Chapter 1 Components of building

Introduction to building
Introduction
A building, or edifice, is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or
less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. Buildings come
in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions, and have been adapted
throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials
available, to weather conditions, land prices, ground conditions, specific
uses, and aesthetic reasons

Buildings serve several societal needs – primarily as shelter from weather, security,
living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A
building as a shelter represents a physical division of the human habitat (a place of
comfort and safety) and the outside (a place that at times may be harsh and
harmful).

1.2. Types of buildings

Depending upon the character of occupancy or the type of use, building
can be classified into different categories as follows:

1. Residential Buildings:
These buildings include one or two private dwellings, apartment houses (flats),
hotels, dormitories etc.
2. Educational Buildings:
These buildings include any building used for school, college or day care purposes
involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation.
3. Institutional Buildings:
These buildings include any building or part which is used for medical treatment
etc. Such as Hospitals, nursing homes, orphanages, sanatoria, jails, prisons,
mental hospitals etc.
4. Assembly Buildings:
These buildings may include any building or part of a building where a group of
people gathers for recreation, amusement, social, religious or such types of
purposes such as theaters, assembly halls, exhibition halls, restaurants, museum,
club rooms, auditoria etc.
5. Business Buildings:
These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for business
transactions, keeping records of accounts, town halls, city halls, court houses etc.
6. Mercantile Buildings:
These shall include those buildings which are used for soap, market, stores,
wholesale or retail.
7. Industrial Buildings:
This types of building mainly used for manufacturing purposes. Here products or
materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled or processed, for
example, gas plants, refineries, mills, dairies etc.
8. Storage Buildings:
These buildings are generally used for the storage or sheltering of goods, wares,
or merchandise like warehouses, cold storages, garages, stables, transit sheds etc.
9. Hazardous Buildings:
These buildings include any building which is used for storage, handling,
manufacture or processing of highly combustible explosive materials or products
which are liable to burn with extreme rapidly which may produce poisonous
fumes, building which is used for storage, handling or manufacturing highly
corrosive, toxic, acid or other liquids or chemicals producing flame, fumes
explosive etc.
1.3. Loads on building (general idea on dead, live and wind load.)
Dead loads on building:
Dead loads (also known as permanent or static loads) are those which are
associated with the weight of the structure itself. These loads remain stationary
and relatively constant over time. Dead loads comprises the self-weight of any
structural elements, as well as the permanent nonstructural partitions and
immovable fixtures such as built-in cupboard, plasterboard etc. Unit weights of
the most used/common materials are given below in the table.
SI Material Weight(KN/m3)
Brick
1. 18.8
Masonry
Plain
2. cement 24
concrete
Reinforced
3. cement 24
concrete
4. Timber 5-8
Stone
5. 20.4-26.5
Masonry

Wind Loads on building:

Wind loads are the primarily horizontal loads which are caused by the movement
of air relative to earth. This load is considered for the building whose height is
twice its width, to exposed wind surface. Wind load may not be significant concern
for small ,massive low level building, but it attains importance with the height, the
use of lighter materials, and also the shapes which may affect the flow of air

Snow loads on building:

Snow loads are the one which are imposed on the structure due to the accumulation
of snow and is more of a concern in geographic regions where snowfalls can be
heavy and frequent. Accumulation of adequate quantities of snow can add a sizable
load to the structure. As the snow accumulates on the roof first, the shape of the
roof is an utmost important factor to be considered in the magnitude of the snow
load.
Live loads on building:
Live loads are the temporary loads which are either movable or moving loads
without any acceleration or impact. These are also called as imposed loads and
are changeable and dynamic. These include loads such as vehicle traffic, the
occupants of the building including weights of movable partitions or furniture etc.
The intensity of these loads may vary depending on the time of the day.
Settlement loads on building:
This load is caused by an uneven settlement of foundation of the building which
produces an equivalent effect as the high loads. The poor soil condition might
decrease the support of the foundation. No additional load is applied to the
building but due to the uneven settlement, the supported portion of the building
carries more load.

Construction loads on building:

These are the loads which are imposed on a temporary or partially completed
structure during and as a result of the construction process. These loads include
material, personnel, equipment imposed on the temporary or permanent structure
during the construction process but are not limited only to these.
Temperature loads:
These loads are also called as thermal loads. When temperature changes for a
material, it either expands or contracts. This effect can exert significant loads on
the structure. Expansion joints have to be provided at points on long sections of
structures such as walls and floors.

Components/part of the building

A building consists of following basic components.

Basic Components of a
Building
1. Foundation
A foundation is necessary to
evenly distribute the entire
building load on the soil in such
a manner that no damaging
settlements take place. Hence, the
foundations need to be
constructed on good/solid
ground.
2. Plinth
A plinth is normally constructed just above the ground level and immediately
after the foundation. It raises the floor above the ground level and herewith
prevents surface water from entering the building.
3. Damp proof course (DPC)
Damp proof course is a layer of water proofing material such as asphalt or
waterproof cement. Walls are constructed above the damp proof course.
Damp proof course prevents surface water from rising into the walls.
Dampness reduces the strength of the walls and creates unhealthy living
conditions. Also it affects the paint and plaster and increasing the cost of
maintenance.
Damp proofing layer is not required where a plinth beam is constructed, because
the plinth beam already performs like a DPC.
4. Plinth beam
A plinth beam is constructed depending upon the type of the structure of the
building and nature of the soil. It provides additional stability in regard to
settlements of the building and earthquake damages.
5. Floor
This is the surface on which we do most of our activities. Floorings is laid over the
filling of the plinth and on subsequent floors.
Flooring can be done with different materials, but care must be given that the
ground below the floor is well compacted. Flooring is done to prevent dampness
from rising to the top and to have a firm platform that can be kept hygienic and
clean.
6. Walls
Walls are the vertical elements on which the roof finally rests. They can be made
of different materials like bricks, stones, mud, concrete blocks, lateritic blocks etc.
If the walls are very long, columns can be provided to carry the roof.
Walls provide privacy and enclosure. Walls also provide security and protection
against natural elements such as wind, rain and sunshine.
Openings are to be provided in wall for access and ventilation.
7. Openings
Openings are normally provided in the walls as door, windows and ventilators.
Doors provide access; windows and ventilators provide light and ventilation.
Lintels are constructed just above the openings. It is normally a stone slab or a
concrete slab.
Sill is the part of the wall that is just below the window.
Lintels are constructed to hold up the walls above the openings. In earthquake
prone areas a continuous lintel beam is provided all over the walls.
8. Stairs
A stair is a sequence of steps and it is provided to afford the means of ascent and
descent between the floors and landings.
The apartment or room of a building in which stair is located is called staircase.
The space or opening occupied by the stair is called a stairway.
There are different kind of stairs are used in buildings, like RCC stair, wooden
stair, metal stair, brick stair etc.
9. Roof
The roof provides protection for the building and the people living in it. The roof
rests on the walls and requires proper anchoring so that wind and other
mechanical impact cannot destroy it. A roof can have different shapes but it is
always either flat or sloping.
Roof is typically made of RCC, stone slab, tiles etc.
10. Surfaces / Finishes
External finishes are the outer most layer of protection, which protect the
structure from weathering. Internal finishes are the layers given on internal faces.
They give durability and pleasing appearance to the inside.
Considerations in building design
The following factors should be considered while planning a factory building:-
1. Nature of Manufacturing Process
2. Flexibility
3. Expandability or Future Expansion
4. Service Facilities
5. Employee Facilities
6. Lighting
7. Heating
8. Ventilating
9. Air-Conditioning
10. Other Consideration
Foundation
Definition of foundation
Foundation is the lowermost structure in any building, it will transfer the
load from superstructure to the soil (substructure).There would have been
no need of foundation if the soil is good in shear.
Function of foundation:
1. To transmit all superimposed loads (wind, vibration, dead and live loads).
2. To withstand against all kinds of settlements (against failure of underlying
soil).
3. To give stability to structure by resisting in firm base.
4. To prevent lateral movement of supporting materials.
Essential requirement of good foundation
1. The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed
loads and to transmit these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it
will not cause settlement which would impair the stability of the building or
adjoining structures.
2. Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are
minimized, Specially for the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly
distributed.
3. Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against
damage or distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil.
 4. Foundations should be so located that its performed may not be affected
due to any unexpected future influence.
5. Foundations should be such that it can easily carry dead load and imposed
load of the structure and transfer the loads to the soil.
Difference between footings and foundations:
Footing is a part of foundation which is constructed with concrete or brickwork
masonry and acts as a base to the floor columns and floor walls. The main
function of footing is to transfer the vertical loads directly to the soil. The term
footing is used in conjunction with Shallow foundation commonly
Types of foundation (General idea on shallow foundation)
Foundations can be further classified as shallow and deep
Shallow foundation
 Foundation which is placed near the surface of the earth or transfers
the loads at shallow depth is called the shallow foundation
 The depth of shallow foundation is generally about 3 meters or the
depth of foundation is less than the footing with.
 A shallow foundation is cheaper.
 Shallow foundations are easier to construct.
 Shallow foundations transfer loads mostly by end bearing.
 Construction materials are available, less labor is needed,
construction procedure is simple at an affordable cost, etc.
 Possibility of a settlement, usually applicable for lightweight structure,
weak against lateral loads, etc.
Type of Shallow Foundation
1. Isolated footing or column footing.
2. Wall footing.
3. Continuous footing.
4. Inverted arch footing.
5. Spread footing.
 6. Raft or mat footing.
7. Combined footing.
8. Strap or cantilever footing.
1. Isolated footing or column footing:-
This type of footing is used for an individual column. This isolated footing is
further classified into three types. They are as follows:-
 Stepped footing.
In this type of footing on a base Foundation a step is raised, which is also
known as pocestar. The step or pocestar is further followed by a column.
This type of footing is generally used where a heavy load is coming from a
superstructure.

 Simple spread footing:-

In this type of footing, only a base Foundation is constructed. which is
further followed by a column. This type of footing is used for a small
structure where that type of heavy load is not coming from the structure as
in case of stepped footing are concerned, there these type footings are
used.

 Sloped footing:-
In this type of footing also only base Foundation is constructed which is
further followed by a column. But when we cut a section from the center
we can see that this footing is in the shape of a trapezoid.
2. Wall footing.
Strip foundation is also called as Wall footing. As name itself showcasing that, it is
a strip type footing which follows the path of Superstructure Wall.  This type of
footing is constructed for Load bearing walls. It is a continuous strip of concrete
that serves to spread the weight of a load-bearing wall across an area of soil.  The
strip footing foundation width is decided by considering bearing capacity of soil.
Greater the bearing capacity of soil lesser is the width of the Strip footing

3. Continuous footing
In this type of footing a single slab type footing base is created. This type of
footing is done when more than one column is in a row. This footing transfers
load to a bigger area.
4. Inverted arch footing
This type of footing is not used commonly. The inverted arch footing is used to
satisfy the special condition. When the bearing capacity of the soil is very less in
that condition we make use of this footing. Also if deep excavation is not possible
then this type of footing is done.
5. Spread footing
This is also known as a stepped spread foundation. In this type of footing, a base
foundation is created which is an RCC member. Above which three steps are
created which are done by brickwork. These three steps are not RCC members.
Which are further followed by a wall? In this type of footing, ground level is
maintained above all the steps. The projection of the first step below the wall is ( t
+ 100 ) mm, here ( t = thickness of wall ). Projection of the second step below the
first step is ( t + 200 ) mm, followed by the third step it is ( 2t ) mm. Lastly, the
projection between the third step and base foundation is ( t + 400 ) mm. The
width of the base foundation is 2( t + 150 ) mm.

6. Raft footing or mat footing

This is also known as combined type footing or foundation. It covers the whole
structure. It provides the stability and strength to the structural member like RCC
wall and columns. Above the soil surface, a base is created of any thickness, it is
just done to create a base for Raft Foundation. On that base, this raft foundation
is constructed. When bearing capacity of a soil is less than, raft or mat footing is
used.
7. Combined footing
When two or more than two columns come in a row then this type of footing is
constructed.  In this, there are two types of footing they are,
1. Rectangular shaped combined footing.
2. Trapezoidal shaped combined footing.

2.5. Footing at different level

Staircase
Definition of stair
 A Stair is a series of steps with or without landings or platforms, which is
installed between two or more floors of a building to bridge a large
vertical distance
  Stairs are steps arranged in series for the purpose of an assess from one
floor to the other.
Technical terminology

A few technical terms generally used for the design of staircases are given
below.
1. Step
This is a portion of stair which permits ascending or descending from one floor
to another. It is composed of a tread and a riser. A stair is composed of a set of
steps.
2. Tread
It is the upper horizontal portion of a step upon which the foot is placed while
ascending or descending a stairway.
3. Riser
It is the vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread.
4. Rise
It is the vertical distance between two successive tread faces.
 Figure-Rise-Tread-Nosing-Going

5. Flight
It is a series of steps without any platform or landing or break in their
direction.
6. Landing
This is a platform provided between two flights. A landing extending to full
width of staircase is known as half spaced landing and the space extending
only half across a staircase is called a quarter space landing. A landing
facilitates change of direction and provides an opportunity for taking rest
during the use of the stair.
7. Going
It is the horizontal distance between two successive riser faces.
8. Nosing
This is the outer projecting edge of a tread. This is generally made rounded to
give more pleasing appearance and makes the staircase easy to navigate.
9. Winders
They are tapering steps used for changing the direction of a stair.
10. Scotia
It is a moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation of the
step, and to provide strength to nosing.
11. Soffit
It is the underside of a stair.
12. Line of Nosing
It is an imaginary line parallel to the strings and tangential to the nosings. It is
useful in the construction of hand rails, giving the line with which the under
surface of the hand rail should coincide.
13. Pitch or Slope
It is angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with the horizontal.

Figure-Strings or Stringers

14. Strings or Stringers

These are the sloping members which support the steps in a stair. They run
along the slope of the stair.
15. Newel Post
Newel post is a vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to
connect the ends of strings and hand rail.
16. Baluster
It is a vertical member of wood or metal, supporting the hand rails.
 Figure-Head room & Pitch or Slope

17. Balustrade
The combined framework of handrail and baluster is known as balustrade. This
provides protection for the user of the stair.
18. Hand Rail
It is a rounded or moulded member of wood or metal following generally the
contour of the nosing line, and fixed on the top of balusters.
19. Head Room
It is the minimum clear vertical distance between the tread and overhead
structure (i.e. ceiling etc.)
20. Run
It is the total length of stair in a horizontal plane, including landings.
21. Header
It is the horizontal structural member supporting stair stringers or landings.
Requirement of a good stair case
1. A stair should be well ventilated.
2. It should have good approaches from all corners of the building.
3. Every flight should be separated from the other by spacious and well
ventilated landings.
4. Each flight should have not more than 12 steps
5. As far as possible winders should be avoided. If at all, they are to be
provided, they should be provided at the bottom and not at the top.
6. The width of the landing should not be less than the width of the stairs.
7. The width of the stairs in residential buildings should no be less than 75 cm
and for public buildings it should not be less 1han T25 m.
8. The pitch of the stairs should not be more than 25° for making the ascent
and descent easy. In order to obtain a satisfactory pitch, the following
general rules are used to obtain the satisfactory proportions of rise and
tread :
 Rise + Going =40 to 45 cm.
 Rise × Going =426 cm.
 2 Rise-f Going=60 cm.
9. There should be an adequate head room, having a minimum height of 2.2
metres.
10.The hand railing should be of a suitable size and shape that it can easily be
gripped in hand. The height of the hand. The height of the hand railing
hould not be less than 75 cm nor more than 10 cm From the line of nosing.

Types of Stairs:
Stairs are classified according to the materials used and the configuration they
have.
According to the materials used, they could be further classified as:
 Timber stairs
 Stone stairs
 Concrete stairs
 Metallic stairs
According configuration, stairs are classified as:
 Straight flight:
Simple and common type, direct connection to upper level without any turn.

Turning stairs:
1. Quarter turn:
Two straight flight at 90⁰ turn with quarter space landing.

2. Half turn stairs:

Half turn stairs are those which reverse direction or change direction to
180°.
 Dog-legged:
Two straight flight at 180⁰turn with mid landing, consumes less space, popular
in residential buildings in Nepal.

 Open newel/open well:

Two or more than two straight flights arranged around a well or space.
Bifurcated:
Found in the beginning subdivided into two narrow flights modern buildings,
wider in the beginning subdivided into two from mid-landing.

Continuous stairs
 Circular Stairs:
Circular stairs are geometrical stairs of half turn or full turn as shown in Fig. 6.9.
These are made of R.C.C. or steel or timber.

 Spiral:
All steps as winders, used for limited space and
limited use.
  Helical:
Structurally complex design, aesthetically appealing, found in high class buildings
and space.

Geometrical stair
Similar to open well but the well is curved and some steps are in the form of
winder.

Design of stair
Procedure of design of Stair
1. Given the level difference between two floors (ceiling height plus thickness
of floor slab).
2. Assume the types of building and stair and accordingly the size of riser(R).
3. Find the number of risers by NR = (level difference/size of riser).
4. Find the number of treads by NT = (NR - 1).
5. Assume the size of tread (T).
6. Assume the width of the stair.
7. Consider the size of landing (L) equal to width of stair.
8. Assume the entry space (E), generally equal to landing).
9. Find the total length of stair = (NT * T) + L +E.
10.Adjust the size of riser and tread if required.
Stone/brick piers/arches
Type of arch (Semicircular arch Segment arch)
Arch
A basic architectural structure built over an opening, made up of wedge-shaped
blocks, keeping one another in position, and transferring the vertical pressure of
the superimposed load into components transmitted laterally to the adjoining
abutments.

Segmental arch
A segmental arch is a semi-circular arch which is comprised of a circle segment,
not a complete half circle. This type of arch is utilized in architectural styles from
all over the world and throughout history, and serves functional as well as
aesthetic functions. People can usually identify a segmental arch because it may
look slightly shallow or flattened as a result of the fact that it is not a whole
semicircle. Once could also imagine creating a flipped mirror of the arch directly
below, in which case the two segments would create an almond shape, rather
than a circle, illustrating that they are only segments of a circle.

Semicircular Arch
Also known as the Roman arch, the Semicircular
Arch forms a half circle and is a major feature of all
Roman architecture. A strong structure, this arch is
often found in bridges and aqueducts. It appears a
simple arch to manufacture, as each voussoir is
identical in taper to its neighbour. However,
there are several key points to consider before ordering.
 Adequate clearance is required between the striking points (or span) of the
arch to allow a frame to fixed, 3mm all round will normally suffice. Joint width
is also a key consideration in the design of a semicircular arch as this affects
the lintel position on the jamb.

Types of piers (Simple and attached piers)

Pier
A pier is a raised structure that rises above a body of water and usually juts out
from its shore, typically supported by piles or pillars, and provides above-water
access to offshore areas.
Type of pier
Type of piers to be used in the bridge depends upon the type of bridge, sub-soil
conditions as well as the procedure adopted for the construction of bridge. The
bridge can be broadly divided into two parts:
1. Solid piers
2. Open piers
1. Solid piers(Simple piers)
These piers have solid and impermeable structure. The generally used materials
used for the construction of these type of piers are bricks, stone Masonry, mass
concrete or RCC, etc. They may be further classified as:
1. Solid masonry piles
2. Solid RCC piles
2. Open piers(Attached piers)
The piers which are open i.e which allows the water to pass through the structure
are called as open piers. Open piers can be classified into the following types:

1. Cylindrical piers
2. Column bents
3. Trestle piers or Trestle bent
4. Pile bents
5. Special or typical framed piers

Doors/windows
Doors: frames, shutters and their fixing details
 A door is the screen used to seal an opening into the building or
between spaces within the building.
 It is framework secured by finishing materials and fixed in the
opening of wall that provides access to the users in to the building.
 It is made of different materials or combination of them.
 The most commonly used material for this is timber.
 The doors can be designed to swing, slide, slide and fold or roll to
close an opening.

Door has essentially two parts: Frame and shutter

 Frame generally has vertical and horizontal members.
 Horizontal member on the top part Is head and it may or may not have
projection called horn and the vertical member is post.
  The shutter on other hand is the leaf fixed on the frame. The process of
fixing may be different depending upon the use and the demand of the
client.
 This shutter may or may not have separate frame as well.
 Different parts in the frame have different names in practice. The horizontal
top and bottom part is rail, vertical post by the side are stile, the vertical
member in the middle if any is mullion.
TERMINOLOGY
Architrave – This refers to the door frame. Why the industry can’t just refer to it
as a frame is honestly beyond us.

1. Frame - It Is A Combination Of Several Wooden Members To Support The

Door
2. Style - Style Is An External Vertical Member Of The Shutter.
3. Top Rail - It Is The Topmost Horizontal Member Of The Shutter
4. Lock Rail - It Is The Central Horizontal Member Of The Shutter Where
Locking Attachments Are Fixed.
5. Bottom Rail - It Is The Lowest Horizontal Member Of The Shutter.
6. Shutter - The Complete Assembly Of The Styles Panels And Rails Is Known
As A Shutter
7. Panel - It Is The Enclosed Area Between The Rails.
8. Sash - It Is A Frame Made Of Light Sections And Is Used Iron Fixing The Glass
In The Panels
9. Mullion - It Is A Vertical Member Running Through A Shutter Or Frame.
10. Louver - Louver Is A Timber Piece Which Is Attached In Inclined Position
Within A Frame.
11. Horn - It Is A Horizontal Projection Of Head Or Sill Beyond The Face Of The
Door Or Window Frame. Generally Horn Is 15 Cm Long.
12. Hold-fasts - These Are Provided On Vertical Sides Of The Vertical Door
Frames To Keep The Frame In Required Position. They Are Made Of Mild Steel
Flat Bars About 3 Cm Wide, 6 Cm Thick And 20 To 25 Cm Long.
13. Sill - It Is The Bottom Most Horizontal Member Forming The Frame.
14. Jamb - It Is The Vertical Face Of A Door Or Windows Opening Which
Supports The Frame.
15. Transom - It Is A Horizontal Member Which Divides The Door Or Window
frame Into Several Panels.
16. Rebate - It Is A Depression Cut In The Frame To Accommodate Door

LOCATION OF DOOR
1. From Consideration Of Adequate Air Circulation Within The Room, The
Doors Should Be Provided In Opposite Walls Facing Each Other.
 2. From Consideration Of Proper Space Utilization And Privacy, Doors Should
Be As For As Possible Be Located Near The Corner Of A Room
3. The Location Of The Door Should Meet The Functional Requirements Of The
Room.
4. The Number Of Doors In A Room Should Be Kept Minimum To Achieve
Optimum Utilization Of Space. Large Number Of Doors Besides Causing
Obstruction, Consume More Area In Circulation.

Size of Doors:
The size of a door should be such that it would allow the movement of largest
object or tallest person likely to use the door. As a rule, the height of a door
should not be less than 1.8m to 2m. The width of the door should be such that
two persons can pass through it walking shoulder to shoulder. The common
width-height relations
i. Width =0.4 to 0.5 height
ii. Height = (width +1.2) meters
The following are the generally adopted sizes of doors for various types of
buildings:
1. Doors of residential buildings
i. External door-(1.0mx2m) to (1.1mX2m)
ii. Internal door - 1mX2m
iii. Doors for bathrooms and water closets(0.75mx2m)to (9.8mx2m)
iv. Garages for cars – 2.25m (height)x2.25m ( width) to
2.25m(height)X2.40m(width)
2. Public buildings, such as schools, hospitals, libraries etc.
i. 1.2mX2.0m
ii. 1.2mX2.1m
iii. 1.2 mX2.25m
Types of Doors
1. Battened door 2. Panelled door 3. Glazed door 4. Flush door 5. Sliding door
6. Revolving door 7. Collapsible door 8. Rolling shutter door 9. Swing door 10.
Solid core door

1. Battened door:
 This door consists of series of battens of appropriate size firmly fixed
with tongue and groove joint with ledge.
 The numbers of ledges are normally three.
 They may or may not be secured with brace.
 It is sometimes used as external door as well.
 The battens may be 100 to 150mm wide and 16 to 32mm thick
depending on the size of the opening and door frame. Ledges are also
wide from 100 to 180mm and thickness varies from 25 to 32 mm.

2. Panelled door:
This type of door is made with different panels separated by the frame.
Normally it is made up of timber. The panels may be of different shapes and
size. This door is used as external door. The frame of the shutter consists of
horizontal rails and vertical stile. The panels are fixed in between these
members.
3. Glazed door:
This type of door is similar to the construction of panel door except the panels
are made of glass. These glass panels are filled in the frame. Normally the
frame is made up of timber. The panels may be of different shapes and size.
This is the door used as internal door. The frame of the shutter consists of
horizontal rails and vertical stile. The panels are fixed in between these
members.

 4. Flush door:

This type of door has a framed skeleton and it is covered on both sides with
laminated boards or plywood giving a perfectly flush and joint less surface.
Normally the frame is made up of timber. The size of the frame of skeleton
may be of different shapes and size. This is the door used as internal door. The
frame of the shutter consists of horizontal rails and vertical stile. The panels
are fixed in between these members .

5. Sliding Door:
In case of such doors, the shutters can slide either sideways, or upwards or
downwards. It provides more clear space for movement. It is more suitable for
shops, garages workshops, go down, etc.
6. Revolving door
This type of door hangs on a central pivot and can rotate. It is useful at places
where frequent opening and closing of a door Is to be avoided.
8. Rolling shutter door
A roller shutter, roller door or sectional overhead door is a type of door or
window shutter consisting of many horizontal slats (or sometimes bars or web
systems) hinged together.

9. Swing door
This is the door that swings in one or both direction. It may have single or
double shutter. It is normally used in the public buildings.
10. Solid core door:
This is the laminated door section. Here, a frame is made and small battens of
required number are glued in it. Sometime it may be plywood of 2-3 cm.
Hardwood or wood or pressed wood may be used for core of the frame.

Windows & ventilators

Windows:
 Window is the opening in the building. The main purpose of the window
is to provide natural light and also to facilitate ventilation in the building.
 The transmission of light is possible by the use of glass in the window
and through the shutter and ventilation it is possible when the window
is open.
The selection of size, shape, location and number of windows in a room
depends upon the following factors:
 Size of the room
 Location of the room
 Utility of the room
 Direction of the wall
 Direction of the wind
 Climatic conditions such as humidity, temperature etc.
 Requirements of exterior view
 Architectural treatment to the exterior of the building .
Based on the above factors the following thumb rules are in use:
1. Breadth of window=1/8 (width of room + height of room)
2. The total area of window - openings should normally vary from 10 to
20% of the floor area of the room, depending upon the climatic
conditions.
3. The area of window-opening should be at least one square meter for
every 30 to 40 cubic meter of inside content of the room.
4. In public buildings, the minimum area of windows should be 20% of
floor area.
5. For sufficient natural light, the area of glazed panels should at least be 8
to 10% of the floor area.
Types according to the use
 Casement/ordinary windows: Simple window section
 Glazed/sash windows: The window section with glass panel
 Louvered windows: The section fixed with louvered
 Pivoted windows: The frame is pivoted up and down
 Corner windows: Section fixed at the corner in two direction
 Double hung windows: The section slides vertically frame with in
grooves in frame
 Gable windows: This is ordinary window
 Dormer windows: Window section placed vertically in the slope of the
roof.
  Bay windows: projected outside (the section projecting outside the
external wall. It may be of different shape and size. It improves beauty
of building.)
 Clerestory windows: Window just below the roof or ceiling for
ventilation and lighting. This is generally pivoted type.
 Lantern windows: Section placed horizontally on the flat roof for the
purpose of light
 Sky light windows: Section provided in a sloped surface of pitched roof.
 Sliding windows: Section that slides in sideways
According to material use
1. Timber 2. Steel
Single and double glazed
 The window frame with glass in panels is called glazed section.
 If the layer of the glass is single, it is single glazing and section with
double layer of glass is double-glazing.
 Single glazed is the general practice in our locality.
 Double glazed: is done for special purpose, such as insulation of heat
and sound. Almost all glazed door and windows are double glazed in
Europe and other cold region. This in not familiar in our Himalayan
region. Double-glazed is worth-some in hot and dry region as well
Ventilation: types and details
Ventilator is narrow opening with small height provided near the roof or slab in
the building. The main purpose of the ventilation is to facilitate ventilation in the
building. The shape and size of the ventilator is similar to the window sections.
Types of ventilators
1. Side hung 2. Bottom hung 3. Horizontally pivoted 4 Vertical pivoted 5. Top
hung
6. Vertical sliding etc.
Roof/roof covering works
Definition
A roof is the top covering of a building, including all materials and constructions
necessary to support it on the walls of the building or on uprights; it provides
protection against rain, snow, sunlight, extremes of temperature, and wind.[1] A
roof is part of the building envelope.
The structural elements may be trusses, portals, flat slab, shell, dome or space
frame whereas the roof covering materials may be thatch, wooden single, tiles,
slates, A.C. sheets, G.l. sheets etc.

Requirement of roof
1. To keep out rain, wind, snow and dust.
2. To prevent excessive heat loss in winter.
3. To keep the interior of the building cool in summer.
4. Designed to accommodate all stresses encountered.
5. Designed to accept movement due to changes in temperature and moisture
content.
6. For strength and stability of building.
7. For durability and free from maintenance.
8. For fire safety.
9. Provide resistance to the passage of sound.
10.Safety to occupants.
11.Aesthetic beauty.
Types of Roof
 Pitched or Sloped roof
 Flat roof
 Shelled roof
 Doomed roof

Pitched or Sloped roof:

Pitched or sloped roofs are considered suitable for buildings in coastal regions or
in areas, where rainfall/snowfall is very heavy. Normally the sloped roof has the
slope from 10 to 70. The roof below this slope may be called as flat roof and
above this range may be treated as wall. The pitch of the roof is determined by
the types of covering and the basic form is governed by the load and span.
Pitched roofs are basically of the following forms:
1. Lean-to-roof (Mono-pitched roof)
2. Gable roof
3. Hip roof
4. Gambrel roof
5. Mansard or curb roof
6. Deck roof

Gable roof
A gable roof is the classic, most commonly occurring roof shape in those parts of
the world with cold or temperate climates. It consists of two roof sections sloping
in opposite directions and placed such that the highest, horizontal edges meet to
form the roof ridge. The design of this type of roof is achieved using rafters, roof
trusses or purlins. The pitch of the roof and the height of the gutters can vary
greatly.
Hip roof
A hip roof, hip-roof[r hipped roof, is a type of roof where all sides slope
downwards to the walls, usually with a fairly gentle slope (although a tented roof
by definition is a hipped roof with steeply pitched slopes rising to a peak). Thus, a
hipped roof house has no gables or other vertical sides to the roof.
Gambrel roof
A gambrel or gambrel roof is a usually symmetrical two-sided roof with two
slopes on each side. The upper slope is positioned at a shallow angle, while the
lower slope is steep. This design provides the advantages of a sloped roof while
maximizing headroom inside the building's upper level and shortening what
would otherwise be a tall roof.
Lean-to roof
A mono-pitched roof, often referred to as a pent roof, shed roof, lean-to roof [1],
and/or skillion roof , is a single-sloped roof surface, often not attached to
another roof surface. This is in contrast to a dual-pitched roof, also known as a
gabled roof, which is pitched in two different directions.
Mansard roof
A mansard or mansard roof (also called a French roof or curb roof) is a four-sided
gambrel-style hip roof characterized by two slopes on each of its sides with the
lower slope, punctured by dormer windows, at a steeper angle than the upper.[1][2]
[3]
The steep roof with windows creates an additional floor of habitable space[4] (a
garret), and reduces the overall height of the roof for a given number of habitable
stories.
Deck roof
A metal deck roof will add shade and make your deck or patio space more
comfortable during the hot summer months. These roofs are usually easy to
install over a deck or patio, just make sure you're not breaking any local building
codes.
Ceiling works
The most common type of ceiling is the dropped ceiling, which is suspended from
structural elements above.
A false ceiling also known as dropped ceiling, T-bar ceiling, suspended ceiling or
grid ceiling, has become a symbol of modernity and sophistication these days
Now days, people are well aware of the importance of a ceiling in a complete look
and feel of the space
Purpose of ceiling
While most people building or decorating a home think about the colors or types of
walls or the types of flooring that are most attractive, the ceiling of a room makes
an important style statement.
The ceiling affects the look and feel of a room as well as the comfort and safety, as
many ceilings are designed to control sound or to be fire resistant.
There are many variations on the different types of materials that are
appropriate for a ceiling, but some materials are more common or popular
than others.
Wood
Wooden boards are commonly used for the general structure of a home, and are
thus typically a component of the ceiling. However, decorative planks are often
used to cover the ceiling, as well.
Plaster
Plaster is a traditional material for covering a ceiling that has been used for
centuries. Creating a plaster ceiling involves applying several layers of a plaster
paste over strips of wood. It creates a smooth, hard, attractive surface that is
easily decorated with paints or more plaster.
Plasterboard
Plasterboard is made from a similar material, but is cheaper and easier to install
because it does not require waiting for several coats of plaster to dry.
Plasterboard is prefabricated into sheets that attach to the ceiling with screws or
nails and then are sealed.
Metal
Metal is often used as both a structural and decorative component in a ceiling. A
drop or suspended ceiling is a ceiling that hangs below a pre-existing ceiling and
often hides unattractive features, such as pipes in a basement, or to control sound
in a noisy location, such as an office.
Tiles
Ceiling tiles are different from floor or wall tiles in that weight is an issue when
decorating a ceiling. Ceiling tiles are lightweight and made from a wide variety of
materials, such as plastic, metal, fiberglass, mineral fiber, wood fiber, vinyl-coated
gypsum and even cork.
Advantages and disadvantages
Disadvantage of the false ceiling are
1. The main disadvantage of the false ceiling is that it can reduce the height of
a room by some inches or feet as it is hung below the main ceiling.
2. It requires more maintenance & does not have a long life. Sagging is
possible in case of the false ceiling.
3. It becomes difficult to repair a concealed electric wires, pipes, etc.
Advantages of false ceilings are :-
1. It helps you reduce too high ceiling. Gives you a compact feeling.
2. It gives nice touch to the interiors. A variety of interior ceilings are now
coming in the market to select from for beautifying your home or office.
3. False ceiling helps you hide electrical wiring and you can use concealed
lights.
4. Centralized air-conditioning can be hided under the false ceiling.
 5. For offices, all the ducting cables can be moved hidden behind the false
ceiling.

Chapter 2 Temporary constructions

Shoring
Definition
Shoring is the temporary structure used as support to the unsafe structure. It may
be used in all cases of strengthening any parts of the building and to give support
to the building at risk. These render lateral support to walls and are used under
the following circumstances:
 When a wall shows a signs of bulging out due to bad workmanship.
 When a wall cracks due to unequal settlement of foundation and the
cracked wall needs repairs.
 When and adjacent structure is to be dismantled 4) When openings are to
be made or enlarged in the wall.
Materials of shoring:
Timber, steel or bo
Objectives of shoring
 To give support to walls, which are at risk (bulging or leaning outwards etc.)
 To avoid failure of boundary wall caused by removal of adjacent support.
 To give support to adjacent building during demolition works
 To support upper part of wall during formation of larger opening.
 To give support to a floor or roof to enable a support wall to be removed
and replaced by a beam
Types of shoring:
 1. Raking shoring (slant or sloped shore)
2. Flying shoring (horizontal shore)
3. Dead shoring (vertical shore)
1. Raking shores –
A raking shore is a structure that is used to support any walls that aren’t
structurally sound within a building. Using cleats, needles, sole plates, inclined
members, bracing and wall plates, they help to keep walls intact to minimize any
damage to the existing building or structure
2. Flying shores –
Flying shores are a method that shoring companies use when there are two
buildings involved. If one of the buildings is being removed or demolished and
rebuilt, the flying shore can help to stabilize the remaining building. Many
different components go into a flying shore such as cleats, needles, horizontal
shores and plates
3. Dead shores –
Dead shores are the method that temporary shoring companies will use when
vertical support is necessary. Dead shores are primarily used when most of the
house or building has been damaged or removed. Being able to take on a lot of
weight to maintain the structure, they are built with beams and posts to
strengthen the integrity and build a firm foundation.
Underpinning
Underpinning is the act of strengthening an existing foundation system in an
existing building.
Necessity of underpinning
Underpinning is necessary if the excessive settlement has occurrer! due to:
 uneven loading
 Unequal settlement of subsoil,
 Action of subsoil water,
 Fiction of tree roots etc.
Objectives of Underpinning:
1. To strengthen the shallow foundation of existing building when a building
with deep foundation is to be constructed adjoining it.
2. To strengthen existing foundation which has settled and caused cracks in
the wall.
3. To deepen the existing foundation (resting on poor strata) so as to rest it on
deeper soil strata of higher bearing power.
4. To construct a basement in the existing building.
Methods of underpinning
1. Pit method
 Ordinary
 cantilever
2. Pile method
1. Pit method
This is done in the following way:
1. A temporary foundation system is first constructed around the existing one.
2. Then a pit is dug around and below the existing foundations, thereby
relieving them of load-carrying duties.
3. Then, a new foundation is built below the existing one by filling the pit with
concrete.
4. Once the concrete has set, the temporary foundations are dismantled,
allowing the load to settle onto the improved foundation system.

The most important thing to understand is that this is done in small

sections at a time, not for the entire building. Each section could be from 8'
to 12' long (2 - 4m approx) depending on the size of the building. The new
sections are interspersed among the old, thereby making the whole process
much safer.
If an interior strong column exists, or if the foundation is to be extended
only to one side, cantilever needle beams may be used in place of central
needle beam as shown in Fig.2 below. A jack is placed between the column
and wall.
2. Pile Method
In this method, piles are driven at regular interval along both sides of the
wall. The piles are connected by concrete or steel needles, which penetrate
through the walls. These beams also act as pile caps. This method is
effective in clayey soil and in waterlogged areas. The existing foundation is
very much relieved of the load. Fig 3 illustrates the pile method of
underpinning.
Scaffolding
Definition
This is temporary rigid structure for the purpose of facilitating masons as
"platform to work" as the building increases its height. When the height of
wall or column or other structural member of a building exceeds about 1.5
m, temporary structures are needed to support the platform over which
the workmen can sit and carry on the constructions. These temporary
structures, constructed very close to the wall, are in the form of timber or
steel framework, commonly called scaffolding.
Component parts
Standards: These are the vertical members of the framework, supported on
the ground or drums, or embedded into the ground. These vertical
members are spaced at 2.4-3.0 m.
Ledgers: These are horizontal members running parallel to the wall.
Braces: Bracing members are tied diagonally to stiffen the scaffolding.
Braces are the poles tied by ropes.
Putlogs: Horizontal member firmly fixed in the standard and support putlog
is called ledger, vertically spaced at 1.2-1.5m.
Boarding: These are horizontal platform to support workmen and material:
these are supported on the putlogs.
Guard Rail: This is a rail, provided like a ledger, at the working level.
Transoms: These are those putlogs whose both ends are supported on
ledgers.
Types of Scaffolding:
1. Bricklayers or Single Scaffolding
2. Masons or Double Scaffolding
3. Steel/Tubular Scaffolding
4. Needle or Cantilever Scaffolding
5. Wooden gantries
6. Trestle Scaffolding
1. Bricklayers or Single Scaffolding
One of the basic and oldest methods used in Construction, Single
scaffolding is mainly used for brick masonry. This type of Scaffolding
includes standards, putlogs, ledgers, which links to the wall at a distance of
1.2 meters approximately. In addition, Ledgers join the standards at a
vertical distance of 1.2 to 1.5 meters while the distance between the
standards is 2 to 2.5 meters. Putlogs fixed at a distance of 1.2 to 1.5 meters,
but extracted from gap in the wall at the end of the ledger. All these
technical calculations when followed by book keep the structure sturdy and
offer desired support.
2. Masons or Double Scaffolding
Double Scaffolding also known as the Independent Scaffolding, is the type
of Scaffolding that is used mainly for the stone masonry job. It is very
difficult to make holes in the stone walls for supporting the putlogs, hence
two scaffoldings together create a sturdy structure for construction work.
While the first row is 20 to 30 cm away from the wall, the second one is
erected 1 meter far from the first row. With the support of both frames
then putlogs are positioned.
3. Steel/Tubular Scaffolding
Following its name, this Scaffolding type is created using steel tubes set by
couplers and it is easy to assemble as well as disintegrate. Steel Scaffolding
comes with vast benefits, thus has higher cost but it does provide higher
safety standards during construction. The structure provides strength,
durability and is fire resistant. Despite the cost, it is one of the most
popular Scaffolding today owing to its benefits. Steel Scaffolding is mainly
used for outdoor construction and bigger structures.
4. Needle or Cantilever Scaffolding
There is another type of Cantilever Scaffolding, in which instead of wall the
needles are supported inside the floors through the double frame
Scaffolding. One needs to be very carefully and follow all the required steps
when installing the Cantilever Scaffolding. Given below are the scenarios in
which this type of Scaffolding is recommended:
 The top section of the wall is under construction
 Ground is unable support the standards
 Ground is close to the wall and free from traffic
6. Trestle Scaffolding
As the name suggests, this type of Scaffolding is supported on tripod type
movable ladders. This scaffolding type is used primarily in indoors, like for
repairs or painting works. The usage of Trestle Scaffolding is limited to
indoors as the height in this Scaffolding is up to 5 meters only.
Uses
 Maintaining the exterior of an existing structure Eg. painting.
 Providing working platforms for workers building a structure
 Stair towers for access to other raised platforms such as flat roofs.
 Suspended platforms, cradles or hanging platforms Eg. for bridge
maintenance.
 Stabilising or shoring a structure or tall object to keep it vertical.
 Temporary roofs.
 Temporary walkways.
 Temporary bridges.
 Temporary buildings Eg. storage sheds.
  River bank or lake-side reinforcement.
.
Formwork for slab/beam/column
Introduction
Formwork is the mould which is used in construction for giving desire structural
shape by pouring concrete in the mold. In simple word, formwork is a mold to
cast concrete member in different shapes and sizes. Forms are classified as
wooden, plywood, steel, combined wood-steel, reinforced concrete and plain
concrete. Timber is the most common material used for formwork.
Requirements of formworks:
 Materials should be cheap and reusable.
 Swelling and shrinkage should be minimum.
 Surface should be smooth, and afford easy stripping.
 Light in weight, so that easy to transfer. It should be practically water proof,
so that it should not absorb water from concrete.
 The material of formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed
to the elements.
 The joints in the form work should be tight against leakage of cement
grout.
 Deflection should be minimum

Shuttering – Formwork which supports the vertical surface is known as shuttering

Centering – Formwork which supports the horizontal surface such as beam, slab
bottoms is known as centering
Staging – Materials such as wooden ballies, pipes, props, jacks which support
both shuttering & centering are known as Staging.

Formwork for slab/beam/column

Propping for centering of formwork:
The props may be of timber, steel or even brick pars in mud mortar. Spacing of
the props is usually 1 o 1.2 m c/c. these props should rest squarely on wooden se
plate, 40 mm thick with a minimum bearing area of 100 cm2 laid either directly
on firm ground or 40 cm x 40 cm brick masonry pillars in mud mortar of height
not exceeding 40 cm. double wedges should be provided for tightening. In case
brick masonry pillars of adequate section are used instead of wooden props,
wooden sole plates should be provided at the top and double wedges inserted
between the sole plate and the bottom of the formwork.
Removal of centering:
All formwork should be removed in such a way that concrete is not damaged due
to shock, vibration. Wedged are slackened gradually and forms eased carefully in
order to prevent the load being transferred suddenly to concrete. A rough guide
as to whether the form can be removed or not is to strike the concrete with a ligh
hammer. If there is a hard metallic sound, it indicates that the concrete has
hardened sufficiently for forms to be removed for forms to be removed.
Shuttering for columns:
Shuttering for a column us probably the simplest. It consists of the following main
components:
 Sheeting all round the column periphery
 Side yokes and end yokes
 Wedges and
 Bolts with washers
The side yokes and end yokes consists of two numbers each, and are suitably
spaced along the he of the column. The two-side yokes are comparatively of
heavier section, and are connected together by two long to of 16mm dia. Four
wedges one at each corner, are inserted between the bolts and the end yokes.
The sheathing nailed to the yokes.
Shuttering for beam and slab floor:
The slab is continuous over a number of beams. The slab is supported on 2.5 cm
thick sheathing laid parallel to the main beams. The sheathing is supported on
wooden battens which are laid between the beams, at some suitable spacing. In
order to reduce to deflection, the battens may be propped at middle of the span
through joists. The side forms of the beam consist of 3cm thick sheathing the on
bottom sheathing of the beam form may be 5 to 7cm thick. The ends of the
battens are support the ledger which is fixed to the cleats through the length.
Cleats 10cmx 2cm to 3 cm are fixed to the side forms at the same spacing as that
of battens, so that battens may be fixed to them. The beam form is supported on
a head tree. The shore or post is connected to head tree through cleats. -the
bottom of shore two wedges of hard wood are provided over a sole piece.
Chapter 3 Substructure and Superstructure
Types of walls and their functions
Wall is a structure defining an exact area and providing safety & shelter. There are
various types of walls used in the construction of buildings given below.
Types of Walls
 Load Bearing Walls
o Precast Concrete Wall
o Retaining Wall
o Masonry Wall
o Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls
o Engineering Brick Wall
o Stone Wall 
 Non-Load Bearing Wall
o Hollow Concrete Block
o Facade Bricks
o Hollow Bricks
o Brick Walls
 Cavity Walls
 Shear Walls
 Partition Walls
 Panel Walls
 Veneered Walls
 Faced Wall
Load Bearing Walls
A wall which is constructed to support the above slab or other building elements
in a structure is called a load-bearing wall.
Main Features: Followings are the main features of load-bearing walls:
 It is a structural element.
 It carries the weight of a house from the roof and upper floors.
 Load bearing walls transfer loads all the way to the foundation or other
suitable frame members. 
 It can support structural members like beams (sturdy pieces of wood or
metal), slab and walls on above floors above. 
 A wall directly above the beam is called a load bearing wall if it is designed
to carry the vertical load. 
 Load bearing walls also carry their own weight. 
 This wall is typically over one another on each floor. 
 Load bearing walls can be used as an interior or exterior wall. 
 This kind of wall will often be perpendicular to floor joists or ridge. 
 Concrete is an ideal material to support these loads.
Non-Load Bearing Walls
A wall which doesn’t help the structure to stand up and holds up only itself is
known as a non-load bearing wall. This wall is also referred to as “curtain wall”.
Main Features: Followings are the main features of non-load bearing walls:
 A non-load bearing wall doesn’t support floor roof loads above.
 It is not a part of the structural frame system. 
 Most of the time, they are interior walls whose purpose is to divide the
floor into rooms. 
 They are built lighter to reduce the dead load of the structure. 
  One can remove any non-load bearing walls without endangering the safety
of the building. 
 Non-load bearing walls can be identified by the joists and rafters. 
 They are not responsible for gravitational support for the property. It is cost
effective.
Cavity walls
 Cavity walls are those which are constructed in that way that an empty
space or cavity is left between the single wall. They are also known as
Hollow Wall.
 Cavity walls are two walls constructed as a single wall. A little space is lifted
between these two walls for insulation purposes.
 The outer wall is called an external leaf, and the inner wall is called an
internal leaf.
 The empty space or cavity size should be in between 4 to 10 cm. The
internal and external leaves should have 10 cm thickness.
 These two leaves of cavity wall are interconnected by links or metal ties for
a strong bond.
Shear Walls
It is a framed wall. It is designed to resist lateral forces. This lateral force comes
from exterior walls, floor, and roofs to ground foundation. The usage of the shear
wall is important, especially in large and high-rise buildings. It is Typically
constructed from materials like concrete or masonry. It has an excellent structural
system to resist earthquake
Partition Walls
It is used in separating spaces from buildings. It can be solid, constructed from
brick or stone. It is a framed construction. The partition wall is secured to the
floor, ceiling, and walls. It is enough strong to carry its own load. It resists impact.
It is stable and strong to support wall fixtures. Partition wall works like a sound
barrier and it is fire resistant.
Panel Walls
It is a non-bearing wall between columns or pillars that are supported. The panel
is installed with both nails and adhesive. The paneling design choices include
rustic, boards, frame. Paneling can be from hardwoods or inexpensive pine. One
should paint the space before installing panel walls.
Veneered Walls
With a veneered wall, we are holding up the material. It can be made of brick or
stone. The most famous veneered wall is made of brick. The wall is only one
wythe thick. It became the norm when building codes began to require insulation
in the interior walls. It is light weighted. The construction takes less time to
complete in veneered walls.
Faced Walls
It is a wall which masonry facing and backing are so bonded as to exert common
action under load. It creates a streamlined look. The faced wall is easy to install.
Type of brick masonry 
Brick masonry
The Brick masonry is made up of brick units bonded together with mortar. The
strength of brick masonry depends upon the quality of brick, quality of mortar
and method of the bonding tool.
 Bricks are in uniform shape and size, hence they can be laid in any definite
pattern.
 They can easily handle due to light in weight and small in size.
 No dressing requires,
 The art of bricklaying is easy than stone masonry construction.
 Ornamental work can easily do with bricks
 Light partitions, filler walls can easily construct by the brick.
Types of brick masonry
Brick work in Mud
 The mud uses to fill up various joints brick masonry work.
 The thickness of mortar joint 12 mm
 It is the cheapest type of bricks masonry
  Employed for construction of a wall with a maximum height 4 meter.
Brick work in cement
 This type of brick masonry construction by laying of brick in cement motor
rather than mud which uses in work in the mud. There are four class work
in cement first class brick, second class brick, Third class brick, Forth class
brick.
Modular bricks
Modular bricks are bricks that are used around doors and windows. They make it
easier to install modular doors and windows because they create a 4 inch by 4
inch grid. Modular bricks also are made to lay 3 runs or courses to a single cinder
block.(8 inches) This helps in tying the two walls together with much less
headache and better reinforcement. Modular brick are typically 6 inches long and
are easy to spot because they lay on an half bond as to where queen ,king size
and ect. Lay on a 3/4 bond. you also tend to have less cuts therefore less waste of
materials and labor costs can help when using modular brick