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Contents
1. Definition of Navigation ?
3. Path Planning
5. Conclusion
Map
Measured / Self-made
Google / Provided by Local Government
Positioning - Localization
GPS
Land Marks Selection
Motion Control
Collision Avoidance / Safety
Technical Issue
Dijkstra Algorithm
A* and D* Algorithm
Path
Control Leader-Follower Model
Potential Field
Vision +Laser
Vision Sensor
Lane Recognition,
z [m ]
in Known or Unknown Environments Goal
Path Planning
obstacle
Path Planning
Conventional Approaches
Complete Algorithms
for only Known Environments Dijkstra Algorithm
computationally intractable A* and D* Algorithm
Goal
Start
Obstacle
Total Cost = g(x) +h(x)
Example of A* algorithm
k (G, X ) h(G, X )
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2AcMnfzpNg
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Obstacle
Goal
Potential
Potential
y [m ]
y [m ]
x [m ]
x [m ]
Potential
Potential
+
y [m ]
y [m ]
x [m ]
x [m ]
= Obstacle
y [m ]
Goal
x [m ]
Obstacle Obstacle
VS
Goal Goal
Potential
y [m ] y [m ]
x [m ] x [m ]
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Local Path Planning APF with VH
Virtual Hill Concept
Goal Obstacle Virtual Hill
6 6 6
Attractive Repulsive Extra
Potential Potential Potential
Obstacle
?
Goal
Potential
Potential
y [m ]
y [m ]
x [m ]
x [m ]
Absolutely eliminate
local minima
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Local Path Planning APF with VH
New Approach with Virtual Hill
Start
Path Planning by
Attractive Potential and Repulsive Potential
No
No Local
Reach goal?
minimum?
Yes Yes
No
U ext ke1 ke 2
2
: Q t * : t0 t * t and t0 t tk
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y
p (t i + 1 )
en
p (t i )
et
p (t i - 1 )
p C O ( t i ) = Q (t i )
eb
pC O (t i - 1) = Q C O (t i - 1)
x
z
: Q t * : t0 t * t and t0 t tk
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Local Path Planning APF with VH
Definition of e b
B / B
eb
if B / B 0
where, B p goal pto p(t0 ) pto
k if B / B 0
y Estimated
p (t 0 ) obstacle line
eb =- k
en
et
pT O
pG oal
p pco x
en , et e n eb z
p pco
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Local Path Planning APF with VH
Extra Potential
2
in U ext ke1 ke 2
2
p pco
y Q (t i )
p (t i ) et
en Q (t i ) = p C O (t i )
Q (t j )
p (t j )
Detected
p (t j - 1 )
Obstacles
p (t 2 ) Q (t j ) = p C O (t j )
Q (t j - 1 ) = p C O (t j - 1 )
en
et
p (t 1 )
p (t 0 )
Q (t 1 ) = p C O (t 1 )
Q (t 0 ) = p T O = p C O (t 0 )
(t 0 ) = 0
x
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1 1 1
ke1et kr 2 2ke 2 en 0
0
F Frep Fext
ke1et 2ke 2en 0
Always F 0
At a local minimum, F = 0
Hence, New Approach has not a Local Minimum.
If p (t )- p (t - T a ) Sa
then, generate a Virtual Hill
Start
[m]
p (t )
y
p (t - Ta)
Goal
x [m]
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U ext ke1 ke 2
2
Virtual hill
Potential
Start
[m]
y
Goal Local minimum
y [m ] x [m]
x [m ]
Potential
Potential
+
y [m ] y [m ]
x [m ]
x [m ]
Virtual hill
Potential
=
y [m ]
x [m ]
y [m ]
2. (pto p) Frep 0
to do not return to the local minimum by a repulsive force
pC O (t K ) = Q (t K )
3. (p goal p) Frep 0 p C O ( t i ) = Q (t i )
Obstacle
p (t K ) p (t i )
pC O ( t 0 ) = p T O = Q (t 0 )
then, return to the Conventional Approach
Goal
Goal Start
Start
Goal
[m]
Goal
y
x [m] x [m]
Start
Goal
Trapping obstacle
Start
z [m]
Goal
x [m] y [m]
Start
Goal
Manipulator
Ultrasonic
sensors
Experiments ( 1 )
New Approach with the Extra Potential
Goal
Start
Start
[m]
Goal
y
x [m]
Outlook of UGV
Application to UGV
Navigation Sysem
Localization using DGPS and North Finding
Electromagnetic Compass
Simulation
Obstacle
Obstacle
PNU Ground
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Application to UGV
Application to UGV
Experiment 3 (Dynamic Obstacle )
Number of robots 3
Processor ATmega128
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Line Formation
Line formation
If the Virtual hill occurs, a cluster of robots can
be in a line and creates attractive and repulsive
force among robots.
This makes it possible to maintain a formation
and automatic driving.
Line formation
Virtual sink
Step 3
Goal
Leader
Follower1,2
Virtual hill
Flow chart line formation
400
160
350
140
300 120
Arrived Time(s)
Arrived Time(s)
250 100
200 80
150 60
1mm 1mm
100 10mm 40 10mm
Distance Resolution Distance Resolution
50 20
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Sensing Angular Resolution Scanning Time Resolution(ms)
Arrival time according to the ultrasonic Arrival time according to the ultrasonic
scanning degree resolution scanning time interval
Experimental Evaluation
Conclusions
Artificial Potential Field Approach
Simple and efficient path planner
Local minimum problem
How to estimate
It is possible to address both problems in
Stochastic Framework simultaneously.
M. Csorba : PhD Thesis - Oxford 1997
P. Newman : PhD Thesis - ACFR 1999
SLAM - Formalized
SLAM - Formalized
p( D | H ) p( H ) H : Hypothesis
p ( H | D)
p ( D) D : Data
p( D | H ) : likelihood, usually known by the experimenter
p( H ) : prior, reflects ones prior knowledge
n
p ( D) p ( D | H i ) p ( H i ) before the data are considered
i 1
p( H | D) : posterior, reflect the probability of the hypothesis
after consideration of the data
Solutions to SLAM
Two main approaches to solving SLAM
Disadvantages
Assumes Uni-modal Gaussian Probability distributions
Linear Motion Model
Time complexity O(n3) due to matrix inversion
We define x k to be our a priori state estimate at step k given
knowledge of the process prior to step k ,
And x k to be our a posteriori state estimate at step k given
measurement z k .
We can define a priori and a posteriori estimate errors
e k x k x k
e k x k x k ,
The estimate error covariance is
Pk E[ek (ek )T ]
Pk E[ek ek T ]
lim
Kk 0
Pk 0
As the a priori estimate error covariance Pk approaches zero the
actual measurement y k is trusted less and less, while the predicted
measurement H k x k is trusted more and more.
time update
Input x k Ax k 1 Buk 1
u k 1 Pk Ak Pk 1ATk Qk
measurement update
K k Pk HT (HPk HT R)1
Measurement x k x k K k (y k H k x k ) Estimated state
yk x k
Pk Pk K k HPk
time update
x k f (x k 1 , uk 1 ,0)
Input
u k 1 Pk Ak Pk 1ATk Wk QWkT
measurement update
K k Pk HT (HPk HT Vk RVKT )1
Measurement
x k x k K k (y k h(x k ,0)) Estimated state
yk x k
Pk Pk K k HPk
Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford , "Section
24.3: Dijkstra's algorithm". Introduction to Algorithms (Second ed.). MIT Press and
McGraw-Hill. pp. 595601, 2001.
Anthony Stentz, The Focussed D* Algorithm Algorithm f or Real-Time Replanning, in
Proceedings of IJCAI-95, August 1995.
S.Nishimura, S.Tsuda, Navigation System, J. of the Robotics Society of Japan, 1999.
Khatib, O. "Real-Time Obstacle Avoidance for Manipulators and Mobile Robots," IEEE
International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Vol. 2, pp. 500~505, 1985.
Borenstein, J. and Koren, Y., 1989, "Real-time Obstacle Avoidance for Fast Mobile
Robots," IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp.
1179~1187, 1989.
Hwang, Y. K. and Ahuja, N., 1992, "A Potential Field Approach to Path Planning," IEEE
Transactions on Robotics and Automation, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 23~32, 1992.
Min-Gyu Park, Min-Cheol Lee, "A New Technique to Escape Local Minimum in Artificial
Potential Field Based Path Planning", Int. Journal KSME, Vol.17 , No.12, pp.1876-1885,
December2003(SCIE).
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References
Andrew Hogue, Simultaneous Localization and Mapping - SLAM, York University, 2005
Hugh Durrant-Whyte, Tim Bailey, Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM): Part I
The Essential Algorithms
Paul Newman, Kin Ho, SLAM- Loop Closing with Visually Salient Features, Oxford
University Robotics Research Group
Raja Chatila, SLAM: Representation Issues, LAAS-CNRS
Nosan Kwak, Beom-Hee Lee, Kazuhito Yokoi, Result Representation of Rao-Blackwellized
Particle Filter for Mobile Robot SLAM
Lecture 17: FastSLAM, CS 344R/393R : Robotics, Benjamin Kuipers
T H A N K S !!!