CI/SfB (J4)

September 1998

Eurocode 1 IP 13/98
The code for structural loading Part 1
Basis of design, dead, imposed, re, snow
information
and wind loads

JB Menzies and H Gulvanessian

This two-part Information to explain the context in This rst part covers basis of
Paper describes the which Eurocode 1 is design, dead, imposed, re,
evolution of Eurocode 1, intended to be used. snow and wind loads. Part
paper

summarises its contents, It gives references, where 2 covers thermal actions,

and gives some
background information on
its derivation. It describes
the assumptions and
requirements of
Eurocode 0 Basis of design,
possible, to enable
practising engineers to
obtain further insight into
the basis and use of the
Codes requirements.
actions during execution,
accidental actions, traffic
loads on bridges, actions in
silos and tanks, and actions
induced by cranes and
machinery.

Eurocode 1 The Structural Eurocodes form a unified set of

The European code of practice Actions on structure s, international codes of practice. This set provides
commonly known as Eurocode 1 is a comprehensive the basis for the limit state design of a wide range
modern code of practice providing information on all of building and civil engineering structures that
actions (loads) that it is normally necessary to consider in includes buildings, bridges, masts, towers, silos,
the design of building and civil engineering structures. Its tanks, chimneys and geotechnical structures.
preparation, in ten Parts, began in 1985. All Parts have When completed as European standards (EN),
been accepted for publication as European pre-
there will be ten Eurocodes for structural design
standards (ENV), ie codes for voluntary experimental
(see Table 1), comprising as a whole a portfolio
use. A ve-year programme to convert them to European
standards (EN) has recently begun. Development of of more than 50 Parts[1,2].
Eurocode 1 is now in an advanced stage. When European standard Eurocode 1 is issued, it
will comprise ten EN
Parts (see
Table 1 The Structural Eurocodes Table 2). The Parts are
EN Known as Title Number
referred to in this IP by
number of Parts
their proposed EN
1990 Eurocode 0 Basis of design 1
numbers. These Parts
1991 Eurocode 1 Actions on structures 10
will provide the actions
1992 Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures 4
(loads) for use with
1993 Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures 14
Eurocodes 2 to 9 as
1994 Eurocode 4 Design of composite steel and concrete structures 4
appropriate for design
1995 Eurocode 5 Design of timber structures 3
and verification on the
1996 Eurocode 6 Design of masonry structures 5
basis of overall principles
1997 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical design 3
which are given in
1998 Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance 6
Eurocode 0.
1999 Eurocode 9 Design of aluminium structures 3
2
Table 2 The Parts of Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
Proposed Title
EN number
1991-1-1 Densities, self-weight and imposed loads
1991-1-2 Actions on structures exposed to re
1991-1-3 Snow loads
1991-1-4 Wind actions
1991-1-5 Thermal actions
1991-1-6 Actions during execution
1991-1-7 Accidental actions due to impact and explosions
1991-2 Trafc loads on bridges
1991-3 Actions in silos and tanks
1991-4 Actions induced by cranes and machinery
The evolution of Eurocode 1
Structural design practice varies substantially
across Europe. Different design loads, design
methods, fabrication and construction techniques
have evolved based on local tradition and
circumstances. Variations in economic and
sociological standards are reflected in local
practice and industry together with differences
arising from the local climate: this ranges widely,
from the continental climate in central Europe to
the maritime climates of the north and north-
west, to the warmer climates of the south.
National codes of practice mirror the local
national situation. Some countries have
sophisticated national structural design codes;
others have no codes for specific types of
structure and use national codes from other
countries.
The preparation of the Structural Eurocodes as
a whole is being undertaken against this
background with the primary objective of
achieving convergence to a consistent structural
design practice throughout Europe. They are
being prepared initially by project teams familiar
with both traditional European experience and
with the results of research in the field. They are
being subjected to substantial peer review.
Inevitably in such a major programme involving
so many engineers from 18 participating
countries, there are a few areas where the
documents overlap or are inconsistent. These
shortfalls are being addressed in the current
programme to convert the Eurocode pre-
standards into European standards.
Another objective of the Eurocodes is to
provide design rules for everyday use and to
provide the basis for innovative design. For
construction projects as a whole and for the
manufacture of specific construction products,
the aim is to facilitate innovative design, and to
ensure that the Eurocodes do not prevent the
development of innovative products.
Current
ENV number
1991-2-1
1991-2-2
1991-2-3
1991-2-4
1991-2-5
1991-2-6
1991-2-7
1991-3
1991-4
1991-5
To help meet this objective, a distinction is made
in Eurocode texts between Principles and
Application rules.
Principles comprise:
general statements and definitions for which
there is no alternative;
requirements and analytical models for which
no alternative is permitted unless specifically
stated.
Application rules are generally recognised rules,
which follow the principles and satisfy their
requirements. Use of alternative rules different
from the application rules given in Eurocodes 0
and 2 to 9 is permitted provided that the
alternative rules meet the relevant principles and
will achieve at least the same structural
reliability.
A proposal to develop an international set of
codes of practice for structural design was first
agreed in 1974 by several technical-scientific
organisations based largely in Europe[3].
Following preparatory work by these
organisations, the Commission of the European
Communities (CEC) together with the European
Free Trade Association (EFTA) took the
initiative for developing the Structural
Eurocodes at the end of the 1970s by establishing
a steering committee to oversee the work. In
1989 the responsibility for their development
was transferred to the European Committee for
Standardisation (CEN). Financial contributions
to the costs of the work continued to be provided
by the CEC and EFTA. Technical Committee
CEN/TC250 was set up to complete the task of
preparation and implementation. Since English
was the most widely spoken and understood
language, a decision was made in 1991 to
conduct meetings and to prepare the Eurocodes
in English in the first instance. Once each
Eurocode Part is approved for publication as a

pre-standard (ENV) it is translated into the other
two official CEN languages, French and German,
and published in the three languages. In some
cases, CEN member bodies have translated these
pre-standards into their own local language.
Most Eurocodes are in the form of European
pre-standards (ENV) issued for experimental use
and comment. During the development of these
ENV Eurocodes, existing national codes have
either not been updated or they have been
amended, usually to make them more compatible
with the emerging ENVs. In some member
countries there are no national codes comparable
to some of the developing Eurocodes. At present
the ENV Eurocodes contain boxed values, eg
for partial factors and load combination factors,
which national standards bodies may modify for
experimental use of the pre-standard in their
country.
A programme to convert the ENV Eurocodes
to European standards (EN) has begun recently.
Their issue as European standards will lead to the
withdrawal from use of the national codes of
practice in the different European countries
which are members of CEN. There will be a
period of perhaps five years when national codes
co-exist with the European standard Eurocodes
before the national codes are withdrawn.
Updating of the EN Eurocodes will follow
normal CEN procedures, each document being
reviewed and amended to keep abreast of the
advances in construction technology on a five-
year cycle.
Until the mid-1980s, Eurocode 1 consisted
only of common safety requirements and
common principles and rules. These common
unified rules were published in 1984[4]. They
were not operational but provided a basis for
preparing the operational Eurocodes 2 to 8.
Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures was
not added to the Eurocode preparation
programme until 1992.
The initial work of Eurocode preparation did
not therefore include development of rules for
actions (loading). It was not until 1984 that the
steering committee agreed to a proposal that an
enquiry on national codes and standards
concerned with actions be undertaken by BRE
amongst Member States. The report of the
enquiry concluded that the preparation of a
3
Eurocode for actions on structures was feasible.
With the agreement of the steering committee a
small task group was established to advise on the
steps necessary. The task group was supported by
national bodies including BRE, Centre
Scientifique et Technique due Batiment (CSTB),
Institut fr Bautechnic (IfBt), and the Danish
Building Research Institute (SBI).
An outline for a comprehensive Eurocode for
actions was proposed, together with suggestions
for the first stages of the work, based on
preparatory studies by task group members. The
proposal was accepted by the steering committee
in 1985.
An inherent feature of the proposed Eurocode
was that it would be consistent with the existing
drafts of Eurocodes 2 to 8 and suitable for
structural design based on the limit state concept
using the partial safety factor format. Eurocode 1
then became entitled Basis of design and actions
on structures embracing the existing Part
covering basis of design and the new additional
Parts covering actions.
Priority was first given in developing the
Actions Parts of Eurocode 1 to the most
important actions related to the design of
building structures. The aim was to have the
Parts covering these actions dead loads,
imposed loads, snow loads, wind loads, and
actions due to fire available for use when, or as
soon as possible after, publication for
experimental use by CEN of Eurocode 2: Part 1
Design of concrete structures (ENV 1992-1-1)
and Eurocode 3: Part 1: Steel structures: General
rules (ENV 1993-1-1). These two Eurocodes
were in the most advanced stage of preparation at
the time and the availability of loading
requirements was seen as important to facilitate
their future development.
Subsequently, the scope of the work on actions
was extended to include traffic loads on bridges
(road and rail) and loads in silos and tanks
leading finally to the portfolio of parts indicated
in Table 2.
For conversion to European standards (EN), a
decision was made in 1997 to divide ENV
Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on
structures into two separate documents:
EN 1990: Basis of design
EN 1991: Actions on structures.
4
Eurocode 0: The basis of the
structural Eurocodes
Eurocodes as a whole, including Eurocode 1,
adopt the general requirements and assumptions
for safety and serviceability of structures and
methods of design and verification as described
in Eurocode 0: Basis of design. It was published
in the UK as
ENV 1991-1 in 1996. The main requirement is
that structures and structural elements are
designed, executed and maintained so that, with
appropriate degrees of reliability, they will:
perform adequately under all expected
actions;
withstand all actions and other influences
likely to occur during execution and in use and
have adequate durability in relation to
maintenance costs;
not be subsequently damaged
disproportionately to the original cause in the
case of exceptional hazards such as fire,
explosion, impact or human error.
The use of the term appropriate degrees of
reliability allows the reliability to be different for
different structures, eg where consequences of
failure are high, a higher level of reliability may
be chosen.
The validity of use of the design principles
depends on a number of assumptions; they
include:
Structures are designed by appropriately
qualified and experienced personnel and
execution is carried out by personnel having
the necessary skill and experience.
The construction materials and products are
used as specified in the Eurocodes or in the
relevant material or product specifications.
Adequate quality assurance measures are
applied.
The structure will be adequately maintained.
The basis of design and verification given in
Eurocode 0 includes guidelines on:
limit states;
classifications concerning actions and
environmental influences;
material properties and geometrical data;
modelling for structural analysis and
resistance;
design assisted by testing;
verification by the partial factor method.
These guidelines for meeting the requirements
have generally been the basis for the preparation
of the more detailed principles and rules given in
Eurocodes 1 to 9 (Table 1).
Eurocode 0 defines an action (F) as either:
a direct action, ie force (load) applied to the
structure
an indirect action, ie an imposed or
constrained deformation or an imposed
acceleration caused, for example, by
temperature changes.
Actions are described by a model, eg vehicle axle
spacing, and their magnitude is commonly
represented by a single scalar. The scalar may
adopt several representative values,
eg dominant or non-dominant action. Several
scalars are used when the action is multi-
component. More complex representations are
required for fatigue and dynamic actions.
Actions are classified by:
their variation in time, ie:
permanent actions (G); variable actions (Q);
and accidental actions (A);
their variation in space, ie:
fixed actions (eg self-weight); free actions (eg
wind and snow loads);
their nature and/or structural response, ie:
static actions; dynamic actions.
The term single action is also used to define an
action which is statistically independent in time
and space from any other action acting on the
structure.
The characteristic value of an action is its main
representative value.
The self-weight of a structure can be
represented by a single characteristic value Gk
provided the variability of G is small, and can be
calculated on the basis of the nominal
dimensions and the mean unit mass. If the
variability of G is not small and the statistical
distribution is known, two values are used; an
upper value Gk, sup and a lower value Gk, inf .
More information on this subject has been given
by Ostlund[5].
A variable action has the following
representative value see Figure 1:
the characteristic value Q k
the combination value 0Q k
the frequent value 1Q k
the quasi-permanent value 2Q k
The combination value 0Qk takes account of the
reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence
of the most unfavourable values of several
independent variable actions. It is used for the
verification of ultimate limit states and
irreversible serviceability limit states. The
frequent value 1Q k is used for verification of
 5

variable load Q
Qk characteristic value

0Q k combination value
1Q k frequent value
2Q k quasi-permanent value

Time

Figure 1 Representative values

ultimate limit states involving accidental actions
and reversible limit states. The quasi-permanent
value 2Q k is also used for ultimate limit state
verification involving accidental actions and for
reversible serviceability limit states. The
Eurocode values given for 0, 1, 2 for
buildings are shown in Table 3 together with
those adopted in the UK application documents.
The ENV Eurocodes are not totally consistent in
the values given for combination factors: some
slightly different values appear in Eurocodes 2 to
5 primarily because they referred to the current
BSI loading codes in 1992.
To determine actions for use in design the
following steps are required:
for each relevant design situation identify
critical load cases;
for each critical load case determine design
values for the effects of actions in combination
using the partial factors for actions;
combine the design actions using the rules
given;
verify that the effects of design actions do not
exceed the design resistance for ultimate limit
states or the performance criteria for
serviceability limit states.
The partial factors for actions in the ENV
Eurocodes for ultimate limit states are not totally
consistent yet. Tables 4 and 5 show comparisons.
There are also some differences between the
ENV Eurocodes in partial factors and
combinations of actions used for serviceability
limit states.
The theoretical background to Eurocode 0 is
discussed by Vrouwenvelder[6] and a background
document was published in 1996[7]. A designers
handbook is available[8].

Table 3 factors for buildings from DD ENV 1991-1

Action 0 1 2
boxed UK* boxed UK* boxed UK*
EC0 EC0 EC0

Imposed loads in buildings

domestic, residential 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
ofces 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.3
congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
shopping 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.3
storage 1.0 0.9 0.8
roof (including snow) 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0
Trafc loads in buildings
vehicle weight < = 30 kN 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6
vehicle weight < = 160 kN 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.6
roofs 0.0 0.0 0.0
Wind loads on buildings 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.0
Temperature (non-re) in buildings 0.6 0.5 0.0
Crane loads
vertical 0.7 0.6 0.3
horizontal 0.7 0.6 0.3
0.9 (vertical + horizontal) 0.7 0.6 0.3
* Values determined for use of Eurocodes 2 and 3 before Eurocode 0 was published
6

Table 4 Partial factors for actions in ENV Eurocodes (ultimate limit states)
Action description EC0 EC2 EC3 EC4 EC5 EC6 EC7

Permanent favourable 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

unfavourable 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35
Variable favourable 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
unfavourable 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50
2nd and more 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.35
Single permanent favourable 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.10 0.90 0.90
unfavourable 1.10 1.34 1.35 1.35 1.10 1.10
both 1.00 1.00
Prestressing favourable 0.9/1.0 0.9
unfavourable 1.2/1.0 1.20
Vectorial favourable 0.80 0.80 0.70
Earth and water pressure 1.35 1.35 1.35
Notes
Vectorial refers to cases where the components of a vectorial effect vary independently.
EC5 introduced a set of reduced partial coefcient for specied small structures which is as follows:
Permanent favourable 1.00
unfavourable 1.20
Variable favourable 0.00
unfavourable 1.35
EC2 states that snow drift loads should be treated as a variable action with the characteristic value taken at 0.7.
EC3, EC4 and EC5 state that local snow drifting on roofs should be treated as an accidental action.

Table 5 Partial factors for actions (accidental situations)

Action description EC0 EC2 EC3 EC4 EC5 EC6 EC7

Accidental action 1.0 1.00 1.05

favourable 1.00 1.00 0.90 0.90 1.00 1.00
unfavourable 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.05 1.00 1.00
Variable 1.00 1.00 1.00
Notes
EC3 and EC4 state that the accidental action partial factor is relevant only where the accidental load
is not specied directly.
On conversion to EN the intention is to place all partial factors and combination values for actions in Eurocode 0.

Eurocode 1: Part 1.1: Densities,
self-weight and imposed loads
Scope and eld of application
This Part, which was published as an ENV in
1996, covers:
the assessment of actions for use in structural
design due to the density of construction
materials and stored material;
the self-weight of structural elements and
whole structures and some fixed non-
structural items;
imposed loads on floors and roofs of
buildings, but excluding snow, which is
covered by Part 1.3.
Densities and self-weight
In developing the sections on densities and self-
weight, consideration was given to the contents
of the National Codes of the CEN member
countries and the International Standard ISO
9194. Differences in the scope and specifications
were found in the national codes and the
guidance was at times contradictory.
Additionally little statistical basis exists in
general for the load values given in these codes.
These differences imposed constraints on the
development work. It was not possible to
describe the load values as either mean or
characteristic values since both of these terms
imply some understanding of the underlying
statistical distribution of the load values. The
loads are therefore described as representative
values. For materials where the bulk weight
density has significant variability according to its
source, a range of values is provided.
Methods are provided for assessing the self-
weight of construction elements in buildings, for
example floors, walls, partitions, roofs, cladding
and finishes.
For bridges, determination of the self-weight
of non-structural elements is also defined.
Imposed loads on buildings
To determine imposed loads in buildings, loaded
floor and roof areas are categorised into four
classes according to their use:
areas in dwellings, offices etc;
garages and vehicle traffic areas;
areas for storage and industrial activities;
roofs.
7
Numerical values are given for floors and roof
loads in buildings, including parking and vehicle
traffic areas. For areas for storage and industrial
activities only, guidance for the determination of
numerical values is given.
Different account is taken of the loading areas
for several storeys (when a reduction factor is
given) from the loading area within one storey
The basis for the determination of the
characteristic loads is given elsewhere[9]. For
example, for the determination of the
characteristic loads in dwellings, offices,
schools, hospitals etc the loads are caused by:
Furniture and movable objects
(eg light movable partitions and loads from
commodities and contents of containers).
These loads may be subjected to considerable
instantaneous changes in magnitude at certain
times owing, for example, to changes of tenant or
change of use. The load varies very slowly and
the magnitude of variations is very small
generally in the periods between the major
instantaneous changes.
Normal use by persons
These loads are often periodical and present only
during a relatively small part of the time, eg for
school rooms only about one quarter of the day.
Additionally, the proportion of the load caused
by people can be very different, being very high
in corridors and lower in residential buildings.
The loads from persons may also cause dynamic
effects.
Extraordinary use
Examples include exceptional concentrations of
people (these can also give rise to dynamic
effects) or of furniture, or the moving or stacking
of commodities which may occur during
reorganisation etc. These special situations
usually occur during a short period of time. They
occur sufficiently often during the lifetime of a
building to make it necessary to take them into
account.
Assumptions have also been given[9] to enable
characteristic values to be determined
statistically. However, the statistical database
was found to be poor: and it was very poor for
short-term loads. Therefore, the values given in
Part 1.1 were derived from comparisons of the
values in national codes including values for all
classes of imposed loads.
8
Eurocode: Part 1.2: Actions on
structures exposed to re
Scope and eld of application
This Part was available as a first draft in 1990[10]
and it was published as an ENV in 1996. It covers
the assessment of actions to be used in the
structural design of buildings and civil
engineering works where they are required to
give adequate performance in fire exposure. It is
intended for use with the parts on structural fire
design in Eurocodes 2 to 6 and 9[11].
Actions on structures due to fire exposure are
classified in the Eurocodes as accidental actions.
For fire design, it follows that fire actions are the
dominant action.
Design situations
The combined occurrence of a fire in a building
and an extremely high level of mechanical loads
is assumed to be very small. The combinations of
mechanical actions which need to be considered
have been described elsewhere[11]. Simultaneous
occurrence with other independent accidental
actions need not be considered. However, Part
1.2 does require consideration of risks of fire in
the wake of other accidental actions. Post-fire
situations after the structure has cooled down do
not need to be considered. For buildings, Part 1.2
requires fire compartments to be designed to
prevent fire spread. Only one fully developed fire
within one compartment is considered at a time.
Determining actions arising in re
The basis for determining the thermal and
mechanical actions arising in fire situations is
given. The main text refers principally to
nominal fires using the temperature/time
relationships for standard fire conditions and
assumed radiation and convection heat transfer
characteristics. Nominal fires are assumed to be
identical whatever the size or design of the
building. Those used in Part 1.2 are mainly the
standard fire (ISO 834), the hydrocarbon fire
reaching a constant 1100C after 30 minutes, and
the external fire reaching a constant 680C after
30 minutes. These nominal fires are used to
verify that the level of fire resistance of structural
elements meets national or other requirements
which are expressed in terms of one of these
nominal fires.
Informative Annexes provide, for the first
time in an international standard, models for
more realistic calculation of thermal actions.
They use so-called parametric temperature-time
curves (Annex B) or the equivalent time of
fire exposure approach (Annex E). Parametric
fire is a general term which covers fire evolution
more in line with real fires and takes into account
the main parameters which influence the growth
of fires. Parametric temperature-time curves
therefore vary mainly with building size, type of
construction, fire load, and size of openings. At
present the Annexes do not provide all the data
needed to allow a performance-based structural
fire design. Investigations are continuing with a
view to making this approach fully operational
when Part 1.2 is converted to a European
standard (EN)[12].
The equivalent time of fire exposure approach
allows use of realistic fire exposure depending on
design fire load density and ventilation for the
design of members by tabulated data or
simplified rules[11]. The equivalent time is the
time in the standard fire exposure (eg ISO 834)
for a structural member to reach the maximum
temperature obtained when exposed to the
realistic fire. The relationships between
equivalent time of exposure and parametric
temperature-time curves are the subject of
continuing studies[13,14].
In the United Kingdom, the thermal and
mechanical actions determined using Part 1.2 are
intended to be inputs to the verification of the
structural design using Eurocodes 2 to 6 and 9 for
performance requirements which are defined by
Building Regulations[15]. Essentially, the
objective is to limit risk to life from fire by
meeting the following performance requirements
of the structure:
to maintain loadbearing function during the
relevant fire exposure;
to meet deformation criteria where the
separating or protecting function of the
construction may be impaired by structural
deformation in the fire;
to maintain separating function, ie no integrity
or insulation failure, during the relevant fire
exposure where fire compartmentation is
required.
Annex D of Part 1.2 gives guidance on the
determination of fire load densities. The design
value is either based on a national fire load
classification or a survey of fire loads combined
with partial factors to take account of fire
consequences, fire frequency and active fire
safety measures[11]. Investigations continue to
examine methods used in countries worldwide
for taking active measures into account with a
view to improving this aspect of Part 1.2 on its
conversion to a European standard[16].

Eurocode 1 : Part 1.3 : Snow loads
Scope and eld of application
Published as an ENV in 1996, Part 1.3 provides
guidance for the calculation of:
snow loads on roofs which occur in calm or
windy conditions;
loads imposed by snow sliding down a pitched
roof onto snowguards and other obstructions;
loads due to snow overhanging the
cantilevered edge of a roof;
snow loads on bridges.
Part 1.3 closely follows ISO 4355: 1981 and was
prepared taking into account the content of
existing national codes. It applies to:
new buildings and structures;
significant alterations to existing buildings
and structures.
It does not generally apply to sites at altitudes
above 1500 m.
Format for taking account of climatic
variation
Both the initial deposition and any subsequent
movements of snow on a roof are affected by the
presence of wind. However, there is little data on
the combined action of wind and snow to allow a
direct statistical treatment. In design, the lack of
data is normally overcome by considering one or
more critical design situations. These situations
are usually snow deposited when no wind is
blowing and snow deposited when the wind speed
is sufficient to cause drifting, but without
quantifying the precise wind speed. Owing to the
climatic variability across Europe, Part 1.3
provides different rules for single snow events
(eg in the UK) and multiple snow events.
Single snow events occur in regions where the
snow fall is considered to be associated with
weather systems of about three to four days
duration and where there is a reasonable
expectation that the snow deposited on roofs will
thaw between the arrival of one weather system
and the next. This situation requires the separate
consideration of either uniform snow load or a
drift load as the two are not expected to occur
together.
Multiple snow events occur where snow is
more persistent, where snow falling in calm
conditions is followed by further snow carried by
another weather system driven by wind, and
where there are several repetitions of these
9
events before significant thawing. In these
situations the accumulations are combined into a
single load case.
Part 1.3 does not actually call these concepts
single and multiple events; instead, it provides
rules for such eventualities. It is left to the
National Competent Authority to specify which
should be used for a particular region.
Classication of snow loads
Snow loads are classified as variable free actions.
Part 1.3 allows snow loads to be treated as
accidental actions in some cases. In particular,
for local drifts occurring in climatic regions
where single snow events generally occur and
local drifting of snow on roofs is considered to
form an exceptional load because of the rarity of
the occurrence.
Method of assessment of snow load on the
roof
The snow load on the roof is derived by
multiplying the characteristic value of the snow
load on the ground by a snow load shape
coefficient. In addition, Part 1.3 makes provision
for adjustment of the roof snow load using an
exposure coefficient factor to allow for abnormal
exposure to the elements and a thermal
coefficient factor for heat loss through the roof.
Characteristic value of snow load on the
ground
The snow load on the ground is that assumed to
occur in perfectly calm conditions. It is usually
determined from records of snow load or snow
depth measured in well sheltered areas (ISO
4355 recommends in a deciduous forest). The
characteristic value for the snow load on the
ground is defined as the value with an annual
probability of 0.02 of being exceeded. The
variations of the snow load with geographic
location is generally given in map form, with
separate information for each CEN member
country.
Snow load shape coefcients
Several different snow load coefficients need to
be considered in design. They relate to different
climatic conditions before, during and after snow
fall.
Part 1.3 provides shape coefficients for mono-
pitched, duo-pitched, multi-pitched and
cylindrical roofs and coefficients for drifting at
abrupt changes in roof height and at obstructions
on roofs.
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Three primary loading situations are identified
and are accounted for in the coefficients
provided:
A uniformly distributed layer of snow over the
complete roof, likely to occur when snow falls
with little wind :balanced load part.
Either an initially unbalanced distribution by
local drifting at obstructions or a redistribution
of snow which affects the load distribution on
the whole roof, eg snow transported from the
windward slope of a pitched roof to the
leeward slope: unbalanced load part due to
drifting.
A redistribution of snow from an upper part of
the building: unbalanced load part due to
sliding.
The coefficients provided for the multiple
snow event are based on ISO 4355:1981 and the
single snow event on BS6399: Part 3.
Conversion to EN and future developments
A background document has been prepared on
Part 1.3[17]. On conversion, Part 1.3 is expected to
be modified to reflect the latest results of research
and consideration of the new version of ISO 4355.
To provide a fully harmonised code, a reappraisal
of ground snow loads is currently in progress
with a view to the production of a co-ordinated
European snow map.
To access for fully document please click here.
Eurocode 1: Part 1.4 : Wind actions
Scope and eld of application
This Part was published as an ENV in 1997. It
enables the assessment of wind loads for the
structural design of buildings up to a height of
200 m, chimneys and other cantilevered
structures, highway and railway bridges up to a
span of 200 m and cycle/foot bridges up to a span
of 30 m. It does not cover wind actions on lattice
towers, cable stayed and suspension bridges,
guyed masts or offshore structures.
Basis and procedures
Part 1.4 was based initially on an ISO TC98
document and was developed using inputs from
the latest wind engineering practice introduced
into national standards in European countries[18].
It gives principles and rules for calculating static
and dynamic response[19]. Two procedures are
included: a simple approach for those structures
whose structural properties do not make them
susceptible to dynamic excitation and a detailed
procedure for those structures which are likely to
be dynamically responsive. Criteria for
determining the appropriate procedure are
included.
Since the data on wind velocities in the
different member countries are on different
bases, Part 1.4 includes only an indicative
European wind map and uses velocities defined
in each country for determining the reference
wind. Pressure coefficients are based on research
undertaken principally at BRE and are upper
bound values used for wind directions
orthogonal to the building. Informative annexes
give a detailed procedure for in-line response of
dynamically responsive structures and rules for
vortex excitation and other aeroeclastic effects.
The technical complexity of wind actions on
structures led to a concerted effort to provide a
consistent framework for the National
Application Documents (NAD)[20]. The United
Kingdoms NAD relating to buildings has been
published (DD ENV 1991-2-4: 1997);
publication of the companion NAD relating to
bridges is expected in 1998.