f carbonate o f magnesia is .

present in the lime it red uces the ene r gy o f the slaking

, ,

but increases the rapidit y of the setting and the ulti m at e

strength when s e t .

CE M E N T S
Cement may be divided into four general classe s : P ort
land natural puzzolan (also called pozzuolana) and m i xed
, , ,
.

The relative i mportance of each cement is indicated by the

order in which it is named .

P or tla n d ceme n t may be dened as the product resulting

from the process of grinding an intimate mixture o f cal
c a r e o u s (containing lime ) and argi llaceous (containing clay )

materials calcini ng (heating) the mixture until it starts to

,

fuse or melt and gri nding the resulting clinker to a ne

, ,

powder I t must contain not less than

. times as much
li m e by weight as it does of those materials which gi ve the

lime its hydraulic properties and must contain no materials ,

added after calcination except sma ll quantitie s o f certain

,

s u bstance s u sed to regulate the activi ty or the time o f

setting .

N a tu ra l ce me n t is the product resulting from the burning

and subsequent pulverization of an argillaceous limestone
o r other suitable rock in its natural condition the heat of ,

burning being insu f cient to cause the material to start to

melt .

P u z z ola n ce me n t is a material resulting from grinding

togethe r without subsequent calcination an intimate
, ,

mixture of slaked lime and a p u z z o la n i c substance such as ,

 SA N D A N D C E IWE N T 1 95

blast furnace slag or volcanic scoria The only v ariety of

-
.

puzzolan cement employed at all extensi v ely in American

practice i s s la g ceme n t This cement i s made by grinding
.

together a mixture o f blast furnace slag and slaked lime -

.

The slag used for this purpose is granulated o r quenched , ,

in wate r as soon a s it lea ves the furnace which operation ,

dri v es o ff most of the dangerous sulphides and renders the

s lag p u z z o la n i c .

M i xe d cemen ts co ver a wi de range of prod ucts obtained

by m ixing or blending the foregoing cements with each
, ,

other or with other i nert substances S a n d ce me n ts i m . ,

pr ove d ceme n ts and many second grade cements be long

,
-

t o this class M i xed cements howe v er are o f co m paratively

. .
,

little importance
Propert ies o f Ce m ents The hydrauli c cements diff er
.

from the li mes in that they d o n o t slake after calcination ,

and that they set or harden under water They can be

, , .

form ed in to a paste with water without any sensible increase

in volume and with li ttle if any disengagement of heat , , .

They d o n o t shri nk appreciably i n hardening so that the sand ,

and broken ston e with which they are m ixed are employed
merely through moti v es of econo m y and n o t as w ith li mes , ,

o f necessity .

The color f the different grades o f cement is vari able

o ,

but i n certain case s it is distincti v e P ort land cement is a .

dark bluish or gr eenish gr ay ; i f it i s a li ght yellow it may

-
,

i ndi c ate un d e r b u r n i n g N atur al ce ment ranges in color

.

from a light straw through the gr ays to a chocola te bro wn

, , .

S lag cement is gray with usually a tinge o f lilac I n general .

,

howe ver the color o f c ement i s no cri terion o f i t s quality

,

C ement i s pac ked either in wooden b a rrels or in cloth or

paper bags the latter being the form o f package most c o m
,
v

mou ly employed A barrel of P ort land or of slag cement

.

contain s the equi valent o f 4 bags wh i le but 3 bags of natur al ,

cement equals a barrel The a verage weights of the vari ous

.

ce ments are gi ven in the table on page 1 9 6 .

I n proportioning mortar o r concre te by v olume the co m ,

m on assumption is that a bag o f P ort land cement occupie s

. 9 cu ft
. .
1 96 SA N D A N D C EM EN T
AVER AGE WEI GH TS OF H YD R AU LI C CEMEN T S
We i ght C 1 b 1 0 Foot

Kind o f Weight
N et N et
Weight Gu n 1 52
c ement .
of Ba g o f Barrel

P ounds P ounds
P acked L oose

P ortland 94 3 76 1 00 1 20

70 9 0
N atural
S lag
. 94
8 2 3}
28 2
33 0
75 - 9 5
8 0 1 00
45 6 5
5 5 75

P ortland ce m ent m a y be disti nguished by i ts d ark color ,

hea vy weight slow rate o f se tting and gr eater strength

, ,
.

N atural cement i s characte r i zed by lighter color li ghter ,

weight quicker s e t and lower strength S lag cement i s

, , .

somewhat si m i lar to P ort land but may be disti ngui shed ,

fro m it by i ts lilac bluish color by its lighte r we i ght and by

-
, ,

the greater neness to which it i s ground .

P ortland cement i s adaptable to any class of mortar or

concrete construction and is un questionably the be st mate
,

ri al f or all such purpose s N atural and slag ce ments how . ,

e ver are cheaper and under certain conditions may be s u b

, , ,

stituted for the more expensi v e P ortland ce m ent All .

heavy construction especi ally i f expo sed a ll re i nforc ed

, ,

concrete work sidewalks concrete blocks foundations of

, , ,

bu i ldings piers walls abutments etc should be m ade

, , , .

with P or tland cement In second c lass work as in rubble .

-
,

masonry bri ck sewers unimportant work i n da m p or wet

, ,

situations or i n heavy work in whi ch the wor ki ng loads

,

will not be applied until long after completion natural ,

cement m a y be employed to advantage S lag cement is .

be st adap ted to heavy foundation work that i s immersed

in water o r at least continually da m p This ki nd o f cement .

should never be exposed d i rectly to d r y a i r nor should it be ,

subjected either to attrition or i m pact .

1 98 SA N D A N D C E M EN T

properties of sand The greater these voids the more

.
,

cement paste will be required to ll the m in order to gi ve a

dense m ortar The percentage o f voids m a y be determ ined
.

by observing the quantity o f water that can be i ntrodu ced

into a vessel lled with sand but it is best co m puted a s ,

follows :
1 00X w e i g h t per cubic foot

X specic gravi ty
EXA PL M E What is the pe r centage o f voids i n a sand
having a specic gravi ty of and weighing 1 05 lb per .

cu f t ?
L
S O UT I O N S ubstituting in the form ula the percentage
. .

.
,

o f v 01 d 5 1 s
100X 1 05 _
100 1 00 6 3 l

62 5 X 2 6 5. .

The percentage o f voids depends principally on the si z e

and shape of the sand grains and the gradation o f i t s n e
ness and hence will v ary fro m 2 5 to
, S and contain
ing over 45 % of voids shoul d not be used to make mortars .

The shape o f the grains o f sand is of chief import ance in

the inuence that the sand exerts on the percentage of vo ids .

O bvi ously a sand with rounded grains w ill co m pact into a

,

more dense m ass than o n e whose grains are angular o r at

like particles of m ica Therefore the more nearly the grains
.

approach the spherical in shape the m ore dense and strong ,

will be the mortar This fact is contrary to the common

.

opinion o n the subject .

The neness o f sand is d e term ined by passing a dried

sample through a serie s of sie v es having 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 , , , , ,

7 4 1 00 and 2 00 meshes respectively t o the linear inch

, , , , .

The result of this test expressed in the amount of sand ,

passing each sieve is known as the gr a n n lometr i c c om p os i t i on

,

of the sand M aterial that does not pass a i i n screen i s

.
-
.

not conside red to be sand and should be separated by ,

screening S and that is practically all retained on a N O:30

.

sie ve is called c oa r s e while 8 0 or 90% of sand known as

,

n e will pass th r ough this sie v e Fine sand produces a .

weaker mortar than coarse sand but a mixture of ne and ,

coarse sand will surpass eithe r one .

 SA N D A N D C EM EN T 1 99

The purity or cleanness of sand may be roughly a s c e r

, ,

t a i n e d by rubbing it between the ngers and observing how

much d irt remains To dete r mine the percentage of the
.

impurities more accurately a small dried and weighed sam ,

ple is placed in a vessel and stirred up with water The .

sand is allowed to settle the dirty water poured o ff and the

, ,

process repeated until the water pours off clear The sand .

i s then dried and weighed The loss in weight gi v es the .

quantity of impurities contained in the sand The presence .

of d i rt organic loam m ica etc is decidedly injurious and

, , , .

tends to wea k en the r esulting mortar Clay or ne min .

eral matter in small proportions may actually result in

i ncreased strength but excessi v e quantities of these mate
,

rials may be a possible source of weakn ess The best m od .

ern practice limits the quantity o f impuri ties found by this

washing test to
I t is advi sable pri or to the selection o f a sand to deter
, ,

mine what its strength will b e when m ade into mortar

.

P reparati on o f S and S and is prepare d for use by (l )

.

screeni ng t o remove the p ebbles and coarser grains the

neness o f the meshes o f the screen depending o n the ki nd
of work i n which the sand is to be used ; (2 ) washing to ,

remove sal t clay and other foreign matter ; and (3 ) d r ying

'
, ,

if n e c e s s a r v When dry sand i s required it is obtained by

. ,

e v aporating the moisture either in a m achine called a s a n d ,

d rye r or i n large sha llow iron pans supported o n stones

, , , ,

with a wood re placed underneath .

LI ME AN D C EMEN T M OR T AR S
M or ta rs are composed of lime o r cement and sand mixed
to the proper consiste ncy with water The prop o rtions of .

the ingredients depend on the character o f the wo r k in

which the mortar i s to be use d .

I n proportion i ng mortar the quantities o f the separate

ingredients are usually designated by a ratio such as 1
,

1
1 1 Thus 1
, ,

2, 3 etc , 2 signies that 1 part of lime or

.
,

ce ment is used t o 2 parts of sand ; etc Fo r great accurac y .

these measurements should be made b y weight but the y a re ,

usuall y m ade b y v olume which i s almost the same thing , .

2 00 SAN D A N D C E M EN T

Li m e M orta r s { li me mor t a r
besides e e c t i n g an econ
n ,
'

o m y the presence o f sand is necessary to prevent the shrink

,

age that would otherwise occur during the harden i ng of the

pas t e .

When a m ortar i s made of li m e and sand enough lime ,

shoul d be present to just cover completely each grain of

sand An exces s o f lime over this quantity w i ll cause the
.

m ort ar to shrink excessively on d r ying while a deciency ,

of lime will produce a weak and cru m bly mortar The cor .

rect quantity of li me depends o n the character o f the i n gre

d i e n t s the method o f treatment and to some extent o n
, , ,

the j udgment o f the builder The mixtures employed vary

from 1 2 % to 1
.

5 Building laws in many m unicipalities

require the use of a 1
.

3 mixture and f o r most materials this ,

proportion will be found satisfactory although for ri ch fat

limes a 1
, ,

3 ; or a 1 4 mixt u re i s sometimes preferable .

In m i xing lime mortar a bed o f sand i s made in a m ortar

,

box and the lime distributed a s e venly a s possible over it

, ,

rst measuri ng both the li me and the sand in order that

the proportions specied may be obtained The lime i s .

then slaked by pour ing on water after which it should be ,

covered wi th a layer of sand or preferably a tarpaulin

'

, , , ,

to retain the vapor gi ven o ff while the lime i s undergo i ng

the chemical reaction of slaki ng Additional sand i s then .

used if necessary until the mortar attains the proper pr o

, ,

portions .

Care should be taken to add j ust the proper quantity of

water to slake the lime completely to a paste I f t oo m uch .

water i s used the mortar w ill never attain its proper strengt h
, ,

while if to o little i s u se d at rst and more is added duri ng ,

the process of slaki ng the lime will have a te ndency to chill

, ,

ther eby injuri ng its setting and hardening properties .

R ather than make up small batches it is considered better ,

practice to make lime mortar in large quantities and to kee p

it standing in bulk so that it can be used as needed .

L ime mortar is employed chiey for brickwork of the

second class and i t s u s e i s continually decreasing a s that o f
cement increases I t i s absolutely unsuitable fo r any
.

important construction because i t posse sse s neither strength

,
2 02 S AN D A N D C EM EN T
The theory of the composition of a correctly proportioned
mortar is that the cement paste wi ll just a little mor e than
ll a ll the voids be tween the part icles o f sand thus giving ,

an absolutely dense m or tar at the least expense The cor .

rect proportion of cement to sand therefore is more or less , ,

variable depending o n the gr anulometric composition o f the

,

sand S ince howe v er P ortland cement paste that has se t

.
, ,
-

weighs nearly a s much as sand and since the average sand

contains about 3 0 to 40% of voids i t is evident that 1
,

3 ,

mixtures most nearly approach the best and most economical

proportion .

M ortars however are made i n proportions varying from

1 1 to 1
, ,

-
8 The richer m i xtures are used for facing point
ing waterproong granolithic mi xtu r es etc the 1
.
,

, , 2 m ix , .
,

ture being usually m ade for such purposes The leaner .

mixtures are used for rough work lling backi ng etc , , , .

,

but should ne v er be employed where either much strength

o r much density is desired N atural
cement mortars are .

commonly made 1 part of sand less than P ortland cement -

mortars intended for the same purpose ; that is where a

1 3 P ortland cement m ortar would b e u sed a 1
,

-
2 natural ,

mor tar woul d be requ i red although natural cement m ortars,

-

should be decreased by about 2 parts o f sand to equal the

strength o f P ortland I n other words a 1 4 P ortland
m ortar closely equals the strength o f a 1
.
,

2 natural m ortar .

P uzzolan cements are usually proportioned the same as

P o r tlands .

Cements are commonly proportioned by volume the unit

volume of the cement barrel being assumed I f a 1
,

3 mortar .

is desi red a box havi ng a capacity o f

,
cu ft is lled . .

with sand and m i xed with 4 bags or 1 bbl o f cement A . .

box 3 ft 3 1 15 in square and 1 ft deep will hav e a capacity

. . .

o f very nearly cu ft and besides makes a con venient

. .
, ,

size of box for actual work .

For general purposes the mortar should b e of a plastic

co nsistencyr m enough to stand at a considerable angle
.

yet soft enough to work easily Wet mortars are easiest to .

wor k and a re the strongest H owever they are subject to .

,

gr eater shrinkage are slower setting and are more easily

, ,
 SA N D A N D C EM E N T 2 03

attacked by frost D r y mortars o n the other hand a r e

. , ,

ofte n fri able and porous .

I n the followi ng table are gi ven the quantities of m ateri als

required to produce 1 cu yd of compacted mortar The . . .

propor tions are by volum e a cement barrel being assumed ,

to contain cu ft . .

M ATER I ALS R E Q UI R E D P ER C U B I C Y AR D OF M OR T AR

P ortland C ement Lo ose S and

Kind Of
Barrels Cubic Y ard s

%
m
1 m
%
m
o
o 4
w
%

EXA M PL E m u ch cement and sand will be requi red

-
H OW
cu yd o f 1
.

to obtain 3 P ort land cement mortar ?

O L UT I O
N According to the ta ble 1 cu yd o f a 1
-
. .

S . 3 P or t , . .

la nd cement mortar requires

-
bbl o f ce ment ; therefore .
,

cu yd will r equire
. . bbl of cement . .

A lso since 1 cu yd of a m i xture o f this ki nd requ i res

, . . cu .

yd of sand the quanti ty o f sand requ ired will be 8 5 X

.
, .

cu yd . .

Mortar that is to be m ixed by hand i s prepared on a plat

form or in a morta r b o x The sand is rst measured by .

means o f a botto m le ss b o x with handles on the si des After .

lli ng the b o x th e sand is struck o ff le v el the b o x li fted up

, , ,

and the sand spread in a low at pile The requ i red num , .

ber of bags o f cement ar e then emptied on the sand and

spr ead e venly o v er it The pi le i s then mixed wi th shovel s.
,

working throu gh it not less than four times Afte r thi s .

oper ation the dry m i xture i s form ed into a ri ng or crater

, , ,

and t he water intended to be used i s poured i nto the cente r .

The materi al from the si des of the basin i s then shoveled

2 04 SAN D A N D C EM EN T
i nto the center until the water i s entirely absorbe d after ,

which the pile i s worked again with shovels and hoes until
the m i xture i s uniform and in a plastic condition .

Another method of m ixing where a mortar box i s u se d , ,

i s to gather the m i xed dry materials at o n e end of the b o x

and pour in the water at the other end drawi ng the m ix ture
into the wate r with a hoe a little at a ti m e and hoeing until
, ,

a plastic consistency is obtained

P ro perti es and U ses o f Cem ent M ort ar s The strength o f
.

a mortar i s m easur ed by its resistance to tensile compressi v e , ,

TEN SI LE STR EN GTH OF C EMEN T M OR T AR S

Tensile S trength in P ounds ,

per S quare Inch

P r oportions

P ortland C ement N atural Cement

Cement S and
p arts P arts
7 da . 28 da . 3 mo . 7 da . 28 da . 3 mo .

1 1 45 0 6 00 610 1 60 2 45 28 0
1 2 28 0 38 0 39 5 1 15 1 75 2 15
1 3 l 70 2 45 28 0 85 1 30 1 65
l 4 1 25 1 80 2 20 60 1 00 1 35
l 5 80 1 40 1 75 40 75 1 10
1 6 50 115 1 45 25
l 7 30 95 1 20 15 75
1 8 20 70 1 00 10 45 65

cross breaking and shearing stresses and also by d e t e r m i

-
, ,

nations o f i t s adhesion to inert surfaces its resistance t o ,

i m pact abrasion etc There i s no denite ly xed ratio

, ,
.

between the strength of mortar subjected to these di ff erent

stresse s but there is nevertheless a close relation between
,

them s o that practically it m a y be assumed that if a m o r

, , ,

tar shows either abnormally high o r low values in any one

test the same relation will develop when tested under other
,

stresses I n pract ice therefore the strength o f mortar is

.
, ,
2 06 SA N D A N D C EM EN T
In bricklaying and in othe r places i n which mortar is
employed it is frequently desired to use a materi al that i s
more pl a stic or smoothe r than pure cement mortar This .

quality i s usually obtained by adding from 1 0 t o 2 5 % of

lime to the mortar This addition o f lime not only renders
.

the mortar mo re plastic and hence easier to work but also

, ,

increase s both its adhesi ve strength and its density which ,

assists in maki ng the mort ar waterproof H ydrated lime .

i s to be preferred for use in cement mortar becau se its ,

complete slaki ng is assured H yd r ated lime may also be .

readily handled and measured o n the work .

Occasionally small quantities of cement are added to lime

,

mort ars so as to make them set quicker and to increase their

strength S uch m i xtures howe v er are not especially
.
, ,

economical nor ar e they con v enient i n practice

R etem pe rin g o f M ort ar M o r tar c omposed of cement
.

.
,

sand and water soon be g ins to s e t and nally becomes hard

, .

When it is desired to use this m aterial more water has to ,

be added and the mixture worked until it again becomes

plastic This p r ocess is called r ete m per i n g L aboratory
. .

tests generally show that retempering slightly increases the

st r ength o f mortar but the reworking is m ore thorough as
,

a rule in the laboratory than would be the case in actual

wor k An y part of the har dened mortar that is not retem
.

pered is a source of weakness when incorporated in the

building The adhesi v e strength of cement m oreo v er i s
.
, ,

greatly diminished by this process For these reasons

.
,

i t i s generally inad vi sable to pe r mit the use of retempered

mortars ; but i f they are allowed gr eat care should be taken ,

to see that the second working is thorough and complete

L aying M ortar i n Freezing Weather Frost or e ven cold
.

has a tendency to retard gr eatly the se t of cement mor t a r s .

When the te mpe r ature moreo v er i s so low that the water

, ,

with which the m or tar i s mixed freezes before it combines

with the cement it may if care i s not exerci sed result in
, , ,

complete destr uction of the work A single freezing i s not .

particularly har mful because when thawing occu r s the ,

arrested chemical action continues A succession of alte r .

nate f r e e z i n g s a n d thawings however is extremely inj u r ious

, , .
 SAN D A N D C E M EN T 2 07

N evertheless ,
P ortland
cement
mortars may b e laid even
under the worst conditions if certain precautions are o h
served but mortars of natural cement should never be used
,

in extremely cold weather a s they are generally completely ,

ruined by freezing .

The bad resul ts that arise during mild frosts m a y be suc

c e s s f u lly guarded against by heating the sand and water

and by using a quick setting cement mixed rich and a s dry

as possible I n extremely cold weather salt must be added
.
,

to the water so as to convert it into a brine that requires a

,

temperature lower than 32 F to freeze it The common

. .

rule f or adding salt is to use a quantity equal to 1 % of the

weight o f the water for each degree of temperature that is
expected below 33 F Thus at 32 F a 1 % solution woul d

.
,

.
,

be u sed while at
, an 8 % solution would be required .

S olutions greater than 1 2 % should not be employed and ,

if a tempe rature below 2 0 F is expected h eat must be used

.
,

in addition to the salt The nished work should also be .

protecte d with canvas or straw M anure should not be .

used for thi s purpose because the acids it contains tend to

,

rot the ce m ent U nless the conditions are such a s to make

.

it imperative it i s n o t advi sable t o lay morta rs during

,

freezing weather

.

S hr i n kage o f M ortar s C ement m i xtures exposed to t h e

air shrink during the process of hardening while those ,

i m merse d in water tend t o expand The shrinkage of .

ordinary cement mortars i s slight and when they are u sed ,

as a bonding mate ri al it need not be considered When .

used a s a monolith a s in sidewalks shrinkage is guarded

, ,

against by keeping the mortar wet during setting This .

can be done by covering with moist straw o r by sprinkli ng

the m i xture wi th water
Grouting By g rou ti n g is meant the process o f lli ng spaces
.

in masonry with a thin se m i ui d mix ture kn ow n as grou t

, .

This mixture consists o f cement l or 2 parts o f sand and an , ,

excess of water Grou t can be used for lling the v oids in

.

walls o f rubble masonry for backing arches and tunnels and ,

for lling the joints between paving brick I n fact it can be .

,

used in all places where mort ar cannot be laid in the ordinary

2 08 TE S T S ON C EM EN T

m anner When hardened grout is weak friable and porous

Colori ng o f M ortars C olors are often used in mortars to
. ,
, , .

e ff ect contrasts o r to subdue the glaring tone o f cement in

,

sidewalks o r i n sim ilar situations R e d lead weakens .

mortar and should n o t be used The color o f hardened .

m ortar i s quite d i ff erent in appearance fro m on e that i s

still wet s o that where i t is important to secure the cor
,

rect tints preliminary t ri als should be made until the pro

,

portions desired have been determined .

The vari ous materi als e m ployed to produce di ff erent colors

in mor tar together with the quantity requir ed per barrel o f
,

cement are a s follows : For gray 2 lb o f lampblack ; for

, , .

black 4 5 1b o f manganese dioxi de ; for blue 1 9 lb of ult r a

, .
, .

marine ; f or red 2 2 lb o f iron oxide ; for bright red 2 2 lb of

E .

P ompeian or nglish red ; and for violet 22 lb of vi olet oxide , .

, .

o f iron .

TE STS ON C EME N T
FIE L D I NSPE CTI ON
In order to deter m ine correctly the structural value o f a
shipment o f cement an examination in the eld is very
,

necessary A number of packages of cement should be

.

weighed at i ntervals and the a v erage weight should never

,

be permitted to fall below 9 4 lb per bag since mortar and .

,

concrete are usually proportioned on the assumption of this

weight . E
ach package should also be plainly marked with
the brand and name of the manufacturer ; those not branded
should be discarded and if possible a m i xture of d iff e r ent
, , ,

b r ands should be avoided .

A possible indication o f inferiority is the p resence of lumps

throughout the bulk of the material On standing cement . ,

gradually absorbs moisture fr om the air At r st this mois .

ture is pre se nt in merely a minute and har mless state but ,

e ventually it combines chemically with the cement ; that is ,

in the same manner as when ce m ent and water are actually

mixed together in practice In the rst condition lu m ps .
,

u sually appear but they a re so soft that they may be readily

,
21 0 T ES T S ON C EM EN T
must be well protected as exposure to heat cold dampness
, , , ,

or any other abnormal condition may seriously aff ect the

results.

P U RP O SE AN D C LASSIFI CATI ON OF TESTS

In order that a mortar or a concrete made with cement
shall gi ve go o d results in actual construction it must possess
two important properties namely s tr en gth and d u ra bi li ty
, , .

The pri mary purpose of cement testing therefore i s to deter , ,

mine whether any particular shipment o f cement possesses

suf cient strength and durability to admit of its use in
construction .

A determ ination o f the quali ty of ce m ent necessitates the

employment of several tests which may be classied as ,

pri ma ry tes ts and s econ da ry tes ts The former te sts which .

,

include te sts for s ou n d n es s and tensile strength are made to ,

give directly a measure of the es s ential qualities of strength

and durability U nfortunately neither of these tests is
. ,

capable of being made wi th precision Therefor e the second .

,

ary tests which include tests to determine the time o f setting

, ,

the neness the specic gravi ty and the chemical analysis

, , ,

are made to obtain additional inf orm ation in regard to the

character o f the materi al H owever with the possible.
,

exception o f the test o f time of setting the secondary tests ,

ha v e but little importance and only indicate by their results

i nd irectly the properties of the material .

P RI MAR Y TESTS
TES TS FOR
S OUN D N ESS
S ou n d n e s s may be dened as the property of cement that
tends to withstand any forces that may operate to destroy
o r d isintegr ate it This property o f soundness o r as it is
.
, ,

sometimes called c on s ta n c y of volu me is the most important

, ,

requisite of a good cement .

The most common cause o f unsoundness in P ortland

cement i s an excess o f free or uncombined lime which ,

crystalli zes with great inc r ease o f v olume and thus breaks ,

up and destroys the bond of the cement This excess of lime .

 TE S T S ON C E M EN T 21 1

ma y be due to incorrect proportioning or to insu ffi cient grind

ing o f the raw m ate ri als to u n d e r b u r n i n g o r to lack of
, ,

suf cient stori ng before use called s ea s on i n g A certain , .

amount of seasoning is usually necessary because almost ,

e v ery cement no matter how well proportioned or burned

,

i t ma y be will contain a small amount o f this excess of lime

, ,

which on standing will absorb moisture from the ai r slake

, , , ,

and becom e inert

E
.

xcess o f magnesia or the alkalies may also cause unsoun d

ness but the ord i nary cement rarely contains a suf cient
,

amount o f these ingredients to be harmful S ul phate of .

lime is occasionally responsible for unsoundness but this ,

ingredient usually acts in the opposite direction tending to ,

make sound a cement that otherwi se m i ght disintegrate .

The property o f soundness is determined in o n e or more

o f three ways : by measurements o f expansion by norm al ,

tests and by accelerated tests

, .

M ea s u r eme n ts of exp a n s i on are m ade by form ing specimens

of cement usually in the shape o f p risms and measuring the
, ,

change in volume by means of a micrometer screw At the .

present time however it is belie v ed that expansion is n o t a

, ,

su r e index o f unsoundness s o that this test i s seldom ,

employed .

N orm a l tes ts consist in maki ng specimens of ce m ent m i xed

with water preservi ng them in a i r or in water under normal
,

conditions and observing their behavi or The common

, .

practice is to make from a paste of neat o r pure cement on , ,

glass plates about 4 in square two circular pats about 3 in .

, , .

in diameter l in thick at the center and tapering t o a

, .
,

thin edge These pats are kept in moist air for 2 4 h r ;

. .

then one of them is placed in fresh water o f ordinary te mpera

ture and the other i s preserved in air The condition o f the .

pats is observed 7 da and 2 8 da from the date of maki ng . . ,

and thereafter at such times as may be desired .

The most characte ristic forms o f failure are illustrated in

Figs 1 and 2
. .

Fig 1 (a ) shows a pat in good condition

. .

Fig 1 (b) i llustrates shrinkage c r acks that are due not to

.
,

infe r io r cement but to the fact that the pat has been allowed
,
212 T ES T S ON C EM E N T
to dry out too quickly after being made P ats must be kept .

in a moist at m osphere while hardeni ng or these c racks , ,

indicative merely of careless manipulation will develop .

Fig 1 (c) shows cr a cks that are due to the expansion of the
.

cement This condition is common i n the a i r pats and is

.
,

n o t indicative of injur ious properties P ats kept in water

. .

however sh o uld not show these cracks

, .

FI G 1
.

Fig 1 (d) shows cracki ng of the glass plate to which the pat
.

i s attached This cracki ng is caused by expansion or con

.

tra ction of the cement combined with strong adhesion to the

,

glass I t rar ely indicates i njurious properties

. .

Fig 1 (e ) i llustrate s blotching o f the pats the cause of

. ,

which should always be investi gated by chem ical analysis

o r otherwise which may or m a y not warrant the rejection of
'

the material S la g cements or cements adul terated wi th slag

.

invari ably show this blotching .

214 TE S T S ON C EM EN T

Bunsen burner and i s lled with wate r The water i n the .

tank i s kept at a uniform height by me a ns of a constant level -

bottle A wire screen placed an i nch from the bottom of

.

the tank prevents the specimens from coming into contact

with the heated bottom The test pieces which are 2 4 hr
. , .

o ld are placed in the apparatus which i s lled with water o f

, ,

a normal temperat u re and heat is applied at a rate such that

,

the water will come to boiling in about ; hr Qui et boili ng 4

.

is continued f o r 3 h r after which the specimens are removed

.
,

and exa mi ned C are must be taken that the water employed
.

FI G 3.

is clean and fresh becau s e i m pure water m a y seriously

,

aff ect the res ul ts The same wate r also shoul d never be
. , ,

used fo r more than on e test A good cement w ill n o t be

.

aff ected by this treatment and the ball will remain r m an d

,

hard Inferior cement will fail by checki ng cracki ng or

. , ,

entirely disintegrating .

The s tea m tes t is made in the same way as the boiling test ,

except that instead o f immersing the specimens in water ,

they are kept in the steam abov e the water The apparatus .

employed i s the same as that used for the boiling test The .
 T ES T S ON C EM EN T 21 5

wire screen howe ver is raised so that it i s an inch abo v e

, ,

the surface o f the water ; also there must be provi ded a co ver ,

that is close enough t o retain the steam without creating

pressure The steam test i s less se v ere than the bo i ling test
.

and is somewhat less accurate

R esults o f Tests for S oundness
.

The result o f the normal .

te sts i f properly made and i nterpreted may be considered

, ,

reli able guides to the soundness o f the material and cement ,

fa i ling in these tests shoul d always be rejected The a c c e le r .

ate d tests o n the other hand furnish merely i ndicat ions and
, , ,

are by no means inf alli ble A cement passing the boiling .

test can generally be assumed sound and safe f o r u s e but , ,

i f failure occu rs it simply means that other tests should be

,

perform ed with gr eater care and watchfulness I t ofte n i s .

ad vi sable to hold for a few weeks cement that fai ls i n boi ling ,

so that the expansive elements may ha v e an opportunity to

hydrate and beco m e i nert ; but if the material full s a ll the
conditions except the boiling test and is sound in the norm al ,

tests up to 2 8 da it is generally safe for u se All things bei ng

.
, .

equal howe ver a cement that will pass the boi li ng test is
, ,

to be preferred .

TES TS FOR TEN SI LE STR EN GTH

The ten s i le s tr en gth te s t is for the pur pose of a s certaining a
-

measure of the abili ty of the mate rial to wi thstand the loads

that the structure must carry This te st i s made by form .

ing specimens ca lled br i quets o f cement and cement morta r

, , ,

and determ ining the force ne ce ssary to rupture them in ten

sion at the expiration of xed inter v als o f t ime Ce ment .

constructions are ra rely called on t o withstand tensile stresse s ,

but if the tensile strength is kn own the re sistance to other ,

form s o f stress may be computed with a fair degree o f a c cu r

acy The tens i le strengt h te st i s the most convenient for
.
-

laboratory determ ina tions on acco u nt o f the small si ze o f the

,

spec i mens and the comparati vely low st r ess requ ired to cause
rupture .

Cement is te ste d both neat or pure and in a mortar com

m on ly composed of 1 part o f ce ment and 3 part s o f sand .

The period at which the briquets are broken ha ve been x ed

216 TES T S ON C EM EN T
by u sage at 7 da and 2 8 da after m aking although test s
. .
,

covering much longer periods of time are necessa ry in research

or in i nvest i gative work

.

N orm al Consi stenc y The stren g th o f cement and cement

mortars varies considerably with the amount o f water
employed in m aki ng the briquets D r y m i xtures ordinarily .

gi ve the higher results for short time tests and we t mixture s -

,

show stronger with a g reater lapse of time For testing .

purposes therefor e i t is essential that a ll cements be m i xed

, , ,

not with the same amount o f wate r but with the amount that ,

will bring all the ce m ents to the same physical condition or ,

to what i s called n or ma l con s i s ten c y D i ff erent ce m ent s .

require d i ff erent percentages o f water because o f their vary

ing chemical compo sition degr ee of burning age neness etc , , , , .

The norm al consistency of neat ce m ent pas tes m a y be -

determined by the method that follows .

This method i s to form of the paste a ball about 2 i n i n .

diameter and to drop this ball o n a table fro m a he i ght of

about 2 ft I f the cement i s o f the correct consistency the
.
,

ball will not crack nor will it flatten t o less than half i t s
origi nal thickn ess The percentage o f water required
.

will vary from 1 6 to 2 5 depending o n the characteristics of

,

the material the average cement taki ng about

,

C on si stency o f S and M ort ars The consistency of sand .

-

m ortars however cannot be obtained by the fo r egoing

, ,

method because the m i xture is too incoherent For mortars

, . ,

therefore it i s necessa ry t o e m ploy a form ula by means of

,

which the sand consistency can be computed when that of the

neat paste i s known S everal such form ulas have been.

de vi se d o f which the followi ng is adaptable to the gr eate st

,

v ariety o f conditions .

Let x be the per cent of wate r required for the sand mix
.

ture ; N the per cent o f water requi red to bring the neat
, .

cement to norm al consistency ; n the parts of sand to one of ,

cement ; and S a constant dependin g on the character of the

,

sand Then
.
_,3N + S n + l
x
4 (n + 1 )
For crushed quart z sand the con stant S is 30 f or O ttawa
-
, ,

sand it becomes 2 5 ; and f or the bar and bank sands used in

,
218 T ES T S ON C E M EN T
M ol ds Cement briquets are made i n molds that come
either single or in gangs of three fo u r or ve The gang , , .

molds are preferable as they tend to produce greater uni

,

fo r mity in the results M olds should be made of brass or o f

.

some other non co rr odible material ; those made of cast ir on

-

soon rust and become unt for u se

M ethod o f M aki ng Bri quets
.

First g of ce m ent is .
, .

carefully weighed and placed on the mixing table in the form

of a crater and into the center o f this is poured the amount
,

o f water that has pre v iously been determined to gi v e the

correct normal consistency Cement fr om the sides o f the .

crater i s then turned into the center by means of a trowel , ,

until all the water is absorbed after which the mass is ,

vi gorously worked with the hands as dough is kneaded , ,

for 1 % min When sand m ixtures are being tested 2 5 0 g

.
, .

o f cement and 7 5 0 g of sand are r st weighed and thor

.

oughly m ix ed dry until the color of the pile is uniform ; then

the water is added and the operation is completed by vigor
o u s kn eading .

A fter kneading the material is immediately pla ce d into the

,

molds which should rst ha v e been wiped with o i l to pre

,

vent the cement fr om sticki ng to them The entire mold is

lled with m aterial at oncenot compacted in layers
.

and
pressed in rmly wi th the ngers without any ramming o r
pounding An excess of material is then placed on the mold
.

and a trowel drawn over it under moderate pressure at each ,

stroke cutting o ff more and mo re of the excess material ,

until the su rface of the briquets is smooth and e ven The .

mold is the n turn ed over and more material placed in it and ,

smoothed as before The mixing and molding should be

, .

perfo r med on a s u rface of slate glass o r some other smooth , , ,

non absor bent material D u ri ng the m i xi ng the operator

-
.

should wear rubber glo ves so as to protect his hands fr om ,

the action of the lime in the cement

S torage o f Bri quets For 2 4 hr after maki ng the briquets
.

. .
,

are stored in a damp closet so that the cement can ha rden

in a moist atmosphere The damp closet is simply a tight .

box of soapstone with doors of wood lined with zinc or some ,

similar arrangement with a receptacle fo r water at t h e

,
 T ES T S ON C E M EN T 21 9

bottom and racks f o r holding the briquets The briquets .

remain in the molds while in the damp closet but at the ,

expiration of 2 4 hr they are removed marked and placed in

.
, ,

clean water near 70 F until broken

Testi ng M achi ne s There are many styles of testing

. .

machines o n the m arket In Fig 5 is shown what i s called

. .

a s hot ma ch i n e made by the Fai r banks Company It i s

, .

FI G 5
.

constructed on the cast iron frame a and i s operated as f o l

f
-
,

lows : The cup is hung o n the end of the bea m d the poise r ,

placed at the zero mark and the bea m balanced by turning

,

the weight I The hopper b is then lled wi th ne shot and

.
,

the briquet to be te sted is placed in the clips h The hand .

wheel p is now tightened suf ciently to cause the graduated

beam d to rise to the stop k and the automatic valve 1
,
220 T ES T S ON C E M E N T
opened so as to allow the shot to run into the cup
ow of the shot can be regulated by means o f a small val v e
The f .

located where the spout j oins the reservoir When the .

briq uet breaks the beam d drops and by means of the le ver t
,

auto m atically closes the valve A fter the specimen has

broken the cup with i t s contents is removed and the counter
f
, ,

poise g is hung in its place The cup is then hung on the .

hook under the large ball e and the shot weighed The , .

weighing is done by using the poise r o n the graduated

bea m d and the weights n on the counterpoise g The .

result will show the nu m ber of pounds required to break the

speci m en A mold for a single bri quet is shown at c
R ate o f Lo a di n g Testing M achi ne The load shoul d be
. .

applied i n all tests at the uniform rate of 600 lb per m i n . .

The briquets should be broken as soon as they are removed

from the storage tanks and while they are still wet because ,

drying o u t tends to lower their strength The average of .

from three to ve briquets should be taken a s the result of a

te s t
R esults o f Tensi le S trength Tests The tensile strength of
.

cement tested in the preceding manner should increase with

age up to about 3 mo and should then remain practically
.

stationary for longer periods The average results o f tests .

o f P ortland cement made in the P hiladelphia laboratories ,

covering a peri od of several years and based on over

bri quets are given in the accompanyi ng table
,
.

S pecications for strength commonly stipulate mini m um

values for the 7 and 2 8 da tests the customary require -
.
,

ments f or P ortland cement being 5 00 lb at 7 da and 600 1b . . .

at 2 8 da when tested neat and 1 7 0 lb at 7 da and 2 40 lb

.
, , . . .

at 2 8 da when tested in a mortar consisting of 1 part o f

.
,

cement and 3 parts of crushed quart z sand When Ottawa -

.

sand is used the requirements for mortar should be raised

,

to 2 00 and 2 8 0 1b respe ctively R etrogression in strength

. , .

o f the neat briquets between 7 and 2 8 da is not necessarily .

indicati ve of undesirable properties but if the mortar briquets ,

show retrogression the c ement should be condemned

, .

A bnor m ally high strength i n the 7 da test o f neat cement -

. ,

say over 900 1h may generally be taken a s an indication of

. ,
222 TES T S ON C EM EN T

change of form called i n i ti a l s et and (2 ) when the setting is

, ,

complete or when the mass cannot be appreciably distorted

,

without rupture called ha r d s et The time o i setting test

, .
- -

consists therefore in determining the time required for the

, ,

cement to reach these two critical points .

The test is made by m i xing cement with the amount o f

water required to produce normal consistency in the same ,

manner as for neat tensile briquets forming specimens , ,

placing them under one of the forms of apparatus and o b s e r v ,

ing the time that elapses between the moment the mixi n g
water is added and the mo
ments when the paste acquires
initial set and hard set .

The Vi c a t n ee d le shown in ,

Fig 6 consists o f a frame k

. , ,

holding a movable rod l which ,

carries a cap d at the upper

end and a needle h at the
lower A screw
rod in any desired place
holds the
.
f .

The position of the needle i s

shown by a pointer moving
o v er a graduated scale The .

rod with needle and cap weighs

exactly 300 gr and the needle .

i s 1 mm in d iameter with .

the end cut off square When .

making tests of norm al con

FI G 6
sistency the plunger b is sub
.

stituted fo r the needle h and the cap a for the cap d the dif
, ,

ference in weight between the needle and plunger being c o m

p e n s a t e d by the di ff erence in the weight of the caps The .

mold i for holding the cement paste is in the form of a tru n

c a t e d cone .I t has an upper diameter of 6 cm a lower dia .
,

meter o i 7 cm and a height of 4 c m and rests o n a 4 X 4

.
,

X i glass plate
.
,

After the cement paste is mixed the mold is lled by ,

forcing the cement through the la rge end ; then after turning ,

it over and smoothing the top it i s placed o n the glass plate

,
 TES T S ON C EM EN T 223

unde r the needle The needle is lowe red until it is exactly

.

i n contact with the surface of the paste then quickly released ,

and the depth to which it penet r ates read from the graduated
scale I n itial se t is said to ha v e t aken place when the
.

needle ce ases to penetrate to within 5 mm of the bottom .

o f the specimen ; and hard set takes place when the same

needle ceases to make a n impression o n the su rface Trials .

of penetration are made every 5 or 1 0 min unti l these po i nts .

are reached .

Time of setting varies considerably with the amount

o f mixing water employed so that it is essential that every
,

sample tested be brought exactly to normal consiste ncy ;

otherwi se the resul t s may be in decided error V ariations
, .

i n tempe ratur e in both envi ronment and in the m i xi ng water ,

also inuence the results S tanda r d p r actice requires that

.

both the materials and the room in which the te sts are made
he at a temperature of as nearly 7 0 F a s practicable

R esults o f Ti m e o i -S etting Tests I n specifying results

. .

to be obta ined in testing the t ime of se tting it is obvious that ,

a minimum value should be stipulate d for initial set and a

maximum a s we ll a s a minimum for hard se t It must also
, , .

be remembered that a cement mixed with an aggregate and

with an exce ss of water in the eld will re qui re from tw o t o ,

four times as long to se t as the neat cement paste m i xed with -

little water in the labor atory Ce ment the refore showi ng

. , ,

an initial se t at the expi r ation o f 2 0 min with the V icat .

needl e will rarely begin to se t on the actual work in less than

,

i hr whi ch g ives ample time f o r mixi n g and placi n g the

.

m ate rials and c e ment setting in less than 1 0 h r will usually

, . ,

ha v e hardene d completely in the wo r k in 2 4 or at least in

36 hr .S pec ications usually stipula t e that P ort land ce ment
shall show i n itial se t in n o t less tha n 2 0 minute s and sha ll
de velop hard se t in n o t less than 1 hr nor more than 1 0 h r . .

Ce ment reachi ng initial se t i n le ss t h an 1 2 or 1 5 min should .

n e ver be used for any work .

TES TS FOR FI N EN ES S
Appar atu s for Fineness Test T he neness o f c ement i s
.

i mport ant beca use it aff ects both the strengt h and the sound
,
224 T ES T S ON C EM EN T
ness o f the product The neness of cement is dete r mined
.

by passing it through a series of sieves of d iff erent mesh and

then measuring the amount retained on each Three sieves .

are commonly employed namely those having 5 0 1 00 and

, , , ,

2 00 wires to the linear inch S ieves for cement testing should

.

ne v er b e used until they ha v e been carefully examined and

found to conform to the following standard specication :
1 . Cloth for cement sieves shall be of wov en brass wire
of the following diameters : N o 5 0 0090 i n ; N o .
, . . .

.0045 i n ; and N o 2 00 002 3 5 in

. .
, . .

2 . M esh to count o n any part of the sieve as follows :

N o 5 0 not less than 4 8 nor more than 5 0per lin i n ; N o 1 00
.
, . . .
,

not less than 9 6 nor more than 1 00 per lin i n ; and N o 2 00 . . .

,

not less than 1 8 8 nor more than 2 00 per lin in . .

3 . Cloth to be mounted squarely and to show no i r r e g u

la r i t i e s of spacing
M etho d o f M aking the Fineness Test The method of using
.

the sie ves in the neness test is to weigh out 5 0 g o f cement .

on a scale sensible at least to g and to place it on the .

N o 2 00 sieve on which it is shaken until not m ore than

. , g .

passe s the sieve at the end of 1 min of shaking The arrival . .

o f this stage of completion can be watched either by using a

pan under the sieve or by shaki ng over a piece o f paper .

The residue remaini ng o n the sieve is weighed placed o n the ,

N o 1 00 sie v e and the operation repeated again weighing the

. ,

residue The amount remaining o n the N o 5 0 sieve is then

. .

determined similarly The process of s i fting can be a c c e le r

.

ated by placing a small quantity of coarse shot or pebbles

on the sieves with the cement during the shaking These .

may be separated from the cement by passing the residue

with the shot through a coarse sie ve such as the N o 2 0
R esults o f Fineness Tests P ortland cement should be
, . .

ground to such a neness that it will lea ve a residue of not

more than by weight on the N o 2 00 sie ve and not
, .
,

more than 8 % on the N o 1 00 sie v e O f these two require

. .

ments the rst is the more impor tant because it is only that
, ,

par t of the cement passing the nest sieve that is acti v e in

the setting and hardeni ng o f the material The amount .

remaining o n the N o 1 00sie ve is also important because this

.
,
22 6 T ES TS ON C E ZlI E N T

mo uly used I t is also the one adopted by the technical

.

societies as standard I t consists of a glass ask about

.

30 c m high
.
The lower part up to mark a contains 1 2 0
.

cu cm and the bulb between the marks a and b contains

. .
,

exactly 2 0 cu cm The neck of the ask abo ve the mark b

. .

is graduated into 1 15 cu cm The funnel c inserted in the

. .

neck is to facilitate the int r oduction of

the cement .

M ethod o f M aking the S pe c i c Gravity -

Test The method of conducting the

.

s p e c i c gravity test is as follows : 6 4 g

-
.

o f cement is carefully weighed on scales

that should ha ve a sensibility of at least

005 g . The ask Fig 7 is lled to the
. , .
,

lower mar k a with benzine or kerosene ,

which has no action on the cement and ,

carefully adjusted precisely to the mark

by adding the liquid a drop at a time .

The funnel is then placed in the neck of

the ask and the weighed cement intro
d u c e d slowly through it the last traces ,

of the cement being brushed through

with a camel s hair brush The funnel '
.

is then removed and the heig ht o f the

benzine read from the g raduations esti ,

mating to 01 cu cm The displaced . . .

volume is then 2 0 plus the reading in

cubic centimeters and the specic gr avity ,

o f the cement is 6 4 di v ided by that quan

t ity For example suppose that the

.
,

reading on the ask is 5 4 then the dis .

,

FI G 7
.
placed v olume will be and
the specic gravity will be
The appa ratus must be protected fr om changes in tem
p e r a t u r e while in use ; e v en touching the ask with the
ngers will change the volume o f the liquid noticeably The .

ask is sometimes imme r sed in water du ring t lfe tests to

prevent these changes of temperature but this precaution is ,

unnecessary if proper care is exe r cised .

 TES T S ON C EM EN T 227

R esults of S pe ci c Gravity Tests The spe c i c gravity

-
.

of well burned P ortland cement averages about

-
and
should not fall below If it f alls below tests should
also be made o n dried and o n ignited samples to ascertain
whether or not this condition h a s been produced by reason
of excessi v e seasoning As a rule low specic g r a v ity
merely ind icates well
.
,

seasoned cement and if sound and ,

sufciently strong such ce ment is the best sort of m aterial

,

for use as its durabili ty i s scarce ly open to question

, .

TESTS O F NATU RA L A N D S LAG C E M E NTS

The m ethods o f conducting tests o f n a t u ra l and s la g
ce men ts are in all important part iculars identical with those
, ,

empl oyed f or P ortland cement although the results obtained

,

and the interpretation t o be put on the m are often radically

di ff erent In the testing t he only essent ial d iff erence i s in
.
,

the amount of water required by these cements to produce

norm al consistency natural ce ment requi ri ng fro m 2 3 t o
,

35 % and slag cement taki ng abou t o r an average

o f 2 or 3 % less than P ortland Tests of natural cement for

.

tensile strength are also frequently made on 1 1 and 1 2 -

mo rtars but recent practice is to test mortars of a ll kind s

,

of cement in 1 3 m ixtures Fo r these cements moreover

. , ,

the s pe c i c gra v ity test h a s practically no sig n icance

-
,

except in dete rmining the uniform ity with which the d i f

fe r e n t b r ands are made .

C E M E NT C C
S P E I F I ATI ON S
The common require m ents for high g rade P ortland -
,

n atur al and slag c e m ents are given in the table o n page

,

2 2 8 and following the table i s gi v en a good exa mple o f a

,

complete m odern specication for P ortland cement .

SP ECI FI C ATI ON S FOR P OR T LAN D CEME NT

Ki n d All ce ment shall b e P ortland of the best quali t y ,

dry and free from l u mps By P ortland c ement i s meant the

.

nely pul veri zed product resulting from the calcination

to incipient fusion of an intimate m ix tu re of prope r ly p r o
2 28 TE S T S 0N C E M E N T
portioned argillaceous and calcareous materials to which n o
addition greater than 3 % has been m ade subsequent to
calcination .

R EQ U I R EM EN T S FOR H I GH G R AD E C EM EN TS -

P ortland N atural S lag

R e qu l r e m e n t s
Cement Cement Cement

S peci c gravi ty :
N ot less than
Fi n e n e s s :
.

R esidue on N o 1 00 .

si ev e not over , 8% 1 0% 3%
R esidue o n N o 2 00 .

sieve not over 25 % 30% 1 0%

:
,

Ti me of s etti n g
Initial not less than , 2 0 min . 1 0 min . 2 0 min .

H ard not less than

, 1 hr . 3 0 min . 1 h r .

H a rd not more than

, . 1 0 hr . 3 hr . 1 0 hr .

T e n s i le s tren gth per s q i n . .

7 da neat not less

.
, ,

than 500 lb . 1 25 lb . 3 5 0 lb .

2 8 da neat not less

.
, ,

than 600 lb 225 lb 45 0 lb

7 da 1
. . .

.
,3 quartz not ,

less than . 1 7 0 lb . 5 0 lb . 1 25 lb .

2 8 da 1 3 quartz not
.
,
-
,

less than 2 40 lb 1 1 0 lb 2 00 lb
d n es s :
. . .

S ou n
N ormal pats in ai r sound and sound and sound and
and water for 2 8 hard hard hard
da .

d d
5
1n
5
1n
Boiling test to be
A n a lys i s ;
M agnes a i , M go , not
4% 4%
Anhydrous sulphuric
acid 5 03 not over , ,

S ulphur S not over , , .

P ackage s Cement shall be packed

strong cloth or in
can v as bags or in sound barrels lined with paper which
, ,

shall be plainly marked with the brand and the name of the
manufacturer Bags shall contain 9 4 lb net and barrels
. .

shall contain 3 7 6 lb net . .

2 30 P LA I N C ON C R E T E

P LA I N C ONC R E TE

MATERIA L S U SE D IN C ON C R ETE
D EFIN I TI ON S AN D TER M S
C on is usually made of cement sand and broken
c r ete , ,

stone The cement in a plastic state either by itself or with

.
,

the sand that is generally mixed with it is called the m a tri x , ,

and the broken stone gr avel or other m aterial use d as a , ,

ller is called the a ggr e gate The s and is correctly classed as .

a part of the aggregate although some engineers include i t ,

with the matri x The aggregate is used to cheapen con.

crete P ure o r neat cement when wet with water would

. , , , ,

i n a way full all the physical requirements o f concrete but ,

it woul d be t oo expensive .

I n the concr ete of today hydraulic cement is used almost ,

exclusively For this reason the term concrete as com

.
, ,

m on ly used refers only to that variety

, I n specifying any .

other ki nd o f concrete the usual custom is to mention it ,

by its fu ll name as bi tu m i n ou s con cr ete li me con c rete etc

, , , .

S uch varieties however are of comparatively little i m por

, ,

tance .

The term concrete besides being restricted to hydraulic ,

cement concrete has another restriction : the aggregate must

,

not be sand alone although it may be partly sand A mix , .

ture of hydraulic cement s and and water is called by the , ,

special name of mo rta r .

Concrete is usually named from the kind of a ggr egate used .

For example s ton e c on cr ete embodies the use of broken

,

stone or coarse pebbles while in ci n de r con c r ete the a gg r e , ,

gate consists of C inders o r b roken slag .

The proportion of cement and sand to the broken stone

depends on the spaces between the stones which are known ,

as vo i ds I n all instances there must be sufcient mortar

. ,

to ll the v oids entirely and to co ver all surfaces of the

sepa r ate stones .
 P LA I N C O N C R E TE 2 31

AG GR EGAT ES OTH ER T H AN S AN D
The aggre gates o r broken stone used in concrete work
should possess three qualities : (1 ) They should be ha d r

and strong so as to resist c rushing and shearing or trans verse

,

stresses ; (2 ) they should have surface texture that will per

mit the cement mortar to adhere to their surfaces ; and
(3 ) where the concrete is to b e used for building c o n s t r u c
tion such a s in reinfo rced concrete wo r k and for r e p r o o n g
,
-
, ,

they should possess refractory o r r e resisting qualities ,

-
, .

U sually aggregates that break in such a way as to allow the

,

s m allest spaces or interstices between the particles will

, , ,

make the strongest conc r e te for construction purpose s

because the v oids can be most economically lled w ith
cement mortar
S ize o f Aggregates I n m easuring broken stone the size
.

o f the stone is determ ined by the size of the ring through

which it will pass For instance a 2 i n stone is o n e that

.
,
-
.

will pass through a ring or hole that is 2 in in diameter , , . .

The broken stone used in concrete work v aries in size with

the natur e o f the work For foundation and mass con .

struction it is the custom to use broken stone o f a size that

,

will p ass through the 2 o r 2 i n ri n g For lling the -

. .

spandrels of bridges or the space s between walls where ,

mere mass i s desired broken stone of a much larger size is

,

used .

I n reinforced concre te work the broken stone m ust be

-
,

small owing to the narrow space s in the forms For columns

, .

and wall work st o ne that will pass th r ough a 1 or i i n ri n g

,
-
.

i s sui table while for lling the beam and girder forms whe re
, ,

numerous reinforcing rods occur the b r oken stone i s some ,

times s o sma ll as to pass t h rough a i n ri n g -

. .

The late st practice in maki ng concrete is to u se stone a s

it comes from the cru sher without screening it While ,
.

such stone termed the r u n of c ru s he r contains broken stone

, ,

of a si z e specied it also has smaller p a rticle s o f stone and

,

such stone dust a s i s carried along with the br oken stone

from the crusher Where the r u n o f crusher is used the
. ,

pr opo r tion of the cement and sand must be changed be cause ,

the stone dust takes the p lace o f some of the sand In .

2 32 P LA I N C ON C R E T E
using run of crusher the very nest dust should be washed
or scr eened o u t as it tends to coat the large pieces and
to prevent the cement fro m adhering to the m

.

S electio n o f A g g regate s U suall y the character o f the

aggregates used in mix ing concrete depends on the a v ail
ability of the supply Where there i s m uch choice in the
.

selection o f the aggregates those which are hardest and

which break with a cubical fracture will make the best con
crete although rounded pebbles are considered by some
engineers to possess great advantages .

The size o f the aggregates h a s m uch t o do with the quality

and strength of the concrete I t can however be stated .
, ,

as a general proposition that the larger the stones the

stronger will be the concre te Thi s fact i s shown by the .

accompanying table which gives the results of te sts made

,

at the Watertown Arsenal in 1 8 98 I t i s interesting to note .

that the concr e te becomes heavier per cubic foot or in other , ,

words more dense the larger the stone used All these
, , .

te sts were m ade with concrete manufactured in the pro

por tion o f 1 part o f cement 1 part o f sand and 3 parts of
broken stone s o r a 1 1
, ,

, 3 (1 to 1 to 3 ) m ix ture as i t i s usually
-
,

expresse d The gures o n cinder concre te in the table are

.

adde d simply to give a compari son o f weights for it will ,

be noted that the cinder concrete i s older than the other

concretes and therefore stronger in proportion .

Ag g regates that consist o f stone o f varying size s are be st

for maki ng concre te owing to the fact that they pack closer
, .

I t is well however to scree n all the ne particles such a s

, ,

i i n sizes and u se them with the sand as otherwise they

-
. , ,

will not mix properly with the cement .

Broken trap rock is the be st aggregate for concrete work ,

the next in value is broken granite while the third in order ,

o f meri t is good clean gravel In fact these th ree aggregates

. ,

can be classied together and the item o f cost only shoul d

,

inuence the selection of any one of them M ar ble li me .

,

stone and slag make good aggregate s in the order named

, , ,

but marble and limestone are objectionable if the concr ete

i s to be u se d a s a r e p r o on g The poorest aggr egates are.

sandstone slate and shale The sandstone is ine ff icient

, , .
2 34 P LA I N C ON CR E T E
on account o f its lack of hardness and i t s liability to c ru m ble ,

a nd from the fact that its surface i s likely to be unstable .

S late and shale are hard but they are of a laminated strue ,

t ure and break in such aky shape s that they will not pack
closely C inders are frequently used as the aggregate for
.

c oncrete Cinder concrete however doe s not possess s uf

. , ,

c i e n t s trength for structur al purpose s and i s g enera lly used ,

for lli ng or for r e p r o o n g .

Based on per centages o f e ffi ciency with trap rock taken ,

at 1 00 the following table gives a fair represe ntation of the

,

comparati ve values of the di ff erent aggregates :

C OMP AR ATI VE VALU E OF D I FFER EN T AGG R EGATES
U SE D I N C ON R ETE C
M aterial Value

Tra p r o ck 100
i
.

G ran te
o

Gravel (quartz ) .

Limestone (hard , li ke ma r ble ) .

Lim estone 75
75

55
Cinde r s 50

P R OP OR TI ONIN G OF IN G R E D IE N TS
E e ct and Im perviousness The str ength of
on S trength .

c oncre te depends on the st rength o f the ce m ent and the

thoroughness with which the cement binds t og e t h e th e .

various pieces of agg regate The more comple tely the voids .

are lled the more completely will the aggregate be held

,

t ogether Therefore the more solid and condensed th e con

.
,

crete is the less v oids i t wi ll have and the stronger it wi ll

, ,

be The same is true with regard to making concrete water

.

proof : the m ore dense the concrete is the m ore nearly water ,

proof it i s .

A m ixture of 1 part of cement 1 % part s o f sand and 3 part s , ,

o f stone which would be considered extravagantly rich for

,
 P LA I N C ON C R E T E 2 35

a dry place is pr obably as dense a concre te and a s good for

, ,

wate rproong qualitie s as can be m ade , .

When a concre te is made o f cement sand and stone and , , ,

the stone is o f such a si ze that it will pass through a 3 i n -

.

ring but will n o t pass through a 2 3 i n ri ng the concrete i s

,
7 -
.
,

weaker and requi res more ce m ent than o n e made wit h

graded stone from 3 i h down When the stone is grade d
-
. .

in size the stone s of smaller si ze ll the voids be tween the

,

larger stones and thus reduce the quantity o f cement and

sand requi red
P ropo rt ioni ng b y Wei ght A method of proportioni ng
.

the materi als that i s simple and fairly accurate is as f o l

, ,

lows : A batch of concrete is mi xed in known proportions .

The same quantity o f water is use d that it i s proposed t o use

o n the work and the mi xture is rammed and tampe d in the
,

re ceptacle in a u ni form manner The re c eptacle s hould pre .

f e r a b ly be o f me tal ; a tin washtub o r a short se ction of ,

1 2 in
-
. pipe cappe d at one end will answer When the
, , .

receptacle is full it i s we ighed and if the weight o f the recep

, ,

tacle itself h a s previously been foun d the weight of the con ,

cre te may be obtained V arious other mix tures of concre te.

are tried i n the same m anner and since the denser the m ix ture ,

the stronger it w i ll be the hea v iest concrete is the stronge st

for the particular work
,

ach batch of concre te must be . E

we ighed and taken o u t of the receptacle before it has time
to se t ; otherwise so me di ff iculty might be experienced in
,

g e t t i n g i t loose
U sual P ro po rtions o f M ateri als Th e stro ngest concrete
.

doe s not always ha v e to be used a s it may be requi red to ,

withstand only slight stresse s and be simply used for it s

we ight The strongest conc re te wo ul d then be unn ecessarily
.

expensive Therefore the for egoing method for propor tion

.
,

ing concre te i s seldom employed The e ngineer usuall y .

specie s a m ix t ure f r om h i s o w n expe rience without testing

the aggregate s in any way except to see that the stone i s ,

under the specied maxi mum size and that the sand is in
lar ge grains and free from dirt and loam A common pro
portion f o r unimp ortant work is 1 3
.

6 This p roportion .

may b e u sed for foundations below ground in e ngine base s , ,

2 36 P LA I N C O N C R E TE

i n the foundations for asphalt pavements and for similar

purposes A richer m ix ture 1
,

. 2 4 i s use d in piers in
, ,

dams in important reinforced concrete work and in other

,
-
,

place s where great strength is desired

Water f or Concrete The wetter the concrete is the easier
.

.
,

i t will be put in place but m ixtures that are too wet are
,

not s o strong as mediu m mix tures The amount o f water .

that will make the best m ix ture i s such that after the con
c rete has be en put in place and rammed it wi ll quake like
jelly when struck with a spade and water will come to the ,

sur face If the concrete is wette r than this the water wi ll

.
,

have a slight chemical eff ect on the cement and moreover , , ,

the sand and cement will tend to separate from the broken
stone .

I n cinder concrete owing to the porosity of the C inders

, ,

i t is necessary to use a little more water so that the cement ,

will be liquid enough to ll the little cavitie s in each cinder .

This precaution is indispensable when the concre te is t o

be use d with steel as otherwise the steel will be rapidl y
,

corroded by the action o f air reaching it through the pores

i n the cinder
D r y Concrete W ith the advent of the concrete block
.

.
,

a great deal i s heard about d r y con c r ete This name i s given .

t o concrete in which as little water a s possible is m ixed .

I n the concrete block manuf acturing business the mold

-
,

in which each block is made i s required as soon as possible ,

s o that i t can be used over again and thus increase the

capacity of the machine to which it b elongs For this .

reason the concrete block manu facturers use often dry

,
-
, ,

conc r ete and attempt to supply the remainder of the water

,

r equired for the complete crystallization o r setting o f the , ,

cement by c u ri n g the blocks ; that is by sprinkling them ,

with water for a week or so The results of recent tests.

seem to indicate that dry concrete will show h i gher com

p ression values for a limited time after it i s made but that ,

the rate o f increase of strength is not so great a s with wet

conc rete After 1 yr or 6 m o the strength of the wet con
. . .
,

crete will be found to have attained and perhaps surpas sed , ,

that o f the dry m ix ture .

2 38 P LA I N C ON C R EE T

in setting in air and that the shrinkage will be two to three

,

times as great with neat cement The shrinkage in concr ete .

w i ll be much less than with neat cement or cement m ort a r .

The shrinkage o f concrete is lessened by embedding in it

steel rods or b ars as these by their tensile resistance pre v ent
, , ,

the shrinkage o f the material in setti n g By the e xp e r i

ments of Consid ere it i s found that with 1
.

, 3 mortar rein
forced with steel the shr inkage in setting is about o n e f t h -

that of the same mortar without the steel reinforcement

E ff ect o f Therm al C hange s i n Concrete N e a r1y all
.

m ateri a ls expand slightly as they become heated Con .

crete and steel also follow this law The contraction or the .

expansion o f concrete due to chang es in temperature is about

the same as that of steel The a v erage coef cient o f e xp a n
sion o f a 1 2
.

4 concrete f or each Fahrenheit degr ee in change

of temperature is 000005 5 . xperiments made o n 1
. E3 6
concrete give a c oe i c i e n t of expans ion of 0000065 which .
,

i s practically the same a s the coe f cient of steel

E ff ect o f Vi b ration o n Concrete The e ff ect of constant
.

v ibration o n concrete structur es h a s n o t been deni tely

determined M any buildings and bridges con structed of
.

con crete rei n f orced with steel rods and bars have withstood
heavy and constant vibration either continuous or inter ,

mittent for an extended period o f years with no apparent

,

deterioration in strength Fresh concrete is always how

.
,

e ver subject to deterioration by vibration and the strength

, ,

o f concrete subjecte d to j ar or shock when setting i s materially

reduced because the process o f crystallization betw een the

,

part icles and the con sequent cohesion of the mass seem s
, ,

to be partly destroyed .

W OR K IN G STR ES SES AN D S TR E N GTH V ALUES OF

C ON CR T EE
The ultimate strength o f concrete varies so with the pro
portion o f the mixture manner of working character of
, ,

ingredients and age o f material that it is necessary t o

, ,

assume low unit working st resses for it .

Th e usual working stress for plain concre te under com

pression i s from 2 5 0to 300 lb per s q i n although in masse s
. . .
, , ,
 P LAI N C ON C R E T E 2 39

as in footings a 1 2 &5 concrete woul d safely sustain as

,
-

much a s 5 00 lb per sq in When reinforced concrete is

. . .

subjecte d to compression from loads causing bending it is ,

customary to gu re the safe allowable uni t co m pressi ve

stress in the c ompression portion o f a reinforced concrete -

bea m at from 5 00 t o 600 or e v en 75 0 lb per sq in . . .

I n tension concrete has little value ; in fact it cannot be

, ,

r elied on to resist this stress Gene r ally the tensile strength .

,

of pla in concrete i s about o n e tenth o f its compressi ve -

strength .

The modulus of rupture o r the uni t value f o r guri n g the ,

transverse strength of plain concrete i s much lower than ,

the modulus of rupture of any of the good building stones .

The safe unit bending stress for plain concre te based on a ,

factor o f safety o f 4 from values o f the modulus o f rupture

,

obtained from recent tests m ade o n concrete 30 da o ld is .

,

about 1 1 0 1b This value i s for concrete co m po sed o f 1 part

.

o f cement 2 parts o f sand and 4 parts o f broken stone

W ith a poorer m i x ture as a 1 2
, , .

5 concre te a safe bending

stre ss o f about 9 5 lb should be used while with a 1 3
, ,

. 5 ,

m ix ture the safe bendi ng stress is barely 7 0 1b and this

, .
,

value shows a corresponding decrease a s the m ixture become s

leaner .

The safe unit shearing stre ss of plain concrete i s in practice , ,

take n at a very lo w gure when compared with recent te st s ,

gi v ing the ul timate sheari ng resistance o f thi s material .

This lo w gure i s pr obably due to the fact that few test s

ha ve been m ade t o de termine the value of plain concrete
in shear ; o r perhaps it i s due to the u nreli ability of concrete ,

a s found in practice t o resist this stress , The conservati ve .

s afe uni t sh eari ng stress of plain concr ete i s ta ke n a t 5 0 1b .

,

although the value may be increase d f or rich m ixtures and

careful wor km anship to 7 5 lb .

The safe gri p or bon d a s it i s c alled of concrete o n steel

, , ,

rods o r bars with plain surfaces embedded in it i s taken for , ,

purpose s o f calculation at 5 0 lb per s q in of the surface

, . . .

o f the metal in contact with the conc r ete .

All the values j ust mentioned are base d o n concrete at

least 1 m o o ld There is great diversity o f opinion rega r d
. .
2 40 P LA IN C ON C R E T E

in g the safe unit values of plain concrete and there is no ,

u niformity in the building laws o f the several cities regard

ing the strength o f this m aterial This is shown by the .

following table which gives the working values of concre te

,

allowed by the building laws of se v eral cities :

UNI T WOR KI N G V ALU ES OF C ON CR ET E ALLOW D BY E
V AR I OU S C I TI ES
Di r ect Un
izgggggg
ss
C ompres S hear
sum P ounds U nde r Bending
N am e Of C i ty P ounds per Loads

:
per S quare
P ounds pe r
8
?g
e In Ch
S quare Inch

35 0 50 500
P hilad elphia . 25 0 50 600
C leveland . 4 00 50
S a n Franci sco 45 0 75 5 00
Buffal o . 35 0 50
Toronto 3 40 50 5 00

An average ultimate unit compressive strength of lb

would be conservative for a 1 2
.

4 concrete from 1 to 3 m o
lb for a 1
, .

old and,
3 6 concrete of the same age
.
-
.

M ix tures varying in richness between these limits woul d

ha v e proportional values .

The tensile strengt h of concrete is more affected by the

quality o f t h e mix ture than is its compressive stress There .

fore a conservati v e ultimate tensile strength value o f a - -

1 2 0 1b wh ile fo r a 1 3
,

4 m i x ture would be about 2 0 6 .

,
-

m ixture it would be about 1 2 5 1b

, .

The shearing streng th o f concrete i s u sually much less

than the compressive strength For a 1 2 4 mixture an .

a v erage ultimate sheari ng strength of lb per sq in

h a s been de term ine d by tests while a 1
. . .

35 mixture has
gi ven lh and a 1 3 6 m ixture has given a value in
.
,
,

shear of lb per s q in . . .

The average m od ulus of rupture for plain concrete that was

from 33 t o 35 da o ld h a s been found to be 4 39 lb per s q in
. . . .
2 42 P LA I N C ON C R E TE

for a 1 24 mixture 38 0 lb per sq in for a 1 2 5 m ixture -

and 2 8 5 lb per sq in for a 1 3 5 mixture while a 1

. .
, .
,

. . 3 6.
,
-

m ixture gave a result of 2 2 6 lb per sq in . . .

The values given in the accompanying table ar e re c o m

mended as ultimate values by W P urves Taylor eng ineer .
,

in charge o f the m unicipal te sting laboratory of P hi ladelphia .

The gure s repre sent values obtained from s ix hundred

experimen t s m ade on concrete properly m ixed with good
P ortland cement I t will be noticed that the values given
.

for shear are considerably lower than those j ust gi ven The .

res ul ts obtained depend to a large extent on the m ethod of

testing S ome engineers prefer the lower values
. .

M I XI NG AN D W O R KI NG O F C ON C RET E
C ON CR ETE M I XT UR ES

M eth od s of M easu ri n g Ingred i ents .

After deciding what
proportions of ingredients will be used for the concrete the ,

e ngineer m ust be able to calculate the exact quantity of

each material that he m ust order A n ordinary b o x c a r .

holds from 400 to 600 bags o f ce ment The purchaser i s .

charged for the bags by the man uf acturer unless they a re ,

o f pape r but he gets a rebate f or those which are returned

, .

C ement is usually measured by the barrel j ust as it co m e s

from the manufacturer or as 4 bags t o the barrel while , ,

broken stone and sand are measured loose in a barrel P ort .

land cement after it is taken o u t of its original package and

,

stirred up lls a larger volum e than when packed I t is

, .

therefore necessary to state j ust how the cement i s to be

measured ; and a s said before the custom is to measure
, ,

it by the barrel compact A ce ment barrel contains about

, .

cu ft
Fuller s R ule f or Qu anti ti es
. .

A practical rule has been .

de v ised by W B Ful ler whereby after the proportions o f

. .
,

in g redients have been x ed the quantity of materi al for a ,

certain work may be obtained I t is called Fu ller s r u le for .

'

qu a n ti ti es and may be exp ressed in mathematical sym bols

,

as follows :
 P LA I N C ON C R E T E 2 43

Let c be the number o f part s of cement ; s the num ber of ,

part s o f sand ; g the number o f par ts of gravel or broken

,

stone ; C the num ber o f barrels o f P ortland cement requir ed

,

for 1 cu yd of concrete ; 5 the number of cubic yards of

. .
,

sand r e qmr e d for 1 cu yd of concre te ; and G the num ber

'

. . ,

of cubic yards o f ston e or gr a v e l r e qu i r e d f or 1 cu yd o f

'
. .

concrete Then
.

11
C , S = C s , an d G=
C g
c +s +g 27 27
If the broken stone is of uni forml y large size with n o ,

sm a ller sto ne in it the voids will be g reater than if the ston e

,

were graded Therefore 5 % must be added to each value

.
,

found by the preceding for mulas

E X A M P L E I f a 1 2
.

4 m ix ture i s considered wha t will ,

be :(a ) the nu m ber o f barrels o f cement (b) the num ber o f ,

cubic yard s o f sand and (c ) the number o f cubic yards of

,

stone requi red f or 1 cu yd of concrete

S O L U T I O N (a ) H ere c = 1 s = 2 and g = 4
. . .

. S ubstituting , , .

these values in the rst form ula ,

11
C

(b) S ubstituting the values of C and s in the se co nd

form ula .

27
(c ) S ubstituting the value s of C and g in the t hi rd
for m ula ,

G == 1 5 7 X 4 = 88
. .

27
Tab le o f Qu anti ti es The table on pages 2 44 and 2 4 5 gi ving ,

th e qua ntities o f ingr e dients for c o ncrete o f various p r o

portions w a s prepare d by dwi n Thacher I t will be note d
, E .

i n thi s table t h at the di fference in the character and si z e of

the stone or gravel us e d h a s been taken i nto accoun t Thes e .

values will be foun d t o agr ee fairly well with value s fou nd

by Fuller s rule
.
2 44 P LAI N C O N C R E TE

: pA m mH m h H o a o
'
n o
m m@ m m ww wn
: [B Q
.

2 . SA J
8

8
2
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.
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2 3 s
5 3 e
0 0
A H
H o
o

E m
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s c B
:
H
u o o a
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H
H g
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m m
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u m mm
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:a
1

m
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H c
93
.

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m u
mmm mH

m 5 1 o e o H
w . m m n mu mm . wm
0 H H v-lv l r -l v-l v l r -
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5
3 mmC m c m ma
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0 c m a a O n ma a a n
H H o
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S o
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H u # m mm N a e
E o 5 m m mV m m
H
o
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s
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5 s s
N a. m w O m o v H o mH mm o w
e o w H wO o h v b ww N
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.

o o
1m m . . . . .
A . . . . . . . . .

M
.

n d mw N H N H H H H H H H H H H

w o m mww H m m mm h
PA
.

n 0
. .

c
:l
5 n
a
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c b n a a k wa a o 5 mmm mu
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0
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w i
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.

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Du e s r 4 r h 4 r 4 wh 4 w4 H u q ou N cq c uN cq
.
"
2 46 P LA I N C ON C R E TE

W OR KI N G OF C ON CR ETE
M i xi ng o f Concret e
C oncrete m a y be m ixed either by
hand or by machine For smal l work the concrete is mix ed
. ,

by hand in small batches such a s would be made up from

,

1 o r 2 bags o f cement I n m i x ing hand work should be

. ,

performed o n a at water ti ght platform The sand after

,
-
.
,

it has been measured is spread over the platform in an even

;

layer U pon the sand is placed the cement and these tw o

. ,

m aterials are turned over with shovels at least three times ,

or until the un i form color o f the m i x ture indicates that they

are thoroughly incorp orated The stones or aggregate s .
, ,

having previously been well wetted are then placed on the ,

top of the m ix tur e o f sand and cement and these materials

are also turned at least three times water being added after ,

the rst turning The water shoul d always be added in

.

small quantities I f a hose is used f or this purpose it should

.
,

be tted with a spri n kli ng nozzle as otherwise much o f the ,

cement is liable to be washed ou t of the mixtur e The .

concrete when ready for placing should be of un i form con

, ,

sistency either meal y for a dry mix or mushy for a wet mix
, .

I n large work the mi xing should be done by machine

, .

R etem peri n g o f Co n cr ete I f the c ement o f the concrete

-

h a s attained its initial set before being placedthat is if

.

the concrete has commenced to har denre m ixing with

,

water o r r etem pe ri n g of con cr ete as it is called should not

, , ,

be allowed ; and if concrete treated in thi s manner h a s been

deposited in the form s it should be taken out and removed
,

from the site o f the ope ration because concrete cannot be ,

retempered properly except in s m all quantities for labor

,

a t or y tests

Concreti ng a t Hi gh Tem pe ratu re s I f the weather i s

.

extremely warm the stone a n d sand are liable to become

,

heated to a high temperature Then in m ixing the materials . , ,

the water necessary for the crystallization of the ce m ent is

rapidly absorbe d by the stone and the sand o r else rapidl y ,

evaporated by contact with them A gain the extreme .

,

heat will hasten the se tting of the cement and this tends ,

t o cause the concrete t o cake in the mixing machine pro ,

d u c i n g lumpy and inferior concrete I n order to overcome .

 P LA I N C ON C R E T E 2 47

such d i mc ult i e s the stone should be thoroughly wetted

,

with a hose and the sand and stone shoul d be kept under
,

cover away from the direct rays of the sun L ikewise the
,
.
,

mixing platform o r mac h ine should be roofed over I t i s .

we ll also to wet down the n ished concrete work with a

, ,

hose several ti m es a day in extremely h o t weather and less ,

frequently in m oderate temperatures

Concreti ng i n Free zi ng Wea ther Alth o ugh it is pr a c t i
.

cable to m ix and place concre te at a te mperature a s low as

.

2 7 F it i s n o t advisable to lay concre te work when the

.
,

temperature is below neither should it be m i xed and

placed even at this temperature i f there is a possib i li ty tha t ,

the tempe rature w i ll fall If concre te is fro z e n its setting

.
,

i s re tarded and it is liable t o become worthless never pr operly ,

se tting and obta ining the requi site hardness and strength .

There i s howe ver no certa inty o f the action of fro st o n

, ,

concre te a s froze n c oncre te will fre quently thaw o u t and

,

s e t with appa r ently little loss o f strength

, .

To pr event the free zing of concrete when the te mpe ratur e

h a s fallen below 32 F sal t i s so m etimes used in the m i x ture

.
, .

The addi tion of 1 } 1h o f salt t o the water used with 1 bag

.

o f cement will n o t decre ase the strength o f the concre te ;

o r a 1 0%
,
solution o f salt ca n be u s ed in the water e m ployed
in m ixi ng the concrete The addition o f salt howe ver i s .
, ,

ne ver advisable if a sur f ace ni sh i s required a s it i s liable ,

to cause e E lor e s ce n c e or a white deposit o n the surf ace

, ,

causing the work t o become very unsightly .

A ggregate s tha t are coa ted with ice o r tha t ha ve bee n

expose d t o severe weather for a long tim e should be heated
or thawed o u t befor e be ing u se d Concrete that i s expo sed .

t o freezi n g after it w a s se t shoul d always be prote cted by

plac i ng over it a layer o f boards and straw o r salt hay o r , ,

cement bags ; or where the work is in the nature o f a r ein

,

forced con crete oor syste m by heating t he inte rior o f the

-
,

structur e by means o f W an d e r s or res

Join i n g o f Old Concret e Wi th N e w N e w and o ld con crete

.

can be j oine d only with di f cul ty and the str engt h o f such ,

a connection is always uncerta i n The j oini ng o f o ld and .

new concr ete wor k is be st done by thor ough ly c h ipp i ng or ,

2 48 S T EE L R EI N FOR C E M EN T
cutting away the old surface saturating it with water and
wor king into it thin coats of a 1
, , ,

1 P ortland cement mortar -

,

and then while the coating i s still fre sh placing against it

, , ,

the new concrete .

There are some high grade importe d cements that in the

-
, ,

form of cement mortar m ore readily adhere to old concrete

,

work than the usual P ortland cements These cement s are .

frequently used for patching and pieci n g out work already

in place .

T
E LEME N S OF S EE LRE I N FO R C E ME N T T
TH E O R Y O F STEE L R EI N F O R E M E N T C
P ri nciples f C nstru ction
o o When a beam is subject
. d e

t o transverse stress the portion o f the beam section above

,

the neutral axis is in compression while in that portion ,

below the neutral axis te nsile stresse s are created Ordi

, .

n a r i ly concrete i s about ten times a s strong in compression

,

a s it i s in tension Thus it can readily be seen that a beam

.
,

o f plain concrete without steel reinforcement wo ul d fail

pri m arily from lack of tensile resistance without reali zing ,

its full compressive

st rength I n o rder .
,

therefore to make ,

concrete an eco
n o m i c a l material to

use in construction ,

i ts deciency in
FI G 1 tensile resistan c e
m ust be made up by embedding steel rods bars or some , ,

other form of metallic r einforcement i n that portion of the

beam section subjec ted to tensile stress .

I n order to explain more fu lly this primary principle of

reinforced concre te reference i s made to the reinforced
, ,

rectangular concrete beam shown in Fig 1 The neutral line

. .

of the section i s shown at 321 321 in the side vi ew (a ) while the ,

neutral axis i s represented by y y in the end view (b) When .

the concrete beam i s under transverse stress there i s neither ,

25 0 S T EEL R EI N FO R C EM EN T
The principle o f hoope d c olu mn s i s best explained a s follows :
I t i s we ll known that a column o f sand will n o t resist com
pr ession because it will spread and it is likewise certain
, ,

t h at a cylinder of ; s a y very thin m etal will sustain only ,

a small load H owever if the cylinder is lled with sand

.
, ,

the combination in which the tensile strength o f the cylinder

,

i s real ized with the com pressive resistance of the sand will ,

result in a str ong column or post capable o f resisting con , ,

s i d e r a b le compression This principle i s applied to the rein

.

for c ement of conc rete columns by binding o r tying together , ,

the concrete with cylin d rical hoops or heli c al o r sp iral , , ,

w i ndi ng s o f steel

.

P ar ts o f S teel R einforce m ent D en e d I n Fi g 2 (a ) i s . .

shown a perspective view o f a complete bay o f a rei n f orced

concrete oor system and i n (b) a diagr am m atic r epr esenta
, ,

tion o f a typ ic a l system of reinforcement for a concre te

girder and colum n I n (a ) the heavy members A running
. ,

between columns are commonl y known as gi r de r s and the ,

li g hter members B runn ing between girders a s bea ms

f
In , .

both (a ) and (b) the rods or bars a are the ma i n re i n or c i n g

, , ,

ba r s or r ods o f the girders

, ,
The beams o f course have .
, ,

sim ilar main rei n f orcing bars Of these main reinforcing .

ba rs several are bent up a s at b to form tr u s s e d ba r s The

, , , .

web reinforcement of the girders i s shown at c and consists ,

o f u shaped pieces o f iron or steel called s ti rr u p s

-
The rod s , .

that reinforce the slab o f the reinforced c oncrete oor syste m -

,

called s la b r ods are shown at d Thi s slab reinf orcement

, .

may consist of straight rods expanded m etal wo v en w i re , ,

-

lath or any other metallic reinforce m ent The rods of the

, .

colu m ns shown at e are called lon gi t u d i n a l c olu m n r ods and

f
, , ,

the hooped separators or ties shown at c olu m n ti es , , , .

An y r od or bar used t o resist shearing stre sse s i s d e s i g

, ,

n a te d a s a s he a r ba r A rod or bar u sed to resist the shrink

. , ,

age of the concrete in setti n g or to provide against cracks ,

due to therm al changes i s called a s h ri n ka ge r od S hrinkage, .

rods a r e shown at g in vi ew (a ) A r od used to connect .

abu tting beams or g irders i s called a ten s i on ba r or a tie

:
ba r The sh ort rods used at the splice when lon gitudinal
colu m n rods are butted are called s pli c e r ods o r ba rs , .
 S TEEL R EI N FOR C E M EN T 25 1

M em b ers to R esi st Li nes of Fai lure are illu s.

I F ig
n . 3
t r a te d a typ ical bea m having the usu al typ e o f steel rein
forcement and the several methods o f failure that might
occur A t a are shown cracks or lines of fail ure that woul d
.
, ,

be caused by lack o f tensile resistance in the m ain reinforcing

rods b These cracks al though usuall y invisible generally
.
, ,

extend from the bottom surface to the neutral axis They .

are nearly always present in concrete but of course so long , , ,

a s the steel holds the beam will n o t fail

, .

I f the main reinforcing rods do not extend to the beari ngs ,

failure by vert ical shear may occur near the abutments al ong ,

the line 9:x O rdinari ly however failures of this kind sel

.
, ,

d om happen because the main rods usually extend across all

,

FI G 3 .

such lines o f vertical shear and add greatly to the shearin g

,

resistance of the be am .

I f the slab concrete is not placed at the same time that

the concrete of the beam section i s poured failure by sheari ng ,

usually occ urs at the j unction of the beam with the slab as ,

shown at c c The shearing resistance at this j unction may

.

be incre ased howe v er by extending st i rrups d into the slab

, , .

I f the crack c c opens it usually joins with a crack li ke e e

,

at each end o f the beam as suggested in the preceding

,

para g raph .

The lines of failure indicated at e e are those which usu al ly

occur from diagonal te n sion stresses that cross these lines o f
failur e at right angles A beam i s held against fai lur e in thi s
.

manner by placing stirrups in the concrete either vertic a lly

o r obliquely The bendi ng up o f the main reinforcing rod s
.
25 2 S T EEL R EI N FOR C EM EN T
to form the trussed bar as shown at will also assist in
resisting such stresse s and besides will pro v ide against
, f
, , ,

negative bending moment where tension instead of compres

sion is created at g g The line of fractu re shown at c c i s
.

typic a l of nearly all rei n f orced concrete failures -

.

M ETA LL I C REI N F O R E M E N T C
C H AR ACTER I STI C S OF M ET ALS U SE D FOR
R EIN FOR C EM EN T

Mi ld , or The commercial m i ld o r s o t s tee l

S o ft , S teel .
,
f , ,

which is an excellent mate r ial for reinforcing rods espec ially ,

in concrete structures subjected to sudde n st r ain o r shock ,

should have a unit ultimate tensile strength of from

to lb and an elastic limit of not le ss than o n e half
.
-

this amount I t shoul d have an elongation o f at least 2 5 %

.

in 8 i n and shoul d be capable of being bent cold through 1 8 0

.
,

and hammered at on itse lf without e v idence o f fractur e o n

the outside circumference of the bend .

M e di u m S teel The grade of steel known as me di u m more

.
-

f ul ly m eets all the requirements of reinforced concrete c o n -

struction than any other grade Commercial medium steel .

s hould ha v e an ultimate unit tensile stress of to

lh and an elastic limit o f not less than one half this
.
,
-

amount U pon te sting the elongation sho ul d be found to

.
,

be at least 2 2 % in a length o f 8 i n and it shoul d withstand .

,

bending through 1 8 0 around a diameter equal to the

diameter o r the thickness of the pieces teste d S uch a .

test piece should not show fracture on the outside circum

ference of the bent portion .

H igh Car b on S teel

-
The name hi gh c a r bon s te el is applied
.
- -

to steels rolled particularly for the reinforcement o f concrete .

S uch steels contain a higher percentage of carbon than either

medium or soft steel The product as a rule is brittle and
.
,

possesse s a unit ultimate tensile st rength of from to

1b with an elastic limit of about one half o f i t s
.
,
-

ultimate strength The amount of elongation in 8 in i s

. .

sometime s as low as and seldom exceeds 1 5 to

O rdinarily it will n o t bend much beyond a right angle with
,
25 4 S T EEL R EI N FOR C EM EN T

There are to be had on the market twisted bars o f square

and hexagonal section S uch bars are from 8 to 2 5 %
.

stronger than the bars in their original form The p e r .

centage o f increase of strength is greatest with the bars of

small section and least with those of large sect i on
R er olle d Bar s Bars made from o ld steel rails can be
.

obtaine d for reinf orcing concrete I n maki n g such bars .

,

the ange web and b ul b of the rails are cut apart and
, , ,

rerolle d into square and round sections The squa re sections .

may be had twisted the twisting being performed while the

,

material is hot .

M uch of this material has a high elastic lim it and tensile

strength but it is inclined to be brittle and v a ri able in
,

strength and ductility Besides any lapping o r folding of

.
,

the original m ate rial when passed through the rolls i s li able to
develop laminations throughout the bar tending to diminish ,

its strength .

TYP ES OF S TEEL R EIN FOR C EM EN T

P lai n Bar Iron The cheapest for m o f metallic reinf orce
.

ment f o r concrete is the p la i n r ou n d r olle d ba r Bars o f

, , .

this kind can be obtained in

any part of the U nited S tates .

The poun d price o f round ,

rolled bars is lower than that

o f any other form of rolled
steel s o they offer the cheape st
,

and most available mate r ial .

For slabs g to i n round ,

-
.

bars are used while for beam , ,

girder and column reinforce ,

m ent from g to l i n bars ,

-
.

are ordinarily employed .

The principal objection to

FI G 1. the use of plain round b ars in ,

reinforced concrete work is tha t they are not gr ippe d or held

-
, ,

well by the concrete .

P lain square and at bars are so metimes u se d for the

reinforcement o f concrete though generally both o f these
, , ,

sections when so use d are deform ed by twisting

, ,
.
S T EE L R EI N FO R C EM E N T 25 5

Inthe nomenclat u re
o f reinforced concrete ,

round rolled sections

,

a re des i gn ated a s ro ds ;

square sections a s ba rs ;
and rectan g ul ar s e c
t i ons a s a ts or a t
, ,

25 3 are gi ven the are as

and weights of square
and rou nd bars fro m
1
1 6
to 2 i n -
size s . .

Bars o f S peci al C o n
s tructi on S o me e arly
.

form s of bars u se d in
re i nforcement of con
crete a re shown in Fig .

1. That shown in (a )
i s known a s the H ya tt
ba r . An early form
of the Tha c he r ba r is
shown in (b) I n (c ) i s .

shown the S ta ba r .

I t consists o f a a t bar ,

t h rough whi ch a coun

te r s u n k p u n c h has
be en partly d r i v e n ,

thus forcing the me tal

ou t on the opposite
side s o a s to for m
projections The D e
M .

a n n ba r i s shown in

(d ) Two form s o f the

.

u n i t ba r are shown i n

f
(e ) and ( ) ; that in (e )
i s known a s the S i a m
(i ) ba r and that a t
f
es e

FI G 2
. ( ) a s the qu a d ba r .
25 6 S T EEL R EI N FOR C EM EN T
S qu are - M s t ed Bars
consists of .
The s qu a r e - t wi s te d ba r
a square bar that is twi sted b y giving i t a certain number o f
turns around i t s axis either while it is hot o r while it i s ,

cold This bar i s often known a s the R a n s ome ba r

. .

By twisting the bar to the screw shape a s shown in ,

Fig 2 (a ) a form i s obtained that has great re sistance t o

.
,

pulling from a mass o f concrete .

I f the square bars are twisted cold their elastic li m it and ,

ulti m ate stre ngth are increased from 8 to

P H Y SI C AL P R OP ER T I ES OF TH E R AN S OME BAR

e e
g g
+3 5

2 H
8
if E
,

% " 8 2J 1 : 3 2


5

g}
e
03 " "
H
r 0 in 0 w
E m
0)

A v u m
m
g g

: 5
CD C 1 a l
0
w 33 0
"

C O o o
0
.

s n o
5 9*
3 8 aw e E e m
90

.

E < L
g

5 e
'

g
6
65 e e
in

G : 3 C kl ti p
3
8 8 to
F
L 04

5 . 06 2 5 . 2 13
3 . 1 406 . 4 78
2 . 2 5 00 . 85 0
2 . 3 9 06
1 . 5 62 5
1 . 76 5 6
2
I }

The physical properties of the R ansome bar are given in

the accompanying table
S pi ral Ba n I n Fig 2 (b) is shown a type o f twisted bar
.

called the s pi r a l ba r I t i s made by rolling steel and then

.

twisting it The twisted bars have elastic limits o f fro m

.

to lb The section of the bar is practically

.

round with four attached half round beads These bead s

,
-
.

assu m e the spiral form on twisting the bar and the same ,

a dvantage with regard to the bond is secur ed as with square

25 8 S T EEL R E I N FOR C EME N T

P R OP ER TI ES OF TWIS TE L D UG B AR S

S ize
Bar
of N e t S ectional
Area
W e i ht per
oot
sa
ga2 23
E ach
-
v
5 : Ba r
1 Hg
-

Inches S quare Inches P ounds P ounds

W
t
n
-
06 2 5
1 406
2 5 00 .
222
49 2
8 70
u
h
n 3 9 06

M
a

5 62 5
. 7 65 6 2 6 40
.

- 3 45 0
a

u
.

- 4 35 0
u
.

i
-

ba r named after its invent or A L Johnson The o ld style

f
, , . . .

o f bar i s shown in (e ) and the n e w style in ( )

, H igh carbon .
-

s teel having an elastic li mit of from to lb per .

s q in i s use d in maki ng the Joh n son bar

. . This type of bar .

wa s one of the rst deform ed bars to be manufactured The .

followi ng table gives the size net section and weight o f , ,

Johnson bars
SI Z E , N ET SECTI ON , AN D WEI GH T OF COR R U GATE D ,

OR J OHN S ON B AR S ,

S ize of Bars W ei ght per Foot N e t S ection

Inches P ounds S qua re Inches

. 78 19
38
55
1 . 70
1 %

Un iver s al Ban I n Fig 2 (g ) is shown a type o f at.

deform ed bar called the U n i ver s a l ba r that h a s been u s e d

, ,

t o some extent for reinf orcement The net section and .

we i ght of the various s i z e s o f the U niversal bar are given

in the following table .
 S T EE L R EI N FOR C EM EN T 25 9

N ET SECTI ON S AN D W EI G H TS OF UNI VE R S AL B AR S
S ize of Ba r W eight per F o ot N e t S ection
NO
I nches P ounds S quare Inch
'

1 X1 73 19
2 X 1% 41
3 X 1% l 97 54
X2 2 27 65
5 X 2} 4 2 85
. 80

Tha cher Ba n The deform ed bar illustrate d in Fig 2 (h ) .

,

c alled the Thac he r ba r w as devise d i n order to obtain a bar

,

s o deform e d that the net section throughout the bar woul d

be uniform By having the section uni form the bar i s of

.
,

the same strength at every point I n form ing t h is bar an .

,

SI Z E WEI GH T
, , AN D U LTIM ATE TEN SI LE S TR E N GTH
OF T H AC H ER B AR S
( M e di u m S te el)

Average
D i a meter Area o f N e t U l ti ma t e
o f Ba r S ection Ten s il e S t r en gt h
Inches P oun ds Inches f o r E 3 011 Bar
P ounds

16 a
a e
:
61 z r
a
95 . z
H 39 . s
H 87 .
s
N 41 s
D
O a
H s
O
O . 74
A . 49 H s
U . 30 H a
G . 15 H 1 15 ,

N . 07 N
M
I
R . 99
O
C . 01 N
2 60 S TE E L R EI N F OR C E M E N T
e ff ort is made to eliminate a ll sharp corners The Thacher .

bar is rolled from medium steel and has an elas tic lim it of
about lb The accompanying table gi ves the size
.
,

weight and ultimate tensile strength of the Thacher bar

, .

SI Z E , AR EA, AN D WEI G H T OF D I AM ON D B AR S

ggg g
in
S
r
f r
Area of S ection W eight Pe r F0019
S quare Inches P ounds
Inches

062 3
14 8
1
19 8
25 8
39 3
8

56 2
5

76 8
I I 3
1 } 1 56
. 3

D i am ond Bar O ne
the most recent for ms of deformed
. of

bars is the D i a mo n d ba r which is shown in Fig 2 (i ) This

, . .

bar is rolled with a cross section of constant area The -

.

nominal size area and weight of D iamond bars are given

, ,

in the accompanying table .

FI G 3 .

Kahn Trussed Ba n Fig 3 shows two styles o f a deform ed

.

bar kn own as the Ka h n tr us s e d ba r In the o ld style of bar .

,

shown i n (a ) the prongs are opposi te each other ; in the new

,

s tyle shown in (b) they are staggered The shape s of the bar
, , .
2 62 S T E EL R EI N FOR C EM EN T
section and h as notched shoulders for holding washers
,
.

FI G 5 .

The wash e rs are punche d so that they will slip over the
projections and then by turning they are locked with the
, , ,

b ar The trus con bar i s made in .

-

g 1 1 b and I I i n size s
M onolith S teel Bars
I -
, , . .

I n Fig 6 .
.

is shown the mon oli th s tee l ba r .

Thi s type of bar h a s n o sharp c o r

ners and i s not redu ced in area o r ,

stre ngth by deform ations It .

also h a s large surface area The .

b ar i s grooved o n the sides s o

FI G 6 th at round iron stirrups as s hown

at a m a y be inserted These stirrups are held in place in

, .

the bar by s we d g i n g the anges o f the bar together The .

monolith ste el bars are m ade in sections equivalent to

1 and I l in square bars and are
l -
.
,

rolled for stirrups of r 1 5r and 1 i n , ,

17 -
.

diameter
Colu m b i an Bar A rolled shape known
.

as the C olu mbi a n ba r i s extensi vely used

in the construction of the Colum bian r e
proof fl oor syste ms and reinf orced con -

cre te structures The typ ical forms o f .

this type o f b ar are shown in Fig 7 . .

M ild steel is used for rolling the Colum

bian bar This kind o f steel has an u l
.

timate strength o f from to 7 O 000lb , .

per s q in and an elastic limit of o n e

.

FI G 7
.

half the ultimate strength The smallest .

bar shown in (a ) is known as the 1 i n bar while the type

, ,
-
.
,

o f bar shown in (b) is made in 2 and 4 1 i n si z e s

,
-
. .

Th e 5 i n bar carries a double rib at the bottom

-
.
.
 S T EEL R EI N FO R C E M EN T 2 63

U Bars .
I F ig n is shown a section o f U ba r th at can
. 8
be use d to advantage in reinforced concrete c onstruction -

e ither a s a tension or as a compression member ,

being part icularly e i c i e n t f or the latter pur

pose These bars are rolled fro m hig h elastic
.

li m it steel and are in some instances made from

F
,

G 8
r e r olled stee l rails They are i d s g and g in
. , , .

i n thi c kne ss weigh from 3 to 9 lb per f t and can be ob

, . .
,

ta i n ed i n lengths up to 60 ft
S tr u ctur al S ha pe s U sed as S teel R ein force m ent The usual
.

rolled s teel structur al sh apes h ave been used extensi vely for
-

re i nforced con cr e te construction They h ave an advantage

-
.

i n t hat they can be re adily obtained S truct ur al shapes .

a s m e t alli c re i n f orcement for concrete work are being super

s e d e d by either plain or deform ed rolled bars O ne a d v a n .

tage o f the u s e of structural shape s i s that a ri gid framework

ca n be b u ilt up after the m a n ner o f skeleton construction
, ,

though of m uch lighter section and the concrete then lled

,

in around it
xpa n de d M etal E .

Amo n g the e arlier

form s of metalli c
rei n forcement for
c oncr e te i s the d i s

t or t e d steel plate
know n a s expa n de d
me ta l a familiar i l ,

lus t ration of which

i s shown in Fig 9 .

(a ) Thi s form .

o f reinf orcement i s

m anufactured by
partly shearing a
FI G 9
sheet o f steel in

parallel rows a s shown i n Fig 9 (b) and then p u lli n g the ma

, .
,

te r i a l sidewise thus formi n g a diamond mesh

, In this way .
,

the area of a sheet i s incr e ased about e i ght times with a cor ,
o

r esponding decrease in we i ght per unit are a and wi thout any

waste o f ma terial The steel from which expanded me ta l is

.
2 64 S T EE L R EI N FOR C EM EN T

o
w
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u
mp a
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o

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9 N m w wm
wm n o e w wo
e H e : H n w wm

0 s
m v
.

9m t n wN N wo N O O O N H

3 oe e
.
.
H H H H H H H H H H

D 0 w w
2 66 S T EEL R E I N FOR C EM EN T

the metal so shea r ed in a direction at right angles to the lines

o f shear I n this type of expanded m etal the m ain bars
.
,

FI G . 11

of the section represent the material available for the rein

forcement of the slab while the light cross bars ac t a s spacing
,
-

bars and also as shrinkage rods when embe dded in concrete .

The advantage claimed f or the Kahn expanded metal is

that it transmits the load directly to the supports without
any tendency to elongate or distort The properties of this
.

reinforcing metal are given in the acco m panying table .

FI G 1 2
.

H erring- Bo ne M etal L ath I n Fig

. . 11 is shown a type of
e x panded metal known as he r r i n g -
bon e m eta l la th
. This .
 S TE EL REI N F O R C EM E N T 2 67

m eta l i s pa rti cul arly intere sti n g be c au s e when bent into the , ,

for m s h own in Fi g 1 2 it provides a se lf ce ntering m aterial

. ,
-

t hat i s useful f or li ght roof construction When bent i n .

thi s m anner the herri ng ,

bo ne expanded met a l i s
known t o the m a n uf a c
t ur e rs a s tr us s i t The lon .

gi t u di n a l ribs a s at a give , ,

it at least suf cient trans

verse resistance t o allow
the pl a cing o f a thin roof
slab of concrete o n it
Wi thout other c entering or
support .

S heet M etal R ei nf orce

-

ment .
-
T h e typ e o f
FI G 1 3
m etal r e i n f o r c e m e n t

kn own a s Fer roi n c la ve i s use d f or making oor slab s

an d for stai r and roof construction This r e inforce .

m ent cons ists of sheet metal that i s bent into g rooves a s ,

i ndi cate d in Fig 1 3 (a ) a n nealed sheet steel generally o f

.
,

N o 2 4 U S gauge bei ng use d in i t s m an u facture

. . .
, The .

cor rugati ons are made dovetailed in section s o that the end

o f o n e sheet can slip into another a s shown The sheets , .

ar e 2 0% in in width and 1 0 ft in lengt h

. F ig 1 3 (b) shows. . .

h o w this type of metallic reinforcement i s used in c o n

s t r u c t i n g a slab for a light roof .

Lo ck Woven a n d Tie Locke d - -

Wire Fab ri c I n F ig 1 4 (a ) i s . .

illustrated the form o f wire net

ting known a s loc k woven wi re
f
-

a br i c The cross wires o f this .

-

In fabric are j oined by means of a

staple of li ght wire which i s ,

FI G 1 4
bent s o a s t o embr a ce the cross
.

i ng wires at their intersection .

A nother typ e of j unction f or cross wires i s shown in -

Fig 1 4 (b) which illustrates the pr in cipal features o f the

ti e
.

loc ke d f ,

a b ri c H ere the cross wires are secured or

.
,
-
,
2 68 S T EEL R EI N FOR C EM EN T
locked in position by m eans of a small disk or washer and
, , ,

by kink i ng the wires

E
lectricall y W eld e d
.

Fabri c The C li n ton

.

wi re c loth i s a fabric
that i s secured at the
intersections by a per
f e c t electric weld and ,

it has at intervals a
double wire that tw i nes
in and o u t a s shown ,

at a F ig 1 5
, . .

T r i a n g u l a r an d
S qu are M esh Wi r e

-

R einforcem ent The .

FI G 1 5 t wo types of wi re r e
i n f or c e m e n t shown in Fig 1 6 are ex tensively manufactured
.

f or rei n f orced concrete construction Th e reinforcement

f
-
.

shown in (a ) is known a s the tr i a n gu la r mes h rei n or cemen t

and that shown in (b) as the s qua r e f
-
,

, mes h rei n or c emen t The .

latter consists of heavy longitudina l wires and cr oss wires -

,

o r sp a c ing w i res . The c ross wires are carried through and

-

FI G 1 6
.

t wisted around the longitudinal w i res so as to form the

r ectangular spaces .
2 70 S T EE L R E I N FOR C EM EN T

1
.

G
I

F
 S TEE L R EI N FOR C EM EN T 271

illustra ted at g and should ,

extend at right an g les to the

a xis of the g i rder S omet i mes . ,

similar rods are use d in the

slab o ver beam s a s shown ,

at k .

The longitudinal reinfor ce

m ent of the concrete columns
consists of four round rods I .

It i s customary to project
the m above the concre te o f
each story about a foot and t o
splice the m by lapping and
wiring o r by using pipe socket s
m as illustrated
,
Frequently
. ,

it i s not possible to lay o u t

befor ehand the electri c light -

o r power wiri ng b u t if this

,

i nstallation is t o be adopte d
l i in - pipe s t o serve as a
.

passageway shoul d be embed

ded near the center of the span
o f a ll beams and girders close ,

t o the under side o f the slab

construction a s at n

.
,

Ka hn S ys t e m The K a hn
.

s ys te m o f rei n f o rced c oncre t e -

construction i s base d on the

u se o f the Kahn trussed b ar .

A typical mon oli thic con s t r uc

tion based on the use of the
Kahn syste m is shown in
F ig 2 The . .

m ain r e i n f or
ci ng members
of the be am s
and girders are
shown at a and ,

t hey c ons is t of FI G 3
Fm
.

. 2
2 72 R EI N FOR C E M EN T
Kahn bars with the
prongs bent upward s
s o as to form stirrups .

The bars are usually

place d in the form s
on a 2 i n bed o f con
-
.

cre te and after bein g

,

centered or regi stered

,

in their proper posi

tions they are secured
,

by wiring o r by block
ing . In order that
the girders and beam
connections over col
u m n s may have con

t i n u i ty ,
an inverted
Kahn bar b is used
over such j unctions .

K a h n b a r s are
spaced in each corner
of the c o l u m n as ,

shown in Fig 3 with .

,

the prongs bent at

right angles The bars .

a r e usually tied t o
gether wi th hea v y wire
or light rods wound ,

around them as shown

part way up the col
u m n s in Fig 2 . .

The Kahn bar is f r e

quently used with con
crete and hollow terra
cotta tile to form oor
systems designed for
light loads Th is type .

o f construction is illus

t r a t e d in Fig 4 In . .

view (a ) is shown a
2 74 S T EEL R EI N FOR C EM EN T

M erri ck S ystem I n Fig 5 is shown the

. . e rr i c k oor M
s y s tem of reinforced concrete construction The space
-
.

between girders is occupied by narrow concrete beams a ,

as shown in the transverse section (a ) Between these .

beams are placed boxes made of one o f the many styles

o f metal fabric on the market These boxes run the entire
.

length of the clear span of the oo r b e a m s as shown in the ,

longitudinal section (b) and serve to make the oor lighter

, .

They are indicated in both views by the heavy dotted lines b .

Above and below the metal fabric boxes is a layer of con -

crete This layer is usually made about 2 in thick s o as

. .
,

to give a at c e i ling and a flat oor surface

Gab ri el S ystem The Ga bri e l s ys tem o f r einf orced concre te
.

.
-

construction consists o f steel reinforcing bars to which are

attached round iron stirrups These stirrups are formed by
-
.

wrapping a wire a several ti m es around the re i n f orcing bar

FI G 6 .

and extending it up into the slab as illustrated in Fig 6 , .

,

which shows this particul ar type o f construction complete

and in its several details The wiring o f the columns is
.

continuous and extends from the bottom to the top as

, ,

indicated in the g ure part icul arly in the sectional view (b)
,
.

S everal o f the rei n f orcing rods of both the girders and the
beams be nd upwards as shown at c and d respectively
, , .

They also lap o ver the center of the column to form an

additional bond in the conc rete a s shown at e In this sys , .

tem of construction a lap bar is sometimes pro v ided at the

top of the junction a s shown The slab is shown reinforced
, .

with wo ven wire and shrinkage rods o f round i ron .

 S T EEL R EI N FOR C EM EN T 2 75

With the Gabr iel syste m of oor construction hollow tile ,

i s also used a s illustrate d in F ig 7

,
The system sh own in
. .

view (a ) i s suitable only for very light constructi on The

hollow tiles a are sandwiched between rei n f orced
.

concrete
j oists as at b and the reinf orcement of the oor con sists of
, ,

a main r ei n forcing bar c around which a round iron stirrup

,
-

i s wrappe d so a s to extend continuously A similar con .

struction i s shown in view (b) H ere however a slab o f

.
, ,

FI G 7
.

con crete i s extended over the t op o f the tile thus givi ng ,

additional compressive strength at the t op o f the concrete

beam s and perm itting this construction to be used f or
heavi er loads
M ushr oo m S ys tem o f R ei nforcem ent A system o f rein
.

for ced c oncre te construction that di ffers fro m all others in

-

that no beams nor girders ar e used throughout i s i llustrated

in Fi g 8 This syste m o f constr uction term ed the m us h roo m
. .
,
2 76 S T EEL R EI N FOR C EM EN T

8
.

G
I

F
2 78 S T EEL R EI N F OR C EM EN T
number of rods necessar y to secure the desi red sectional area .

The two rods at the top a r e bent upwards a s shown at b , ,

and the ends c are t ur ned over so as to add t o their grip in

the concrete The stirrups in both frames are shown at d

.
,

i n round bar iron being used f or the stirru ps of the frame

.

shown in view (a ) and light strap about i in X 1 i n for the

, , . .
,

stirrups of the construction shown in view (b) In the .

latter frame the section at the right o f the gure shows

,

the reinfor cing bars hel d in the clamping device which con
f
,

sists of the casting e the clip and the stirrup g These

, , .

parts are secured by means of a bolt h

Pi n Connected Gi rder Fr am e A nother type of r o d rein
.

-
.

forcement built up in the form o f a girder frame is illustrated

FI G .

in Fig This reinforcement is kn own a s the pi n con

10
f
-
. .

n ecte d gi r de r ra m e and it i s arranged s o that the frames

,

for ming the rei nforcement of the beams and gi r ders may be
connecte d by pins and link s at intersections and over column
supp orts
C umm i ng s S ys tem o f R ei nforced Concrete The system o f
.

steel rei nfor cement shown in Fig 1 1 known a s the C u m .

,

m i n gs lo o p tr us s gi rde r consists of a series of main reinforcing

-
,

bars a to which are attached a se t of smaller bars b that turn

,

up at the ends and form a loop welded at the ends These .

 S TEEL O
R E I N F R C EM EN T 2 79

loops are secured to the main reinf orcing rod s by m eans of

m e tal clips c .

FI G .

S he a r - Fram e S yste m S teel R einforce m en t The

r
f
of s he a

ra me s ys te m i s employed to resist the negative o r reversed , ,

be nding m oments that occur at the points of support of

monolithic beams and girders This t ype o f reinf orcement
.

co n sists of a bu i lt u p frame constructed a s show n in Fi g 1 2

-
. .

The shear frame consists o f straight top rods a and bent

bottom rod s b These two sets of rods are securely clam pe d
.

together b y means o f at b ar iron plate s or c lips c which

-
, , ,

also ac t as stirrups A dd itional stirrups are pr o v ided at g

.
,

FI G 1 2
.

and where the t op and bottom rods j oin they rm l y

fastened together by means o f spe cial clamps f .
280 S T EEL R EI N FO R C EM EN T

This type of reinforcement pro v ides a positive tie or ,

j unction between beams and at the intersection o f beams

, ,

girders and colu m ns insuring against failure at these points

, ,

by providing resistance t o shear and to failur e by horiz ontal

FI G 1 3
.

or oblique tension cracks The fra m e m a y be used with any

.

type of reinforcement and is plac ed at the junction of

, .

beams with girders a s shown in Fig 1 3 and at the inter

, .
,

section of the girder and column support s .

MI S C ELLAN E OUS S YS TE MS
Brayto n S yste m
The
system o f reinforced concrete
.

known as the Bra yton is illustrated in Fig 1 4 The main . .

reinforcing member is a standard roll ed steel I be am ,

-
,
-

section and the entire reinforcement including the steel

, ,

work i s put together in a manner simil ar to the usual steel

,
-

fra m e construction The structural steel beam s that form

.
-

the reinf orce m ent carr y the dead load o f the cente ri ng and
the weight of the concrete Thus shores need not be use d
. ,

in the erection .

The I beam a form ing the m ain reinforcing member of the

-

concrete beam i s shown in view (a ) A s shown at b the .

,

stirrups extend beyond the top ange of the I beam in the

form o f loops and are either ri vete d through the web o r
,

fastened by clipping them to the lower ange a s indicated ,

in (b) The I beam is supported on a column built up of

.

angles and provided with brackets d The slab rod s are .

28 2 C ON C R E T E D ES I GN
but the slanting webs b which are i n tension always have
, ,

steel in them The upper and lower chords contain each

.

a s e t o f three reinf orci n g rods as shown at d and e respect , ,

i v e ly. The beams may be made in any con veni ent location
and put in place o n the j ob afterw ards When solid rein .

forced concrete columns are used with this system these

-
,

columns are cast in place and are provided with brackets

to hold the princip a l girders These girders are then hoisted.

on to these brackets P art o f the end of the girder is m ade

.

solid a s shown at c in order to resist the stresses in shear

, ,

and direct co m pression due to the reaction of the support .

D E SI GN OF C ONC RETE STR U C TUR AL

ME M BE R S

'

P L AI N C ONC RETE
C ON CR ETE BEAM S
M eth od of D esign S tone and plain concrete bea m s
. are -

designed by exactly the sam e method as any other kind o f

beam except that the weigh t of the b e a m i t s e lf can ha rdl y
,
'

ever b e neglected The formula employed i s a s follows :

.

I
M = - =S s ,

In which M is the bending moment ; 8 the unit st ress pro ,

d u c e d ; I the moment of inertia ; c the distance from the

, ,

neutral axi s to the m ost remote be r ; and S the section ,

modulus .

b d2
I n a beam of rectangular section , S = in which b is
6
the breadth of the bea m and d is its depth of the beam .

The modulus of rupture for variou s kinds of stones and

other materials is given in the accompanyi n g table .

W ith the values in this table a factor of safety of from ,

1 0 to 2 0is usu ally e m ployed when problems dealing with the

 C ON C R E T E D ES I GN 283

M OD U LI OF R UPTUR E OF V AR I OU S MI N ER ALS

M odulus
M at erial of
R upture

Glass .

Bluestone
M arble w hite , ,

M arble w h ite

, , 0

M arble gray V erm ont

, ,

Granite Quincy M assach usetts

Y
.
, ,

Granite N e w ork ,

Grani te
I

,
u
-O0
S andstone M assach us etts 0O
u
.
,

S andstone M iddletown Conn ec ticut

, ,
-
v

S andstone
F r eestone L ittle F alls N ew Y o rk
,

, , .
I

v
-K0
0
O
l

Freestone Bellev ill e N e w Jersey

, , %
F r ees tone D orchester M assachusetts
, ,

Frees tone H u b egi n y, 3

Frees tone Caen N ormand y
, ,
. 45 0
Limestone average value ,

Br ick common o r P hi lad elphi a pressed

, , .

Brick best ha rd .

R ubble m asonry in ceme nt

,

safe load instead o f the ultimate breaki ng load are bein g

solved The weight o f the stone i tself m us t al m os t always
.

be taken in t o acc oun t

EXA PL
M E D esign a Quincy grani te lintel 6 in wide o n
.

a 5 f t span t o carry a uniform load whi ch includes i ts

-
.
,

o w n weight o f 30 0 lb per f t with a factor of safety of 1 0

L
S O UT I O N I n th is e xam ple W = 300X 5 = 1 5 00 1b and
, , .
. .

. , , .

l= 5 X 1 2 ==60 in Th er efor e .
,

W
l 1 5 00X 60
M =
,

in .
-
lb .

8 8
Accor ding t o the table the m o dulus of rupture for Qui ncy
,

grani te i s and if a factor of saf ety of 1 0 i s used th e ,

value o f s is lb per s q in Therefor e . . .

,
 o O
w h
o m
H
m
e

?

w o h o a w wn c c h c a
w w u ww wH wa a o o w
w N m N n w w w n mn m n
3
2
3 w o H n H wH o 5 m b H H
5 w w mN o w o w5 a mw m
a w N mN n w w n % m wn m
s

w mwwmmmH H wN w5
w u w a u u a a mm w w m
w H H H m mmm mv w w m

H m
N o
0
M m
Q m
0
0
m

a

u
5 E
2
w
b
a t
m
H t h
a o
o
o
n
n
n g 8 d S s 8 a
o w m H
3 8 2 e3 u e8
Q
N
e
o N E8 2 E
?
u G a
m 5 v e
3 3 m3 % 8Q
: :
O m
m
H
N 9
E H
H
e
e
G e

3 m
I
n Q
H c
o 6 m C 2
H 3 y o C
D o 3m
n
o5
,
m
Q 3 o
O 5
S
mm
mmmN N I mu
T
e
M
I
w
I
l T T
u u TT T T
mmN
;;;;;;; n
;;;
H H
a

333
333333 3 3 3
0
H
w 333 3 3
333 3 8 8 8
3

3330 333 3 0 0 0
.

t 2 0
2 3
3
o
a 5 2 3 2
8 3

m 8 8
8 8 8 0 0 0 8 8 8 2 3 3
8 0 0 0 8 8
8
z 0 0 0
8 c
u
3
8
3 3 3 3 .
o 0
3 3 3 H #

3 3 8 8 8 3 8 8 N

t
u
8 /
3
:
.

0
338 8 8
c
o . o 8 5 5 3 3 3
z 2 % 0 0 0 0 00 5 5
28 4
28 6 C ON C R E E DESIGN
T

allowable load Thus if it is decided to allow an intensity

.
,

o f stress o f 300 lb per sq i n and the column is of square

. . .
,

section 1 0in on a side the allowable load will be 1 0X 1 0X 300

.
,

lb The breaking lo a d o n columns between two

.

and twel v e times as high as the least dimension o f thei r

c r oss section seems to be independent of their height A
-
.

column between these t wo limits howe v er cannot with , ,

stand as high a n intensity of stress as a cube f o r it is m or e ,

U LTI M AT E UN IT C R U S H I N G S TR E N GTH OF S T ON E C ON
C R ET E WI TH P OR T L AN D C EM EN T M OR T AR

P ro portion of Compression k

Ingred i ents P ounds per S quare Inch

Cem ent S and S tone 7 da . 1 mo . 3 mo . 6 mo .

H wO
H w
C

H wO
H w C

H s
u O
H w N
Q

H mO
H mU
H O
a
c

N OT E F or g r a ve l

c o n c re te . use 75 % of th e g u r e s g i ve n in th e
t a b le
.

likely to break by shearing For this reason when employ .

,

ing values taken from the tables o n pages 2 8 6 and 2 8 7 f or ,

column calculations a larger factor of safety shoul d be u sed

,

than with other work This factor is usually taken as at .

least 6 and 1 0or higher fo r m asonry

EXA PL
M E What is the allowable working load on a
, .

concrete column that is 1 0ft high and 1 2 in in diameter and

made of 1
. .

2 4 stone concrete 6 mo o ld with a factor of

-
.

safety of 6
S O UT LI O N
2=

.

The cross sectional area of the column i s

.
-

.78 5 4 X 1 2 sq in From the table the ul tima t e

. .
 C ON C R E E DE T S I GN 28 7

ULTI M ATE UNI T C R U S HI N G

S TR EN GTH OF AR I OU S V
ST ON ES AN D S TONE M AS ON R Y PI ER S

e r h e r h
v .

e c v .
e c
h h
p n
i i
s t s t
p n
s I s I
g s g s
e e
M ateri al r n d e M ateri al r n d
r
e
p e r
n a p e n
mS m
Po Po
r r a
t u u t u u
q S q
C o S C o S

Granite C olo , . Lim eston e , Ma r

Granite Conn , .
qu e t t e , M ich
Granite M ass , L imes tone , Co n s h o
Grani te M e hocken P a
Y
, , . .

Granite M inn , . M arble Montgomery,

Granite N , . Co .
, P
Granite N H , . . M arble L ee (dolo
,

Blues to ne . mite ) M ass ,

S andstone M iddle , Marble P leas antvill e

,

town Co nn , .
(dolomite ) N Y , .

S ands t one Long , M arble It al ian , .

meadow M ass , . M arble V t . .

S andstone H udson , S late

Ri v er N Y , . . . P iers , ashlar , blue
S andstone L ittle , stone
F a l l s (b r o w n ) , Granite as hlar piers , .

N . Y . . P iers ashlar lime , ,

S andstone O hio , . 8 000 sto ne

S ands tone H um , P iers ashla r common . ,

m els to w n (brown ) ,
sandstone
Pa P iers rubble cem ent ,

L imes to ne Kings mortar

ton N Y
, .

Pi ers rubble lime

Li m es tone Garri son
, . .
, ,

, m o rt ar .

S tation N Y , . . .

L imes tone Bed ford ,

(oolitic ) Ind , .

2
crushing strength of 1 4 concrete 6 m o o ld i s . lb .

per s q in U sing a factor of safety

. . of 6 the safe inte nsity
,

of stress is Then the safe to tal load t he column can

6

c arry 15 X = 47 1 2 5 lb
T
, .
288 C ON C R E E DESI GN
T

ULTI M ATE CR U S H I N G STR EN G TH OF B R I CK M ASONR Y

PI ER S
(A ver a ge A ge of Br i c kwor k , 6 M on th s )

e r h
v .
e c
i
h p n
s t
s I
e g s
Material Composition of Mortar r n d e
r
p e n
mS
Po S
r a
t u u
q
Co

Wi r e cut b r ick
-

D r y pressed brick
-
. ce m en t 5 sand
1
cement 5 sand
1
:
,

D r y pressed brick
-
1 cement 1 lime 3 sand
, ,

R epressed brick . 1 cem ent 5 sand ,

L ight hard sand struck

-
,
-

brick 1 cement , 5 sand

L h t hard sand stru ck
'

- -
,

rick cement 7 sand

1 , 85 3
H ard sand struck brick
,
-
. 1cement 1 sand ,

H a r d sand struck brick

,
-
. 1 cement 1 lime 3 sand
, ,

H ard sand struck brick

,
-
. 1 cement 5 sand ,

S and lime brick -

. 1 cement 3 sand ,

S and lime brick -

. 1 lime 3 sand ,
45 0
S and lime brick -
. N eat cement
Terra cotta work -
. 1 cement 3 sand ,

E m
ccentrically Load ed Colu n The stress on . an eccen
tr i c a lly lo a de d c olu m n is co m puted by the following form ulas :
For circular colu m ns ,

P 8e P 6
s +
A Ad
For rectangular columns ,

P 6e P 6

_
_ +
2 Ad
In these f ormulas s is the stress in pounds per squar e inch
, , ,

developed in the column ; P the total load on the column in , ,

pounds ; A the area of column section in square inches ;

, ,

e the eccentricity of eccentric pa r t o f load in inches ; P ,

, , ,

the eccentric part of load in pounds ; d the diameter o f ,

column or dimensions m easur ed in the plane o f the c e cen

,

t r i c i t y in inches ,
.
2 90 CONCRE E DE GN T SI
This stre ss is larger than the allowable stress which shows ,

that the column section selected is too small If a section .

3 1 in in d iamete r i s assumed then

.
, ,

s q in . .

S ubstituting in the form ula ,

8 X4 X100 000 ,

S 402 1b per sq m
75 4 77
. x3 1
S ince this is le ss than 4 1 7 1b .
,
a colum n of this diameter
i s safe .

In a re a column is apt to be inj ured by the heat to a

,

distance below the surface o f 1 % in Therefore in design .

,

ing columns by the p receding met hods 1 % i n should be , .

added a ll around the colu m n proper .

REI N F O R C E D C ONC RE TE
B EAM S
The design o f reinf orced concrete i s not an exact science .

The m aj ori ty of the recom m endations and form ulas herein

given are taken from the excellent report o f the Joint

Committee The j oi n t C om m i ttee is a com m ittee o f mem

E

.

bers o f the Ame ri can S ociety o f C ivil ngi neers the

A merican S ociety for Testing M aterials the A merican ngi ,
E
,

neering and M aintenance of Way A ssociation and the ,

A ssociation o f A meri can P ortland C ement M anufacturers

formed for the pu rpose o f in vestigating current practice

and providing denite inform ation conc ern ing the properties
o f concrete and reinforced concrete
"
.

O nly P ortland cement is suitable for reinforced concrete .

The aggr egate is di v ided into two classes namely ne

and coarse F
i n e a ggr ega te consists of sand crushed stone
.
,
, ,

or gravel screenings and which when d ry passes through a

, , ,

screen ha v ing holes in in diameter C oa r s e a ggrega te

. .

consists of crushed stone o r gra vel which is retained on a

screen hay ing holes in in dia m ete r but which passes
.
,

th rough a screen having holes 1 in in diamete r o r s m aller . .

In both ne and coarse aggregates a gradation o f size o f the ,

particles i s generally desirable .

 CONCRE E DE T SIG N 291

Cinder concrete i s not suitable for reinf orced concrete -

structures .

For reinforced concrete work a mixture based on the p r o

-
,

portion of 1 6 i s generally used ; that i s 1 part o f cement

-

to a total o f 6 parts o f ne and coarse aggregates m easured ,

separately The ne and coarse aggr egates are often in the

proportion of 1
.

2 which m akes a concrete that i s commonly

called a 1 2
,

4 m i xtu re For columns richer m ix tures are often

.
,

required and leaner mix tures can often be used in mass work
,
.

M o v i n g live loads and suddenly applied loads require

special consideration These loads can often be taken care
.

o f by increasing the amount o f live load used in the cal

culation The weight o f the bea m or the oor slab itself

.

should always be considered when estimating the dead load .

The span length of beams should be taken as the length

from center to center o f supports aad n o t of the clear span ,

but it need n o t be considered longer than the clear span

plus the depth of the bea m Brackets are not considered .

as reducing the clear span .

I n the formulas about to be g i ven rather than employ ,

ultimate stresses and divide the result by the factor o f safety ,

working or safe stresses shoul d be used

R ecta n gu la r Be a m s The following notation will be used
.
, ,

in the design of bea m s and columns :

F = tensile stress in steel in pounds per square inch ;
F 3

c
= c o m p r e s s i ve stress in concrete in pounds per
,

square inch ;
E 3 = m od ulu s o f elasticity o f steel ;
E = m od ulu s o f elasticity of concrete ;
c

n =E i
- -
Ec ;
3

M = moment of resistance beam in inch pounds ; of ,

-

A = area o f steel in square inches ; ,

b = b re a d t h of beam in inches ; ,

d = d e p t h o f beam in inches from t o p t o ce nter o f steel

, ,

reinforcement ;
12 coe f cient ;
c oe f cient ;
'

1
A
p ratio of area of steel t o bd .

M
2 92 T SI
CONCRE E DE GN
First assu m e values for F F and
s c n These values a re , , .

usually controlled by building ordinances The following .

values are recommended as safe working values by the Joint

C ommittee and are used throughout the text to serve as
examples in worki ng out problems used a s i llustrations :
F Fc = 6 5 0; n = 1 5 for concrete ca pable of devel
o ping a n average co m pressive stress o f pounds in
2 8 days when tested i n cylinders o f s peci ed shape
F
.

A fter values of 5 Fc and n are decided o n substitute

, , ,

them in the following form ula and solve for p This form ul a
gi v es the value of p that makes s and Fc re a ch their full F .

values under the sam e load .

1
p
F
1
n Fc
S ubstituting the values m entioned above

P i X . 007 6 9

The value of k is now found by the form ula

k= e u

S ubstituting the values for p and n gives

k= 42 x 0076 9 X 1 5
. + ( 007 69 X
.

From this v a lue j ,

is found by the followi n g form ula :
'

1 1 k
S ubstituting the value
just found of k ,

j 1 l X 3 79
= 8 7 4 or approximately
For any value of 3 c
.

F F .

and n e m ployed the preceding

, ,
,

formul as m ust be sol v ed to obtain p k and 1 before the

'

, ,

problem proper can be attacked For example the values .

,

o f k and 1 may be taken as and respec tively because

'

these values are close to the values found fro m the values
of F 3 ,
F6 and n assumed
, ,
.

The resisting moment M may then be found by transposing

in either of the following form ulas :
M M 2 M

0r Fc
A jd pjbd 2
abd 2
2 94 CONCRE TE DE SIGN
These solutions give the most economical design ; that is ,

when the allowable unit stress in the steel and the allowable
unit stress in the concrete are realized under the proposed
load This condition is determ ined by the value used f o r p
.
.

H owever other values of p are sometimes used and in such

, ,

cases the procedure is a s follows :

A ssume a value o f n Find the value of k by the fo r .

the formula j = 1 k N ext assume values for 3 and

. F F c.

Find M from the conditions o f the problem A ssume .

values for either b or d and nd the other by m eans o f the

,

form ul a F3 = M + pjbd2 Also nd the same dimension by

F
.

the formul a M z jkbd z and use the largest value found

-
,

by either of these equations .

S o m etimes the problem i s thus : b d and M are given

F
.
, ,

Assume 3 then nd
, A by the fo rm ul a M = F A jd using 3 ,

fo r j . S olve p = A bd for p which should by changing b

-
, , ,

if requi red be kept less than the value of p that gives t h e

,

m ost econo mical des ign m entioned above Then to check .

,

nd k and j as on pag e 2 9 2 from the value of p obtained and

nd F and F accurately by the form ulas at the foot o f
c

page 29 2 These values mus t n o t be excessive

. .

To investigate a beam already built proceed a s follows : ,

Measure the value o f b d and A Calculate the v alue of p

, ,
.

as well a s the moment o f the loads o n the beam or that are ,

to be put on the beam including the weight o f the beam ,

itself A ssu m e a v alue for n and nd the v alue o f k by the

.
,

formula k \ l2 pn + (pn ) pn
= 2 Find the value o f j by the .

formula 1 = 1 Find the stress in the steel by the for

F
12
'

mula 3 = M + Ajd a n d then the stress in the concrete by

,

the form ula Fc 2 M jk bd

N either of these values should e
.

exceed the safe allowable limit

W
.

Conti nuous Beam s I f i s the total uniform load on a

.

beam and l i s i ts len g th then for a simple beam the moment

, , ,

i s Wl + 8 In building construction many bea m s and oor

.
,

slabs are continuous and in this case the external moment

,

at the center o f the span i s decreased and there is produced

a negative moment o v er ea ch support S u f cient steel .
 CONCRE E DE T SIGN 29 5

shoul d be placed o v er each support at the top o f the beam

to withstand this moment This steel shoul d extend far
.

enough o n each side of the support to reach the point where

the bendi n g moment changes sign I n many c ases o n e .

qua r ter o f the span each way w ill be s u i c i e n t Th i s steel .

is often made up partly of rods bent up from the bottom o f

the beam and partly fro m extra rods insert ed at the top .

For both beams and slabs fo r interior spans o f continuous

beams the Joint Committee reco m mends that the bending
moment be taken as both at the center of the span and
12
over the support In beams for end spans and the adj oini ng
.

Wl
support the bending moment should be taken at
,
Afte r
10
the bendi n g moment is found the bea m is designed in the
,

manner already stated .

S ome engineers clai m this re duction in bending moment

W1
i s unwarranted and use f or all cases N o matte r which .

method i s followed the bea m should be rei n forced over the

,

support .

Caution m ust be exercised in designi ng continuous

l beams A t the support the compression in the concrete

,
.

is apt to be excessi v e a s it co mes on the stem of the l

,
' '
.

The Joint Com m ittee allows a higher stress in the concrete

here and recommends a value approaching 7 5 0 lb It i s .

often necessary to leave some steel at the bottom o f

I beams nea r the supports to assist in withs ta nding thi s

compression
Bea m s R einforced at To p and Bott om For beams rein
.

~
.

forced at the t o p and bottom the prec eding notation with

, ,

the following addi tional characters i s employed : ,

A = a r ea o f compressive steel at top of bea m in square

,

inches ;
I

p = ratio of area of compressive steel t o bd = 3

7
F, = compressi v e

stress in s t ee l in poun ds per square inch ;
,

(1 = distance from t o p of b eam to to p steel in inches .
,
2 96 CONCRE E DE GN T SI
To design such a beam assume values for p p , ,

,
d
,
d9
and n .Then nd k by the for mul a

7
F
a

A fter k is found assume a value for

,
b, and nd c by the
formula
F,
k k 2
+
6

Also , nd Fs by the formula

k
l
F3 = n Fc
k
and F3 by the formula

d,
k __
d

k
The values of c 3 F F
and 3 should all be within safe
, ,
F

limits F3 will usually be low which shows that the steel

.
'
,

i s not used economically O n account o f this defect double

.
,

reinforced bea m s are seldom used excep t in places where

3 01 0

FI G 1 .

the size of the beam i s limited by the conditions of the

pr oblem .

As an example design a gi r de r as shown in Fig l to

, , .
,

carry be sides i ts own weight 4 5 0 lb per ft The section of . .

2 98 CONCRE E DE T SI GN
= 02 1 9 9 d = 18, and d =2 A ssuming that
'
p , .

12 X18
n = 15 and substituting these v alues in the for mula ,

k 2 X15

l5 ( 01 7 3 6
. . 02 1 9 9 ) . 38 0 .

I
6 1
k k2 + 3

S ubstituting the v a lu e s ki n th i s equation ,

6 X
6 X . 02 1 9 9 X1
12 x1 82 . 38 0 (1

lb per sq i n = 65 1 . . .
,

which according to the stresses used in these examples

, ,

is about safe .

The stress in the steel in tension i s found by the formula

k
,

F5 = n Fc _
l

k
S ubstituti ng the correct v alues ,

1
Fs = 1 5 X 6 5 1 X lb per sq. . in .
,

38 0
which is also safe .

The stress in the steel in compression is found by the .

formula d ,

k __
d
r _n F

s c

S ubstituting the correct v alues ,

= 1 5 X 65 1 X
. 38 0 -

1 %
1 '
3 lb per . sq . In .

This value is low but it cannot be helped I t is this fact

,
.

that makes the double r einforced bea m uneconomical

T Bea m s The Joint Committee makes the following
.

s uggestions in regard to I beams :

''

I n beam and slab construction an e ff ecti v e bond should

be provided a t the j unction o f the beam and slab When .

 CONCRE E DES GN T I 2 99

the principal slab reinforcement is parallel to the beam ,

transverse reinforcement should be used extending over

the beam and well into the slab .

Where adequate bond between slab and web of beam i s
provided the slab may be considered as an integr al part of
,

the beam but i ts e ff ective width shall be determined by the

,

following rules :

1 I t shall not exceed one fourth o f the span length of
.
-

the b eam .

2 I ts overhang width o n either side of the web shall
.

not exceed four times the thickness of the slab .

3 In the design of T beams acting as continuous beam s
.
,

due consi deration should be given to the compressi v e stresses

at the support .

The nota tion used f o r T beam formulas is the sa m e a s -

before with the following exceptions :

,

b =w i d t h o f ange in inches ;

b = width o f stem or beam proper in inches ;

,

t = thickness o f slab in inches ,

.

First assu m e values f or F F and n Also assume values 3 , c .

,

for d b and t Th e value t o be taken f o r b is determi ned

,

,
.

partly by the rules just gi v en A ssume an approximate v alue .

of A from the form ula M = A (d S ol v e the following

2 d A + bt2
form ula f or kd : kd = 11
-

2 n A + 2 bt
If lad i s less than t design the same
,
as a rec tangular be am ;
that is , again nd 12 by the form ula

k VTP " + (P" ) 3

Pn where p ia
-
no t
A
M bd
,

Then nd by the formula

'

1
i l k
and M by the form ula
M = F3 A jd ,

2
Fc jkbd
which must n ot exceed
2
If led i s greater than t, proceed as follow s F i nd 1d by
3 kd 2 t z
the form ula d X
2 kd -
t 3
3 00 CONCRE E DE T SIGN
Find F3 by the form ula M
Fs
Ai d
and nd Fc by the form ula
F
mi d
F
ba led
These valu e s of Fs and 6 must be less than the allowable
values .

These form ulas neglect the compression in the ste m .

For approximate res ul ts the form ulas for rectang u lar beams ,

m a y be used .

As an exa m ple design a bea m to carry ,

lb per ft . .

o n a span o f 1 0 ft The load given includes the weight o f

.

the beam and the oor slab i s 5 in thick The bending

, . .

X 1 0X 1 0

in .
-
lb . A ssu m e that F; = l 6 , 000 1b , Fc = 6 5 0 1b , . .

and n = 1 5 and ,
that d = l 6 in and b1 = 1 6 in ; b is governed .

by the preceding rules I t m ust n o t exceed one fourth the .

-

span or 30 i n and its o v e rhang must be less than four times

,
.
,

the thickness of the slab which would li m it its width to ,

16 +2 X 4 X 5 5 6 in Therefore b i s taken at 30in S olving

for A in the form u la M = A (d
. .

kt) F 7 7 7 6 GO = A (1 6 a
, , ,

1 6 000
Therefore A =3 6 sq i n ; kd =
2 X15 X 16 X X 25
X3 6 + 2 X 3 0X 5
. . .
,
2 X15
2 X 5
.

3 X 6 073 5

2 X 6 07 3
.

Th e n
5 .

7 7 7 600
F lb .
p er sq m .

3 6 X14 1
. .

which is safe and ,

7 7 7 6 00X 6 073
, .

which is also safe

S hear and Bond
.

O ne method of failure of beams that is

.

common i s shown in Fig 2 S uch cracks are caused by . .

shear or diagonal tension They are preve ted by bend . n

ing up so me o f the main reinforcing rods to make truss

rods and by the use o f u shaped stirrups The size and the -
.
302 CONCRE TE DE SIGN
The Joint Committee recommends that the bonding stress
between plain reinforcing bars and concrete be assumed to
be 8 0 lb and in the case of drawn wire to be 40 lb for the
.
, .

same grade of conc r ete as specied in discu ssing beams .

The di ff erence in stress in the tensile steel at two sections

must be taken up by the bond to the concrete between these
two sections and should be investigated .

j C OLU MN S
C oncentr i cally L o a d e d
v

Colum n s There are two general

m ethod s o f reinf orcing concrete columns with s teel On e .

(9 )

FI G 3
f
.

method is known as and the other a s

f me n t
s tr a i ght r ei n or ce

h oo pe d r e i n o rc e m en t These two styles of reinforcement a r e

.

illustrated in Fig 3 In (a ) is shown straight r einforcement

. . .

This consists of steel rods that stand vertically in the con

crete S ometimes the rods are placed di rec tly in the middle
.
,

of the column but a s a rule they are arranged a r ound the

,

outside of the column about 2 in from the surface The s e . .

steel rods are tied together by wire ties as shown at a The , .

 CONCRE E DE T SIGN 3 03

dista nce betwee n two ties should n o t exceed the width o r ,

diameter o f the column If the ties are spaced too far apart .
,

the column is apt to fail by the reinforcement bulg ing .

In Fig 3 (b) is shown a colum n r einforced with hoope d

.

rei n forcement This type o f reinforcement consists o f either

.

a steel spiral o r a separate ste el hoop that i s about 2 in fro m .

the surface o f the column as shown at b , .

S ome columns have both styles of reinforcement j ust

mentioned
ff
.

In the design a s gi v en here A c is the e ecti ve area of the

, ,

concrete The eff ect of re is to inj ure the concrete f o r a

.

depth o f about in from the surface Therefore in . .

,

in v estigating a column already built rst deduct in a ll ,

.

the wa y around the column from the total are a o f the c o n

crete so as t o get the eff ecti v e area of the concrete For the .

same reason af ter a column is designed add a coat

,
in o n , .

all sides for re protection The reinforce m ent to protect .

it from re should be em bedded at least 2 in in the concrete . .

I n a hooped colum n th e e ff ective area should n o t onl y be

,

limited t o 1 % i n fro m the surface but shoul d further b e

.
,

limited to the con crete Wi thi n the hooping O utside o f the .

hooping of course at least 2 in of con crete must be placed

, ,
. .

I n height colum ns should be less than fte en times the i r

,

least d imension
S traight R einforce m ent Let A c represent the e ff ective
.

area o f cross section o f concrete in square i nches ; A 3 the

-
, ,

area o f cross section of steel in square inches ; E 6 the m odulus

-
,

o f elasticity of concrete ; E , the m odulus of elasticity o f steel ; ,

F the safe compressi ve stress per unit area o f concre t e ;

t ,

F3 the safe compressi ve stress per unit area o f steel ; n the

, ,

E
ratio and W the total load ,
on column .

The design form ulas are as follows :

F: n Fc
An y v alues and n as may be requi r ed may be used
of F6 .

The Joint Committee u ses 4 5 0 lb for F and 1 5 for n for .

e

g r ad e of concrete as s pec ied in d iscuss i ng beams These .

values are used here for the sake o f example .

3 04 CONCRE E DE GN T SI
If a colu m n i s 1 2 in square and h a s 3 s q in of steel
. . .
,

determine the safe load that it will carry D educting 1 % in . .

from each surface the column will be 8 1 s q in Bu t 3 sq in

, . . . .

of this area is steel Therefore the e ff ective area of the

.
,

column i s 8 1 sq in By the form ula W = 4 5 0 . .

,

lb The stress in the steel i s there

.

fore 4 5 0X lb per sq i n which is safe

. . .
,
.

The use of steel in a colu m n has two advantages In the .

rst place the form ula s do not take into account the length
,

of the colu m n ; the longer a column is the m ore it i s apt t o ,

bend or bulge and the steel helps materially to resist this

,

tendency Then again the introduction o f steel perm its

.
,

the column t o be m ade m uch s m aller in size and this i s often ,

o f great advantage .

H aving shown how to investigate a colu m n the m ethod ,

o f designing o n e to carry a cert ain load will n o w be con

s i d er ed . Thus assume that it is desired t o design a colu m n

,

t o carr y a load of 40 T The percentage of reinforcement

.

does not have to be a denite a m ount as is the case with

beams but may be any amount S uppose that it is desired
,
.

n o t to have the colu m n too large ; therefore assume that the ,

reinf orcement will occupy 4 % as much area as the concre t e .

L et A c = area of concrete Then A , = 4 % o f A c = 15 A0 .

,

S ubstituting the correct values in the form ula it will be found

that 1 5 X glg A c ) = 72 0 A c

.

= = 1 =4 4 + s
A c 1 1 1 s q in and A 3 . .

5 c q in Therefore the . . .
,

total a r e a = A c + A3 = 1 1 6 sq in . .

If the column i s square i t will be in on a side ; , .

say 1 1 ih to allow for chamfered corners When l l; in

.
,
. .

of r e p r oo n g is put on the column will be 1 4 in square ,

.

and will contain a little o v er s q in o f steel

E m pi ri cal R ules f or S traight R einforce m ent O ne o r t wo

. . .

more or less empirical formul as are used in designing concrete

columns with straight reinforcement These form ulas .

m ostly originate from the building laws of various cities .

The building laws of o n e large city f o r instance furni sh , ,

good examples o f such form ulas They stipulate that the .

safe allowable load shall be 5 00 lb per s q in of column . . .

section counting both concrete and steel the sam e If

,
.
3 06 T
CONCRE E DE GN SI
and on hooped columns that contain in addition m ore than
1% and less than 4 % of longitudinal reinforcement they
allow a unit working stress o f 6 5 0 lb This is for the grade .

o f concre te abo ve specied S o m e engineers consider these

.

stresses rather high ; ne v ertheless in all cases the stress ,

selected should be governed by the laws o f the locality and

the experience o f the designer
E ccentri cally L oa d ed Colu m ns I t is di ff icult to nd a
.

column that i s entirely concentrically loaded I f in a build .

,

ing the live load is transferred from one girder to another

, ,

the girders being carried by the same column their deection ,

will put a twist in the column itself Also the outside .

,

colum ns of buildings are often eccentrically l oaded In the .

lower oors of bu i ldings the eccentric load due to unequal

d istribution of load in panels may usually be neglected
, ,

because of the large concentric load o n the column but in ,

the top oors of a building the matter may at least deserve

attention If the load is eccentric the followi n g method
.
,

will usually give safe results :

First assu m e a section and nd the stress in the concrete
,

and steel due to bending as in a beam with double reinforce

m ent N ext nd the stress in the concrete and steel due
.
,

t o direct compression and add the two algebraically The .

su m s obtained should not exceed the allowable stress for

columns S ometimes it is found advisable to put m ore
.

steel in the tension side than is used in the other side As .

this method i s approximate low unit stresses should be u s ed

, .

CH ES
f
AR
In r ei n or ced c on c rete a rc he s the arch ring is nearly always
-
,

thinner at the crown than near the haunches The arch in

reinf orced
.

,
concrete work is often either true parabolic or
the curve is m ade up of a series of circular arcs approach
ing the shape o f a parabola The reinforcement for arches is
usua lly placed in two layersone near the intrados and
.

the other near the extradosand these two layers of

reinforcement are usually laced together with lighter rods
In c onstructing bridges of reinforced concrete it is c o n s i d ,

ered advisable to lay all the concrete at once but if this is ,

 CONCRE TE DE SI GN 3 07

impossible the bridge may be const ructed in parallel sections

,

running lengthwise of the arch By following this method .

of construction the arch is n o t mate r ially weakened for

, ,

each ring may be consid ered as a complete u nit o f the arch .

The manuf acturers of Kahn bars have sugges ted an a p p ro xi

mate method o i reinfo r ced concrete arch design This method -
.

i s base d o n an article by F F Weld C published in the

E . . .
,

ngineering R ecord I t consists in using an empirical .

formul a obtained fro m a study o f many existing arches

and original designs analy z ed by more elabora te methods .

The rst step in the design is to dete rmine the rise of the
arch This should be at least o n e tenth o f the span
.
-
.

The cu rve that the arch takes especiall y where u niform

.

loads are expe cted i s often a p a rabola This parabolic ,

.

cur v e is usually followed by the ce nter line of the arch ri ng ,

and n o t by the curve o f the intrados This curve m ay be .

drawn by plotting a su fcient number o f poin t s determ ined

by the following form ula :

in which Y is the rise o f parabola in feet at any po int under , ,

consideration ; H the ri se in feet at the cente r o f the arch ;

, , ,

X the hori zontal distance in feet fro m vert ical center line
, , ,

o f arch to point under consideration ; and S the spa n o f the ,

arch in feet ,
.

A s an example lay o u t the paraboli c curve for the center

,

line o f an arch where the span i s 8 8 ft .

First the rise must be determined ; this i s at least o n e

,

tenth of the span which is o r practically 9

,
ft H aving ,
.

the ri se and the span proceed to lay o u t the curve shown in ,

Fig 1 0 a s fo llow s : F irst lay o ff to a con ve n ient scale the

.

line a b equal to the span A t the center o f a b or c e r ect a .

, ,

perpendicular and on it measure c d equal t o the ri se H

, .

Then the points a d and b lie on the required curve

, , , .

T o obtain other points proceed as follows : D ivi de the ,

span into any number of con venient part s sa y in this ca s e , ,

eight because eight i s an even number which makes o n e

, ,

di v ision point at 6 Th en each di v ision is 1 1 ft long .

, . .

N o w the rst division immediately t o the right of c i s e

, .
308 CONCRE E DE GN T SI
From e erect a perpendic ular Then returning to the .
,

form ula it is desired to nd the vertical distance to the

,

FI G 1 0 .

parabolic curve This distance is denoted by Y The fol

. .

lowing v a lu e s a r e known : H = 9 X = 1 1 and S = 8 8 S u b

, , ,
.

s t i t u t i n g these values in the formula

,

Y=9X . 437 5 ft .

L ay o ff e f e qual to ft . Then i is a point on the

curve .

S uppose it i s desire d to locate the curve at the rst di v ision

point from a namely g Through g draw a pe rpe ndicular
S
.
, .
,

H ere H = 9 X = 33 and
, ,
= 88 Therefore ,
.
,

Y =9 X ft .

From g there i s plotted upwards to scale

,
ft to h .
,

which is a point o n the curve O ther points m ay be obtained .

in the same m anner and the parabolic curve drawn t h rough

the m .

Instead o f u sing the formula to determ ine the location o f

points along the parabola as j ust shown i t is customary , ,

i c
t l I a
O I z u 3 o

FI G 1 1 .

to divide an arch into te n equal horizontal p a rts and then

u se the values given in Fig 1 1 These valu es are deri v ed . .

fro m the form ula o n page 3 07 a n d enable a parabola to ,

be plot te d with ease when the span i s divided into ten equal
parts The ri se at each o n e of these parts is given in term s
.
310 CONCRE E DE T SIGN
ring thickness usually increases m ore rapidly and while no ,

denite proportions can be laid down it is usuall y at least ,

twice as thick at the skewbacks as at the crown .

On e o f the points yet to be considered is the amount

of steel reinforcement to be used As was said this rein .
,

forcement usually i s placed in two layers one layer near ,

the intrados and t h er b th e r near the extrados If the arch .

carried only a dead load and the conditions were absolutely

uniform only o n e layer o f reinforce m ent would be n e c e s
,

sary ; but in actual practice a s even the changes o f temper

, ,

ature cau se large variations in stress two layers o f rein ,

forcement are used unless a very careful ana lysis o f stresses

has been m ade to prove that they are n o t needed The .

amount o f steel in each layer is kept uniform throughout its

length The cross sectional area o f steel in each layer i s equal
.
-

to 31% of 1 % o f the area o f the arch ring se ction at the crown -

.

Thus suppose that the thickness o f an arch at the crown

,

i s 2 4 in For a width of 1 f t the area o f the arch ring

. .
,
-

se ction is 2 4 X 1 2 = 2 8 8 sq in The area of the steel in the . .

top or bottom layer per foot o f arch width i s therefore

4

288 X sq . in . The area of a -

in . round bar is
. sq in Therefore o n e l i n round bar placed near the
6 01 3 . .
,
-
.

extrados and one i n round bar placed near the intrados

-
.
,

every 6 in in width alo n g the bridge will be found su ffi cient

.
,
.

The distance from the center of the bars to the surf ace
of the intrados and extrados that is the depth to which , ,

the bars are to be embedded in the concrete is another ,

question that must be decided The nearer the reinforce .

ment is to the surface the more e ffi cient it will be On the

,
.

other hand the reinforcement must be embedded deep

,

enough so th at it will not tear loose and so that it will be

,

protected from re and rust As a general rule the distance .

,

from the center of the steel reinforcement to the surface o f

the arch ring should be from 2 to 3 in .

The two layers of reinforcement are laced together by ligh t

steel rods that are run from one layer to the other N o uniform .

method i s followed in designing these s he a r m e m ber s as they ,

are called and the amount of material used also varies greatly
,
.
 F O UNDA TI ONS 31 1

As an example o f a complete problem the following case ,

is suggested : D esign a reinforced concre te arch for a 6 5 f t - -

.

span This arch is to c arry a live load of 200 lb per s q ft

. . . .

and a dead load o f 300 lb per sq ft at the crown . . . .

First the rise o f the arch must be de termined This may

,
.

be taken as one tenth the span o r

-
ft The c urve of the ,
.

arch m ay now be laid o u t If the curve t o be followed .

i s a parabola the m ethod o f constructing it is given on

,

page 3 07 This curve may be used either as the cente r line

.

o r as the intrados o f the arch preferably the form er ,

.

The thickness o f the arch ring at the crown may n o w be

determ ined by the form ula o n page 309 I n thi s c ase S
F
65 .
, ,

L = 2 00 and,
= 30 0 Therefore .
,

05 2 00 300
D = 46 5 +
10 200 400

Calling this thic kness 1 8 i n the thickness o f the a rch ring

.
,

at the quarter points may be taken a s 1 % X in and .

,

its thickness at the haunches m a y be taken as 2 X 1 8 = 36 in .

The amount of steel reinforce ment requi red for each layer
must now be de term ined Fo r each foo t of width o f the a r ch
.
,

this will be 1 8 X 1 2 X a X f a = 8 6 4 s q in A i n round . .

-
.

rod has an area o f 4 4 1 8 sq i n ; therefore o n e i i n rod e very

. . .
,
-
.

6 in near the extrados and o n e 1 l i n r od e very 6 in near the

.
,
-
. .

intrados will be su ffi cient These rod s should be embedded

.

2 o r 3 in in the concre te
. The two layers o f rei n fo r cement
.

should be either securely tied together or bonded into the

concre te with shear or diagon al mem b ers .

FO U N D A I O N S T
B EARI NG VA LU E O F F OUN DATION SOI LS
There is some di ff er e nce o f opinion rega r d ing the safe
beari ng value o f foundation soils due p r obably to the d i ff i ,

cul ty of arri v ing at any ex pe rimenta l results that wi ll have

a gene r al application Conservative enginee ring practice
.
,

howe ver dic ta te s that the greatest u ni t pre ssure o n the

,
31 2 U
F O NDA TI ONS

ze i w cmco/r v
' '

FI G
. 1
314 FO UNDA TI ONS
Where a test is made of the sustaining power o f the soil ,

the Commissioner of Buildings shall be notied so that he

m ay be present in person or by representati ve The record .

o f the test shall be led in the D epa r tment of Buildings .

SPRE A D F OO TI NG S
E
D S I GN AN D CON STR UCTI ON
f
The term s pr ea d ooti n gs is applied to either wall or column
footings that ha v e a conside r able projection beyond the
upper tier o f the footing wall o r column base as the case
, ,
,

may be .

The usual type of spread footing for the support o f a

column is illustrated in Fig 1 This footing was designed. .

to be used with a structural steel column core and is o n e that

-
,

would ordinarily be used for a ten o r twelve story building -

that is to be erec ted on unstable soil

P laci n g R einforce m ent in Colu m n Footi ng s The rein
.

forcing rods or bars are placed from 2 to 4 in from the

, ,
.

bottom o f the footing and are arranged so as to cross each

,

other at right angles N o attempt is made to inte rlace the

.

bars or rods It is good practice howe v er to wire them

.
, , ,

together f o r by so doing any danger o f m isplacing the bars

,
,

is avoided S everal tiers of bars or rods are used in heavy

.
, ,

footings although spread footings that support light loads

,

are sometimes reinforced with expanded metal or wo ven

wire fabric .

I n designing column footings in reinforced concrete some ,

s teel reinforcement i s often placed in the upper part of the

footing directly under the base of the column This r ein .

fo r cement acts as a mattress to distribute the concentrated

load from the column and also a s a bond to tie the concrete
together .

Two other methods of arranging the reinforcing r ods in

concrete column footings a re shown in Fig 2 In (a ) the . .
,

rods and bars a re crossed at r ight angles ; every othe r bar is

made short so as to sa ve metal .
 FO UNDA TI ONS 31 5

In the method o f placing the steel rei n forcement shown

in Figs 1 and 2 (a ) it will be observ ed that the corners o f
.
,

the footings are subjected to great moment Therefore in .

,

order to strengthen the

corners o f the footing ,

the reinforcing rod s

are f r e q u e n t l y a r
ranged as shown i n
Fig 2 (b)
. .

The steel reinf orce

ment o f column foot
ings is never painted ,

even if the fo otings

are to be placed in
damp s i t u a t i o n s .

Coating the bars will

partly d e s t r o y the
bond that it is n e c e s
sary to m aintain b e
tween the concrete
and steel ; besides the ,

concr ete is su ff icient

protection for the steel
against any s e r i o u s
corrosion In a ll i n
.

stances however the

, ,

steel bars should be

cut o ff enough to allow
the ends to be entirely
protected .

S prea d Footi n g s f or
Outside Colu m ns I n .

stead of a continuous
footing i s o la te d s pre a d
foo ti
n
,

gs are requently
f FI G 2
u s ed i n outs i de or wall
.

, ,

c olumns S uch footings are illustrated in Fig 3 The position

.
. .

that the footings occupy on the building plan is shown the ,

wall footing being at a and the corner foo ting at b .

31 6 FO UNDA TI ONS
FOR M U LAS FOR TH E D ES I G N OF F 001 I NGS

The theo retical design of a sp read reinforced concrete -

footing consists rst in determining the total load o n the

'

column to be supported by the footing and then nding the

,

required area of the bottom reinforced concrete footing or -

layer of concrete by dividing the load by the assumed

allowable bearing v a lu e o f the soil The next thing to nd
.

is the area of the base o f the column where it bears on the

upper tier or layer o f concrete because the size of this por
, , ,

tion of the footing is xed by the size of the column base .

A fter the areas o f the bottom and top tiers or layers of c o n, ,

FI G 3 .

crete ha v e been ascertained the projection of the bottom tier

,

beyond the upper is known and the bending moment stress

,
-

on the lower tier of concrete can be calculated S u ffi cient .

steel rods may then be introduced and the footing made o f a

,

depth that will resist this bendi n g moment .

The usual formulas for bending moments and the resi st

ance of reinforced concrete rectangular sections may be
-

applied in determ ining the strength of reinforced concrete -

spread footings H owever in o ffi ce practice it is desirable

.
, ,

to use di rect formulas for nding the area of steel

reinforcement requi red and for determ ining the unit
compression created in the upper portion o f the concrete
footing.
31 8 FO UNDA TI ONS
design shown in F ig 4 m ay be assumed in applying the .

formula .

In this gure the projection of the footing or the dis

, ,

tance x is 6 0 i n and the dimension t or the distance from

,
.
, ,

the center o f action of the steel reinforcement to the top

of the footing is 2 0 in The pressu r e on a projection o f
, .

the footing 1 ft in width is equal to the uni t pressure o n the

.

soil o r
, ,
which is the v alue of W in the
formula These values m ay be substitute d in the formula
.

f o r determining the amount of the steel reinforcement so that ,

2 7 , 000X 2 0
This area o f steel is to be included in each linear foot o f
the footing course ; therefore the reinforcement may consist ,

of 1 in square twisted bars spaced practically every 6 in

-
. .

both ways or other bars at a spacing to give this sectional

,

area may be used .

The amount o f the steel reinforcement having thus been

determ ined it remains to nd o u t whether or not the con
,

crete in the footing co u r se is overstressed and the second ,

form ula m a y be applied as follows :

2 0, 000X 6 0
4 59. X 2 0X 2 0
This resul t which is the maximum compression in pounds
, ,

per square inch on the conc r ete section i s somewh at high

, ,
.

If good concrete i s used the footing as reinforced and ,

designed may be considered safe though in fact the thick , , ,

ness o f the concre te footing m ight be increased se v eral

inche s .

CANTIL E VER F OU N DATIONS

In reinforced concrete constru ction as well as in other
-
,

type s of construction it is frequently necessary to place a ,

new building close against the walls of an adj oining building .

In many instances the wall o f the adjoining property rests

entirely on its own lot and is not a party wall built half on
each side o f the party line ; also the adjoining building may ,

be of inf erior construction o r may be occupied by tenants

 FO UNDA TI ONS 31 9

engaged in m anufacture U nder such conditions it is unde .

sirable to tear out the wall and build a party wall .

With buildings of o r dinary height and load provided the ,

basement o o r of the new building doe s not exte nd below

that of the old few d iffi culties are encounte red in the design
,

of the foundations for the new structure ; but if the new

building is to be many stories in height and requi re s exten
si ve foundations along the wall lines the problem of the ,

design o f the reinf orced c oncrete foundations becomes mo r e

-

complicated because it is desirable to proportion the footings

,

s o that the center o f action o f the load s will coincide with the

center o f action from the pressur e of the soil beneath I n .

order to accomplish this desired result in a steel structure ,

a cant i le v er girder system of foundation construction would

-

be employed and a similar system can be constructed in

,

reinfor ced concrete .

I n Fig 1 is shown the detail drawings of a reinforced

.

concrete cantile ver foundation construction for a six sto r y

- -

bu i lding the oors of which are designed for light manu

,

f a c t u r i n g purposes I n view (a ) is shown a diagramm atic

.

c r oss section o f the bu i lding which illustrate s the conditions

-
,

of loading and the spa ns of the cantile v er and other girders .

The li ve load to be supported by the oor construction and

the cantile v er girder is 2 2 0 lb p e r s q f t and the so i l beneath
. . .
,

the footings is capable of supporting safel y lb pe r sq ft . . .

The detail s of the construction and the reinfor cement

are shown in view (b) The footing i s rei n f or ced against
.

failu r e from trans verse stress by bars a placed near the ,

bottom o f the footing and further by a mattress o f rods or

,

bars placed directly beneath the be aring of the foundation

wall column as at b The column or wall pier c is rein
,
.
, ,

for ced with ve r tical reinforcing bars which are tied at close ,

inter v als with wi r e o r loop ties d P articular attention is .

called to the m anner in which the outside rods of the f o un d a

tion pier or column ru n straight through and up into the
column above being continued as the inside rod s o f the
,

upper tiers The outside rods o f the r s t o o r wal l colum n

.
-

are b ent so as to pass obliquely th r ough the cantile ver

b r acket of the foundation pier or colu m n and the are at the
32 0 U
FO NDA TI ONS
322 T I LS
B UI LD I N G DE A
bottom as shown at The reinfor cing rods of the canti
l e ver girder are arrang d as shown at f
e .
,

eand The rods , g, h, i .

in the upper part of the gi r der a re arranged in three r ows ,

or laye r s and a r e stopped o ff in length in practically the

,

s ame manner as the ange plates of a bu ilt u p girder becau se -

,

the bending moment is reduced toward the inte r ior colum n .

O nly one se t of the reinf orcing rods as at extends en tirely ,

th r ough into the inte r ior column because the bending moment ,

is so reduced that this set is all that is requi red The bottom .

rods as at i are inserted to improve the resistance to com

, ,

pressi on in the cantilever girder beam at the bottom .

Both the girder and the cantilever bracket are well supplied
with stirrups as shown at ,
The ve r tical reinforcement of
the interior column is shown at k and the ties a n d b r acket ,

reinforcement at l and m respectively The lintels or con

, ,
.
,

n e c t i n g beams at the end o f the cantilever are shown at n

, .

I n Fig 2 is shown a reinforced concrete cantile v er f o u n d a

.
- -

t ion construction designed to carry the s ame load on the

e n d of the cantilever as was requi r ed o f the construction

illustrate d in Fig 1 As the cantilever girders have a

. .

c onsiderable projection beyon d the foundation footings they ,

must be very strongly reinforced in both the top and bot

tom a s shown
,
The se v eral deta i ls o f this construction are
.

w o r ked out in the illust r ation and an analysis of these will

,

show that the se v eral principal and secondary stresse s

c reated in the structure a r e amply pro v ided f o r

T
BU I LD I NG D E A I LS

L I NTE L A N D SP A N D RE L C ONSTR U C TI ON
There are two ways of arranging the beams and gi r ders
i n a building These di ff e rent ways b r ing di ff e rent loads on
.

the spandrels
In the construction shown in Fig 1 (a ) one half o f the oo r .
,
-

load from the beams a and b is concent r ate d at two points

upon the lintel and the lintel has this load as well as the
, ,

weight of the spandrel wall to sustain Also as the beams a,

.
,
 BUI L DI NG DE TA I LS 323

and b extend into the lintel it must at least be equal in depth ,

to the depth of these beams Thus the heigh t of the window .

,

opening is materially reduced

The method of framing shown in Fi g 2 (b) is frequently .

employed The girders instead o f extending from colum n

.
,

to column as shown at c in view (a ) extend from colum n

, ,

to wall pie r ; consequently the beams extend in a direction ,

parallel with the lintel The slab spans from the beam a.

to the lintel b The lintel carrie s o n e half o f the slab load

.
-

between these structural mem

bers and is required to sustain
the weight of the spandrel as
well The ad v antage gained
.
d

by this method o f c o n s t r u c

i
tion is that there are no beams
abutting the lintel Thus this .
,

m e mber may be reduced in

depth t o the very m inimu m for ( ) a

stre n gth requ ired t o support

the small oor load and the
weight of the spandrel wall .

The style o f lintel shown in

Fig 2 (a ) is the o n e in most
.

common use The girders.

are arranged as shown in ,

Fig 1 (b) s o that the lintel

.
,

ca rr ies onl y part of the slab

and the s p a n d r e l section (a) .

The lintel i s made as shal

FI G 1
low as p ossible so as to admit ,
.

maximum li ght by having the window head near the

ceili n g .

When no be ams are u sed and the slab spans from g i rder
to girder the lintel carrie s no load except the weight of the
,

spand rel I n this case reinforced concre t e is sometime s

.
,

dispensed with and a b r ick arch employed as shown in ,

Fig 2
. The arch howe ver cuts o ff the top corners of
, ,

the window and thus somewhat reduces the amount of light

,

that can be admitted .

32 4 BUI LDI NG DE TA I S
L

FI G 2
.
32 6 B U I LD I N G T S
DE A I L

FI G 3 .
 BU I L DI NG DE TA I LS 32 7

is shown in (e ) I n both (d) and (e ) the g usset i s made of

.
,

cinder concrete as it is cheaper and lighter than stone

,

concre te and is not required to carry a hea v y load

f
.

I n ( ) is shown the method o f reinforcing a cornice that

has a hea v y overhang This construction requires special
.

ca re as the cornice may be very top heavy

,
.

C
B RI K FA C ING AN D TERRA C O TTA S T RI N G
C OU RSES
-

The method o f tying a brick facing t o a c oncre te pier by

means of copper ties is illustrated
in Fig 4 The ties which consi st
. .
,

of strips o f copper about 1 1; in .

thick i in wide and 7 in long

,
.
,
.
,

are placed every s e v e n t h j oint .

These ties are spaced about 2 ft .

apart horizontally and are embed ,

ded in the concrete work to a

depth o f about 4 i n which give s .
,

them when a 8 or i i n space is left

,
-
.

between the facing and the concrete ,

a surface about 2 } in long in the .

bricks I t is customary in arran

.

ging the bri ck facing to all ow about

5 in for the width o f the brick
.
,

and the space back o f the brick i s E1 0 4 ,

usually ushed in with mortar as the bricks are laid

FASTE NI NG S IN C ONC RETE

There a r e numerous devices intended to be embed ded in
the concrete work f o r the purpose o f holding T headed or tap -

bolts in a secure manner These necessarily mus t be arranged .

in the fo rm s before the concrete i s poured Ordinarily these .

,

sockets should be tapped o u t f o r ii i n bolts but where heavy -

.
,

machinery or hoisting appar atus is to be employed it will be ,

better t o use i n bolts S ockets should be provided near the

-
. .

e n d bearings o f each beam and g i rder and inte rmediately , ,

not farther apa r t than 4 t o 5 ft .

32 8 B UI LD I N G DE AT I LS
A i in
-
bolt will ordinarily test in a tensile pull t o from
.

to lb Thus it can be considered to sustain

.
,

safely a load of about lb .

Where i t is necessary to bolt heavy machinery to the

ceiling the location should be ascertained and heavy
, ,

through bolts shoul d then be embedded in the concrete work

B EA M S O KETS C
S tyles of S o ckets The socket shown in Fig
. . 5 (a ) i s kn own
as the U n i t s oc ket The cast iron part a rests on the botto m
.
-

of the form load and is bolted to it by the bolt b which

, ,

passes through a hole in the botto m o f the forms This .

socket as shown clamps to four reinforcing rods o f the be am

, ,

o r girder in which it is place d In (b) is shown a malleable .

iron socket I t is tapped at a to receive a stud bolt This

. .

socket is secured t o the form boards by means of lugs b ,

through which nails are driven into the wood .

The socket shown in (c ) is known as the J en n i n gs S tei n -

metz s oc ket I t consists of a piece of pipe swaged o u t or

.

broken at the upper end as indicated at a with a solid , ,

wrought iron bar o r block welded to the other end The

-
.

solid portion of the block i s tapped o u t for the bolt b which ,

passes through the bottom board c of the form .

What is known a s the H a n cock i n s ert is shown in (d ) .

This de v ice consists o f a cast o r malleable iron casing that -

is m ade in loose hal ves a and is wired together through the

,

lugs b cast o n the side Before the two hal ves of the insert
.

are wired together however there is placed in the recess

, ,

a nut c into which a bolt can be screwed fro m beneath

,
.

The castings are arranged with lugs o r anges d on the face , ,

end and by means o f these the insert may be screwed o r

nailed to the form board and thus secu red in an upright and
secure position when the concrete is placed The ange e .

at the top of the i nsert furnishes additional bond or key , ,

with the concrete The H ancock insert is made in 3 4

.

and 6 i n lengths for l

-
. i ; and 1 i n bolts -
. .

I n (e ) is shown the Bi ge low s oc ket This casting which .

,

i s made o f malleable iron is arranged with a slot a that is

,
3 30 BUI LDI NG DE TA I LS
enlarged at b s o as t o receive the head o f the bolt In order .

that the casting m ay be securely held in the concrete work ,

it is arranged with a plate d and connecting pieces e O n .

the sides of the socket at the face are cast notches 6 into
which nails may be dri ven s o that the device may be secured
to the form s . The Bigelow socket is made for l
fy ,
1
1 45 and i n bolts The smaller sizes are suitab le for
-
. .

embedment in slab work and the i zy Jr and i i n sizes m a y

, , ,
-
.

be use d in beam s and girders .

FI G 6 .

f
I n ( ) i s shown a s he et s tee l s oc ket It is cut as shown
-

at a so a s t o t around the beam reinforcing bars

.

In (g )
,

i s shown separately the cap that ts over the nut held by

the socket into which the stud bolt t s
Continuous Inserts for T H eade d Bolts
.

-
I n the c o n s t r u c
.

tion of factory bui ldings it is sometimes desi r able to arrange

a slot in the bottom o f the concrete beams and girde r s so
 BUI LDI NG DE TA I LS 33 1

that a T headed bolt can be introduced at any point along

-

t h e entire length
.
To accom plish this several methods are
,

employed the principal ones being illustrated in Fig 6

,
. .

FI G 7
.

Two v iews of one de v ice a r e shown in (a ) and (b ) .

View (a ) shows the T headed bolt that carries the shafting

-
3 32 B UI LDI NG DE TA I LS
and V i ew (b) shows the bolt that secures the cont i nuous
i nsert to the under side o f the beam .

The device shown in (c ) consists of a split pipe in which

the T headed bolts slide The form boards are shown in
-
.

place in this view s o that it may be seen how the split pipe
is held in place in the form s by the strips f
In (d ) the slide consists of a p i ece of bent steel e m bedded
.

in the concrete As shown bolts are also used to hold the

.
,

steel slide in place

f
.

Two views o f another device are shown in (e ) and ( ) .

V iew (e ) shows how the slide for the T headed bolts is held
-

in place and view

,
shows the bolt in position to support
machinery .

B EARI NG S FOR C ONC RETE B EA M S AN D

G IR D ERS
I t is often necessary to increase the bearing area o f c o n ,

crete beam s especiall y when they rest o n brick walls The

,
.

ways in which this can be done are shown i n Fig 7 . .

I n view the end of the beam is formed with projecting

spurs at right angles to the axis o f the beam those spurs ,

being o f such length as to distribute the bearing over a con

s i d e r a b le area The reinforcing rods o f the cross beam are
.
-

shown at c .

In order to save concrete the be aring o f the beam s may

,

be increased by the method shown in (e ) This construction .

,

howe v er is not s o practical as the o n e shown i n

,
because
the form is more troublesome to make and ll and beside s , , ,

the masonry d oe s not build so read ily with at beds on the

slope as it will with the construc tion shown in (d) .
334 FORM WOR K
F O R M S F O R F LOO R S YSTE M S
Co mm on Types o f Form Work I n Fig 1 is shown a typ e .

of fo r m work extensively used for the construction of rein

FI G 1.

forced concrete oor systems and in Fig 2 is shown a per

-
,
.

s p e c t i v e o f the forms at the intersection of a beam and

girder This form work is designed so that light

.
i n d r essed
.

tongued and grooved material may be used extensi v ely in its

- -

construction I t is arranged so that the sides o f the beam s

.

and girders together with the slab for m boards may be

, ,

remo v ed w ithout the necessity of r emo v ing the supports

di r ectly underneath the beam s and girders .

The column form

for this type o f
c o n s t r u c t i o n is
shown in Fig 3 . .

Form s Construct
ed o f P la nk A
superior type of
form for a r ein
FI G 2 .
f o r c e d c-
o n c r e t e FI G 3
f l o o r s y s t e m is
.

shown in Fig 4 The wooden forms ar e supported by 3 X 4

. .

studs As it is impor tant to bring the form s to a true le v el a

.

double adjustment wedge is p r o v ided at the bottom of the

studs The form s for the columns a r e made o f 1 % or 2 i n
. -
.
 FORM WO R K 3 35

material In the construction of the bea m and g i rder form s

.

2 i n planks are genera lly used for the sides

-
. .I n or der t o form

FI G 4
.

cha m fer o n the lower edges o f the be ams and girders tri
,

angular llet pieces are na iled in the form s I t i s custo m ary

.

FI G 5
.
3 36 FORM WO RK

In this typ e of construction to make the forms for the slabs

of i n plain boards frequently u sing tongued and grooved
~
.
,
- -

m aterial .

FI G 6
.

Collapsi b le Form s S everal attempts have been made to

arrange the form s f or a reinf orced concrete oor syste m s o
-

that they will partly collapse and thus be easy to take down
o r away from the concrete a s soon as it h as properly s e t .

On e type of collapsible form is shown in Fig 5 . I n this .

construction the side form s for the beam s are embodied with
,

the slab centering by the construction of a collapsible box ,

which furnishes a
form that is the
exact shape of the
space between two
adj acent b e a m s .

These boxes are

arranged with a
hinge c and when ,

in place they rest

upon cap pieces d .

I n order to take
down the form s ,

the stru ts are r e

FI G 7 .
mo v ed and ,
the
form is allowed to
double up on the hinges c and thus release itself from the
concrete After the collapsible centering has been remo v ed
.
,
338 FORM W OR K

concrete oor system that is particularly well constructed .

I t may be readily set up and taken apart The sheathing .

of the beam and girder forms

and the plank used for the slab
cente r ing are 2 in in thickn ess . .

The form s are supported by

4 X 4 studs

.

Wall Form s With Wi re Ties .

A type of wall form con -

struction that is frequently

u sed is illustrated in Fig 8 I n . .

order to prevent the sid es o f the

form s from spreading when
the concrete is tamped in place ,

a wire tie c is used This .

FI G 1 1 .
tie is made taut by twisting
with a bar or stick d To keep the form boards the proper
, ,
.

distance apar t for the thickness o f the wall a block o r stick ,

e of wo o d is sometimes inserted

Wall Form Construction With Cla m p Bolts A wall form

.

- .
-

c onstruction similar to that shown in Fig 8 is illustrated in .

Fig 9 I n this form however a clamp bolt a instead o f

. .
, , ,

a wi r e tie is used to p r event spreading I f a bolt of this

,
.

character is u sed it must be knocked out before the concrete

,

h a s nally set and when the form boards are to be raised to

form the next course o f concrete The bolt i s preferable to .

the wire tie because it is remo v ed from the concrete Wire

,
.

ties are usually cut o ff close to the concrete work after the
form boards ha v e been r e
mo v ed and as the ends f r e
,

quently p r oj ect they rust and

,

thus stain the wa ll .

In Fig 1 0 is shown the

.

construction of a wall form

in which a pipe separator a
is used with the clamp bolt
FI G 1 2
.

The pipes may be d ri v en out .

o f the concrete after it has obtained i t s initial s e t o r they

,

m a y be left in place .
FORM WOR K 339

(d )
FI G 1 3
.
3 40 FORM W OR K

of the best methods of constructing wall forms is to

On e

use concrete separators The separator known as the

.

FI G 1 4
.

M c C a r ty
. se p a r a tor used in constructing the form work
, , is
illustr ated in Fig . 11 . The separator c is cast previous t o
the construction o f
the form s .

C lam pi ng De
vi ces a n d P lank
H olders f or Wall
Form s M any de
vices that aid in
the construction of
concrete walls ha v e
been in v ented On e .

o f the most useful

o f these devices i s

the S
u lli v a n
'

pr es s ed -
s te e l p la n k
ho lder , variou5
form s o f which are
shown in Fig 1 2 . .

These holders are

f o r m e d fro m an
iron plate by shear
ing and bending it
s o a s to form clips .

FI G .

The application
of this type of plank holder is illustrated in F ig 1 3 . .
3 42 IVA TE R P R OOFI N G

is called to the fact that the spandrel wall cannot be carried

up at the t i me that the lintel and slab form s are lled ,

especially if wet concrete is used The r efo r e the concrete .

,

mu st rst be deposited to the le v el o f th e top of the slab ,

and when this has its initial set the balance o f the wall , ,

m ay be lled If this precaution is not taken the hydro

.
,

static pressu r e o f th e wet concrete in the spand r el wall will

force the conc r ete fr om unde r neath the form at the slab and
p r e v ent the lling of the wall form
Cornice Constr uctio n I n Fig 1 6 is shown a typical form
.

construction for a reinfor ced conc r ete cornice The cornice

-
.

wor k i s ca r efully constructed o f 1 % i n d ressed material -

. .

I n lling the form the conc r ete is ca rr ied to the level A A

, ,

and the parapet wall is afterwa r ds constructed above this

point .

WATE R P R OOF I N G OF C O N C RE E T
C LASSI FI CATI ON OF S YSTE MS
There are th r ee pr i ncipal methods o r systems employed , ,

in the waterproong o f concrete They may be te r med the .

i n te g r a l the s u p er c i a l and the m e m b ra n e meth od

, , .

The integr al method consist s in adding something to the

concrete when i t is placed o r in mixing the concrete in cer
,

tain proportions so as to m ake it waterproof th r oughout

, .

The supercial m ethod consists in coating the conc r ete with

paint or some other m ate r ial This material adheres to the
.

conc rete and ha r dens or d r ies on it ,

The membr ane
,
.

method consists in putting o n the conc rete a coating that is

distinct from it While the coating may adhere to the con
.

crete i t does not crack when the conc rete cracks but is in
, ,

a distinct membrane usually strengthened by felt or some

other ber cloth .

I NTEGR AL M ETH O D
M ixing o f Concrete Accor ding to some authorities if
.
,

conc rete is p r ope rly mixed it will be impe rv ious to wate r

,
.

The exact mixtu re to use will depend on the quality o f sand

 WA TE R P R OOFI N G 3 43

and broken stone This most waterp roof mixtu re is also

.

the densest mixture Therefore in sea rching for the most.

,

waterpr oof m i xt u re o f concrete the engineer really nds ,

the densest m ix tur e For many grades o f sand and br oken

.

stone 3 1 1 % 3 mixture is used T o be imper v ious t o water

,
.
,

concre te must be placed in a wet condition and be well

rammed into place
Concrete particularly that which is very dense becomes
, ,

m ore imper v ious to water as it gr ows older The rst water .

that penet r ates it ca rr ies particles o f clay and other mate r ial
that stops up its pores and g r adually makes it more water
proof
Ad di n g o f Li m e o r Cla y
.

By h yd ra te d li me is meant lime
.

that has been slaked in water I t can be bought c o m .

m e r c i a lly in the form of a dry powder The purpose o f .

adding hydrated lime to conc rete is to ll mechanically the

voids in the latter A small quantity added to the concrete
.

when it is being m ixed does not gr eatly reduce the stre n gth
o f the latter After the cement and lime are mi xed until
.

the color of the m ixture i s uniform the sand broken stone , , ,

and water are added a s usual The concrete should be made .

wet and great care must be exercised in bonding o ld and

,

new work The amount of lime t o be employed i s usually

.

gi ven a s a perce ntage by weight o f the cement U nder

ordinary conditions for 1 2
.
, ,

4 concrete 8 % of lime wi ll be
found su ffi cient and for 1
, ,

3 6 concrete 1 7 %
,
of lime will -
,

be required .

In place o f hydrated lime concrete is often waterproofed ,

by mixing with it nely ground c o llo i d a l c la y I t i s re c o m .

mended that clay equal to about 1 0% of the weight o f the

cement be used in a mix ture The clay must be thoroughly .

dry and well mixed w ith the cement

S ylvester P rocess The S ylve s te r proces s o f waterproong
.

concrete consists in adding p owde r e d a lu m and s o t s o a p t o the f

concrete The sand and cement are m ix ed to gether dry
.
,

a s usual . To this mixture is added alum equal to 1 % of the

weight of the m i xture To the water to be used i s ad ded .

by weight of soft soap and this soap is then thoroug h ly

, ,

dissolved The mortar is made wet and the broken stone

.
,
344 WA TE R P R OOFI N G
is added in the us u al m anner O rdinary precautions should .

be taken to make the concr ete dense and a s a rule it is ,

mixed rather wet

M etalli c S tearates and Other Co m pounds Besides the
.

. .

mate rials mentioned various other chemicals are u sed to

,

make concrete waterp roof On e o f the most successful o f .

the se is c a lc i u m s tea ra te which i s a salt of a fatty acid

,
.

U sually the quantity of nely gr ound metallic stearate

,

added to the cement t o make the concrete waterproof is

about 2 % of the weight of the cement .

Besides the metallic stearates other substances are u sed ,

m ore or le ss to waterproof concrete by the integr al method .

A mixture of oil and wate r has been used with some success ,

as has al so chloride o f lime The purpose o f the chemica ls .

is in every case to ll the voids and in addition some of , , ,

them are water repellants .

SUP ER FI CI AL METH O D
Waxes To make concrete waterproof it is sometimes
.
,

coated with wa x The wax sinks into the pores o f the con
.

crete lling the voids therein and thus preventing the per
,

colati on of water
f .

P a r a n is u sed for waterproong with considerable suc

cess A paraffi n especially hardened to resist the sun s rays
.

i s use d The c bn cr e t e surface o n which the paraffi n is to be

.

applied shoul d be thoroughly dry and not v ery cold I n fact .

,

it is better to warm the surface with a torch if possible The .

parafn i s heated and then applied with a brush The hot .

paraffi n is absorbe d by the concrete into which it penetrates ,

for a sho r t distance P araf n will resist the action o f acids

.

and alkalies .

Instead of applying para ff in while hot it may be dissol ved ,

in some v olatile carrier such as benzine The dry wall is

,
.

painted with this solu tion which is readily absor bed The ,
.

carrier then evaporates and leaves the para ff i n to ll the pores

in the surface o f the wall If the carrier is inammable care
.
,

must be taken in usi n g it

Cem ent s A common method o f waterproong conc rete i s
.

t o coat the surface of the concrete with an impervious cement

3 46 WA TE R P R OOFI NG
will be found excellent for placing a coal tar pitch
c a ti o n s ,
-

and felt roof o v er concrete These specications also .

desc ri b e how the work should be carried ou t .

There shall be used v e thicknesses of approved felt

weighing not less than 1 4 lb per 1 00 sq f t single thickness

. . .
, ,

not less than 2 00 lb of appro v ed pitch and not less than

.
,

400 1b o f gra vel or 3 00 lb of slag from i to g in in size free

. . .
,

from dirt per 1 00 s q ft o f completed roof

,
. . .

FI G 1 7
.

The material shall be applied as follows : (1 ) Coat the

concre te a (see acco m panying gure ) with hot pitch b ,

mopped o n uniformly (2 ) L ay two full thicknesse s o f

.

tarred felt c lapping each sheet 1 7 in o ver the p receding one

,
.
,
 FI ELD OPERA TI ONS 3 47

and mop with hot pitch d the full width o f the l 7 i n lap so -
.
,

that in no case shall felt touch felt (3 ) Coat the entire .

surface with hot pitch e mopped on uniformly (4 ) L ay

f
.

three full thicknesses of felt lapping each sheet 2 2 in o v er ,

.

the preceding one and moppi ng with hot pitch g the full
width of the 2 2 i n lap between the plies so that in no case
-
.
,

shall felt touch felt (5 ) S pread over the entire surface of the
'
.

roof a uniform coat of pitch into which while hot embed , , ,

the gravel or slag h The gravel or slag in all cases m ust

.

be dry .

The preceding specications are designed for roofs ha v ing

an incline not exceeding 1 in to the f t and by adding the . .
,

words such nailing as is necessary shall be done so that all

nails will be co v ered by at least two plies o f felt the s p e c i ,

cations ar e su itable for inclines not exceeding 3 in to the ft . .

For surfaces steeper than 3 in to the foot naili n g strips o f .

,

wood mus t be provided These should be embedded in the

.

concrete from 3 to 6 ft apart running at right angles t o the

.
,

pitch o f the roof and the felt nailed to these strips

,
.

F I E LD O P E RA I O N S T
C ON CRETE MI XE RS
B AT C H ME ER S
Cub e Mixers On e o f th e oldest and be st known form s -

of batch mixer i s the c u b e m i xer In Fig l i s shown what i s . .

kn own as a C a r li n cu be m i xe r The cube i s driven by a belt a

.
,

and gears b serve to reduce the speed o f rotation Th e cube .

i s shown in the position it occupies when being lled Th e .

trap door fo r lling and discharging is shown open and swung

back at c The hopper ab o v e the cube is m ade in two part s
. .

The lower part is hu n g from o n e of the posts o f the platform ,

a s shown When the cube is re v ol v ing this lower part can

.
,

be swu n g out of the way A t (1 is shown the water tank.

,

which feeds water into the cube through the pipe e Below
f
.

the cube is shown a car into which the nished concrete is

dumped .
3 48 F EL D I OP E R A TI ON S
The following conditions have been found to produce excel
lent results with a 4 f t cube m ixer : ach batch is m ixed
-
. E
1 % min at a speed of 1 0 rev per m i n
. making a total of
.
,

1 5 turns per batch .The time allowed for dumping cleaning ,

and charging the mixer and for temporary stoppage of the

work is about 3 % m i n m aking an average time inter v al
,

between successi v e batches o f 5 m i n which is at the rate ,

o f 1 2 batches per ho u r A llowing only

. cu yd of rammed . .

concrete per batch this gives f or a 1 0 h r day an output o f

,
-
.

1 05 cu yd . .

R ansom e M ix er .

A nother form o f batch

m ixer called the R o n ,

s om e m i xer i s illustra ,

ted in two views in

Fig 2 This machine . .

consists essentially o f
a hollow cylindrical
drum that is m ounted
o n a horizontal axis and

has a circular opening

in each end As shown .

in (a ) the m ixer is ,

charged through one

of these openings a .

In the other ope n ing ,

shown in (b) i s a chute ,

b that r e c e i v e s the
m ix ed concrete from
FI G 1
the drum and deli vers
.

it to a wheelbarrow or other receptacle I nside the .

dru m are se v eral steel blades arranged in such a manner

a s to deect the material from side to side as the drum

revol v es The drum is mounted on four rollers and is s u p

.

ported o n a truck which i s either made stationary o r mounted

,

on wheels a s required The m ixer i s turned by power

,
.

applied to the r i m o f the drum either from an engine mounted

o n the same frame or from a belt or a chain The i llustra .

tion shows one d ri ven by a belt .

35 0 FI EL D OP E R A TI ON S
The interior of the drum is provided with blades so as to
insure thorough mixing The capacity of the mixer is fr om
.

FI G; 3

1 0 to 3 5 cu yd
. . of concrete per hour accor ding to the size
,

of the machine .
 I
F E L D O P ER A TI ONS 35 1

C ON TI N U OU S MI XER S
D r a ke M i xer.
On e o f the best known forms of continuous
m ix ing machines is the D r a ke m i xer This m ixer consists
.

o f an open trough tted with a longitudinal shaft to which ,

are fastened blades or paddles some of which are set at an

, ,

inclination so that they will not only mix the ingredients

, ,

but also feed the m ixtu r e toward the discharge end The .

m ixer is s o set that the shaft revolves on a horizontal axis .

i n gredients deposited wheelbarrows o r from

FI G 4 .

measuring box at the upper o r feedi ng end o f the tro ugh

, , .

The straight blade or kn i fe at that end cu ts or stirs the

, ,

mass which i s then turned over by the adjacent cur v ed

,

blade or scoop and ad v anced to the next knife where it is

, , ,

again cut and then turned over by the next scoop and so ,

passed o n .This process i s repeated until the end o f the

trough i s reached when the mate r ial is pushed out and falls
,

into a receptacle a s mixed concrete The ingred ients a r e.

mixed dry for about one half the length of the trough and
-
35 2 FI E L D O P E R A TI ONS
then spr ay from water pipes wets the m aterial a s it i s cu t
a
and turned over .

Fig 5 shows a D rake

.

m ixer of usual design .

The i n g r e d i e n t s are

dumped in at the far

end and when they are
,

entirely mixed are de

live r ed down the chute .

The D rake mixer is made

in various styles
Cockb urn Mi xer
.

An .

other type of continuous

m ix er called the C oc k
,

bu rn m i xer is illustra t ed ,

in Fig 6 This machine

. .

consists essentially of a
long box of square cross
FI G 5
.
section mounted,
on a
substantial iron frame or
truck and revolving o n a longitudinal axis on friction rollers ,

as shown The axis of the box is inclined slightly from the

.

FI G 6
.

horizontal The ingr edients are fed in through a hopper or

.

chute at the upper end and as the mixer re v ol ves the mate
, , , ,
35 4 FI ELD OP E R A TI ONS
a r e built hopper shaped In one of these bins is sto r ed
.

cement in another sand and in the thi r d broken stone

, , ,
.

These bins although hopper shaped ha v e no bottoms They

, ,
.

a r e closed at the bottom by the cylinder c which is of ,

su ffi cient diameter to act as a practically at bottom to the

bin I n the front of each hoppe r the r e is a door b that may
.

be adj usted by a weight as shown in the gure The c y li n

,
.

de r c is turned by a man at the handle d A s the cylinder .

re v ol v es it carries with it a layer of cement sand and broken

, , ,

stone The amount of each material carried forwards is con

.

t rolled by a d ju s t i n g t h e gate at b As the wheel revol ves

. .
,

the materials nally slide o ff into a con v eyer or directly into

the m ixer The faster the ope r ato r revol v es the cylinder
.
,

the more m ate r ials he will discharge but they will always ,

be discharged in the same proportion .

O P ERATI ON O F MIX ERS

A concrete mixer may be operated by a steam engine a ,

gas engine or an electric motor ; also where the water power

, ,
-

is a v ailabl e it can be operated by an impulse wheel or by a

,

tu r bine ; o r if the power i s a v ailable fr om shafting in an

,

adj acent building the mixer may be operated by a chain or

,

belt d f i v e .

The superintendent or foreman of a reinforced conc rete -

j ob shoul d take good ca r e of the machinery in his charge .

It is well f o r him to obtain from the manufacturers written

directions as to the use and operation of their machines .

U sually these directions are explicit and are based o n

,

experience with the particular m achine in question As an .

example the directions published by the R ansome M achinery

,

Company are gi v en in part as follows :

R ules for Operati ng a M ixer I f the machine is mounted

.

o n wheels s e e that the weight is r st taken o ff the wheels

,

and ca rr ied o n suitable sills as show n i n Fig 8 The points

,
. .

o f suppo r t should be beneath each of the roller shafts ,

beneath the bed of the engine and beneath the boiler The , .

m ixer f rame should be carefully le veled in both di rections .

R emove the hook bolts that hold the d rum to the frame .
 FI ELD OP E R A TI ONS 35 5

Fill all grease and o i l cups and grease carefully the traction
rings and roller faces S e e that in all cases the lubricant i s
.

fed to the bearings U s e good graphite hard oil or grease

.
, ,

in all comp r ession cups and sc r ew the caps down so as to

,

force the grease through the journal box When the machine
.

is in operation a turn should be given on all compression

,

cups at least once every 2 hr

Instructi ons f or S tarti ng a n d M anagi ng Boiler s S e e that
.

all connections with the boiler are properly made and are
tight Fi ll the boiler up to or abo v e the second gauge with
.

water and take particular notice while it is being lled tha t

,

FI G 8 .

all handhole plates and connections around it are tight ;

particularly note that the check v alve d oe s not leak Build
-
.

a slow re in the boiler until the water becomes hot ; under

no circum stances force the re until after steam begins to
generate ; this can be determined by lea v ing the top gauge
cocks open until steam appears Afte r about 1 0 or 1 5 lb
. .

of steam has been raised note whether the r e are any slight
,

leaks appea r ing in the boiler or its connections Afte r steam .

has been raised to the pressure to be ca rr ied try the safety ,

v al v e and be sure that it is in good wo rking order I t i s .

ad v isable to lift the safety v al v e from I t s seat at least twice

35 6 I
F ELD OP ER A TI ONS
a day Always carry the water in the boiler at a height
.

that will best a llow the engine to operate without carrying

o v er water with the steam I t is always best t o carry the
.

water line in the boiler as high as possible N ever allow

-
.

the r e door o f the boiler to be opened except when ring

-

the boiler I n checking steam always close the ash pit doors
.
,
-

and damper in the stack ; if this is not suffi cient to check the
steam the re should be banked When shutting the boiler
,
.

down at ni ght under no circum stances allow the r e door

,
-

to remain open

.

S tarti ng and Operating the Mi xer I n starting the m ix er .
,

turn the machine over light a few times meanwhile setting ,

up such runways a s m a y be required S e e that the discharge .

chute is in position Feed into the machine the amount o f

.

water required for the batch Follow with stone sand .

, ,

and cement in the order named L et the material remain .

in the m achine about m in which is long enough under

,

average conditions and then re ve r se the chute Then dis

,
.

charge direct in to wheelbarrows buckets or other vehicles , , ,

the whole batch o r p a rt a s desired R e verse the chute and

,
.

feed into the machine the next batch .

I n securing results a s to output watch the delivery side ,

o f the machine ; get all the material out at once so that the ,

next batch can be m ix ing If it is necessary to discharge

.

only part at a ti m e use the largest cart or barrow that can

,

be obtained .

An occasional inspection of the j ournal boxes will guard

against undue wear which m a y resul t in bot toming the main

,

gears with disastrous results to both pinion and spur A lso

, .

watch that the rollers do not wear down so a s to cause

bottoming .
"
35 8 B UI LDI NG LA WS

surrounding the reinforcing members of reinforced concrete -

beams and girders shall be 2 in on the bottom and 1 % in o n

. .

the sides o f the said beams and gi r ders The minimum .

thickness of concrete under slab rods shall be 1 in All .

reinforcement in columns to ha v e a minimum protection of

2 in of concrete
. .

All the requirements herein specied for the protection

of steel and for r e resisting purposes shall apply to rein

-

forced concrete oo ring between rolled steel beams as well

- -
,

as to reinforced concrete beams and to entire structures in

-

reinf orced concrete An y concrete structure or the oor

.

lling in same reinforced or otherwise which may be erected

, ,

on a permanent centering o f sheet metal of metal lathing ,

and curved bars or a m etal centering of any other fo rm ,

must be strong enough to carry its load without assistance

from the cente r ing unless the concrete is so applied as to
,

p r otect the centering as he rein specied f or metal rein

forcement
E
.

xposed metal centering o r exposed m etal of any kind .

will not be considered a factor in the strength o f any part

o f any concrete stru cture and a plaster nish applied o v er
,

the met al shall not be deemed su ffi cient protection unle s s

applied of su ffi cient thickness and properly secured a s ,

approved by the Chief of the Bureau of Building Inspection .

All concrete shall be m ixed in a mechanical batch mixer

to be app r o v ed by the Bureau of Building Inspection excep t ,

when limited quantities are requi r ed o r when the condition

o f the work makes hand m ixing p r eferable ; hand mixing t o

be done o n ly when approved by the Bureau o f Building

Inspection In all mixing the material shall be measured
.

for each batch .

When hand mixing is done under the aforesaid limita
tions the cement and ne gra v el or coarse sand shall be
,

rst thoroughly m i xed dry and then made into a mortar by

gradually adding the proper amount of water The crushed .

stone or g r a v el shall be spread out to a depth not to exceed

6 in . in a tight box or upon a p r ope r oor and be sp rinkled
, ,

with water as directed ; the mortar is then to be e v enly sp r ead

o v er the cru shed stone and the whole m ass turned o v er a
,
 BUI LD ING L A WS 35 9

su ff icient number of times to eff ect the thorough m ixing of

the ingredients .

A ll forms and centering for concrete shall be built plumb

and in a substantial m anner made tight s o that no part o f ,

the concrete mixture will leak o u t through cracks o r holes ,

or j oints and after completion shall be thoroughly cleaned

, ,

remo v ing shavings chips pieces of wood and other material

, , ,

and n o debris of any kind shall be permitted to remain in the

forms All forms to be properly supported and b r aced in
.

a manner to safely sustain the dead load that may be imposed

upon them during construction .

The reinforcing steel shal l be accurately located in the
forms and secur ed against displacement .

Concrete shall be placed immediately after mixing .

Whene v er fresh concrete j oins concrete that is s e t the ,

surface of the old concrete shall be roughened cleaned and , ,

spre a d with cement mortar which mortar shall be mixed in,

proportions of l o f cement to 2 of sand .

Concrete shall not be mixed o r deposited in freezi n g
weather unless precautions ar e taken to avoid the use of
,

materials co v ered with ice or that are in any other way unt
for use and that further precautions are taken to prevent the
,

concrete from freezing after being pu t i n place All forms .

under concrete so placed to remain unt i l all evidences of frost

are absent from the concrete and the natural hardening of
the concrete has proceeded to the point of safety .

Concrete laid during hot weather shall be drenched with
w ater twice daily S unday included during the rst week
, ,
.

The broken stone if h o t and dry must be wet before going

, ,

to the mixer .

The time at which props o r shores m a y safely be removed
, ,

from under oors and roofs will vary with the condition o f
the weather but in no c ase should they be remo ved in less
,

than 2 w k ; provided that column for ms sha ll not be remo v ed

.
,

in less than 4 da ; pro v ided further that the centering from

.
,

the bottom of slabs and sides o f beam s and girders may be

remo v ed after the concrete has set 1 w k ; provided that the .
,

oor has obtained su ff icient hardness to sustain the dead

weight o f the said oor and that no load or weight shall be
3 60 BUI LDI NG L A WS

placed on any port ion of the construction where the said

centers have been remov ed .

The concrete f or all girders , beams slabs and columns , , ,

shall be mix ed in the proportions of 1 of ce m ent 2 of s an d or ,

ne gravel and 4 of other a ggregates a s before provided

, ,
.

The concrete used in reinforced concrete steel construction - -

m ust be what is usually kn own as a wet mix ture When the con .

crete is placed in water it must be placed in a semidry state .

O nl y P ortland cement shall be perm itted in reinforced
concrete constructed buildings A ll cement shall be tested .

in carload lots when so delivered or in quantities equal to

same and report led with the Bureau of Building Inspection
,

before using it in the work Cement fai ling to meet the .

requirements of the accelerated test will be rej ected

S ou n d n e s s A cc e le ra te d Tes t
.

P ats of neat cement will

.
,

be allowed to harden 2 4 hr i n moist air and then be sub .

,

m i t t e d to the accelerated test a s foll ows : A pat is exposed

in any con v enient way in an atmosphere of steam abo v e ,

boiling water in a l oosely closed vessel for 3 h r after

, ,
.
,

which before the pat cools it i s placed in the bo iling water

, ,

for 5 additional hr .

To pass the acceler ated test satisfactorily the pats shall ,

remain r m and hard and show no signs of cracking dis , ,

t or t i on or disintegration
,
.

S uch cements when tested shall have a minimu m tensile

, ,

strength as follows : N eat cement shall after 1 da in moist , .

air develop a tensile strength of at least 1 5 0 lb per sq i n ;

, . . .

and after 1 da in air and 6 da in water shall de v elop a tensile

. .

strength o f at least 5 00 lb per sq i n ; and after 1 da in air . . . .

and 2 7 da in water shall de v elop a tensile strength of at

.

least 600 lb per s q in Cement and sand test s composed o f

. . .

1 part of cement and 3 parts of cru shed qua r tz shall after ,

1 da in air and 6 da in water de v elop a tensile strength o f

. .
,

at least 1 7 5 lb per s q i n and after 1 da in air and 2 7 da

. . .
,
. .

in water shall de v elop a tensile strength of at least 2 40 lb .

per s q in These and other tests as to neness set etc

. .
, ,
.
,

made in accordance with the standard method prescribed by

the Am erican S ociety of Ci v il ngineers may from time t o E , ,

time be required by the Bureau o f Building Inspection

, .
36 2 B UI LD I NG L A WS

LB . PE R S Q IN
. .

The allowable unit shearing strength upon concrete :
LB . PER SQ IN
. .

S tone 75
50
Cinder concrete
The allowable unit adhesive strength of concrete :
R

LB . PE SQ IN
. .

50
40
15

The allowable unit stresses upon concrete in d irect com
pression in colu m ns :
LB . PE R SQ IN
. .

3 00
Cinder concrete 150

The allowable unit stress upon hoop columns composed of
s tone or gravel concrete shall not be over lb per s q i n
. . .
,

guring the net area o f the circle within the hooping The .

percentage o f longitudinal rods and the spacing o f the hoops

to be such as to perm it the concrete to safely develop the
a bo v e unit stress with a factor of safety o f 4 .

When steel or iron is in the compression sides o f bea m s ,

the proportion of unit stress taken by the steel or iron shall

be in the ratio of the m odulus of elasticity of the steel or iron
to the modulus o f elasticity of the concrete ; provided that
the rod s are well tied with stirrups connecti n g with the lower
rods o f the beam s ; pro v ided further that when rod s are used
, ,

in compression the approval of the Chief o f the Bureau of

,

Building Inspection must be obtained .

In the design o f structures involving reinforced concrete -

beams and girders as well as slabs the beams and girders

, ,

shall be treated as T beams with a portion o f the slab acting

,

a s ange in each case . The por tion of the slab that may be
used to take compression shall be dependent upon the hori
z o n t a l shearing stress that m a y exist i n the bea m and in no
,
 BUI LDI NG LA WS 363

case shall the slab portion exceed twenty ti m es the thickn ess
of the slab .

All rei nforced concrete T bea m s must be reinforced

-

against the shearing stress along the place o f junction o f the

rib and the ange using stirrups throughout the length o f
,

the beam When reinf orced concrete girders carry re i n

.
-

forced concrete beam s the portion of the oor slab acting

-
,

as ange to the girder must be reinforced with bars near the

top at right angles to the girder t o enable it to transmit local
, ,

loads directly to the girder and not through the beams thus ,

a v oiding an integration o f compressive stresses due t o

simultaneous action as oor slab and girder ange .

I n the execution o f the work in the eld work must be s o ,

carried o n that the ribs o f all girders and beams shall be

m onolithic with the oor slabs .

In all reinforced c o n cr e t e s t r u c t u r e s special care must be
-
,

taken with the design of joints to pro v ide against local stresses
and secondary stresses due to the continu ity o f the structures .

S hri nka ge and thermal stresses shall be pro v ide d f or by

the intr oduction o f steel .

In the deter mination o f bending m om ents due to the
external forces bea m s and girders sha ll be considered a s
,

simply supported at the ends no allowance being made for ,

continuous construction over supports Floor slabs when .

,

const r ucted continuously and wh en pro v ided with rein

,

forcement at top o f slab over the support s may be treated ,

as continuous beams the bendi n g moment for uniform ly

,

VVL
distributed load s being taken at not less than In t he
10
case o f s quare oor slabs that are reinforced in both d i re c
,

tions and support ed a s continuous beam s o n a ll four sides ,

the bending moment may be taken at In oor slabs in

jux ta position to the walls o f the buildi n g which are acting ,

as simple beams the bending moment shall be considered

,

WL
as
when reinforced in o n e di rection If the oor slab .

8
is square and reinforc ed in both direc tion s but acti n g ,
as a
3 64 CO ST DA TA
WL
si m ple bea m the bending moment shall be taken
,
as
16

When the shearing stresses developed in any part o f a
reinf orced concrete building exceed the shearing strength as
-

xed in this section a su ffi cient amount o f steel shall be

,

introduced in such a position that the deciency in the

resistance to shear i s overcome .

When the safe limit o f adhesion between the concrete and
steel is exceeded provision must be made for transmitting
,

the strength o f the steel to the concrete .

R einf orced concrete may be used with the unit stresses

previously gi v en for col umns in which the ratio of the length

,

to least side or diameter does not exceed fteen If more .

t han fteen dia m eters the allowable stress s h a ll be decreased

,

proportionally R einforcing rods that are introduced for

.

lateral stresses must be tied together at intervals of not more

than the least side or diameter o f the columns .

L ongitudinal reinforcing rods will not be considered a s
taki ng a n y direct compression .

The contractor must be prepared to m ake load tests in any
portion of a reinforced concrete building within a re asonable
-

time after erection and as often a s may be required by the

,

Chief of the Bureau o f Building I nspection The tests must .

show that the construction will sustain a load equal to twice

the calculated live load without signs of cracks .

C OST DATA
The cost of reinforced concrete construction depends o n
-

the local cost of labor and materi als In making an a pp r oxi .

m ate estimate o f the cost o f a building unit prices per cubic ,

yard or per square foot o f oor surface may be used These .

prices are obtained from the cost o f similar buildings alread y

e rected in the same locality In making an exact estimate o f
.

the cost o f a building the materials can usually be accurately

,

determ ined and their cost found fro m the current market
prices The cost o f labor including the placing and mixing
.
,

o f concrete , and the cost of form construction are usually

m ore di f cult to determ ine The latter cost i s greatly

.
3 66 CO ST DA TA
sections as steel reinforcement is bought by the pound
,
.

Tables of these weights will be found on pages 2 5 3 to 2 6 5 .

If such weights cannot be found in m anufacturers catalogs

or elsewhere the following rule m ay be used :

,

Multiply the sectional area o f the steel in square inches by

its length in feet and by The product will be the weight
of the steel in pounds U su ally it is not necessary to estimate .

the quantity of steel used for stirrups as 1 0% of the main ,

reinforcement is a close approximation This 1 0% includes .

such additional steel as would be used for column ties ,

wi ring etc I t should be noted that the di ff erent sizes of

,
.

steel should be kept separate as in most localities the price ,

of steel per pound increases as the size of the bar decreases .

I t is not necessary in estim ating the volu m e o f concrete

to deduct the v olume taken up by the steel reinforcements .

A fter the volume o f concrete has been obtained the amount ,

o f sand cement and broken stone can be estimated from

, ,

the table o n page 2 44 The cost of mixing concrete i s in the .

neighborhood o f 30 cents per cu y d using labor at . .

,

per da I n localities where the pri ce is higher this gure

.
,

must be increased M achine mixed concrete costs from .

-

5 0 to 6 0% as much as hand mixed concrete -

.

The entire cost of mixing wi r ing and placing including , , ,

forem an s wages in a large eastern city amounted to

per cu yd H owe v er this v alue must be determ ined f o r

. .
,

every di ff erent locality having di ff e rent scales o f wages .

S and is usually bought by the ton but measured by the ,

cubic yard On e long ton is equal to about 1 cu yd o f dry

. . .

sand The cost of steel reinforcement varies in di ff erent

.

localities and no exact gu res can be gi v en U sually if

,
.
,

it is of the girder frame type a man can place in the form s

-
,

about lb o f reinforcement in a day If it consists o f

. .

loose rods o n e man can place from 8 00 to

,
lb per da . .

The cost o f form work cannot be gi v en in general term s .

The estimator must know the quality o f form s to be made ,

and measure up the approximate amount of wood requi r ed .

If possible the form s should be u sed two o r three times on

,

the same j ob and they should have a certain selling p r ice

,

after the wor k is completed .

 S PECIFICA TI ONS 36 7

The am ount o f carpenter work on the for m s i s variable ,

d epending on the experience o f the carpenters and the

intricacy of the work U sually a ca rpenter can erect
.
,

2 0 lin ft o f colu m n form in a day or 4 0 sq ft of oor and

. .
, . .

girder form These gures are for s m ooth nished work

.
, ,

a nd n o t for rough work .

S P E I F I ATI ON S C C
C ON D EN SED SP ECI FI C ATI ON S FOR R EIN FO R C E D
C ON CR ETE WOR K
The following specication i s the briefest form that can
be used in specifying reinforced concrete construction I t -
.

briey states the requirements of the architect regard ing

.

the sub m ission o f the construction for approval the char ,

acter o f the concrete and the steel reinforcement and the ,

oor load upon which the calc ulation for the design o f the
oor system is based .

R EIN FOR C E D - C ON C R ETE C O N S TR UCTI O N

General
The
reinforced concrete construction shall be
.
-

o f an approved and successful type and the contractor shall ,

submit for the architect s approval framing plans and

d etails of construction together with sched u les showing the

,

a mount of steel reinforcement in all the beams girders and , ,

c olumns .

The contractor is to assume all responsib ility for the safety

a n d protection of the work during construction and shall ,

deli v er the same in a complete and ni shed condition in

c ompliance with the specications and the accompanying

plans
Concrete The concrete for bea m s girders and slabs shall
.

.
, ,

be propo r tioned of 1 part P ortland ce m ent 2 ; pa rts sand , ,

5 parts broken stone o r gravel The concre te f o r colu m ns

.

shall be a 4 mixtu r e
Ce m ent The cement sha ll co n form to the requirements
.

o f the standard specications for cement adopted by the

A merican S ociety for Testi n g M aterials o n N ovember 1 4 , ,

1 904 .
3 68 SPECIFICA TI ONS
Ag gr egate s The sand shall be clean
and not contain over ,

3% o f loam Broken stone and gravel shall be hard and

.

close grained and free from du st and dirt ; they shall be of

-
,

such size as to pass through a ring 1 in in dia m eter

R einforcing S tee l T he steel for the reinforcement shall
. .

be m anuf actur ed by the open hearth process This steel -

.

should have an ultimate tensile strength of from to

lb per sq in and an elastic limit o f at least half that
. . .

amount with an elo ngation o f at least

, A bar shall
bend cold through an angle of 1 8 0 and close down on itself

without showing sign s of fracture H igh carbon steel or .

-

steel with an elastic li m it greater than lb per sq in . . .

shall not be used .

The beam and girder reinforcement shall consist of square

twisted o r approved type of deformed bar while the slab ,

reinforcement may be o f square twisted bars deformed bars -

, ,

or o f an approved form of expanded m etal o r woven o r

electrically welded wire fabric The column rods may be .

of plain round o r square twisted bars The girders and-

.

beams m ust have the rod s so be nt and arranged as t o provide

a m ply for the bending m om ents throughout their length and
also to take care o f the negative bending m om ents near the
bearings and supports S uffi cient stirrups must be provided
.

near the h e a r i n g s or throughout the length o f the beam s and

girders t o resist the hori z ontal oblique shearing and tensile
, ,

stresses
Floor a n d Test Lo ad s The oors and columns throughout
.

shall be design ed to sustain a live oor load of 1 5 0 lb per .

sq. ft The nished oor systems shall be test e d in two

.

places to be designated The test load shall be equal to

,
.

o n e and one half times the amount of the li v e oor load

-
.

Th e test loads shall be s o placed as to fully load the girders

and beam s of one bay .
ME MO R A N D A
ME MO R A N D A
ME MO R A N D A
ME MO R A N D A
ME MO R A N D A
ME MO R A N D A
S up e r in te n d e n t of C o n s tr uc t i on
of M illi o n D o ll a r C o n c r e t e
-

Buil d i n g
There i s now being built in S a n Bernardino ,

Cal a great precooling plant for citrus fruits

.
,

that will cost o n e m i llion dollars The .

superi ntendent of construction in charge o f

this plant which is b u ilt o f reinforced con
,

crete is Wm L S nook 1 6 43 W Thirty Fifth

, . .
, .
-

S t r eet L os A ngeles Cal an I C S trained

, , .
, . . .

m an M r S noo k states : For the last

. .

3 years I have been su perintendent of con

struction o f reinforced concrete buildings -
.

At the present time I am superintending the

construction of the largest ice and precooling
plant o f its kind in the country .
"
Fi e l d En gi n e e r
, In Un i t e d
S ta te s S e r vic e

When I enroll ed I was doing odd jobs

wherever I could get work to do Through .

study of m y Course I have lled im po rtant

positions in the U nited S tates R eclamation
S ervice Inspector in the General L and Off ice
, ,

and other U nited S tates Government posi

tions ranging in salary from $7 5 to $2 00 a
,

month I am n o w Field ngineer with the

. E
U nited S tates R eclamation S ervice in charge
of the location and const ruction for the
irr i gation o f about acres o f land on
the Fayette Boise P roj ec t
E
-
.

I a m enrolled for the Concrete ngineering

Course The S chools have done wonders for
me and I high ly reco mmend them to any o n e
.

who wishes to learn and advance and b e

wort h m ore to their employers .

W W
. FE E L E Y
.
,

215 N . 1 4 th S t Boise
.
, , Idaho
 M AC H I N I S T TO S TR U C T URAL D E S I G N ER
E D M U N D B LA S
machinist when
E Batavia Ill was employed as a
. ALL
he en rolled
in the S tructural ngineering
, .
, ,

E
C ourse o f the I C 8 H e was ambitious of course to become
. . .
, ,

a structural draftsman and designer but the num erous books ,

he bought were fou nd t o be a waste o f money After studying .

the Co u r se M r L a S alle obtained work as a dr aftsman

, . .

R ecently he h as accepted a position in Chi cago a s structu r al

,

designer at a salary o f 8 1 30 a month H e desi gns standpipes

, .

and steel tanks ; also towers for water su pply stations -

.

HI S C OUR S E B R OU G H T R AP ID IN C R EASE
R
E N E S T N WOO D BE C K 1 33 C rawford Av e D et roit M ich
E
. .
, , , .
,

was learning the busi ness of carpenter fo r rei nforced conc rete
work when he en rolled wi th the I C S for a Co ncr ete ngi . . .

neering Cour se H i s stu d ies made it po s sible fo r h i m to

.

become la ye r o u t o f work from building plans H e had only .

a se venth grade education when he enrolled but i n eighteen ,

mont h s b e in creased hi s salary nearly 40 per cent .

N OW OWN S A P R O S P ER O U S BU S I N E S S
ea rn i ng
. LA
WM F G E S O N 7 09 Crawford Av e August a Ga was
.

a day a s a ca rpenter when he en rolled for the

, .
, , .
,

Complete Architectural Course with the I C S This en abled . . .

him to become superintendent of construction for a concrete

building block and tile company H e h as since es t a b li s h a i .

a prosperous business o f hi s own a s a mem ber o f the S kinner

Gleason Cont racting Company builders making a specialty , ,

o f concrete construction and brick work H i s i ncome i s at .

least a year .

TEM P O R AR Y EM P L O YM EN T M AD E P ER M AN E N T
HA
sa 3 :
RR
Y L AC KE L E Y 3 R icha r d S t
. West Lynn M assR
I rst en rolled fo r a C ou rse in Archi tectu re Afte r

, .
, . .
,

ta king the preliminary studi es I appli ed fo r a pos ition as

.

draftsman and wa s gi ven temporary em ployment I '

Emelect I calamEnow
.

r e m ained with the conce rn four years I then enrolled for

employed by the e eral E lectric

.

an ngineering ourse which

ri been nvaluable C , h as i
to . G n Com
pany and my salary h as been i ncreased 35 0 per cent .
"

S ALAR Y IN CR EASED 400 PER C EN T

L A L E
.

MITO N rie
S hi adelphia
. CR W at , 1 8 03 Av e .
, P l , Pa . ,

the t e of e rolling in the rch tectural rawin

im n A i B Course ,

w as wo r king in a meat store The Course start h im on .

the road to success Tod ay he i s chief draftsman fo r a steel .

company in P hiladelphia with 400per cent increase in i ncome , .

o ver h i s salary as clerk .

7
 BETTER ED H I S P O SI TI O N AN D S ALAR Y
C HA S A C A P E N T E . 1 6 West 3d S t
. R
Fulton N Y wa s
a steam tter earn i ng $6 5 a month when he enrolled w i th t h e
R , .
, , . .
.

E
, ,

S chools at the a g of 3 5 for a M echan i cal Drawi ng Course a n d

, e ,

afterward for the M echan i cal n g ineering Cou r se H e i s .

master mechani c o f rei nforced concrete work for the Walter

Bradley Concrete Company H i s Courses have enabled h i m .

to des i g n several new machi nes o n e o f wh i ch saves the com ,

pany 2 5 per cent of the cost o f product i on H i s salary h a s . .

xc r ea s e d about 5 0 per cent s i nce he began t o study h i s rst

Eourse
.

FR O M B R I C KLAYER TO G EN E R AL C ON TR AC T O R
W C D AV I S M i chi gan Bu i ld i ng Wi ch i ta Kans wa s
. .
, , , .
,

worki ng a s a bri cklayer wi th no prospect of advancement , ,

when he enrolled w i th the S chools for the Complete Arch i

tect u a l Course
r After successfully superi ntend in g the con

E
.

struct i on o f a large warehouse he became a member of the

H . I ll i s Construct i on Company employing from 5 0 t o
.
,

1 00 men H e says that h i s Course enables h i m to superi ntend

.

the eld work o f the company especi ally i n the l i ne of mas onry ,

and concrete H i s i n come has i ncreased at least 3 00 per cent

. .

S U C C ES SFU L EXAM I N ATI ON

P AS SED A
Or i s M T O W N S E N D i ghth S t Ocean C i ty N J was an
.

a pren t i ce b o y when he enrolled wi th the S chools for the

E .
, , .

o m p le t e Archi tectural Course H e i s now an arch i tect and .

bu i lder em p lo y i n 4 0 carpenters and keep ing a draftsman i n

h i s o i c e H i s ours e enabled h i m t o pass the state exam
.

i n a t i on successfully and rece i ve a cert i cate as an arch i tect .

S ALAR Y IN C R EA SED 400 P E R C EN T

R
.

When C M M A YN A D 8 1 0 Bellevi lle Av e N e w Bedford

. .
, .
, ,

M ass enrolled fo r the Bui ld i ng Contractors C ourse he wa s

'
.
,

a carpenter earn ing a day H e gi ves the I C S the

cred i t for establ i sh i ng hi m a s a contractor and bu i lder an d
. . .
, .

i ncreasin g hi s i ncome about 400 per cent .

FR O M P O VER TY TO P R O S P ER I TY
H . E
L T H OM A S
nglewood Colo enrol ed i n the
.

wh i le out of work wi thout money and w th a fam i ly of

,

,
,

,
.
, l
i
I . C .

si x
S .

to suppo rt Just one year after start ing the I C S Course

. . . .

he secured a posi t i on as draftsman at $5 5 a month S oon , .

he g o t a better posi t i on at $7 5 a month layi n o u t work , ,

and maki ng plans and des igns all of wh i ch he coul do wi thout ,

i nstruct i on other than that received from the Course At .

present M r Thomas i s wi th the Denver U n i on Water Company

.
,

a s s tructural eng i neer .

ll
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