3D Stress Components The most general state of stress at a point may

be represented by 6 components
From equilibrium principles: Normal Stresses x y z
xy = yx , xz = zx , zy = yz
Shear Stresses xy yz xz
Normal stress () : the subscript identifies the face on which the
stress acts. Tension is positive and compression is negative.
Shear stress () : it has two subscripts. The first subscript
denotes the face on which the stress acts. The second subscript
denotes the direction on that face. A shear stress is positive if it
acts on a positive face and positive direction or if it acts in a
negative face and negative direction.
 For static equilibrium xy = yx , xz = zx , zy = yz resulting in six independent
scalar quantities. These six scalars can be arranged in a 3x3 matrix, giving us a stress
tensor.
x yx zx

= ij = xy y zy The sign convention for the stress elements is that a
positive force on a positive face or a negative force
xz yz z
on a negative face is positive. All others are negative.

The stress state is a second order tensor since it is a quantity associated with two
directions (two subscripts direction of the surface normal and direction of the stress).
Same state of stress is represented by a different set of components if axes are rotated.
There is a special set of components (when axes are rotated) where all the shear
components are zero (principal stresses).
A property of a symmetric tensor is that there exists an orthogonal set of axes 1, 2 and
3 (called principal axes) with respect to which the tensor elements are all zero except
for those in the diagonal.
x yx zx 1 0 0
' = ij' = 0 2 0
= ij = xy y zy
xz yz z Eigen values 0 0 3

In matrix notation the transformation is known as the Eigen-values.
The principal stresses are the new-axes coordinate system. The angles between the
old-axes and the new-axes are known as the Eigen-vectors.

Cosine of angle Cosine of angle Cosine of angle

between X and the between Y and the between Z and the
principal stress principal stress principal stress principal stress

1 k1 l1 m1
2 k2 l2 m2
3 k3 l3 m3
 Plane Stress
State of stress in which two faces of the cubic element are free of stress. For the
illustrated example, the state of stress is defined by
x , y , xy and z = zx = zy = 0.

Sign Conventions for Shear Stress and Strain

The Shear Stress will be considered

positive when a pair of shear stress
acting on opposite sides of the
element produce a counterclockwise
(ccw) torque (couple).
A shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces
(or two negative faces) is reduced, and is negative if the angle is increased.
1

2
2 1

xx yx 0 x1x1 y1x1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0
xy yy x1 y1 y1 y1 0 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Stresses on Inclined Sections
Knowing the normal and shear stresses acting in the element denoted by the xy axes,
we will calculate the normal and shear stresses acting in the element denoted by the
axis x1y1.
y
y1 x1

x

x1
Equilibrium of forces:
x x1y Acting in x1
1
xy
yx
y
AO Sin Sin
X1 = X cos AO + XY sin AO + Y Sin AO + YX cos AO
cos Cos Cos
 Eliminating Ao , sec = 1/cos and
xy=yx

X 1 = X cos 2 + Y sin 2 + 2 XY sin cos

Y 1 = X sin 2 + Y cos 2 2 XY sin cos
Acting in y1

x1y1Aosec = xAosin + xyAocos + yAotancos yxAotansin

Eliminating Ao , sec = 1/cos and xy=yx

x1 y1 = x sin cos + y sin cos + xy (cos 2 sin 2 )

 Transformation Equations for Plane Stress
Using the following trigonometric identities:
Cos2 = (1+ cos 2) x + y x y
Sin = (1- cos 2)
2 x1 = + cos 2 + xy sin 2
Sin cos = sin 2 2 2
x +y x y
y1 = cos 2 xy sin 2
2 2
x y
x1 y1 = sin 2 + xy cos 2
2

These equations are known as the transformation equations for plane stress.
 x + y x y
Special Cases x1 = + cos 2 + xy sin 2
2 2
x y
Case 1: Uniaxial stress x1 y1 = sin 2 + xy cos 2
2
y = 0 xy = yx = 0
1 + Cos 2
x1 = x Case 3: Biaxial stress
2
xy = 0
Sin 2
x1, y1 = x x + y x y
2 x1 = + Cos 2
2 2
x y
x1, y1 = Sin 2
Case 2 : Pure Shear 2

x =y = 0
x1 = xy Sin 2
x1, y1 = xy Cos 2
An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses x=16000psi, y=6000psi, and
xy=yx= 4000psi (as shown in figure below). Determine the stresses acting on an
element inclined at an angle =45o (counterclockwise - ccw).

Solution: We will use the following transformation equations:

x +y x y
x1 = + cos 2 + xy sin 2
2 2
x +y x y
y1 = cos 2 xy sin 2
2 2
x y
x1 y1 = sin 2 + xy cos 2
2
 x +y (16000 + 6000) = 11000 psi
Numerical substitution =
2 2
For x-axis = +450 (ccw)
x y (16000 6000) = 5000 psi
( )
Sin(2 ) = Sin 900 = 1
2
=
2
Cos (2 ) = Cos (90 ) = 0
0
xy = 4000 psi
For y-axis = +450 + 900 (ccw) x1 = 11000 + 5000(0) + 4000(1) = 15000 psi
(
Sin(2 ) = Sin 2700 = 1 ) y1 = 11000 5000(0) 4000(1) = 7000 psi
(
Cos (2 ) = Cos 2700 = 0 ) x1 y1 = 5000(1) + 4000(0) = 5000 psi

Note: x + y = x1 + y1
 A plane stress condition exists at a point on the surface of a loaded structure such as
shown below. Determine the stresses acting on an element that is oriented at a
clockwise (cw) angle of 15o with respect to the original element, the principal
stresses, the maximum shear stress and the angle of inclination for the principal
stresses
Solution: We will use the following transformation equations:
+y x y
x1 = x + cos 2 + xy sin 2
2 2
x y
x1 y 1 = sin 2 + xy cos 2
2
For x-axis = 150 (cw)
( )
Sin(2 ) = Sin 300 = 0.5
( )
Cos (2 ) = Cos 300 = 0.866
x +y
=
( 46 + 12) = 17 MPa
2 2 x + y = x1 + y1
x y ( 46 12)
= = 29 MPa y1 = 1.4 MPa
2 2
xy = 19MPa
x1 = ( 17 ) + ( 29 )(0.866) + ( 19)( 0.5) = 32.6MPa
x1 y1 = ( 29)( 0.5) + ( 19)(0.866) = 31MPa
 A rectangular plate of dimensions 3.0 in x 5.0 in is formed by welding two
triangular plates (see figure). The plate is subjected to a tensile stress of 600psi
in the long direction and a compressive stress of 250psi in the short direction.
Determine the normal stress sw acting perpendicular to the line or the weld and the shear stress
tw acting parallel to the weld. (Assume sw is positive when it acts in tension and tw is positive
when it acts counterclockwise against the weld).
Solution: x +y x y
= 175 psi = 425 psi xy = 0 psi
2 2
x1 = 375 psi x1 y1 = 375 psi
y1 = 25 psi
y
x + y = x1 + y1 25psi -375psi 375psi
y1 = 25 psi
= 30.96o
3
For x-axis tan =
5
x
= 30.960 2 = 61.920
Stresses acting on the weld
25psi
w

w 375psi
= 30.96o w = -25psi and w = 375psi
 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stresses
The sum of the normal stresses acting on perpendicular faces of plane stress
elements is constant and independent of the angle .
X 1 = X cos 2 + Y sin 2 + 2 XY sin cos
Y 1 = X sin 2 + Y cos 2 2 XY sin cos
X 1 + Y1 = X + Y
As we change the angle there will be maximum and minimum normal and
shear stresses that are needed for design purposes.

x +y x y
The maximum and minimum normal x1 = + cos 2 + xy sin 2
2 2
stresses are known as the principal
x1
stresses. These stresses are found by = ( x y ) sin 2 + 2 xy cos 2 = 0
taking the derivative of x1 with respect
to and setting equal to zero. xy
tan 2 P =
x y

2
The subscript p indicates that the angle p defines the orientation of the principal
planes. The angle p has two values that differ by 90o. They are known as the principal
angles. For one of these angles x1 is a maximum principal stress and for the other a
minimum. The principal stresses occur in mutually perpendicular planes.
xy
tan 2 P =
( x y )
2
xy ( x y )
sin 2 P = cos2 P =
R 2R
x + y x y
x1 = + cos 2 + xy sin 2
2 2
for the maximum stress = P
2
x + y x y x y + y x y 1
+ ( xy )2
1
1 = + + xy xy = x +
2 2 2R R 2 2 R R
x + y 1 x y
2

1 = + + ( xy ) 2

2 R
2
2 2
x y x + y x y
But R = + ( xy )2 1 = + + ( xy )2
2 2 2
 Principal Stresses
2 The plus sign gives the algebraically
x + y x y
1 = + + ( xy )2 = Average + R larger principal stress and the minus
2 2 sign the algebraically smaller principal
2 stress.
x + y x y
2 = + ( xy )2 = Average R This are the in-plane principal
2 2 stresses. The third stress is zero in
plane stress conditions

Maximum Shear Stresses

The location of the angle for the maximum shear stress is obtained by taking the
derivative of x1y1 with respect to and setting it equal to zero.

x y x1 y1
x1 y1 = sin 2 + xy cos 2 = ( x y ) cos 2 2 xy sin 2 = 0
2
( x y )
tan 2 S = 2
xy
 xy ( x y )
cos 2 s1 = sin 2 s1 = and s1 = P1 450
R 2R
Therefore, 2s-2p=-90o or s= p +/- 45o
The planes for maximum shear ( x y ) 1
stress occurs at 45o to the principal tan 2 S = = = cot 2 P
2 xy tan 2 P
planes. The plane of the maximum
positive shear stress max is defined sin 2 S
=
(
cos 2 P sin 90 o 2 P
= =
sin 2 P 90 o ) ( )
by the angle S1 for which the cos 2 S sin 2 P cos 90 2 P
o
( cos 2 P 90 o ) ( )
following equations apply:
2
x y
MAX = + ( xy ) = R
2
The corresponding maximum shear is given
by the equation 2

Another expression for the maximum shear ( 1 2 )

stress MAX =
2

( + y )
AVER =
x
The normal stresses associated with the
maximum shear stress are equal to 2
 Equations of a Circle
x +y x y
General equation x1 = + cos 2 + xy sin 2
2 2
x y
Consider x1 AVER = cos 2 + xy sin 2
2
2
x y
Equation (1) ( x1 AVER )2 =
cos 2 + xy sin 2
2
x y
x1 y1 = sin 2 + xy cos 2
2
2
x y
Equation (2) ( )
x1 y1
2
= sin 2 + xy cos 2
2

Equation (1) + Equation (2)

 2 2
x y x y
( x1 AVER )2 + ( x1 y1 )2 = cos 2 + xy sin 2 + sin 2 + xy cos 2
2 2
2 2
x y x y y
cos 2 + xy sin 2 = cos 2 2 + ( xy )2 sin 2 2 + 2 x ( xy )sin 2 cos 2
2 2 2
2 2
x y x y y
sin 2 + xy cos 2 = sin 2 2 + ( xy )2 cos 2 2 2 x ( xy )sin 2 cos 2
2 2 2
2
x y
SUM = + ( xy )2 = R 2
2

( x1 AVER ) + ( x1 y1 ) = R 2
2 2
 Mohr Circle
The radius of the Mohr circle is the
magnitude R.

x + y 2
x y
+ ( xy )2

2 R =
C 2
2P

2 x
R = x y
+ ( xy )
2
The center of the Mohr circle is the
2
y magnitude

( + y )
AVER =
x

2
x y
( x1 AVER ) + ( x1 y1 ) = + ( xy )2
2 2
State of Stresses
2
 Alternative sign conversion for shear
stresses:
(a)clockwise shear stress,
(b)counterclockwise shear stress, and
(c) axes for Mohrs circle.

Note that clockwise shear stresses are

plotted upward and counterclockwise
shear stresses are plotted downward.

Forms of Mohrs Circle

a) We can plot the normal stress x1 positive to the right and the shear stress
x1y1 positive downwards, i.e. the angle 2 will be positive when
counterclockwise or
b) We can plot the normal stress x1 positive to the right and the shear stress x1y1
positive upwards, i.e. the angle 2 will be positive when clockwise.
Both forms are mathematically correct. We use (a)
Two forms of Mohrs circle:

x1y1 is positive downward and the angle 2 is

positive counterclockwise, and

x1y1 is positive upward and the angle 2 is positive

clockwise. (Note: The first form is used here)
Construction of Mohrs circle for plane stress.
 At a point on the surface of a pressurized cylinder, the
material is subjected to biaxial stresses x = 90MPa and y =
20MPa as shown in the element below.
Using the Mohr circle, determine the stresses acting on an
element inclined at an angle = 30o (Sketch a properly
oriented element). ( = 90MPa, = 20MPa and = 0MPa)
x y xy

Because the shear stress is zero,

these are the principal stresses.
Construction of the Mohrs circle
The center of the circle is

Average =
( x + y ) (90 + 20 )
= = 55MPa
2 2

The radius
of the circle
2 is
90 20
2

+ ( xy )

+ (0 ) = 35MPa
2 2
R = x y
=
2 2
Stresses on an element inclined at = 30o
By inspection of the circle, the coordinates of point D are
x1 = Average + R Cos 600 = 55 + 35 Cos 60 = 72.5MPa
x1 y1 = R Sin60o = 35(Sin60o ) = 30.3MPa
y1 = Average R Cos 600 = 55 35 Cos 60 = 37.5MPa
 An element in plane stress at the surface of a large
machine is subjected to stresses x = 15000psi, y =
5000psi and xy = 4000psi.
Using the Mohrs circle determine the following:
a) The stresses acting on an element inclined at an
angle = 40o
b) The principal stresses and
c) The maximum shear stresses.

Construction of Mohrs circle:

Average =
( x +y)
=
(15000 + 5000) = 10000 psi
Center of the circle (Point C): 2 2
2
x y
2
15000 5000
+ ( xy ) = + (4000 ) = 6403 psi
2 2
R =
Radius of the circle: 2 2

Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element ( = 0o) has the
coordinates x1 = 15000psi and x1y1 = 4000psi

Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element ( = 90o) has the
coordinates y1 = 5000psi and y1x1 = - 4000psi
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R
 Stresses on an element inclined at
= 40o
These are given by the coordinates of
point D which is at an angle 2 = 80o
from point A

By inspection the angle ACP1 for

the principal stresses (point P1) is :
( )
tan ACP1 =
4000
5000
ACP1 = 38.66o

Then, the angle P1CD is 80o

38.66o = 41.34o

Knowing this angle, we can calculate the coordinates of point D (by inspection)
x1 = Average + R Cos 41.34o = 10000 + 6403 Cos 41.34o = 14810 psi
x1 y1 = R Sin 41.34o = 6403(Sin 41.34o ) = 4230 psi
y1 = Average R Cos 41.34o = 10000 6403 Cos 41.34o = 5190 psi
And of course, the sum of the normal stresses is
14810psi + 5190psi = 15000psi + 5000psi
Principal Stresses
The principal stresses are represented by
points P1 and P2 on Mohrs circle.
The angle it was found to be 2 = 38.66o
or = 19.3o
1 = Average + R = 10000 + 6403 = 16403 psi
2 = Average R = 10000 6403 = 3597 psi
Maximum Shear Stresses
These are represented by point S1 and S2 in Mohrs circle. Algebraically the
maximum shear stress is given by the radius of the circle.
The angle ACS1 from point A to point S1 is 2 S1 = 51.34o. This angle is negative
because is measured clockwise on the circle. Then the corresponding S1 value is
25.7o.
 15000 4000 0 16403 0 0
3-D stress state Psi Transform to 0 Psi
4000 5000 0 3597 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

In matrix notation the transformation is known as the Eigen-values.

The principal stresses are the new-axes coordinate system. The angles between
the old-axes and the new-axes are known as the Eigen-vectors.

Cosine of angle Cosine of angle Cosine of angle

between X and the between Y and the between Z and the
principal stress principal stress principal stress principal stress
16403.1242 0.94362832 0.331006939 0
3596.876 -0.33101 0.943628 0
0 0 0 1
At a point on the surface of a generator shaft the stresses are
x = -50MPa, y = 10MPa and xy = - 40MPa as shown in the
figure. Using Mohrs circle determine the following:
(a)Stresses acting on an element inclined at an angle = 45o,
(b)The principal stresses and
(c)The maximum shear stresses

Construction of Mohrs circle Average =

( x +y)
=
( 50) + (10) = 20MPa
Center of the circle (Point C): 2 2

( 50 ) (10 )
2
x y
2

+ ( xy ) = + ( 40 ) = 50 MPa
2 2
R =
Radius of the circle:. 2 2

Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element ( = 0o) has the
coordinates x1 = -50MPa and x1y1 = - 40MPa
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element ( = 90o) has the
coordinates y1 = 10MPa and y1x1 = 40MPa
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R.
 Stresses on an element
inclined at = 45o
These stresses are given by
the coordinates of point D
(2 = 90o of point A). To
calculate its magnitude we
need to determine the angles
ACP2 and P2CD.

tan ACP2=40/30=4/3
ACP2=53.13o
P2CD = 90o 53.13o = 36.87o

Then, the coordinates of point D are

x1 = Average + R Cos36.87o = ( 20) + 50 Cos36.87 o = 60 MPa
x1 y1 = R Sin36.87 o = 50(Sin36.87 o ) = 30MPa
y1 = Average R Cos36.87 o = ( 20 ) + 50 Cos36.87 o = 20 MPa
And of course, the sum of the normal stresses is -50MPa+10MPa = -60MPa +20MPa
Principal Stresses
They are represented by points P1 and
P2 on Mohrs circle.
1 = Average + R = 20 + 50 = 30 MPa
2 = Average R = 20 50 = 70 MPa 143.13o or = 71.6o .
The angle ACP1 is 2P1 = 180o + 53.13o
= 233.13o or P1 = 116.6o
The angle ACP2 is 2P2 = 53.13o or P2
= 26.6o
Maximum Shear Stresses
These are represented by point S1 and S2
in Mohrs circle.
The angle ACS1 is 2S1 = 90o + 53.13o =
The magnitude of the maximum shear
stress is 50MPa and the normal stresses
corresponding to point S1 is the average
stress -20MPa.
 50 40 0 30 0 0
3-D stress state 40 10 0 MPa Transform to 0 70 0 MPa

0 0 0 0 0 0

In matrix notation the transformation is known as the Eigen-values.

The principal stresses are the new-axes coordinate system. The angles between
the old-axes and the new-axes are known as the Eigen-vectors.
Cosine of angle Cosine of angle Cosine of angle
between X and the between Y and the between Z and the
principal stress principal stress principal stress principal stress
30 -0.44721359 0.894427193 0
-70 0.894427 0.447214 0
0 0 0 1
 Hookes Law for Plane Stress
The stress transformations equations were derived solely from equilibrium
conditions and they are material independent.
Here the material properties will be considered (strain) taking into account the
following:
a)The material is uniform throughout the body (homogeneous)
b)The material has the same properties in all directions (isotropic)
c)The material follows Hookes law (linearly elastic material)
Hookes law: Linear relationship between stress and strain
For uniaxial stress:
(E = modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus)
= E
lateral strain transverse
Poissons ratio: = axial strain =
longitudinal

For pure shear : (G = Shear modulus of elasticity) = G

 Element of material in plane stress (z = 0).

Consider the normal strains x, y, z in plane

stress.
All are shown with positive elongation.

The strains can be expressed in terms of the x y

stresses by superimposing the effect of the
x =
E E
individual stresses.
For instance the strain x in the x direction: x y
y = +
a)Due to the stress x is equal to x/E. E E
b)Due to the stress y is equal to y/E.
x y
The resulting strain is: z =
E E
 The shear stress causes a distortion of the element
such that each z face becomes a rhombus.
XY
XY =
G
The normal stresses x and y have no
effect on the shear strain xy

x y x y x y XY
x = y = + z = XY =
E E E E E E G
or rearranging the equations:
E x E y E x E y
x = + Y = + + XY = G XY
(
1 2
) (
1 2 ) (1 ) (1 )
2 2

These equations are known collectively as Hookes Law for plane stress
These equations contain three material constants (E, G and ) but only two are
independent because of the relationship:

E
G=
2(1 + )
 Special cases of Hookes law (z = 0)
Uniaxial stress : Pure Shear :
y = 0 xy = 0 x =y = 0
x x xy
x = y = z =
E E x = y = z = 0 xy =
G
xy = 0
Biaxial stress :
x y x y x y
x = - y = + z = -
E E E E E E

Volume Change
When a solid object undergoes strains, both its
dimensions and its volume will change.
Consider an object of dimensions a, b, c. The
original volume is Vo = abc and its final volume is
V1 = (a + ax) (b + by) (c + cz)
V1= abc (1+x) (1+y) (1+z)
Upon expanding the terms:
V1 = Vo (1 + x + y + z + xy + xz + yz + xyz)
For small strains:
V1 = Vo (1 + x + y + z )
The volume change is
V = V1 Vo = Vo ( x + y + z )
The unit volume change e, also known as dilatation is defines as:
e = V / Vo = x + y + z
Positive strains are considered for elongations and negative strains for
shortening, i.e. positive values of e for an increase in volume.
x y x y x y
x = y = + z =
E E E E E E
V (1 2 ) (1 2 )
e= = ( x + y ) For uniaxial stress y = 0 e =x
V E E

We can notice that the maximum possible value of Poissons ratio is 0.5, because a
larger value means that the volume decreases when the material is in tension
(contrary to physical behavior).
 STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY IN PLANE STRESS
The strain energy density u is the strain energy stored in a unit volume of the
material.Because the normal and shear strains occur independently, we can add the
strain energy of these two elements to obtain the total energy.
Work done = Force x distance
Work done in the x - direction =
( x )(bc ) (a )
x
2
Work done in the y - direction =
( )(ac ) (b )
y
y
2

The sum of the energies due to normal stresses: abc

U= ( x x + y y )
2
u1 = ( x x + y y )
Then the strain energy density (strain per unit volume) 1
2

Similarly, the strain energy density associated with the 1

u2 = xy xy
shear strain: 2

By combining the strain energy densities for the normal u=

1
( x x + y y + xy xy )
and shear strains: 2
The strain energy density in terms X2 Y2 X Y XY
2
u= + +
of stress alone: 2E 2E E 2G
The strain energy density in terms
of strain alone:
u=
(
E
2 1 2
2
X +
) (
2
Y 2
X Y +
G 2
2
XY )
For the special case of uniaxial stress: For the special case of pure shear:
y = 0 xy = 0 y = x xy = 0 x = 0 y = 0 y = x = 0
x2 E x2 xy2 G xy2
u= or u= u= or u=
2E 2 2G 2

TRIAXIAL STRESS
An element of the material subjected to normal
stresses x, y and z acting in three mutually
perpendicular directions is said to be in a state
of triaxial stress. Since there is no shear in x, y
or z faces then the stresses x, y and z are
the principal stresses in the material.
If an inclined plane parallel to the z-axis is cut through the element, the only stress
of the inclined face are the normal stress and the shear stress , both of which act
parallel to the xy plane.
Because these stresses are independent of the z, we can use
the transformation equations of plane stress, as well as the
Mohrs circle for plane stress, when determining the stresses
and in triaxial stress.
The same general conclusion hold for normal and shear stresses
acting on inclined planes cut through the element parallel to the
x and y axes.
Maximum Shear Stress For a material in triaxial stress, the maximum shear stresses
occur on elements oriented at angles of 45o to the x, y and z
axes.
X Y
for the inclined plane // z-axis ( MAX )Z =
2
Y Z
for the inclined plane // x-axis ( MAX ) X =
2
X Z
for the inclined plane // y-axis ( MAX )Y =
2
The absolute maximum of the shear stress is the numerically largest of the above.
The stresses acting on elements oriented at
various angles to the x, y and z axes can be
visualized with the aid of the Mohrs
circle.

In this case x > y > z

 Hookes Law for Triaxial Stress
If Hookes law is obeyed, it is possible to obtain the x y z
x =
relationship between normal stresses and normal strains E E E
using the same procedure as for plane stress. x y z
y = +
E E E
Or y
x z
z = +
x =
E
(1 + )(1 2 )
[(1 ) x + y + z ] E E E

y =
E
(1 + )(1 2 )
[ x + (1 ) y + z ] They are known as the
Hookes law for triaxial
z =
E
(1 + )(1 2 )
[ x + y + (1 ) z ] stress.

Unit Volume Change V

e= = X + Y + Z
The unit volume change (or dilatation) for an VO
element in triaxial stress is obtained in the
same manner as for plane stress.
If Hooke' s laws apply, then
V (1 2 )
e= = ( X + Y + Z )
VO E
 Strain Energy Density
The strain energy density for an x x y y z z
element in triaxial stress is
u= + +
2 2 2
obtained by the same method In terms of stresses :
used for plane stress.

u=
1
2E
( )
x2 + y2 + z2 - ( x y + x z + y z )
E
In terms of the strains:

u=
E
2(1 + )(1 2 )
[ ( ) ]
(1 ) x2 + y2 + z2 + 2 ( x y + x z + y z )
Spherical Stress
A special case of triaxial stress, called spherical stress, occurs x = y = z = 0
whenever all three normal stresses are equal:
The Mohrs circle is reduced to a single point. Any plane cut through the element
will be free of shear stress and will be subjected to the same normal stress so and
it is a principal plane.
O
The normal strains in spherical stress are also O = (1 2 ) The volume change
E
the same in all directions, provided the material
is isotropic and if Hookes law applies: e = 3 O = 3 O
(1 2 )
E

Element in spherical stress.
K = bulk or volume modulus of elasticity
E 0
K= K=
3(1 2 ) e
If = 1/3 then K = E
If = 0 then K = E/3
If = 1/2 then K = infinite (rigid material having no
change in volume)
These formulas also apply to and element in uniform compression,
for example rock deep within the earth or material submerged in
water (hydrostatic stress).
 PLAIN STRAIN
Strains are measured by strain gages.
A material is said to be in a state of plain strain if the only deformations are those
in the xy plane, i.e. it has only three strain components x, y and xy.
Plain stress is analogous to plane stress, but under ordinary conditions they do
not occur simultaneously
Exception when x = -y and when = 0

Strain components x, y, and xy in the

xy plane (plane strain).
Comparison of plane stress and plane strain.
 APPLICATION OF THE TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS
The transformation equations for plane stress are valid even when z is not zero,
because z does not enter the equations of equilibrium.Therefore, the
transformations equations for plane stress can also be used for stresses in plane
strain.
Similarly, the strain transformation equations that will be derived for the case of
plain strain in the xy plane are valid even when z is not zero, because the strain z
does not affect the geometric relationship used for the derivation.Therefore, the
transformations equations for plane strain can also be used for strains in plane
stress.
Transformation Equations for Plain Strain

We will assume that the strain x, y and xy

associated with the xy plane are known.
We need to determine the normal and shear strains
(x1 and x1y1) associated with the x1y1 axis. y1 can
be obtained from the equation of x1 by substituting
+90 for .
For an element of size dx, dy
In the x direction:
the strain x produces an elongation x dx.
The diagonal increases in length by x dx cos .

In the y direction:
the strain y produces an elongation y dy.
The diagonal increases in length by y dy sin .

The shear strain xy in the plane xy produces a

distortion of the element such that the angle at the
lower left corner decreases by an amount equal to
the shear strain. Consequently, the upper face
moves to the right by an amount xy dy. This
deformation results in an increase in the length of
the diagonal equal to: xy dy cos
 The total increase of the diagonal is the sum of the preceding three expressions,
thus: d = dx(Cos ) + dy (Sin ) + dy (Cos )
x y xy

d dx dy dy
But x1 = = x (Cos ) + y (Sin ) + xy (Cos )
ds ds ds ds
dx dy
= Cos = Sin
ds ds
x 1 = x Cos 2 + y Sin 2 + xy Sin Cos
Shear Strain x1y1 associated with x1y1 axes.

This strain is equal to the decrease in angle

between lines in the material that were initially
along the x1 and y1 axes.
Oa and Ob were the lines initially along the x1 and
y1 axis respectively. The deformation caused by
the strains x, y and xy caused the Oa and Ob lines
to rotate and angle and from the x1 and y1 axis
respectively. The shear strain x1y1 is the decrease
in angle between the two lines that originally were
at right angles, therefore, x1y1=+.
The angle can be found from the deformations
produced by the strains x, y and xy . The strains
x and xy produce a clockwise rotation, while the
strain y produces a counterclockwise rotation.

Let us denote the angle of rotation produced by

x , y and xy as 1 , 2 and 3 respectively.
dx dx dy
1 = x Sin = Cos = Sin
ds ds ds
dy
2 = y Cos
ds
dy
1 = xy Sin
ds
= 1 + 2 3 = ( x y )SinCos xy Sin 2
The rotation of line Ob which initially
was at 90o to the line Oa can be found = ( x y )Sin( + 90)Cos( + 90) + xy Sin 2 ( + 90)
by substituting +90 for in the
= ( x y )SinCos + xyCos 2
expression for . Because is positive
when clockwise. Thus:
xy
x1 y1 = + = ( x y )SinCos +
2
[Cos Sin ]
2 2

Transformation Equations for Plain Strain

Using the following trigonometric
identities:
x1 =
(
x + y
+
) (
x y
cos 2 +
xy )
sin 2
Cos2 = (1+ Cos 2) 2 2 2
Sin = (1- Cos 2)
2

Sin cos = Sin 2

x1 y 1
=
x y(sin 2 +
)
xy
cos 2
2 2 2

In var iant = x + y = x1 + y1
Average =
( x +y)
2
 PRINCIPAL STRAINS
xy
The angle for the principal strains is : 2 xy
tan 2 P == =
( x y) x y
The value for the principal strains are 2

1 =
( x +y) x y
+
2
xy
+
2

2 2 2

2 =
( x +y) x y

2
xy
+
2

2 2 2
Maximum Shear
The maximum shear strains in 2 2
the xy plane are associated with Max = + x y xy
+ or Max = (1 2 )
axes at 45o to the directions of 2 2 2
the principal strains

For isotropic materials, at a given point in an stressed body, the principal strains
and principal stresses occur in the same directions.
 MOHRS CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN
x x
It is constructed in the same manner y
as the Mohrs circle for plane stress y

with the following similarities: xy xy 2
x1 x1
x1 y1 x1 y1
2
 Strain Measurements
An electrical-resistance strain gage is a device for measuring normal strains () on
the surface of a stressed object.
The gages are small (less than inch) made of wires that are bonded to the surface of the object. Each
gage that is stretched or shortened when the object is strained at the point, changes its electrical
resistance. This change in resistance is converted into a measurement of strain.
From three measurements it is possible to calculate the strains in any direction. A
group of three gages arranged in a particular pattern is called a strain rosette.
Because the rosette is mounted in the surface of the body, where the material is in
plane stress, we can use the transformation equations for plane strain to calculate the
strains in various directions.

45 strain rosette, and element oriented at

an angle to the xy axes.
General Equations

Other Strain Rosette

 An element of material in plane strain undergoes the following strains: x=340x10-6
; y = 110x10-6 ; xy = 180x10-6 . Determine the following quantities:
(a) the strains of an element oriented at an angle = 30o ;
(b) the principal strains and
(c) the maximum shear strains.

(a) Element oriented at an angle

= 30o (2 = 60o)

x1 =
( x +y) (
cos 2 +
+ x y)
sin 2
xy
2 2 2
340 + 110 340 110 180
x1 = + Cos 60 + Sin 60 10 6
2 2 2
x + y = x1 + y1
x1 = 360 10 6
340 + 110 = 360 + y1
x1 y 1
=
( x y)
cos 2
sin 2 +
xy
y1 = 90
2 2 2
x1 y 1 340 110 180
= Sin 60 + Cos 60 10 6 = 55 10 6
2 2 2

Average = 225
 (b) Principal Strains and Angle of Rotation
xy
1, 2 =
( x +y) y
x
2
xy
+
2
tan 2 P = =
55
= 0.7826
x y 340 110
2 2 2
P = 19 0
2 2
340 110 180
1 = 225 + + = 370
2 2
2 2
340 110 180
2 = 225 + = 80
2 2
(c) In-Plane Maximum Shear Strain
2 2
x y xy
2 2
Max 340 - 110 180
= + + = + = 145
2 2 2 2 2
Max = (1 2 ) = 370 80 = 290

Average = 225

(d) Out-of-Plane Maximum Shear Strain

Max = (1 3 ) = 370 0 = 370

 Transformation Equations
XY
X 1 = X cos 2 + Y sin 2 + 2 sin cos
2
XY
Y1 = X sin 2
+ Y cos 2
2 sin cos
2
X 1Y 1 XY
2
= X sin cos + Y sin cos +
2
(cos 2
sin 2 )

cos 2

X1
X sin 2 2 sin cos

= [T ]
Y1 Y
[T ] = sin 2 cos 2 2 sin cos
X 1Y 1
2
XY
2
sin cos
sin cos (
cos 2 sin 2 )




X
X1
= [T ]1
X1 cos 2
sin
2
2 sin cos X
Y Y1
XY X 1Y 1 = sin 2 cos 2

2 sin cos Y
2 2 Y1
X 1Y 1 sin cos sin cos ( )
cos sin XY
2 2

2 2
 For =30 degrees

X1 2 sin 30 cos 30 X

2 2
cos 30 sin 30
= sin 2 30
cos 2
30 2 sin 30 cos 30 Y
Y1

(
X 1Y 1 sin 30 cos 30 sin 30 cos 30 cos 30 sin 30 XY
2 2
)
2 2


X 1 0.75 0.25 0.876 340 361.3
= 0.25 0. 75 0 .876 110 = 88.6
Y1
X 1Y 1 0.438 0.438 0.5 90 55.8
2
 1 1
xx 2
yx
2
zx
1 1
[ ] = xy yy zy = Strain _ Tensor
2 2
1 1
yz zz
2 xz 2
Example
1 1
xx 2
yx
2
zx
340 180 0
1 2
1 180
[ ] = xy yy zy = 2 110 0
2 2
1 1 0 0 0
yz zz
2 xz
2
371 0 0
Eigen _ Values 0 79 0
0 0 0
A 45o strain rosette (rectangular rosette) consists of three electrical-resistance strain gages,
arranged to measure strains in two perpendicular directions and also at a 45o angle (as shown
below). The rosette is bonded to the surface of the structure before it is loaded. Gages A, B and
C measure the normal strains a, b and c in the directions of the lines Oa, Ob and Oc,
respectively.
Explain how to obtain the strains x1, y1 and x1y1, associated with an element oriented at an
angle to the xy axes.

a = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + xy 2 sin cos
2

Angles with respect to x-axis: (a) is zero ; (b) is

45 degrees CCW ; (c) 90 degrees CCW

a = x cos 2 0 + y sin 2 0 + xy 2 sin 0 cos 0
2 x = a

b = x cos 2 45 + y sin 2 45 + xy (2 sin 45 cos 45 ) y = b
2
xy = 2 b a c
b = x cos 90 + y sin 90 + xy
2 2
(2 sin 90 cos 90 )
2
 The following results are obtained from a 600 strain gauge
rosette:
Strain in direction of strain gauge A = 750;
Strain in direction of SG B, 600 to A = 350;
Strain in direction of SG C, 1200 to A = 100 .
Determine the principal strains and their directions.
a = x = 750

b = x cos 2 60 + y sin 2 60 + xy (2 sin 60 cos 60 )
2 y = 50

b = x (0 . 25 ) + y (0 . 75 ) + xy (0 . 433 ) xy = 289
2

b = x cos 2 120 + y sin 2 120 + xy (2 sin 120 cos 120 )
2

b = x (0 . 25 ) + y (0 . 75 ) + xy ( 0 . 433 )
2
 1 1
xx 2
yx
2
zx
750 289 0
2
1 1 289
[ ] = xy yy zy =
2
50 0
2 2
1 1 0 0 0
yz zz
2 xz
2
779 0 0
ArcCos(angle)=0.981
Eigen _ Values 0 21 0
0 0 0 Angle =11.2degress

0.981 0.1945 0
Eigen _ Vectors 0.1945 0.981 0
0 0 1
 (A) Using the transformation equations define the maximum and minimum
principal strains, maximum shearing strain and principal angles given
X = 3500 ; Y = 700 and XY = -1050
(B) Repeat using the Mohrs circle.
ArcCos(angle)=0.984
3500 1050 0
2 Angle =10.28degress
[ ] = 1050 2 700 0
(c) In-Plane Maximum Shear Strain
0 0 0
Max = (1 2 ) = 3595.2 604.8 = 2990.4
3595.2 0 0
Eigen _ Values 0 604.8 0
0 0 0
0.984 0.178 0
Eigen _ Vectors 0.178 0.984 0
0 0 1

(d) Out-of-Plane Maximum Shear Strain

Max = (1 3 ) = 3595.2 0 = 3595.2
 The state of stress at a point in a structural member is determined to be as shown.
Knowing that for this material E=210GPa and =0.3, use the Mohrs circle to
determine: (1) the principal stresses; (2) the in-plane maximum shear stress; (3) the
absolute maximum shear stress; (4) principal angles; (5) the strains and the principal
strains; (6) the maximum shear strain; (7) the principal angles.
14MPa
1. Principal Stresses
2
+ y x y
1, 2 + ( xy ) = Average R
2
= x
y 11.2MPa
2 2
56MPa
56 ( 14 )
2
x
+ (11.2 ) = 23.8MPa
2
R=
2
56 + ( 14 )
Average = = 35MPa
2 1 = 0MPa
1 = 35 + 23.8 = 11.2 MPa 2 = 11.2 MPa
2 = 35 23.8 = 58.8MPa 3 = 58.8MPa
56 11.2 0 0 0 0
[ ] = Stress _ Tensor = 11.2 14 0 MPa Eigen _ Values 0 11.2 0 MPa
0 0 0 0 0 58.8
 2. In-Plane Maximum Shear Stress Max = R = 23.8MPa
3. The Absolute Maximum Shear Stress (Out of plane)
1 3 0 ( 58.8)
Max = = = 29.4 MPa
2 2

4. Angle between the x-axis and the

Principal Stresses
xy 11.2
( In _ Plane) = tan (2 P ) = =
( x y ) ( 56 ( 14))
2 2
11.2
0 0 0 tan (2 P ) = = 0.533
21
Eigen _Vectors 0.2425 0.9701
0 2 P = 28.07 deg

0.9701 0.2425 1

For 1=0 For 2=-11.2MPa For 3=-58.8MPa

ArcCos(angle)=0.0 ArcCos(angle)=0.2425 ArcCos(angle)=0.9701
Angle =90degress Angle =76degress Angle =14degress
 5. Strains and Principal Strains
x y z x =
56
(0 . 3 )
14
= ( 266 . 6 + 20 ) = 246 . 6
x = 210000 210000
E E E
y 56 14
x z y = (0 . 3 ) + = (80 66 . 6 ) = 13 . 4
y = + 210000 210000
E E E
56 14
x y z z = (0 . 3 ) (0 . 3 ) = (80 + 20 ) = 100
z = + 210000 210000
E E E
XY xy 11.2 1, 2 =
( x +y) x y

2
xy
+
2

XY = xy = = = 139 2
G G 80770 2 2
E 210 1, 2 = Average R
G= = = 80.77GPa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0.3) ( 246.6 + 13.4) = 116.6
Average =
11 2
xx 22
yx
zx
246.6 139 0 2 2
1 1 2 246 . 6 13 .4 139
[ ] = xy yy zy = 139 2 13.4 0 R = + = 147.4
2 2 2 2
1 1 0 0 100
yz zz
1 = 30.8
2 xz
2
100 0 0 2 = 264
Eigen _ Values 0 30.8 0
0 0 264.0
 6. Maximum Shear Strain and Absolute Maximum Shear Strain
2 2
Max
(in _ plane ) = R = 246.6 13.4 + 139 = 147.4
2 2 2
Max = 294.8

Max 100 ( 264 )

(out _ of _ plane ) = 1 3 = = 182
2 2 2
Max = 364

7. In-plane and Out-of-plane angles

xy
tan 2 P == 2 =
xy
=
139
= 0.534 tan (2 P ) = 0.533
( y) x y ( 246 .6 13 .4 )
x
2 2 P = 28.07 deg

0 0
Eigen _Vectors 0.2425 0.9701 0
0.9701 0.2425 1
For 1=100
ArcCos(angle)=0.0
Angle =90degress
0
For 2=30.8 For 3=-264
ArcCos(angle)=0.2425 ArcCos(angle)=0.9701
Angle =76degress Angle =14degress