Knowledge theories supporting CLIL

Knowledge theories supporting CLIL

1. Introduction

In CLIL lessons the cognitive challenges of language learning are great; much of the content lies
outside children's direct experience and is often more abstract. For example, in science lessons
learners may struggle to describe and compare the properties of materials, may find it impossible to
hypothesize about why particular materials are used for particular purposes. They may be able to
write up the procedural part of a report after testing materials but not how to write conclusions. By
being taught specific thinking skills and the associated language, learners are better equipped to deal
with the complex academic and cognitive demands of learning school subjects in a foreign language.
Typical language and thinking tasks could be experimenting with different colour combinations in an
art class, trying out magnets in the science class or investigating the lines of symmetry of 2D shapes
in maths lessons, what kinds of skill, aside from basic language skills, will they need to draw on or
develop? Learners may be encouraged
to predict what will happen,
to carry out simple investigations or experiments,
to describe and record what they observe,
to find patterns, notice similarities and differences,
to compare results, to draw conclusions and so on.

If we take the example of predicting, learners may know the use of will/ going to for an easy,
everyday situation. However, with little knowledge of the concept of magnetism, for example,
learners may not be able to think very clearly about their intended meaning and may not know the
subject-specific words of attract or repel. Some children find it difficult enough to draw on these
more academic kinds of interaction in their first language, never mind a foreign language. As John
Clegg wrote in an earlier article: The truth is that schools don't often teach these skills explicitly.
Instead, teachers hope that their learners will pick them up.
In this section we are going to learn the theory and possible applications of the following linguistic
and psycholinguistic tenets:
1. Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains.
2. Learning styles and Gardner's multiple intelligences.
3. Vigotsky's scaffolding theory.
4. Jim Cummins' common underlying linguistic competence
5. Krashen's theory of learning .v. acquisition.
6. Advantages of plurilingualism in creativity.

(Much of the content on this page was taken from 0NE STOP ENGLISH at
http://onestopenglish.com)
2. Bloom's and Marzano's taxonomy of learning
domains

Today there is international recognition that education is more than just learning knowledge and thinking, it also
involves learners' feelings, beliefs and the cultural environment of the classroom. Nevertheless, the importance
of teaching thinking and creativity is an important element in modern education. Benjamin Bloom was the first to
develop a highly popularized hierarchy of six thinking skills placed on a continuum from lower to higher order
skills: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. According to this system,
lower order skills included recalling knowledge to identify, label, name or describe things. Higher order skills
called on the application, analysis or synthesis of knowledge, needed when learners use new information or a
concept in a new situation, break information or concepts into parts to understand it more fully, or put ideas
together to form something new. Bloom's structure was a useful starting point and triggered many applications to
school activities and curricula.

Bloom's revised taxonomy of thinking skills

In 2001 a former student of Bloom, Lorin Anderson, published a revised classification of thinking skills which is
actually rather similar to the original but focuses more on verbs than nouns and renames some of the levels.

Fig. 1 Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Higher order thinking skills

Creating making, designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing,

Evaluating checking, hypothesizing, experimenting, judging, testing, monitoring,

Analyzing comparing, organizing, outlining, finding, structuring, integrating

Applying implementing, carrying out, using

Understanding comparing, explaining, classifying, exemplifying, summarizing

Remembering recognizing, listing, describing, identifying, retrieving, naming, finding, defining

Lower order thinking skills

We can see that these levels have an intuitive appeal to many teachers; however it can also be difficult to
implement some of these ideas. For example, comparing falls both under analyzing and understanding, which is
confusing. Here analyzing the level of comparison depends on context, for example: how complex is the concept
or knowledge being compared?

Linking thinking and language

The figure below is an example of how publications on thinking skills began to start linking some common
thinking and process skills with the typical language required. For reasons of space, only three levels are
exemplified.

Fig. 2 Typical thinking and language skills

Thinking skill Possible language

Remembering/ Recall Questions using who, what, where, when, which how, how much?

recognizing, listing, describing, Tasks using describe, choose, define, find, label, colour, match,
identifying, retrieving, naming, finding, underline key vocabulary in different colours (e.g. parts of a system
defining and functions)

Language:
That's a (because it has and )
This is a and this is what it does.
This has
This is a kind of . which/that
A is a kind of which/that
This goes with this.

Understanding/ Interpreting
comparing, explaining, exemplifying,
classifying, understanding cause and
Questions using is this the same as? What's the difference
between? Which part doesn't fit or match the others? Why?
Tasks using classify, explain, show what would happen if give
 Thinking skill Possible language

effect, generalizing, summarizing, an example, show in a graph or table, use a Venn diagram or
chart to show

Language:
This is ..( a kind of) but that one isn't (because)
This has ( a type of)but that one doesn't/hasn't (because).
These are all types of because
This belongs/ goes here because
If we do this then
This leads to..
This causes

Applying to new situations
Planning, implementing, carrying out,
drawing conclusions, reporting back
Questions using what would happen if..? What would result in ?
How much change is there if you ?
Tasks using Explain what would happen if, Show the results
of,

Using investigations and experimental inquiry e.g. surveys, web

quests etc. choosing how to record and represent information

Language:

A variety of language functions for planning, hypothesizing, asking

questions, reporting, drawing conclusions e.g.

What shall we try/ do first?

if we try this then ...that could be
First we thought about then weThis must be .. because
It can't be because

Marzano's taxonomy of skills in education

In 2000 Marzano published a different way of looking at skills. His classification is based on the Knowledge
Domain and three systems - the Cognitive, the Self and the Metacognitive. The self system involves a learner's
attitudes, beliefs and feelings that determine his/her motivation. The metacognitive system relates to learning to
learn: it helps the learner to set goals, make decisions about and monitor which information is necessary and
which cognitive processes are the best fit for the task in hand.

Fig. 3 Marzano's New Educational Taxonomy

KNOWLEDGE DOMAIN

Information Mental procedures Physical procedures

COGNITIVE SYSTEM
Knowledge Comprehension
Analysis Knowledge use
retrieval

Recall: Recalling Matching, classifying, error analysis, Decision-making, problem-

information, facts, Synthesis:identifying generalizing and specifiying: by solving, experimental
sequences and what is important to engaging in these cognitive processes inquiry, investigations.
processes. remember. learners use what they learn to create These are also especially
insights and invent ways of using useful in project-type work.
Representation: putting
learned information in new situations.
this information into
categories.

Graphic organizers
encourage this process.

The knowledge domain, consists of three categories of knowledge: information, mental procedures and physical
procedures. A child at primary level may learn about quadrilaterals and the key vocabulary and characteristics to
describe them. This is the what of knowledge. She will also learn how to draw different kinds of quadrilateral
(physical procedures) and how to compare or classify them (mental procedures). The cognitive system is made
up of four components:

knowledge retrieval,
comprehension,
analysis, and
knowledge use.

Marzano's cognitive system is similar to the six levels of Bloom and Anderson. In knowledge retrieval (cf.
Remembering and Understanding) the child needs to be able to identify and put a name to new information; for
example, the topic might be mammals and the names of different types of big cat, such as tiger, lion, cheetah
and so on. Facts about mammals will involve statements and generalizations using the simple present tense,
such as:

mammals have a covering of fur, hair, or skin,

mammals give birth to live young,
mammals are warm -blooded,
mammals feed their young with milk from the mother,
tigers have stripes but cheetahs and leopards have spots, etc.
tigers can swim

These language functions can be linked to all four basic language skills using activities based on oracy (speaking
and listening) and literacy tasks (reading and writing). For example, learners can listen to descriptions of animals
and choose the correct picture, use a tick chart to listen to comparisons of big cats and then use this as a
speaking frame to produce simple sentences. Learners might read simple descriptions of big cats and transfer
key information onto a chart, then use this chart to write simple sentences. This basic knowledge can be
extended to compare and classify types of big cat in different ways according to features such as habitat,
characteristics, appearance etc.

Under comprehension the learners sort out which information is important or relevant for a task and ignore other
information. Graphic organizers such as charts, grids, Venn diagrams and flow charts are especially important
here for learners as they organize information in a way that reduces the language load. Thus they help the
learner to focus on the key language and thinking required.

In analysis the learners need to draw on more complex thinking processes - matching, classifying, generalizing
and specifying - in order to create and invent new insights or new ways of using learned information. These skills
are likely to be highlighted when carrying out investigations. Knowledge use is the highest form of thinking
process under Marzano's system and is used particularly in the creation of investigations, projects and web
quests, where application and the creation of new ideas are particularly useful.

Conclusion
These attempts to analyze and classify thinking processes move from a foundation of simpler, lower order skills
to more complex higher order skills. However, there is still no consensus about the exact number of skills or
levels, the interaction between them nor is it easy to analyse the level of difficulty of a particular task or the
precise thinking skills required. All we can do for now is draw on insights that have been made and see which
ones seem to fit in with our views. The next article focuses on process skills and data-handling, referring
particularly to the use of graphic organizers to record and interpret data. The importance and benefits of graphic
organizers for both learners and teachers will be described and how teachers can plan for them. Different types
of organizer will be outlined and one type called glyphs will be illustrated in some detail.

References

Anderson, L.W. and D. Krathwohl (eds.) (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: a Revision
of Bloom's Educational Objectives.Longman. New York.

Biber, D. (1986). 'Spoken and written textual dimensions in English: Resolving the contradictory findings.'
Language 62, 384-414.

Corson, D. (1995). Using English words. New York: Kluwer.

Cummins, J. (1979). 'Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age
question and some other matters.' Working Papers on Bilingualism. 19, 121-129.

Harlen, W. And A. Qualter, (2007). The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools.3rd edn. Abingdon, Oxon:
Routledge.

Marzano, R. J. (2000). Designing a new taxonomy of educational objectives. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Corwin
Press.
2.1 Practice
Practice

Activity 1

Activity 2
2.2 Further reading
Caso prctico

How to Use Bloom's Taxonomy in Class

2.3 Task

1. Think of an exercise for your students related to the subject you currently teach. When you ask the questions,
problems or whatever you have in mind, take into account the table we have provided. Tag the questions,
activities... with the colours we have inserted in Table1 beside the categories, and bear in mind at all times to
move up from lower order thinking skills to higher order thinking skills when asking those questions, which, in
itself, will make a more sensible way of progressing through the exercise.

Table1

Table2

Example1

Example2
3. Multiple Intelligences and learning styles
Howard Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences

An intelligence is the ability to solve problems,

or to create products, that are valued within
one or more cultural settings.
-- Howard Gardner
FRAMES OF MIND (1983)

1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
(word smart or book smart)

This intelligence involves the knowing which comes through language; through reading, writing,
and speaking. It involves understanding the order and meaning of words in both speech and
writing and how to properly use the language. It involves understanding the sociocultural
nuances of a language, including idioms, plays on words, and linguistically-based humor.
If this is a strong intelligence for you, you have highly developed skills for reading, speaking,
and writing and you tend to think in words. You probably like various kinds of literature,
playing word games, making up poetry and stories, engaging in involved discussions with other
people, debating, formal speaking, creative writing, and telling jokes. You are likely precise in
expressing yourself and irritated when others are not! You love learning new words, you do well
with written assignments, and your comprehension of anything you read is high.

2. Mathematical-Logical Intelligence
(math smart or logic smart)

This intelligence uses numbers, math, and logic to find and understand the various patterns that
occur in our lives: thought patterns, number patterns, visual patterns, color patters, and so on.
It begins with concrete patterns in the real world but gets increasingly abstract as we try to
understand relationships of the patterns we have seen.
If you happen to be a logical-mathematically inclined person you tend to think more
conceptually and abstractly and are often able to see patterns and relationships that others
miss. You probably like to conduct experiments, to solve puzzles and other problems, to ask
cosmic questions, and analyze circumstances and peoples behavior. You most likely enjoy
working with numbers and mathematical formulas and operations, and you love the challenge
of a complex problem to solve.
You are probably systematic and organized, and you likely always have a logical rationale or
argument for what you are doing or thinking at any given time.
3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence
(art smart or picture smart)

We often say A picture is worth a thousand words! or Seeing is believing! This intelligence
represents the knowing that occurs through the shapes, images, patterns, designs, and textures
we see with our external eyes, but also includes all of the images we are able to conjure inside
our heads.
If you are strong in this intelligence you tend to think in images and pictures. You are likely very
aware of object, shapes, colors, textures, and patterns in the environment around you. You
probably like to draw, paint, and make interesting designs and patterns, and work with clay,
colored markers, construction paper, and fabric. Many who are strong in visual-spatial
intelligence love to work jigsaw puzzles, read maps and find their way around new places. You
probably have definite opinions about colors that go together well, textures that are appropriate
and pleasing, and how a room should be decorated. And, you are likely excellent at performing
tasks that require seeing with the minds eyes, such as visualizing, pretending, imagining, and
forming mental images.

4. Intrapersonal Intelligence
(self smart or introspection smart).

At the heart of this intelligence are our human self-reflective abilities by which we can step
outside of ourselves and think about our own lives. This is the introspective intelligence. It
involves our uniquely human propensity to want to know the meaning, purpose, and
significance of things. It involves our awareness of the inner world of the self, emotions, values,
beliefs, and our various quests for genuine spirituality.
If this intelligence is one of your strong points you may like to work alone and sometimes you
may shy away from others. You are probably self-reflective and self-aware and thus you tend to
be in tune with your inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes. You are frequently
bearers of creative wisdom and insight, are highly intuitive, and you are inwardly motivated
rather than needing external rewards to keep you going. You are often strong willed,
self-confident, and have definite, well-thought out opinions on almost any issue. Other people
will often come to you for advice and counsel.

5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
("body smart" or "movement smart")

We often talk about learning by doing. This way of knowing happens through physical
movement and through the knowing of our physical body. The body knows many things that
are not necessarily known by the conscious, logical mind, such as how to ride a bike, how to
parallel park a car, dance the waltz, catch a thrown object, maintain balance while walking, and
where the
keys are on a computer keyboard.
If you have strength in this intelligence area you tend to have a keen sense of body awareness.
You like physical movement, dancing, making and inventing things with your hands, and
roleplaying.
You probably communicate well through body language and other physical gestures. You can
often perform a task much better after seeing someone else do it first and then mimicking their
actions. You probably like physical games of all kinds and you like to demonstrate how to do
something for someone else. You may find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time and are
easily bored or distracted if you are not actively involved in what is going on around you.
6. Interpersonal
(people smart or group smart)

This is the person-to-person way of knowing. It is the knowing that happens when we work with
and relate to other people, often as part of a team. This way of knowing also asks use to develop
a whole range of social skills that are needed for effective person-to-person communication and
relating.
If this person-to-person way of knowing is more developed in you, you learn through personal
interactions. You probably have lots of friends, show a great deal of empathy for other people
and exhibit a deep understanding of other points of view. You probably love team activities of
all kinds and are a good team member--you pull your own weight and often much more! You
are sensitive to other peoples feelings and ideas, and are good at piggybacking your ideas on
others thoughts. And you are likely skilled at drawing others out in a discussion. You are also
probably skilled in conflict resolution, mediation, and finding compromise when people are in
radical opposition to each other.

7. Naturalist Intelligence
(nature smart or environment smart)

The naturalist intelligence involves the full range of knowing that occurs in and through our
encounters with the natural world including our recognition, appreciation, and understanding
of the natural environment. It involves such capacities as species discernment, communion with
the natural world and its phenomena, and the ability to recognize and classify various flora and
fauna.
If the naturalist intelligence is one of your strengths you have a profound love for the outdoors,
animals, plants, and almost any natural object. You are probably fascinated by and noticeably
affected by such things as the weather, changing leaves in the fall, the sound of the wind, the
warm sun or lack thereof, or an insect in the room. At a young age you were likely nature
collectors, adding such things as bugs, rocks leaves, seashells, sticks, and so on to your
collections. You probably brought home all manner and kinds of stray animals and today you
may have several pets and want more. You tend to have an affinity with and respect for all
living beings.

8. Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence
(music smart or sound smart)

This is the knowing that happens through sound and vibration. In the original research on the
theory of multiple intelligences this intelligence was called musical-rhythmic intelligence.
However, it is not limited to music and rhythm so Im calling it auditory-vibrational, for it deals
with the whole realm of sound, tones, beats, and vibrational patterns as well as music.
If you are strong in this intelligence area you likely have a love of music and rhythmic patterns.
You are probably very sensitive to sounds in the environment; the chirp of cricket, rain on the
roof, varying traffic patterns. You may study and work better with music in the background.
You can often reproduce a melody or rhythmic pattern after hearing it only once. Various
sounds, tones, and rhythms may have a visible effect on you--others can often see a change in
facial expressions, body movement, or emotional responses. You probably like to create music
and you enjoy listening to a wide variety of music. You may be skilled at mimicking sounds,
language accents, and others speech patterns, and you can probably readily recognize different
musical instruments in a composition.
3.1 Practice
Caso prctico

The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education
at Harvard University. Here is a discussion of the eight different intelligences Dr. Gardner proposes and
their relationship to the CLIL classroom. Each explanation is followed by lesson plans or exercises which
can be used in class.

Teaching the Student

The most important element when catering to diverse learning styles is remembering to teach to
the student and not just the subject. Teachers should be trained to take into consideration a
variety of learning styles and make efforts to teach in ways that make true learning available to
all students. Once teachers are familiar with these learning styles, classroom activities and study
habits can be adjusted to accommodate the styles of any group of students.
Learning styles are most often divided into three basic groups. There are the auditory learners,
visual learners and kinesthetic or tactile learners. In addition to these basic groups, some
educational theorists also recognize verbal, logical, social and solitary as additional styles. Here
is a systematic breakdown of each learning style and some suggestions for addressing these
styles in the classroom.
Teaching Auditory Learners
Auditory learners learn best through hearing the message. Students who are auditory learners
respond well to lectures and verbal instructions. They may also be interested in books on tape
or listening to review material. Some auditory learners have greater success with oral exams
due to the fact that they are able to process verbally, hear the questions, and hear their own
responses. Teachers auditory learners requires the teacher to use rhythmic memory aids such as
acronyms, short songs, or rhymes. For studying, auditory learners do best when they are able to
read their material aloud. Flip cards which can be read aloud may also be useful.
Teaching Visual Learners
Visual learners process information according to what they see and the images they have
created in their mind. When teaching visual learners, their seating position should be in the
front of the room to help them avoid external visual distractions. Illustrations, diagrams, and
charts are very helpful when working with visual learners. Students who are visual learners are
often the best note-takers because they need to see the information being presented. Flip cards
can be very helpful for visual learners as it isolates an image of the material they are studying.
Teaching Kinesthetic Learners
Kinesthetic, or tactile, learners learn best through touching, feeling and doing. Teachers trying
to reach kinesthetic learners should incorporate hands-on projects, multi-media assignments,
skits, movement, and physical artifacts as examples. Assigning a diorama or skit is a great
example of how to reach a kinesthetic learner. These students also respond well to object
lessons if they are able to touch the object involved.
Hands-on experiments are another great tool for teaching kinesthetic learners. This is easily
done with science material, but can also be incorporated into social studies and even language
arts, if teachers keep a close eye on the environment of the history lesson or the story being
studied. Information about geography, customs, and food can often be reworked into a hands-on
experience. Examples of this include mummifying a chicken in association with a social studies
unit on ancient Egypt or preparing an ethnic food in conjunction with a culture-based language
arts story. These sorts of ideas attract and engage the kinesthetic learners in the classroom.
Teaching Logical, Social or Solitary
These learning styles are not as commonly discussed as the above three, but to warrant some
mention. Logical learners are those students who most enjoy problem solving, logic games and
reasoning. These students love riddles, word problems, and problem solving games or
worksheets, so provide many when teaching them. The categories of social and solitary
describe how the students prefer to study, either in groups or individually.
Determining a Student's Style
Teachers should consider ways they can determine the learning styles of their students. This can
be a very different process for various age groups. For older students, teachers can use
curriculum for teaching learning styles and then offer personality tests specifically designed to
help identify their students' styles. With middle school students, teachers should incorporate a
variety of learning styles in an effort to reach all students as testing this age group can be
particularly difficult due to shyness, reading readiness and social pressures.
For kindergarten and early elementary teachers, the use of an object lesson, such as an unusual
pet or particularly old item, can help identify the students primary learning styles. Young
students who are kinesthetic learners are generally the first ones to ask Can I hold it? while
visual learners are the ones who sit right in front, but may not want to touch what is being
shown. Auditory learners are the ones who talk about the lesson the whole rest of the day. To
observe students, it is best to have the object lesson taught by a co-worker or have a co-worker
observe the students.
Is it worth it?
While incorporating such a variety of techniques into curriculum and teaching can be difficult,
the reward of reaching every student is well-worth the effort.
4. Lev Vigotsky's scaffolding theory
Scaffolding as a Teaching Strategy

Rachel R. Van Der Stuyff

Adolescent Learning and Development

Section 0500A - Fall 2002

November 17, 2002

I. Scaffolding as a Teaching Strategy - Definition and Description

Scaffolding instruction as a teaching strategy originates from Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and his concept
of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). "The zone of proximal development is the distance between what
children can do by themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve with competent
assistance" (Raymond, 2000, p.176). The scaffolding teaching strategy provides individualized support based on
the learner's ZPD (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002). In scaffolding instruction a more knowledgeable other provides
scaffolds or supports to facilitate the learner's development. The scaffolds facilitate a student's ability to build on
prior knowledge and internalize new information. The activities provided in scaffolding instruction are just beyond
the level of what the learner can do alone (Olson & Pratt, 2000). The more capable other provides the scaffolds
so that the learner can accomplish (with assistance) the tasks that he or she could otherwise not complete, thus
helping the learner through the ZPD (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000).

Vygotsky defined scaffolding instruction as the "role of teachers and others in supporting the learner's
development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or level" (Raymond, 2000, p. 176). An
important aspect of scaffolding instruction is that the scaffolds are temporary. As the learner's abilities increase
the scaffolding provided by the more knowledgeable other is progressively withdrawn. Finally the learner is able
to complete the task or master the concepts independently (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002, p. 7). Therefore the
goal of the educator when using the scaffolding teaching strategy is for the student to become an independent
and self-regulating learner and problem solver (Hartman, 2002). As the learner's knowledge and learning
competency increases, the educator gradually reduces the supports provided (Ellis, Larkin, Worthington, n.d.).
According to Vygotsky the external scaffolds provided by the educator can be removed because the learner has
developed "...more sophisticated cognitive systems, related to fields of learning such as mathematics or
language, the system of knowledge itself becomes part of the scaffold or social support for the new learning"
(Raymond, 2000, p. 176).

Caregivers help young children learn how to link old information or familiar situations with new knowledge
through verbal and nonverbal communication and modeling behaviors. Observational research on early
childhood learning shows that parents and other caregivers facilitate learning by providing scaffolds. The
scaffolds provided are activities and tasks that:

Motivate or enlist the child's interest related to the task

Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable for a child
Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal
Clearly indicate differences between the child's work and the standard or desired solution
Reduce frustration and risk
Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to be performed (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking,
2000).

The activities listed above are also detailed in the Executive Summary of the Research Synthesis on Effective
Teaching Principles and the Design of Quality Tools for Educators, which refers to these as "...Rogoff's six
characteristics of scaffolded instruction" (Ellis, Larkin, Worthington, Principle 5 section, para. 2).

In the educational setting, scaffolds may include models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions, think-aloud
modeling and direct instruction (Hartman, 2002). In Teaching Children and Adolescents with Special Needs the
authors provided an example of a procedural facilitator (hint, cue-card, partially completed example). When
trying to teach the math skill of rounding, a teacher may list, "...the steps of rounding hundreds beginning with the
first step of 1. Look at the number in the ten's position', (this) provides hints to the students" (Olson and Platt,
2000, p.180). This cue prompts the students to complete the next step of the task. Educators may also use
questions as scaffolds to help students solve a problem or complete a task. Teachers may increase the level of
questioning or specificity until the student is able to provide a correct response. This type of scaffold is reflected
in the following excerpt, "...if you receive no response or an incorrect response after asking the question, "How
do we change lady to ladies?" you should proceed with a more intrusive verbal prompt: "What is the rule?" to
remind the student that there is a rule. If necessary, continue with "What do we do when a word ends in y to
make it plural?" to give the student a part of the rule" (Olson and Platt, 2000, p.186). As the student develops his
or her ability with applying the rule, the number and intrusive nature of the questions would be decreased until
the student can do the task without prompting.

Following the use of teacher provided scaffolds, the educator may then have the students engage in cooperative
learning. In this type of environment students help students in small group settings but still have some teacher
assistance. This can serve as a step in the process of decreasing the scaffolds provided by the educator and
needed by students (Hartman, 2002).

Teachers have also used scaffolding to engage students in research work and learning. In this context,
scaffolding facilitates organization of and focus for students' research (McKenzie, 1999). The structure and
clearly defined expectations are the most important component of scaffolding in this context. The teachers
provide clarity and support but the students construct the final result through their research. In a chapter on
scaffolding, Scaffolding for Success, Jamie McKenzie provides a visual image analogy of how scaffolding works,
"The workers cleaning the face of the Washington Monument do not confuse the scaffolding with the monument
itself. The scaffolding is secondary. The building is primary." (McKenzie, 1999, Matters of Definition section,
para. 6). He goes on to describe eight characteristics of scaffolding. The first six describe aspects of scaffolding
instruction. The last two refer to outcomes resulting from scaffolding and are therefore presented in a later
section of this paper. According to McKenzie scaffolding:

1. Provides clear direction and reduces students' confusion - Educators anticipate problems that students
might encounter and then develop step by step instructions, which explain what a student must do to meet
expectations.
2. Clarifies purpose - Scaffolding helps students understand why they are doing the work and why it is
important.
3. Keeps students on task - By providing structure, the scaffolded lesson or research project, provides
pathways for the learners. The student can make decisions about which path to choose or what things to
explore along the path but they cannot wander off of the path, which is the designated task.
 4. Clarifies expectations and incorporates assessment and feedback - Expectations are clear from the
beginning of the activity since examples of exemplary work, rubrics, and standards of excellence are
shown to the students.
5. Points students to worthy sources - Educators provide sources to reduce confusion, frustration, and time.
The students may then decide which of these sources to use.
6. Reduces uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment - Educators test their lessons to determine possible
problem areas and then refine the lesson to eliminate difficulties so that learning is maximized (McKenzie,
1999).

Scaffolded instruction is also employed in problem based learning environments. "Problem-based learning (PBL)
is an educational approach that challenges students to "learn to learn"." (Ngeow and Yoon, 2001, p. 1). In this
type of classroom the teacher must assess the activities that the students can perform independently and what
they must learn to complete the task. The teacher then, "...designs activities which offer just enough of a scaffold
for students to overcome this gap in knowledge and skills." (Ngeow and Yoon, 2001, p. 2). The authors also
describe several of same scaffolding activities or characteristics that were presented by Bransford, Brown and
Cocking and McKenzie thus illustrating scaffolding's applicability to various educational settings.

II. Scaffolding - Related Theory, Theorists, and Research

Scaffolding instruction as a teaching strategy originates from Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and his concept
of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Lev Vygotsky was a Soviet psychologist whose works were
surpressed after his death in the 1930s and were not discovered by the West until the late 1950s ("Lev
Vygotsky's archive," n.d.). His sociocultural theory proposes that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the
development of cognition. ("Social Development Theory," n.d.). Vygotsky "...theorized that learning occurs
through participation in social or culturally embedded experiences." (Raymond, 2000, p. 176). In Vygotsky's
view, the learner does not learn in isolation. Instead learning is strongly influenced by social interactions, which
take place in meaningful contexts. Children's social interaction with more knowledgeable or capable others and
their environment significantly impacts their ways of thinking and interpreting situations. A child develops his or
her intellect through internalizing concepts based his or her own interpretation of an activity that occurs in a
social setting. The communication that occurs in this setting with more knowledgeable or capable others
(parents, teachers, peers, others) helps the child construct an understanding of the concept (Bransford, Brown, &
Cocking, 2000). The communication helps the child develop inner or egocentric speech. The inner speech is
abbreviated speech for oneself that eventually directs personal cognitive activities. Inner speech is developed as
the adult initially models a cognitive process and communicates the steps as in "think-aloud" modeling. "...Over
time and through repeated experiences, the child begins to internalize, and assumes responsibility for the
dialogical actions, (i.e. it becomes a "private speech" spoken aloud by the child to direct personal cognitive
activity)." (Ellis, Larking, Worthington, n.d., Principle 5 Research section, para.3). In subsequent similar activities
the amount and or type of modeling and guidance provided by the more knowledgeable other will be reduced
until the child is able to complete the activity without these supports or scaffolds, the child's inner speech would
now be directing the child's activities. ("Four Stage Model," n.d. and Jaramillo, 1996).

The second foundation for scaffolding instruction is Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development
(ZPD). The ZPD "...is that area between what a learner can do independently (mastery level) and what can be
accomplished with the assistance of a competent adult or peer (instructional level)" (Ellis, Larkin, Worthington,
n.d. Principle 5, Research section, para.1). Vygotsky believed that any child could be taught any subject
effectively using scaffolding techniques by applying the scaffolds at the ZPD. "Teachers activate this zone when
they teach students concepts that are just above their current skills and knowledge level, which motivates them
to excel beyond their current skills level" (Jaramillo, 1996, p. 138). Students are guided and supported through
learning activities that serve as interactive bridges to get them to the next level. Thus the learner develops or
constructs new understandings by elaborating on their prior knowledge through the support provided by more
capable others (Raymond, 2000). Studies have actually shown that in the absence of guided learning
experiences and social interaction, learning and development are hindered (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking,
2000).

Modern research continues to find that scaffolding is an effective teaching strategy. Two recent studies regarding
the use of inscriptions for teaching scientific inquiry and experimentation (external representations - graphs,
tables, etc.) found that the use of external representations, representational scaffolds, can serve as an effective
strategy for teaching these scientific skills. In one study the instructional goal was to teach fourth graders valid
experimentation skills. During the first part of the study a teacher-specified table of variables was the scaffold
provided. Students had to select the appropriate variable related to their experiment. The results of this part of
the study led to the conclusion that the "... use of the pre-developed table representation may have helped
students abstract the overall structure of the experiment and thus aided their understanding of the design..."
(Toth, Results and Discussion section, para. 1). The teacher designed table helped focus the learners' thinking
on only those items that were important for the task. Additionally through the use of the table it became obvious
to the students if they had omitted an important variable from their experiment. This helped the students learn
what things must be considered when designing an experiment (Toth, n.d.).

In the second study, "... the effects of two different external representations (evidence mapping vs. prose
writing)..." were evaluated in research with ninth grade students (Toth, n.d., Representational scaffolding while
coordinating data with theories section, para. 1). Students used either a software tool or prose writing to record
their thinking during a problem-based-learning activity in which they had to find a solution to a scientific
challenge. The software tool provided epistemological categories linked with unique shapes. The students that
used the software had to categorize the information they were evaluating by selecting the appropriate shape and
entering the information into the shape. The students in the prose writing group just documented their thinking
by writing. One finding of the study was that the students who used the software tool correctly categorized more
of the information as hypothesis and data than those students in the prose writing groups. The correct
categorization of information was attributed to "...the effect of the mapping representation that scaffolded
students' categorization efforts" (Toth, n.d., Results and Discussion section, para. 1). Eva Toth concluded from
the research that the use of , "...teacher-developed table representations was found to scaffold students'
progress of inquiry by making the variables of an experiment salient and by perceptually constraining the
students' attention to abstract the characteristics of correct experimentation" (Toth, n.d. Conclusion and
Educational Significance section, para. 1). She also concluded that the evidence mapping, which used the
software tool that scaffolded students' thinking and categorization efforts, was a "...successful instructional
methodology to teach how to categorize and label scientific information and to teach students how to evaluate
hypotheses based on empirical data." (Toth, n.d., Conclusions and Educational Significance section, para. 2).
The study also found that the use of explicit rubrics supported the scaffolding effect.

Kuo-En Chang, Yao-Ting Sung, and Ine-Dai Chen conducted a study to test the learning effects of three concept-
mapping methods on students' text comprehension and summarization abilities and "...to determine how
students can most effectively learn from concept mapping" (Chang, Chen, & Sung, 2002, p. 8). For the study
three concept-mapping methods were designed "...with varying degrees of scaffolding support, namely, map
construction by correction (with constant and highest degree of scaffolding), by scaffold fading (with gradually
removed scaffolding), and by generation (with the least scaffolding)" (Chang, Chen, & Sung, 2002, p. 19). The 7
week study was conducted with 126 fifth grade students that were randomly assigned to 4 groups, one for each
concept mapping method and a control group. Both pre- and post- text comprehension and summarization tests
were administered to evaluate the students' abilities. Each group received the same reading materials and
training on concept mapping. The map correction group was given a partially revised expert generated concept
map that included some incorrect information. The students had to read the provided materials before correcting
the errors in the map. The instruction for the scaffold-fading group consisted of the following: "...(a) read an
expert concept map, (b) fill in the blanks of the expert concept map (with whole structure), (c) complete the
partial expert concept map (with partial structure), (d) construct the concept map using the given concepts and
relation links, and (e) determine the key concepts and relation links from the text to construct the concept map"
(Chang, Chen, & Sung, 2002, p.10). Only the reading materials were provided to the students in the map
generation group.

The study results showed that the map-correction group performed better on the text comprehension and text
summarization posttests than did the scaffold-fading or other groups. It also found that the scaffold-fading group
performed much better than the map-generation and control groups on the text summarization posttest but
showed no significant difference on the text comprehension posttest (Chang, Chen, & Sung, 2002). The authors
explain that the students in the map-correction group performed better because the map-correction scaffolding
provided a content framework for and a reminder of the content in the text. The authors go on to explain that the
finding regarding the scaffold fading group was not consistent with the findings of "...Day and Cordon (1993) and
Kao (1996) that the scaffolding instruction method had better direct and transferring effects than general teaching
methods..."(Chang, Chen, & Sung, 2002, p. 20). They cite two factors that may have affected the outcome of
their study and generated the inconsistent findings. First, they state that, "... the operations performed after the
scaffolding was removed may still have been too difficult for elementary school students" and secondly there
"...may have been the lack of sufficient time for training" (Chang, Chen, & Sung, 2002, p. 20).

They conclude that the scaffolds provided by the map-correct method (framework and partial information) seem
"...to be a more suitable way for conducting concept mapping for elementary students" (Chang, Chen, & Sung,
2002, p. 19) than the other methods, scaffold-fading or map generation. However any form of concept mapping
(scaffolding) "...may serve as a useful graphic strategy for improving text learning" (Chang, Chen, & Sung, 2002,
p. 21).

Scaffolding instruction guides the learner to independent and self-regulated competence of skills. This occurs
when the learner's inner speech occurs on an automatic, unconscious level (Ellis, Larkin, Worthington, n.d.). In
addition to improving learners' cognitive abilities, scaffolding instruction in the context of classroom learning and
student research:

1. Delivers efficiency - Since the work is structured, focused, and glitches have been reduced or eliminated
prior to initiation, time on task is increased and efficiency in completing the activity is increased.
2. Creates momentum - Through the structure provided by scaffolding, students spend less time searching
and more time on learning and discovering, resulting in quicker learning (McKenzie, 1999).

III. Advantages and Disadvantages of Scaffolding

One of the primary benefits of scaffolding instruction is that it engages the learner. The learner does not
passively listen to information presented instead through teacher prompting the learner builds on prior knowledge
and forms new knowledge. In working with students who have low self-esteem and learning disabilities, it
provides an opportunity to give positive feedback to the students by saying things like "...look what you have just
figured out!" This gives them more of a can do versus a "this is too hard" attitude. This leads into another
advantage of scaffolding in that if done properly, scaffolding instruction motivates the student so that they want to
learn.

Another benefit of this type of instruction is that it can minimize the level of frustration of the learner. This is
extremely important with many special needs students, who can become frustrated very easily then shut down
and refuse to participate in further learning during that particular setting.

Scaffold instruction is individualized so it can benefit each learner. However, this is also the biggest
disadvantage for the teacher since developing the supports and scaffolded lessons to meet the needs of each
individual would be extremely time-consuming. Implementation of individualized scaffolds in a classroom with a
large number of students would be challenging. Another disadvantage is that unless properly trained, a teacher
may not properly implement scaffolding instruction and therefore not see the full effect. Scaffolding also requires
that the teacher give up some of the control and allow the students to make errors. This may be difficult for
teachers to do. Finally the teachers' manuals and curriculum guides that I have been exposed to do not include
examples of scaffolds or outlines of scaffolding methods that would be appropriate for the specific lesson
content. Although there are some drawbacks to the use of scaffolding as a teaching strategy the positive impact
it can have on students' learning and development is far more important.

References:

Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, and Experience & School.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Chang, K., Chen, I., & Sung, Y. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and
summarization. The Journal of Experimental Education 71(1), 5-23.

Ellis, E., Larkin, M ., & Worthington, L. (No date). Executive summary of the research synthesis on effective
teaching principles and the design of quality tools for educators. University of Alabama, AL. Retrieved November
11, 2002, from http://idea.uoregon.edu/~ncite/documents/techrep/tech06.html

Four-Stage Model of ZPD. (No date). North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved October 12,
2002 from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/learning/lr1zpda.htm

Hartman, H. (2002). Scaffolding & Cooperative Learning. Human Learning and Instruction (pp. 23-69). New
York: City College of City University of New York.

Jaramillo, J. (1996). Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and contributions to the development of constructivist
curricula. Education 117(1), 133-140.
Lev Vygotsky Archive. (No date). Retrieved November 15, 2002, from http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/

McKenzie, J. (2000). Scaffolding for Success. [Electronic version] Beyond Technology, Questioning, Research
and the Information Literate School Community. Retrieved October 12, 2002, from http://fno.org/dec99
/scaffold.html

Ngeow, K.K., &Yoon, S. (2001, October). Learning to learn: preparing teachers and students for problem-based
learning. ERIC Digest. Retrieved October 20, 2002, from http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests
/ed457524.html

Olson, J. and Platt, J. (2000). The Instructional Cycle. Teaching Children and Adolescents with Special Needs
(pp. 170-197). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Raymond, E. (2000). Cognitive Characteristics. Learners with Mild Disabilities (pp. 169-201). Needham Heights,
MA: Allyn & Bacon, A Pearson Education Company.

Social Development Theory. (No date). Retrieved November 3, 2002, from http://tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html

Toth, E. E. (no date). Representational scaffolding during scientific inquiry: interpretive and expressive use of
inscriptions in classroom learning. Retrieved October 19, 2002, from http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~ircs/cogsci2000
/PRCDNGS/SPRCDNGS/posters/toth.pdf
4.1 Practice
Caso prctico

Scaffolding Instruction describes specialized teaching strategies geared to support learning when
students are first introduced to a new subject. Scaffolding gives students a context, motivation, or
foundation from which to understand the new information that will be introduced during the coming lesson.

Scaffolding techniques should be considered fundamental to good, solid teaching for all students, not just
those with learning disabilities or second language learners. In order for learning to progress, scaffolds
should be gradually removed as instruction continues, so that students will eventually be able to
demonstrate comprehension independently.

Scaffolding instruction includes a wide variety of strategies, including:

activating prior knowledge

offering a motivational context to pique student interest or curiosity in the subject at hand
breaking a complex task into easier, more "doable" steps to facilitate student achievement
showing students an example of the desired outcome before they complete the task
modeling the thought process for students through "think aloud" talk
offering hints or partial solutions to problems
using verbal cues to prompt student answers
teaching students chants or mnemonic devices to ease memorization of key facts or procedures
facilitating student engagement and participation
displaying a historical timeline to offer a context for learning
using graphic organizers to offer a visual framework for assimilating new information
teaching key vocabulary terms before reading
guiding the students in making predictions for what they expect will occur in a story, experiment, or
other course of action
asking questions while reading to encourage deeper investigation of concepts
suggesting possible strategies for the students to use during independent practice
modeling an activity for the students before they are asked to complete the same or similar activity
asking students to contribute their own experiences that relate to the subject at hand

Scaffolding is an instructional technique, associated with the zone of proximal development, in which a
teacher provides individualized support by incrementally improving a learners ability to build on prior
knowledge. Scaffolding can be used in a variety of content areas and across age and grade levels.
Scaffolding in the classroom

When using scaffolding as an instructional technique, the teacher provides tasks that enable the learner to
build on prior knowledge and internalize new concepts. According to Judy Olson and Jennifer Platt, the
teacher must provide assisted activities that are just one level beyond that of what the learner can do in
order to assist the learner through the zone of proximal development. Once learners demonstrate task
mastery, the support is decreased and learners gain responsibility for their own growth.

In order to provide young learners with an understanding of how to link old information or familiar
situations with new knowledge, the instructor must guide learners through verbal and nonverbal
communication and model behaviors. Research on the practice of using scaffolding in early childhood
development shows that parents and teachers can facilitate this advancement through the zone of
proximal development by providing activities and tasks that:

Motivate or enlist the childs interest related to the task.

Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable for a child.
Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal.
Clearly indicate differences between the childs work and the standard or desired solution.
Reduce frustration and risk.
Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to be performed.

In the educational setting, scaffolds may include models, cues, prompts, hints, partial solutions,
think-aloud modeling, and direct instruction.

Eight characteristics of scaffolding

Jamie McKenzie suggests that there are eight characteristics of scaffolding instruction. In order to engage
in scaffolding effectively, teachers:

Provide clear direction and reduce students confusion. Prior to assigning instruction that involves
scaffolding, a teacher must try to anticipate any problems that might arise and write step-by-step
instructions for how learners must complete tasks.
Clarify purpose. Scaffolding does not leave the learner wondering why they are engaging in
activities. The teacher explains the purpose of the lesson and why this is important. This type of
guided instruction allows learners to understand how they are building on prior knowledge.
Keep students on task. Students are aware of the direction in which the lesson is heading, and
they can make choices about how to proceed with the learning process.
Offer assessment to clarify expectations. Teachers who create scaffolded lessons set forth clear
expectations from the beginning of the activity using exemplars, rubrics.
Point students to worthy sources. Teachers supply resources for research and learning to decrease
confusion, frustration, and wasted time.
Reduce uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment. A well-prepared activity or lesson is tested or
evaluated completely before implementation to reduce problems and maximize learning potential.
Deliver efficiency. Little time is wasted in the scaffolded lesson, and all learning goals are achieved
efficiently.
Create momentum. The goal of scaffolding is to inspire learners to want to learn more and increase
their knowledge and understanding.

Martha Larkin suggests that there are eight guidelines that teachers most commonly follow when
developing scaffolded lessons. According to research in the area of scaffolding, teachers often:

Focus on curriculum goals to develop appropriate tasks.

Define a shared goal for all students to achieve through engagement in specific tasks.
Identify individual student needs and monitor growth based on those abilities.
Provide instruction that is modified or adapted to each students ability.
Encourage students to remain focused throughout the tasks and activities.
Provide clear feedback in order for students to monitor their own progress.
Create an environment where students feel safe taking risks.
Promote responsibility for independent learning.
4.2 Example

Key features of Scaffolding

5. Jim Cummins' common underlying linguistic
competence

In this article Professor James Cummins laid out the foundations of all his theories on bilingualism and bilingual
or plurilingual education. Before reading his theories on this topic we recommend reading this article through and
then proceed to the reading of his theories as a form of summary or compendium. Article

Summary of James Cummins theories: Summary

5.1 Practice

Common Underlying Proficiency

Cummins believes that in the course of learning one language a child acquires a set of skills and implicit
metalinguistic knowledge that can be drawn upon when working in another language. This common underlying
proficiency (CUP), as he calls these skills and knowledge, is illustrated in the diagram below. It can be seen that
the CUP provides the base for the development of both the first language (L1) and the second language (L2). It
follows that any expansion of CUP that takes place in one language will have a beneficial effect on the other
language(s). This theory also serves to explain why it becomes easier and easier to learn additional languages.

Implications for mainstream teachers

It is very important that students be encouraged to continue their native language development. When parents
ask about the best ways they can help their child at home, you can reply that the child should have the
opportunity to read extensively in her own language. You could suggest that parents make some time every
evening to discuss with their child, in their native language, what she has done in school that day: ask her to talk
about the science experiment she did, question her about her understanding of primary and secondary sources
of historical information, have her explain how she has solved a math problem etc.

As Cummins (2000) states: "Conceptual knowledge developed in one language helps to make input in the other
language comprehensible." If a child already understands the concepts of "justice" or "honesty" in her own
language, all she has to do is acquire the label for these terms in English. She has a far more difficult task,
however, if she has to acquire both the label and the concept in her second language.

Task Difficulty

Cummins has devised a model whereby the different tasks we expect our students to engage in can be
categorized. In the diagram below tasks range in difficulty along one continuum from cognitively undemanding to
cognitively demanding; and along the other continuum from context-embedded to context-reduced. A context-
embedded task is one in which the student has access to a range of additional visual and oral cues; for example
he can look at illustrations of what is being talked about or ask questions to confirm understanding. A context-
reduced task is one such as listening to a lecture or reading dense text, where there are no other sources of help
than the language itself. Clearly, a D quadrant task, which is both cognitively demanding and context- reduced, is
likely to be the most difficult for students, particularly for non-native speakers in their first years of learning
English. However, it is essential that ESL students develop the ability to accomplish such tasks, since academic
success is impossible without it.

Application:

Cummins invented vocabulary to describe this. Basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) is achieved first.
Cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) comes later. But how much later?

It takes two years or less to develop BICS. It takes five to seven years to develop CALP. While the child is
learning English, their native English-speaking peers are learning through English. If an ESL child is in an
immersion setting (in an English-speaking classroom), he will remain behind the native speakers for many years.
By the time he attains CALP, those native speakers have already learned more than he has. So he has to catch
up. In large scale studies, it took an average of seven years to catch up. We all know what an average means,
right? A lot of the kids took longer than seven years.

Stopping ESL support when the child gains BICS in English is dangerous. It might seriously harm the child's
academic development, especially if the child is in a very "square D" classroom.

Now, what makes a difference in the rate of second language acquisition?

-Quantity of language exposure (length of time, how much the child is paying attention)
-Quality of language exposure
-Child's age
-Cognitive abilities
-L1 literacy (literacy skills in the first language)
-Personality
-Personal confidence (are they willing to put themselves out there and be brave, trying to communicate in the
second language?)
-Motivation

We must never forget when applying CLIL to students that which we poited out at the beginning, that is, Bloom's
taxonomy of learning domains (Knowledge > Comprehension > Application > Analysis > Synthesis). This
provides a useful way of determining whether a task is demanding or undemanding. So activities which fall within
the category of Knowledge - such as collecting, naming, showing etc. - will clearly be less demanding than
Analysis activities such as comparing, explaining and inferring.

The degree to which a task is context-embedded depends on the number of channels of information available to
the student. So a student who listens to a news report on the radio has only one channel of information - this is a
context-reduced learning experience. Compare this with the student who reads a report about the same event in
a newspaper article which contains photographs and diagrams. The student can read at her own speed and has
access to a dictionary. If she can also ask another student or her parents to explain parts of the text, then she
has many channels of information available to her. This is clearly a context-embedded activity and as a result is
much more manageable.

It is difficult to see the value of any tasks that are cognitively undemanding and context-reduced. Copying a list of
the kings and queens of England from a textbook to an exercise book is an example of such an activity. It is
sometimes called busy work.
6. Learning vs acquisition: Stephen Krashen

Introduction
Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics,
specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has
involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has
published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at
universities throughout the United States and Canada.
This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well accepted theory of second language
acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second language research and teaching since
the 1980s.
Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:
the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
the Monitor hypothesis,
the Natural Order hypothesis,
the Input hypothesis,
and the Affective Filter hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's
theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners.
According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the
acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a
subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first
language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in
which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.
The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious
process, which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of
grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.
The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines
the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the
 learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the
learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning,
editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language
learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness,
and he/she knows the rule.
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance.
According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct
deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance.
Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to
'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those
learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users);
and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the
person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts
are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is
frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'.

The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975;
Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures
follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend
to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1
background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was
not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the
existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication
of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order
found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In
other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place.
So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this
hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second
language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if
a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input'
that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic
competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to
designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is
appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number
of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These
variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high
motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for
success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can
combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input
from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition.
On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take
place.
6.1 Practice
Read this pdf document to see how Krashen's theories can be brought into the language classroom. Click here
6.2 Task

Think of a communicative task where students are asked to put into practice something they have learned by
watching, listening or reading others do it. This task requires some human interaction to move from "learning
about something" to "acquiring knowledge through practice". Below, you have an example of a task where
students are asked to enact different situations using the language provided. You can use the empty template
from the link provided below and replenish it with your own ideas.

Example of telephone conversations

Empty template
7. Advantages of plurilingualism

On the importance of CLIL in the context of the debate on

plurilingual education in the European Union

Dieter Wolff

Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has existed as a pedagogical concept in European
school systems for more than thirty years now. It can be traced back to similar approaches in
international and European schools. Common to all approaches is the fact that a language other than
the one most widely spoken is used to teach a fairly restricted number of content subjects (geography,
history, politics, social sciences etc.).

It should be noted that in almost all the countries in which CLIL exists it is seen not simply as an
approach to foreign language teaching but as an integrated form of teaching content and language.
Not only does the content subject provide content for the language learning process; moreover, the
fact that content is analysed from different cultural perspectives offers opportunities for intercultural
learning and thus gives a new quality to classroom work. The experience available shows that both
linguistic and content subject competence can be promoted within this integrated concept more
effectively than when content and language are taught in isolation.

In the White Paper of 1995 the European Union has set itself an ambitious political goal, i.e. to
maintain and to promote plurilingualism among the citizens of its member states. In order to reach
this goal, the education systems in Europe have to look for new and better ways to secure and to
improve the quality of foreign language teaching and learning. The political goal of promoting
plurilingualism cannot be attained if member states still reduce language programmes in their school
systems, for example with respect to the number of languages or lessons per week. Although the
European year of languages has led to a new interest of the general public in questions of language
policy, it has neither changed the quality of foreign language teaching in the member states nor the
number of languages on offer.

The concept of CLIL is highly relevant for the promotion of plurilingualism and thus also for
European language policy. The most important reason is that it is a realistic and economic concept
which could be implemented fairly quickly in all member states. There can be no doubt that a teacher
who is expected to teach in a CLIL class needs a specific kind of training which goes beyond the
training of a foreign language or content subject teacher.

Training programmes adapted to the needs of such teachers have already been developed, however,
and could quickly be implemented. And the European Union could, in the context of the European
mobility programmes, ensure that native speakers of a specific language who have studied a content
subject could teach this content subject in another country in their own language.

Moreover, CLIL is a concept which opens new opportunities to restructure foreign language
programmes in school: the fact that content subjects are taught in a foreign language would reduce the
number of weekly hours necessary for the teaching of the language used in a content subject. These
hours can be used to introduce more languages in the curriculum.

Most content subjects are not taught over the whole school cycle, which contributes to reflecting more
on the possibilities of reducing the teaching of a foreign language to a smaller number of years. Better
than traditional foreign language teaching programmes,

CLIL can contribute to offering a larger choice of languages in our schools and thus enhance
plurilingualism on a broader scale.

Another political reason for introducing CLIL in the mainstream school system should be mentioned
here. It is related to the European dimension in education. Working with content in another language
necessarily leads to considering this content from different perspectives.

The history of Germany and France, for example, will be presented in a CLIL classroom both from a
German and a French angle, and this contributes to the development of at least a bidimensional
perspective. In dealing with the political systems of the European

Union in politics a multiperspectival approach will be chosen, and through contrastive analysis new
insights will be gained in how these systems function. Thus through CLIL learning results are
obtained which go far beyond the mere promotion of linguistic abilities and have a genuine effect on
the development of understanding for our joint European culture.

At this point the question arises how we can define the pedagogical potential of CLIL with respect to
improving the quality of foreign language learning. Empirical research has shown that it is superior to
traditional foreign language teaching and learning, but also that this superiority has nothing to do with
criteria of selection. CLIL is not an elitist approach to language learning; it functions in all learning
contexts and with all learners.

In most empirical research the superiority of CLIL is attributed to the greater length of exposure to the
foreign language. The more and the longer students use the foreign language, the better they learn it.
Undoubtedly the time factor plays an important role in learning a foreign language; it is, however, not
the only reason for the CLIL learners greater success. The pedagogical potential of CLIL is not
restricted to the time factor, but includes other factors which are equally important.

The predominant among these factors is that CLIL provides a learning environment which makes it
possible to realise modern learning theoretical and methodological concepts in an optimal way:

(1) The concept of authenticity relates both to content and interaction. In contrast to traditional
language teaching, learners in a CLIL classroom work with the authentic contents of the content
subject; in contrast to the traditional classroom, learners interact in the foreign language about the real
world around them. This authentic use of the foreign language promotes the language learning
process much more than talking about the pseudoreal and fictitious contents of the traditional
language classroom.

(2) Methodologically, CLIL is strongly geared towards learning strategies and techniques: in the
history or geography classroom, for example, techniques like analyzing tables, maps or diagrams, or
reading historical sources are applied and thus learned.

These strategies are highly important for language learning as well and can lead the learner to a
certain degree of independence. Learner autonomy as the highest goal in all education is based to a
large extent on the mastery of learning strategies and study skills.

(3) The topics relevant in the content and language classroom help learners understand the relevance
of forms of collaboration which are unknown in the traditional classroom, for example group work or
project work. These forms of social learning are regarded as being highly successful in language
learning as well.

On the whole, then, CLIL creates a learning environment which corresponds much better to modern
pedagogical principles than do traditional learning environments. The classroom is seen as a learning
laboratory, a place in which learners and teachers jointly work in projects, a place in which the
different subjects are not divided arbitrarily and taught in isolation, but are seen as a complex whole, a
place of autonomous learning in which the learners deal independently with the learning content. This
classroom, about which modern pedagogues only dream at present, becomes more realistic within a
CLIL environment. The true pedagogical potential of CLIL does not lie in the promotion of foreign
language learning alone but in the power it exerts to change our encrusted educational structures.

Within such a learning environment it will also be possible to reach the goal which is defined in the
1995 White Paper and which many people still regard as utopian: trilingualism for all citizens of the
European Union. The classroom as a learning laboratory a pedagogical concept incorporated in the
CLIL approach is far better suited than mainstream pedagogical concepts to provide for the
learners different aptitudes. If CLIL were implemented in our educational systems, the idea of
languages and language learning as something reserved only for an elite could quickly be abandoned.

(Extracted from "CLIL / EMILE - THE EUROPEAN DIMENSION" at http://ec.europa.eu/languages/documents

/clil-marsh_en.pdf)
7.1 Practice

Take a look at the following classroom projects using several languages form the EU: CLICK HERE

Advantages of CLIL in a plurilingual curriculum

4. Questions

PROGRESS TEST

In order to move on to the next unit you will have to take a progress test made up of 10 questions on the above
topics. You need to get 80% or more of correct answers so that the next unit lights up. In the case that you score
under 80%, you can try again with a new set of questions. You can attempt the "progress test" as many times as
you wish.