Turbidity Currents

Flow Mechanisms and Characteristics

A turbidity current is a kind of density current that flows downslope along the bottom of an
ocean or lake because of density contrasts with the surrounding (ambient) water arising from
sediment that becomes suspended in the water owing to turbulence. Turbidity currents can be
generated experimentally in the laboratory by the sudden release of muddy, dense water into
the end of a sloping flume filled with less dense, clear water. They have been observed to
occur under natural conditions in lakes where muddy river water enters the lakes, and they
are believed to have occurred throughout geologic time in the marine environment on
continental margins. In this setting, they originate particularly in or near the heads of
submarine canyons. Turbidity currents can be generated by a variety of mechanisms,
including sediment failure, storm-triggered flow of sand and mud into canyon heads, bedload
inflow from rivers and glacial meltwater, and flows during eruption of airfall ash (Normark
and Piper, 1991). They may move as surges or as steady, w1iform flows. Surges, or
spasmodic turbidity currents, are initiated by some short-lived catastrophic event, such as
earthquake-triggered massive sediment slumping or storm waves acting on a continental
shelf. Such an event creates intense turbulence in the water overlying the seafloor, resulting
in extensive erosion and entrainment of sediment, which is rapidly thrown into suspension.
The sediment then remains suspended, supported in the water column by turbulence. This
process generates a dense, turbid cloud that moves downslope, eroding and picking up more
sediment as it increases in speed. Surge flows develop into three main parts as they move
away from the source: the head, body, and tail.
Some turbidity currents are steady, uniform flows that lack a turbulent head. These flows
move at velocities similar to those of the body of surge-type flows. Although the velocity is
sensitive to the slope over which flow takes place, flow may occur on slopes as low as 1
degree (Kersey and Hsi.i, 1976). Steady, uniform flows have been observed along the sloping
bottom of lakes where sediment-laden rivers run into the lakes. They may occur also on
continental shelves where muddy rivers discharge; however, they are less likely in this setting
because the density contrast between muddy river water and ocean water is less than that
between muddy river water and fresh water. Once sediment is suspended in a turbidity
current, the turbidity current continues to flow for some time under the action of gravity and
inertia. Flow will stop when the sediment-water mixture that produces the density contrast
with the ambient water is exhausted by settling of the suspended load. Rapid deposition of
coarser particles from suspension appears to occur in regions near the source owing to early
decay of the extremely intense turbu lence generated by the initial event. As the flow
continues to move forward, the remaining coarser material will be progressively concentrated
in the head of the flow; denser fluid must be continuously supplied to the head to replace that
lost to eddies that break off from the head and rejoin the body of the flow. Owing to
differences in turbulence in the head and body, the head may be a region of erosion while
deposition is taking place from the body. Theoretically, sediment remaining in suspension a
fter initial deposition of coarse material in the proximal area can, during further transport, be
maintained in suspension for a very long time in a state of dynamic equilibrium called
autosuspension (Bagnold, 1962; Pantin, 1979; Parker, 1982). A condition of autosuspension
is presumably maintained because turbulence continues to be generated in the bottom of the
flow owing to gravity-generated downslope flow of the turbidity current over the bed. Thus,
loss of energy by friction of the flow with the bottom is compensated for by gravitational
energy. The distance that turbidity currents can travel in the ocean is not known from
unequivocal evidence. A presumed turbidity current triggered by the 1929 Grand Banks
earthquake off Nova Scotia appears to have traveled south across the floor of the Atlantic for
a distance of more than 300 km at velocities up to 67 km/hr (19 m/s), as timed by breaks in
submarine telegraph cables (Piper, Shor, and Clark, 1988). Transport of sediment over this
distance suggests that autosuspension may actually work; nonetheless, some geologists
remain skeptical of the autosuspension process (e.g., review by Middleton, 1993). The
velocity of a turbidity current eventually diminishes owing to flattening of the canyon slope,
overbank flow of the current along a submarine channel, or spreading of the flow over the flat
ocean floor at the base of the slope. As the flow slows, turbulence generated along the sole of
the flow also diminishes, and the current gradually becomes more dilute owing to mixing
with ambient water around the head and along the upper interface. The remaining sediment
carried in the head eventually settles out, causing the head to sink and dissipate. The exact
process by which deposition takes place from various parts of a turbidity current is still not
thoroughly understood, although it seems clear from experimental results that deposition does
not occur in all parts of the current at the same time. As mentioned above, for example, the
head may be a region of potential erosion at the same time that the body behind the head is
depositing sediment. Sediment that is deposited very rapidly from some parts of the flow,
such as the head, may undergo little or no subsequent traction transport before being quickly
buried. On the other hand, in more distal parts of the flow or in areas where the head
overflows the channel, a period of scouring by the head may be followed by slow deposition
from the body and tail, during which additional traction transport of the deposited sediment
takes place. Final deposition from the tail may take place after movement of the current is too
weak to produce traction transport. Depending upon position within the turbidity flow and the
initial amount of sediment put into suspension by the flow, turbidity currents may contain
either high or relatively low concentrations of sediment. Two principal types of turbidity
currents, on the basis of suspended particle concentration, can be considered: low-density
flows, containing less than about 20 to 30 percent grains, and highdensity flows, containing
greater concentrations (Lowe, 1982). Low-density flows are made up largely of clay, silt, and
fine- to medium-grained sand-size particles that are supported in suspension entirely by
turbulence. High-density flows may include coarse-grained sands and pebble- to cobble-size
clasts as well as fine sediment. Support of coarse particles during flow is provided by
turbulence aided by hindered settling resulting from their own high sediment concentrations
and the buoyant lift provided by the interstitial mixture of water and fine sediment. (High-
density flows differ from debris flows in that debris flows are not turbulent and are less
fluid.) Note that the heads of turbidity currents may be high-density flows, whereas the tails
may be dilute, low-density flows.

Turbidity Current Deposits

The deposits of turbidity currents, commonly called turbidites, are of two basic types.
Turbidites deposited from high-density flows with high sediment concentrations tend to form
thick-bedded turbidite successions containing coarse-grained sandstones or gravels.
Individual flow units typically have relatively poor grading and few internal laminations, and
basal scour marks are either poorly developed or absent. Some turbidites with thick, coarse-
grained basal units may grade upward to finer grained deposits that display traction structures
such as laminations and small-scale cross bedding (Fig. 2.7). In the uppermost part of the
flow units, the sediments may consist of very fine grained, nearly homogeneous muds
deposited from the tail of the flow. The deposits of more dilute, low-concentration turbidity
current flows generally form thin-bedded turbidite successions. Individual flow units are fine
grained at the base and display good vertical size grading, well-developed laminations, and
small-scale cross-bedding. Scour marks may be present on the soles or bottoms of the beds.
Bouma (1962) proposed an ideal turbidite sequence, now commonly called a Bouma
sequence. This ideal sequence consists of five structural units (Fig. 2.8-1) that include the
characteristics of both types of turbidites. These structural subdivisions presumably record
the decay of flow strength of a turbidity current with time and the progressive development of
different sedimentary structures and bedforms in adjustment to different flow regimes (upper-
flow regime to lowerflow regime) as current-flow velocity wanes. Most turbidites do not
contain all of these structural units. Thick, coarse-grained turbidites tend to show well-
developed A and B units, but C through E units are commonly poorly developed or absent.
Thin, finer grained turbidites may display well-developed C through E units and poorly
developed or absent A and B units. In fact, Hsii (1989, p. 116) claims that Bouma's D unit
rarely occurs and that most turbidites can be divided into only two units: a lower horizontally
laminated unit (unit A + B, Fig. 2.8-2 and -3) and an upper, cross-laminated unit (unit C).
Unit E is a problem because it may consist of fine material deposited slowly from the water
column, and thus it may not be part of a turbidite flow unit. Turbidites laid down near the
source, particularly within the main transport channel where suspended sediment
concentrations are high, are generally the coarse-grained, massive, or poorly laminated type.
Some very high concentration flows may also deposit coarse-grained turbidites within the
main channel at considerable distances from the source. On the other hand, thin, fine-grained
turbidites can also be deposited near the source where turbidity currents overflow the banks
of a channel and become more dilute as they spread out over the seafloor, as well as in areas
more distant from the source. The deposits of a single turbidity current flow typically display
horizontal size grading in addition to vertical size grading. That is, thick, coarse-grained
deposits generally grade lateraly to thinner and finer grained sediments. For a more
comprehensive treatment of turbidites, see Multi (1992).