Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-

Income Area of Bolivia, South America

Executive Summary

Mario Alberto Zapata

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Alberta

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

September 2010
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................................1
OBJECTIVE OF THIS STUDY ..................................................................................................1
BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................2
STUDY AREA ...........................................................................................................................3
IMPLEMENTING A UV DISINFECTION SYSTEM ................................................................5
AN ALTERNATIVE POWER SYSTEM ....................................................................................6
COMPUTATIONAL MODELING OF THE UV UNIT ..............................................................7
ASSESSING UV DISINFECTION IN A LOW-INCOME COMMUNITY .................................8
CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................................... 11
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 11
 ABSTRACT

Microbial pollution of water is one of the principal causes of life-threatening diarrheal

diseases in the developing world. Ultraviolet (UV) light is increasingly recognized as a
viable alternative for disinfection in developed countries, but its feasibility in low-income
areas has to be further assessed. The rural community of Cerro Grande, in Eastern Bolivia,
has been hit by outbreaks of gastrointestinal diseases, so two UV-based disinfection systems
were implemented there. One of them was a fabricated unit, with materials available locally,
whereas the other was a commercially-available unit. Both units were validated following
USEPA procedures, while the fabricated one was modeled using computational fluid
dynamics. It was observed that a UV-based disinfection system can be sustainable for as few
as 20 users, and even for 48 users in areas with poor feed water quality and lacking an
electrical grid and distribution network, with a monthly fee of US$2.

OBJECTIVE OF THIS STUDY

According to the World Health Organization, diarrheal diseases, many of which are
waterborne, kill 2.2 million children under the age of five every year. However, water,
sanitation, and hygiene practices may reduce diarrheal disease between 25% and 33%, on the
average. In Bolivia, a developing country, the access to improved water sources in urban
areas is about 96%, but in rural areas it drops to about 69%. The estimated percentage of
disinfected water supplied by water agencies is 52% when the rural sector is included.
Taking into account the sustainability of water supply projects in low-income regions, the
disinfection by ultraviolet (UV) light becomes an attractive alternative because of its
affordable capital and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs. Also, its reliability against
parasites such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium, which are difficult to treat otherwise, has
been greatly proven.

The implementation of an UV disinfection system in a low-income area of Bolivia

pursues to provide answers to questions such as:

Is it feasible to introduce a UV-based disinfection system into a low-income community

of a developing country?
If feasible, what does it take to implement the system in terms of costs, technical
requirements, operation and maintenance, and sustainability?
What are the benefits of this technology in comparison with other existing technologies,
some of which have already been implemented in the study area?

Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 1

Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
 BACKGROUND

Definitions

Some useful definitions are presented below to gain a better understanding of the present
document.

Biodosimetry is a test that assesses the performance of a UV reactor, by comparing the

number of viable (able to grow) microorganisms before and after UV exposure. This test
is undertaken in a full-scale UV reactor and a bench-scale setup (collimated beam
apparatus).
Collimated beam apparatus is a setup comprised of an enclosed UV lamp and a collimating
tube which makes the beam quasi-collimated (parallel).
Disinfection is the process by which water or air is rendered virtually free of pathogenic
organisms, whether by physical restraining (filtration), elimination (chemical/physical
disinfection) or inactivation (UV light) of such organisms.
DNA and RNA stand for deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid, respectively. These
structures carry the genetic information of a cell and are self-replicable.
Low-income communities are those communities where the most of the inhabitants live close
to or below a poverty level adopted by a nation or lack essential infrastructure and
adequate access to services, such as health and sanitation.
Photovoltaic cells are devices made of light-sensitive materials where sunlight energy is
converted to electrical energy.
Ultraviolet light (UV) is the portion of the light spectrum lying between the wavelengths of
100 and 400 nm.
Validation is the process by which a UV reactor is guaranteed to deliver a UV dose that
successfully achieves a certain log inactivation of a target microorganism.
Wavelength () is the distance (nm) between successive peaks in a light wave.

Brief overview of UV disinfection

Ultraviolet disinfection of water is a physical method that does not produce any harmful by-
products, and has been proven very effective in the inactivation of highly chlorine-resistant
organisms, such as protozoa. UV disinfection is defined as the absorption of light by
microorganisms in the 200-300 nm wavelength range (germicidal range), which causes
changes in the DNA and RNA of such microorganisms thus rendering them unviable. UV
light is usually emitted by mercury discharge lamps. Among the advantages of UV
disinfection are the features of being a physical method not producing any harmful by-
products, highly effective against protozoa, such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia, along with
being a relatively inexpensive process with a small footprint and fast operation. However, it
Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 2
Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
has some disadvantages, such as a lack of a residual after treatment, difficulty in monitoring
the applied UV dose, and high dependence on a continuous electrical supply.

Economic background of the implementation of UV disinfection systems in low-income

regions

Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs of UV-based disinfection systems have been
estimated between US$0.02-0.04 per cubic meter (m3) in locations with access to the
electrical grid, and between US$0.14-0.19/m3 in off-grid locations. Other estimates include
US$10-100 the O&M costs per family per year and US$0.03 per family per week. The
capital costs, that is, the costs of the initial investment have been reported between US$300
and US$900, and as high as US$86,419, though these costs clearly depend on the size of the
systems and the community they are serving. The life cycle costs of water disinfection with
UV-based technologies, that is, the capital and O&M costs over their lifetimes have been
estimated to range from US$0.14 to US$2.35 per m3.

Equipment used in UV disinfection systems

The equipment used in UV disinfection systems includes basic components such as the UV
reactor chamber, discharge UV lamps and quartz sleeves that protect the lamp from the
surrounding water. Additional equipment includes tanks, piping and pipe fittings, UV
sensors, alarms (depending on the source water quality), and alternative power systems in
those sites where an electrical grid is not readily available. All of these components should
provide durability, reliability and robustness if they are to operate in low-income areas.
However, in the case of the UV lamps, it is recommended that they are used for a maximum
period of one year, regardless of the actual time they spend on.

Regulatory background

Water disinfection with UV light produced by UV lamps is slightly covered by Bolivian

regulations in the Section 11.2.1.e of the Bolivian Norm 689 (NB 689), which deals with the
design of and requirements for drinking water utilities. More detailed guidelines are given
instead for the use of SODIS (solar disinfection) as a disinfection technique in the Section
12.2.5.2 of this same document, in the chapter corresponding to alternative technologies.

STUDY AREA

The community of Cerro Grande is a rural community located about 60 km northwest of the
urban area of Ascensin, province of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, South America (Figure 1). Cerro

Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 3

Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
Grande is a jurisdiction of the municipality of Ascensin which, in turn, is a jurisdiction, and
the capital, of the sub-province of Guarayos.

Figure 1 Location of Bolivia in the American continent and of Ascensin in Bolivia

The population of Cerro Grande is estimated in 413 inhabitants, 283 male and 130 female,
comprising 100 families. An important percentage (50%) is aged 18 or younger, and from
this segment almost half (42%) is aged 5 or younger. Morbidity causes in children under the
age of 5 have been identified as acute diarrheal infections (34%), acute respiratory infections
(15%), and low weight at birth (3%). The households in the community of Cerro Grande are
not connected to any type of utility, such as running water or electrical grid. Therefore, the
water for consumption is supplied through hand-dug wells (see Figure 2) or stagnant water,
while the electrical energy is usually generated on site in some households using gasoline or
diesel generators. Official records show that agriculture and livestock workers in rural areas
of Bolivia earn an average monthly wage of Bs$249 (US$35.6). According to official data,
88% of the population of Ascensin is considered to be poor, which includes people living in
moderate poverty (56%) and indigence (32%), both in the urban and rural areas.

Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 4

Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
 Figure 2 Main hand pump in Cerro Grande

IMPLEMENTING A UV DISINFECTION SYSTEM

Considering all the physical and economic constraints found during the field work in Cerro
Grande, a UV disinfection unit was designed, built and validated to be implemented there.
Also, another commercially-available unit, donated by Trojan Technologies (London, ON),
was validated and installed in Cerro Grande. The main criterion for choosing the building
materials of the designed UV unit was their availability in Bolivia. In fact, the building of a
similar unit was quoted by a plastic workshop in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, for a lower price than
in Canada. The final look of the designed UV unit is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Installed UV unit

Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 5

Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
 The validation processes of both UV units were carried out following the guidelines
given by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). These guidelines establish that
the UV sensitivity of a surrogate, non-pathogenic microorganism should be determined using
a bench-scale test (collimated beam). Later, said microorganism should be introduced to the
UV reactor and its counts recorded before and after UV treatment. The degree of inactivation
by the UV reactor is then determined by comparing the sensitivity of the microorganism in
both experiments. Presently, it remains to be seen the exact degree of performance of both
UV units, as the bacteria used for the experiments (Bacillus subtilis spores) have displayed
an unusually high UV resistance. Nevertheless, based on the results of simulations,
reductions as high as 99.99% of Giardia and Cryptosporidium are expected. It should be
noted that the experiments involving the UV units are performed under a range of flow rates
and water quality characteristics, in order to simulate real field conditions. From what has
been observed so far, the UV units perform well under conditions of high flow rate and low
penetration of UV light. The latter is usually due to a high content of organic matter or
metals which may absorb UV light and, therefore, may not allow UV light to reach the
microorganisms.

After operating for a couple months in the field, the designed UV unit was replaced by
the commercial one in order to undergo further testing.

AN ALTERNATIVE POWER SYSTEM

Given that there is no currently an electrical utility in the community, it was decided to
design and implement an alternative power system for the UV system. Also given the high
levels of solar radiation reaching the study area, it was decided to design a photovoltaic
system. This system consists of a solar panel, which is an array of solar cells that convert the
solar energy in electricity; a battery, to accumulate the energy provided by the solar cells; an
inverter, to change the current produced by the solar cells from direct current (DC) to
alternate current (AC), so it is delivered in a smooth way to the electrical appliances; and a
charge controller, to avoid an overload of the battery on very sunny days. It is worth noting
that the battery, the inverter and the charge controller would not be required if the UV lamp
worked under DC. This might be useful since the battery need to be replaced every three or
four years. However, DC UV lamps are recommended only in low potency applications and,
thus, in the treatment of water for small communities. Also, solar light should be available
when performing water treatment, since there would be no electricity storage. The final
electric system is shown in Figure 4.

Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 6

Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
 Solar panel
125 W
12 V

DC switch Ballast
120 V 120 V
50 A 65 W
UV lamp
Inverter 55 W
300 W 110 V
Charge controller Battery
10 A 65 Ah 12 V/115 V
12 V 12 V

Figure 4 Sketch of the electrical system

COMPUTATIONAL MODELING OF THE UV UNIT

For the designed UV unit computational models for the flow inside it and for the amount of
UV light emitted were implemented. The computational model for the flow simulates the
fluid dynamics inside the reactor, that is, how the flow behaves as to its velocity, pressure
and trajectories followed by particles. The model for the UV light determines how the UV
light is distributed across the reactor. By combining the runs of both programs it is possible
to determine the approximate amount of UV energy that each microorganism is receiving and
thus to model the performance of the UV unit before carrying out its validation. The software
employed to perform the fluid dynamics simulations was ANSYS-CFX v11.0 while the
program that determines the UV distribution inside the reactor was UVCalc3D. As
mentioned early, the experiments for the validation of the designed UV unit are still in
progress until the UV sensitivity of the surrogate microorganism can be figured out. In
consequence, a comparison chart between the modeled and measured performance of the UV
unit is not currently available. However, Figure 5 displays an approximate distribution of the
UV light for conditions of a flow rate about 1.7 L/s and a UV transmittance (UVT) the
percentage of light that gets through a given medium, in this case, water of 100%. As seen,
the highest levels are located in the center of the reactor, namely along the quartz sleeve (the
UV lamp is inside this sleeve), so it is reasonable to assume that most of the microbiological
reduction takes place in this area.

Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 7

Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
 Figure 5 Fluence distribution for high UVT and high flow rate

ASSESSING UV DISINFECTION IN A LOW-INCOME COMMUNITY

It was stated earlier that the designed UV unit stayed in operation for a couple of months in
field, until it was replaced for the commercial UV unit. During this period, its performance as
to the operation and maintenance routines, the use of an alternative power system, the
effectiveness of the treatment and the perception of the people, was evaluated. It was
unfortunate, however, that the quality of the feed water did not allow for a more thorough
assessment of the effectiveness of treatment. This happened because the original site for the
UV unit hook-up, that is, the hand pump shown in Figure 2, would no longer be used, in
favour of a newer water supply system. This water system consists of a 70 m-deep well and a
pump that takes the water to a elevated reservoir, from where the water it is distributed to the
community. Although this is a system that very well fits to the requirements of running water
for the community, the first stages of its operation have to deal with turbid water. This was
exactly what happened in this case and thus why the UV system operation was hampered.

Despite the heavy turbidity of the feed water to the UV unit, microbiological lab testing
confirmed that some degree of bacteriological inactivation was being achieved. However,
this is a reminder that the water to be treated with UV light should have low turbidity and
content of organic matter and metals. If this is not the case, especially for surface water
sources that often experience surges of turbidity, the installation of a granular (sand and/or
gravel) filter before the UV unit is strongly recommended. One of the options that were
explored to cover this point in Bolivia is the Bio Sand filter (BSF), which is promoted by a
local NGO and has been used successfully in hundred of households in rural Bolivia.
Another option for pre-treatment that has been widely used in southern Bolivia, according to
Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 8
Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
the account of some community residents, is the aloe vera. More experimentation and hard
evidence are required though to confirm the aloe as a viable alternative for pre-treatment.

Another subject explored during the field campaign was the UV unit maintenance. As
noted, a granular filter would help in those situations where the water turbidity changes very
often. However, in many parts of rural Bolivia, and of the world for that matter, the water
comes from shallow or deep wells. It is common that the water coming out of these wells
does not have high contents of turbidity and organic matter; although some metals, as iron
and manganese may be present, their concentration is usually not that high so to affect the
operation of UV systems. In any case, whether a granular filter is present or not, the quartz
sleeve should be cleaned with certain frequency and one especially higher in those sites with
no filter. Also, in those cases where a filter is not present, an alarm may alert the water
operator of a condition going on in the system.

Considering all the conditions that were assessed when in field, an analysis of costs was
performed for a UV system to be installed in a rural community of Bolivia. It is important to
remark, however, that the results of this exercise may be extrapolated to other locations since
the range of conditions reviewed may be applicable elsewhere. These costs were capital
(initial investment), operation and maintenance, life cycle (accounting for the depreciation of
the equipment and the cost of the money over the years that the technology is in operation)
and unit (cost of treated water per unit of volume). Below, some considerations are listed for
the estimation of costs.

A quick inspection in the community revealed that people are willing (and able) to pay
for the treatment of water up to US$2 per month.
A multiplier factor was added to the costs of all imported equipment to account for costs
of import, nationalization, taxes and retail. This factor was derived based on information
provided by a UV equipment retailer in Santa Cruz (only two in Bolivia).
The cost of a man-hour of work was derived from the legal minimum wage in place in
Bolivia. It should be noted that the labour is usually provided as an in-kind contribution
by the residents but, still, it must be accounted for.
Interest rates (prime and lending) were those for the year 2010 in Bolivia.
The cost of a sand filter was scaled-up from the current costs of such a filter for a single
household, as reported by the local NGO.
If a granular filter is considered, the costs of an alarm system are not included since it is
assumed that the water turbidity will keep steadily low. Also, the costs of maintenance
are reduced as the fouling of the quartz sleeve takes place over a longer period of time.
It was assumed that reservoirs would be required for treated water storage and operation
of the system. However, instead of using the fabricated reservoirs shown in Figure 3, it
Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 9
Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
 was decided to use as many 200-L plastic barrels as necessary, connected in series or
parallel. Usually, a number of 4 to 5 barrels is enough to deal with water treatment. These
barrels are readily available anywhere in Bolivia.
DC UV lamps were also considered, so the costs of battery, inverter and charge controller
are discounted, and so are the derived maintenance costs.
When the scenario of a distribution network for treated water was analyzed, a percentage
of unaccounted-for water was considered. This is because, even for brand-new piping,
there are some system losses of water that is treated but not billed. However, as the flow
rates are usually higher, the amount of treated water is higher but the unit costs are lower.
To account for a scenario where an electrical grid is present, the cost of a single kilowatt-
hour (kWh) was defined according to the fees charged by the nearest local utility.

A summary of the costs analysis is presented in Table 1. A user is defined as a single

household, which may include several families, but where only one bill is paid per month.
Table 1 Comparison of the various costs of the alternatives

Pre-treatment Grid Network Alarm Capital O&M Min.

LCCs US
costs costs/year No. of
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No (US$) (US$) $/m3
(US$) users
1,713 216 440 0.07 27
2,092 189 538 0.18 30
3,252 230 836 0.27 44
3,631 232 933 0.12 48
*
3,067 182 788 0.10 40
1,550 248 398 0.16 27
999 236 257 0.13 20
3,089 262 794 0.27 43
2,538 240 652 0.23 37
1,929 221 496 0.18 29
1,378 209 354 0.14 23
3,468 264 892 0.29 47
2,917 252 750 0.25 41
*
2,353 202 605 0.20 33
*
These correspond to the alternatives where DC UV lamps are used

From Table 1 it is clear that the various combinations of components and requirements
lead to a range of 7 to 29 US per cubic meter (m3) of treated water. The minimum number
of users is the number of users that a UV system must have in order for it to be sustainable. It
was calculated assuming a fixed quantity of water per person per day, according to the
Bolivian guidelines for water supply, and the monthly US$2 that people are willing to pay
for the treatment of their water. By taking into account the rates of water consumption, which
Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 10
Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
actually depend on the capacity of the system, the lowest unit cost does not automatically
result in the lowest number of users, as well as the highest unit cost does not result in the
highest number of users. Rather, the lowest number of users results for the situation of
modest requirements (no pre-treatment, presence of grid and network) whereas the highest
number of users comes up for situations of advanced requirements (no grid, no network, need
for pre-treatment/alarm).

CONCLUSIONS

In order to decrease costs, the possibility of undertaking the validation of UV systems in

local laboratories should be observed. However, the cost/benefit ratio should also be
determined for manufactured units that are validated beforehand to see if the associated costs
of such units are lower than the costs of building and testing a UV unit locally.

It is remarked that this technology is affordable for low-income communities, but also
that it can be used alongside other existing technologies. Since this is an approach that is best
suited for communal than individual use, it is strongly recommended in locations where the
community organizations are strong, organized and somewhat experienced in pursuing
funding for communal projects.

REFERENCES

ANSYS (2006c). ANSYS CFX-Solver theory guide ANSYS CFX Release 11.0, ANSYS
Europe, Ltd., Canonsburg, PA.
Bolton JR (2008). Manual for UVCalc version 1.0, Bolton Photosciences Inc., Edmonton,
AB.
Bolton JR and Cotton CA. 2008. The ultraviolet disinfection handbook. Denver, CO:
American Water Works Association.
Brownell SA, Chakrabarti AR, Kaser FM, Connelly LG, Peletz RL, Reygadas F, Lang MJ,
Kammen DM, and Nelson KL (2008). Assessment of a low-cost, point-of-use,
ultraviolet water disinfection technology, J Water Health 6: 1, 53 65.
Chen S and Ravallion M (2008). The developing world is poorer than we thought, but no less
successful in the fight against poverty, The World Bank, Development Research
Group, Washington DC. Available at: http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2010/01/21/000158
349_20100121133109/Rendered/PDF/WPS4703.pdf
First MW, Banahan KF, and Dumyahn TS (2007). Performance of ultraviolet germicidal
irradiation lamps and luminaries in long-term service, Leukos 3: 3, 181 188.

Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 11

Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
Gadgil A (1998). Drinking water in developing countries, Annu Rev Energ Env 23: 1, 253
286.
Gadgil A, Greene D, Drescher A, Miller P, and Kibata N (1998). Low cost UV disinfection
system for developing countries: Field tests in South Africa, Proceedings of the First
International Symposium on Safe Drinking Water in Small Systems, Washington DC,
May 10 13.
GMAG (2006). Plan de desarrollo municipal 2006-2010; Volumen I: Diagnstico
municipal, Gobierno Municipal de Ascensin de Guarayos, Plan Internacional,
Proyecto de Desarrollo Concurrente Regional II, Ascensin de Guarayos, Bolivia.
Available at: http://guarayos.gob.bo/pdm.htm
Harter T (2003). Water well design and construction, Regents of the University of California,
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Oakland, CA. Available at:
http://groundwater.ucdavis.edu/Publications/Harter_FWQFS_8086.pdf
Hassanein AAG and Khalifa RA (2008). Financial and operational performance assessment
of water/wastewater utilities: Comparative study, Journal Infrastruct Syst 14: 4, 283
292.
Haysom A (2006). A study of the factors affecting sustainability of rural water supplies in
Tanzania, Cranfield University, Silsoe, UK. Available at:
http://www.wateraid.org/documents/plugin_documents/rural_water_supplies_in_tanza
nia.pdf
Hirsch C. 2007. Numerical computation of internal and external flows: an introduction to
CFD second edition. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Hirsche T and Jayanthan J (2007). More than just a drop in the bucket..., Newsletter of the
Bolivian-Canadian Clean Water Network 1: 1, 4. Available at:
http://bccwater.weebly.com/uploads/1/1/1/0/1110828/bcc_water_newsletter_1.pdf
INE (2009). Anuario estadstico 2008, Instituto Nacional de Estadstica, La Paz, Bolivia.
Available at: http://www.ine.gov.bo/pdf/Anuario_2008/Anuario2008.pdf
MSOP (2004). Norma Boliviana NB 689: Instalaciones de agua Diseo para sistemas de
agua potable, Ministerio de Servicios y Obras Pblicas, Viceministerio de Servicios
Bsicos, La Paz, Bolivia. Available at:
http://www.minagua.gov.bo/vapsb/biblioteca/DOCS/NORMAS%20TECNICAS/NB%
20689%20AguaPotable%20-%20dic2004/NB689%20AguaPotable%20NORMA.pdf
Popov YV (1974). Electrical circuits for the power supply of the SVD-120A mercury lamp
with direct current, J Appl Spectrosc 21: 1, 992 994.
RAEL (2006). The UV-tube project, Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory,
University of California at Berkley. Retrieved from: http://rael.berkeley.edu/old-
site/uvtube/uvtubeproject.htm on June 23, 2008.

Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 12

Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary
Reid R (1998). Status of water disinfection in Latin America and the Caribbean, Proceedings
of the Regional Symposium on Water Quality: Effective Disinfection, CEPIS-OPS,
Lima, Peru. 1 13 pp.
Solsona F and Mndez JP (2002). Desinfeccin del agua, CEPIS-OPS-OMS-EPA, Lima,
Peru. 92 102 pp. Available at: http://www.cepis.ops-
oms.org/bvsacg/fulltext/desinfeccion/capitulo4.pdf
USEPA (2006). Ultraviolet disinfection guidance manual for the final long term 2 enhanced
surface water treatment rule, Report EPA 815-R-06-007, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington DC. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/disinfection/lt2/pdfs/guide_lt2_uvguidance.pdf
WHO (2000). Global water supply and sanitation assessment 2000 report, World Health
Organization and United Nations Children's Fund. Retrieved from:
http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTOC.htm
on May 10, 2008.
WHO (2008). World health statistics 2008, World Health Organization, Geneva,
Switzerland. Available at: http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS08_Full.pdf

Implementing a Ultraviolet Disinfection System in a Low-Income 13

Area of Bolivia, South America
Executive Summary