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Almost half of young children in the United States live in poverty or near abstract
poverty. The American Academy of Pediatrics is committed to reducing
and ultimately eliminating child poverty in the United States. Poverty and
related social determinants of health can lead to adverse health outcomes
in childhood and across the life course, negatively affecting physical health,
socioemotional development, and educational achievement. The American
Academy of Pediatrics advocates for programs and policies that have been
shown to improve the quality of life and health outcomes for children and
families living in poverty. With an awareness and understanding of the
effects of poverty on children, pediatricians and other pediatric health
practitioners in a family-centered medical home can assess the nancial
stability of families, link families to resources, and coordinate care with
community partners. Further research, advocacy, and continuing education This document is copyrighted and is property of the American
Academy of Pediatrics and its Board of Directors. All authors have
will improve the ability of pediatricians to address the social determinants led conict of interest statements with the American Academy
of Pediatrics. Any conicts have been resolved through a process
of health when caring for children who live in poverty. Accompanying this approved by the Board of Directors. The American Academy of
policy statement is a technical report that describes current knowledge on Pediatrics has neither solicited nor accepted any commercial
involvement in the development of the content of this publication.
child poverty and the mechanisms by which poverty inuences the health
Policy statements from the American Academy of Pediatrics benet
and well-being of children. from expertise and resources of liaisons and internal (AAP) and
external reviewers. However, policy statements from the American
Academy of Pediatrics may not reect the views of the liaisons or the
organizations or government agencies that they represent.
Poverty is an important social determinant of health and contributes to All policy statements from the American Academy of Pediatrics
child health disparities. Children who experience poverty, particularly automatically expire 5 years after publication unless reafrmed,
revised, or retired at or before that time.
during early life or for an extended period, are at risk of a host of adverse
health and developmental outcomes through their life course.1 Poverty DOI: 10.1542/peds.2016-0339
has a profound effect on specific circumstances, such as birth weight, PEDIATRICS (ISSN Numbers: Print, 0031-4005; Online, 1098-4275).
infant mortality, language development, chronic illness, environmental Copyright 2016 by the American Academy of Pediatrics
exposure, nutrition, and injury. Child poverty also influences genomic
function and brain development by exposure to toxic stress,2 a condition
characterized by excessive or prolonged activation of the physiologic To cite: AAP COUNCIL ON COMMUNITY PEDIATRICS. Poverty
and Child Health in the United States. Pediatrics. 2016;
stress response systems in the absence of the buffering protection
137(4):e20160339
afforded by stable, responsive relationships.3 Children living in poverty
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Taken together, the EITC and child of children are sensitive to family not able to realize this support for
tax credit represent tax policies that income. In a 1999 analysis by the their children, because the credit is
reduce childhood poverty and its Brookings Institute, statistically not refundable or paid to families
effects. significant increases in math and before taxation.44 Therefore, some
reading performance were associated of the most at-risk children who
Temporary Assistance for Needy
with only a $1000 increase in family might benefit from high-quality early
Families (TANF) is a block grant
annual income.38 A retrospective childhood education are not eligible
program by which the federal
review of population data drawn for financial support.
government provides money
from the Panel Study of Economic
for states to fund work and Access to Comprehensive Health
Dynamics and covering the years
family support programs with Care
1968 to 2005 correlated the date
specific goals and time limits. The
of birth and family income during Children in poverty who otherwise
Personal Responsibility and Work
early childhood with eventual would not have access to health care
Reconciliation Act of 1996 (often
adult educational and economic have greatly benefited from Medicaid
referred to as welfare reform)
attainment. The results suggest and the Childrens Health Insurance
created TANF to replace Aid to
that an increase in annual family Program (CHIP) and many provisions
Families with Dependent Children,
income of only $3000 during early and protections of the Patient
thereby creating block grants
childhood may result in significant Protection and Affordable Care Act.
for state administration, work
improvements on both SAT scores From 1984 through 2013, the rate of
requirements for eligibility, and
and adult labor market success uninsured poor children decreased
lifetime limits on receipt of federal
measured by an earnings increase by 70%, from approximately 29%
support. Because of unchanging
of almost 20%. The association to just over 8%. During the first 3
federal funding levels and limits
is strongest at the low end of the months of 2014, the uninsured rate
of the amount of time individuals
family income scale and becomes for poor children dropped further
can access benefits, the number
statistically nonsignificant for to 6.6%.45 As a measure of benefit
of families receiving TANF has
wealthy families.39 from expanded coverage, children
decreased, despite the increased
need since the Great Recession. enrolled in Medicaid or CHIP are
Work requirements for cash and more likely to access preventive
National TANF caseloads, especially
other benefits have been advanced, care than are uninsured children.46,
those receiving cash benefits, have
especially since welfare reform in 47 In addition, CHIP has resulted in
declined by 50% since 1996, with
the 1990s, as a way to promote self- a 9.8% increase in the coverage of
state caseload reductions varying
sufficiency and reduce welfare rolls. children with chronic illness and a
from 25% to 80% despite the steadily
However, as a consequence of young 6.4% decrease in uninsured children
increasing numbers of families in
mothers being required to work, in the general population.48 In 2009,
poverty and deep poverty.35 The
infants may be placed in child care at CHIP programs expanded access
latitude that states have to designate
a very early age, and mothers often to comprehensive care by covering
how the funds are used adds to the
require a patchwork of solutions, dental, mental health, and substance
limitation of TANF as a national
some of which may be substandard.40 abuse services in addition to medical
safety net program.
Quality child care and early childhood and surgical care for all eligible near-
Income stagnation in recent decades education are extremely important poor children.49
and the erosion of purchasing for the promotion of cognitive and
power have contributed to the socioemotional development of Early Childhood Education
financial instability of working poor infants and toddlers.41 Yet, child
families.36 Raising the minimum care may cost as much as housing Early Head Start and Head Start are
wage has been shown to help some in most areas of the United States, federally funded, community-based
low-income families reach 200% of 25% of the budget of a family with programs for low-income families
the FPL and to be considered out of 2 children, and infant care can cost with young children. Early Head
poverty.37 The benefit to children of as much as college.42 Many working Start serves pregnant women and
improved family income stability is families benefit from the dependent families with infants and toddlers
both general and specific. Financial care tax credit for the cost of child up to 3 years of age; Head Start
stability means that basic needs, care, allowing those families to place serves families with preschool-
such as housing and transportation, their children in a certified or higher- aged children 3 to 5 years of age.
are more dependable and family quality environment.43 However, In fiscal year 2011, the programs
stress may be reduced. School working families who do not have served more than 900000 children
readiness and academic performance sufficient income to pay taxes are nationally, with a budget of $7
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readiness and achievement; reduce into primary care, have been shown Early Identication of Families in
crime or domestic violence; improve to promote responsive parenting Need of Services
family economic self-sufficiency; and and address common behavioral and To link families to services as
improve coordination and referrals developmental concerns.6973 Early early as possible, pediatricians
for other community resources and literacy promotion in the medical can use screening tools that have
supports.64 home with programs such as Reach high sensitivity and specificity.
Out and Read advances reading The WE CARE survey78 is a brief
MIECHV has identified 19 evidence-
readiness by approximately 6 months set of questions that alerts the
based interventions that target
when compared with controls.74 In pediatrician to families experiencing
families with pregnant mothers and
addition, parents in Reach Out and
children younger than 5 years.65,66 stress related to poverty. In the
Read practices are 4 times as likely to policy statement Promoting Food
One example of an MIECHV program
read to their children and more likely Security for All Children, the AAP
with evidence of success is the
to spend time with their children in recommends the use of a 2-question
Nurse-Family Partnership. First-time,
interactive play75 than are families survey that has a high sensitivity to
low-income mothers are enrolled
who are not in Reach Out and detect food insecurity.79,80 A single
during the prenatal period and
Read. Another program, the Video question, Do you have difficulty
visited weekly by nurses trained in a
Interaction Project (VIP), combines making ends meet at the end of
validated curriculum beginning in the
early literacy with guided parent- the month? may be enough to
second trimester. The benefit-cost
child interactions that support family alert the pediatrician with 98%
ratio for high-risk mothers has been
relationships and social development
calculated at 5.68 to 1.67 sensitivity to a need for linking
of children.70 families to community resources.81
Family and Parenting Support in the The AAP has promoted the Inquiring whether families have
Medical Home National Center for Medical-Legal moved frequently in the past year or
Programs designed for the pediatric Partnerships model, which provides have lived with another family for
medical home provide opportunities legal aid collocated with health financial reasons will reveal housing
for low-cost, population-based services, especially to families in insecurity.82
preventive intervention with low- poverty. A pilot study of medical-
Effective early identification of
income families. An awareness legal partnerships found that
families in need may facilitate
of the protective factors that are addressing the social determinants
prevention services, including
present in children and families can of health by providing legal
nutritional supplements for
help pediatricians to build on their services and helping families
young children, preventive health
strengths during health promotion negotiate safety net organizations
services, age-appropriate learning
conversations. A commonly used improves child health outcomes,
opportunities, and socioemotional
instrument to assess protective reduces unnecessary urgent
support of parents. Program
factors in high-risk families is visits, and raises overall child
evaluation has supported this
available through the FRIENDS well-being.76
multifaceted approach in multiple
National Resource Center.68 The Care coordination, a fundamental countries and settings.83 Analyses
Protective Factor Survey is used service of the medical home model, by Nobel Prizewinning economist
to assess current status as well as can link families with community James Heckman reveal that early
change over time in family resiliency, resources and support interagency prevention activities targeted toward
social connectedness, quality of coordination to address basic disadvantaged children have high
attachment, and knowledge of child concerns such as food and energy rates of economic returns, much
development. insecurity. An example of a robust higher than remediation efforts
In a medical home adapted to the case management initiative is later in childhood or adult life.84
needs of families in poverty, parents Health Leads,77 an enhanced For example, the Perry Preschool
have the opportunities and resources primary care strategy that uses Program showed an average
to promote resilience in their young college volunteers as advocates and rate of return of $8.74 for every
children, giving them the capacity advanced resource management dollar invested in early childhood
to adapt to adversity and buffering techniques, which has improved education.85 Targeted interventions
the effects of stress. Healthy Steps coordination of care and utilization foster protective factors, including
for Young Children, a manual-based of collocated social services by low- responsive, nurturing, cognitively
primary care strategy, and programs income families with the intent of stimulating, consistent, and stable
such as Incredible Years and Triple reducing the social barriers to good parenting by either birth parents
P, which integrate behavioral health health. or other consistent adults. Early
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include care coordination and is necessary to quantify the extent maternal depression, is within the
team-based care that help families of poverty in the United States and scope of practice for community
address nonmedical health-related its effects on children and families pediatricians and that the effects
concerns, such as food, housing, so that effective responses can be of toxic stress on children can be
and utilities. Pediatricians and developed and promoted. ameliorated by supportive, secure
health care systems should be relational health during early
Support a comprehensive
encouraged to partner with childhood.
research agenda to improve the
other stakeholders to advance Screen for risk factors within social
understanding of the effects
community-level strategies determinants of health during
of poverty on children and to
that improve health and reduce patient encounters. Practices
identify and refine interventions
disparities among populations of can use a brief written screener
that improve child health
varying income levels. or verbally ask family members
outcomes. Research is needed to
Enhance health care financing identify better ways to measure questions about basic needs,
to support comprehensive care how poverty affects children, such as food, housing, and heat.
for at-risk families. All benefit what works to help families in Screening for basic needs can help
plans should include coverage for poverty, and how to translate uncover not only obvious but also
enhanced services in the medical the information gained into real less apparent economic difficulties
home for families in poverty. Care solutions for the poor. experienced by families. As patient-
coordination, team-delivered care, centered medical homes continue
and coverage for mental health Opportunities for Community to develop, care coordinators will
services provided by pediatricians Practice fulfill the role of community liaison
are examples of these enhanced The following recommendations for families in poverty, connecting
services. address how individual pediatricians them with needed resources.
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Pediatrics is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly publication, it
has been published continuously since . Pediatrics is owned, published, and trademarked by the
American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, Illinois,
60007. Copyright 2016 by the American Academy of Pediatrics. All rights reserved. Print ISSN:
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