Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Faculty of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department
Submitted to:
Engr. Carol Encarnado
I. Introduction
Refractive Index
Refraction is a phenomenon occurring when a wave, like light, travels from one medium
to another in which it has a different speed of propagation. If the wave is in the form of light wave,
it is the bending of the path of the light as it passes the interface between two media and is due to
the change of its speed when it hits a different medium. The speed at which light passes through
the medium determines the direction of the bending of the light, while the optical density of the
medium directs light to speed up or slow down. A higher optical density causes light to decrease
in velocity.
The amount of bending described above depends on a value called the index of refraction.
Willebrord Snell, a Dutch mathematician, developed a law defining the value, which is related to
the ratio of the incident and the refracted angles as shown in Figure 1.
The index of refraction is defined as the bending power of a substance. The larger its value,
the more a substance is able to refract light. It is also defined as the speed of light in vacuum (c)
divided by the speed of light in the medium (v).
=
t-test
A t-test assesses whether the means of two groups of data are statistically different from
each other. This denotes whether or not the average of a group of data most likely reflects a real
difference in the population from which the group was sampled. This test is also normally used
when the sample size used is small, which is the case for the set of data to be used in this paper.
The t-test looks at the t-distribution and the degrees of freedom to determine a p value (probability)
that can be used to determine whether the population means differ. The degree of freedom is
defined as the sample size minus one for a single sample.
The t-test can also be used for a formal hypothesis testing that involves the correlation and
the correlation coefficient, r. When testing for the linear correlation, two methods can be applied.
One is a method where the test statistic is the t value given by the formula below:
where n is the number of data in the sample and n-2 is the degree of freedom. This method follows
the usual method of testing for the validity of hypothesis.
The other method for testing the linear correlation is one where the test statistic is r and
uses only tables to determine critical values that can validate the hypothesis. This method is the
one employed in this paper.
Modeling
A mathematical model is an abstract model that uses mathematical language to describe
the behaviour of a system. Eykhoff (1974) defined a mathematical model as 'a representation of
the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) which presents
knowledge of that system in usable form'. Mathematical modeling is done to represent the actual
behavior of observed variables and use this representation to predict future behaviors.
One type of a mathematical model is a statistical model. A statistical model results from a
collection of variables, each variable being a vector of readings of a specific trait on the samples
in an experiment. In a statistical model, the way that the dependent variable y depends on the
independent variable x is determined. It defines the mathematical relationship between the two
variables. These variables are also called response variable, y, and the explanatory variable, x. The
explanatory variable x can be more than one.
In this paper, the mathematical model that can represent the data, aside from the one
generated from the correlation, will be constructed.
III. Data
2 1 1
= ( 2)
2 + 1
wherein:
Rs = the specific refraction of a substance
n = the index of refraction of the substance
= the density of a substance at a given temperature
The molar refraction, Rm, is calculated by multiplying the specific refraction of a
substance by its average molecular weight. Hence,
2 1
= = 2 ( 3)
+1
IV. Hypothesis Testing
1. Relationship of molar refraction (Rm) and mole fraction of methanol and toluene
Null Hypothesis, Ho: = 0 (no significant linear correlation)
Alternative Hypothesis, H1: 0 (significant linear correlation)
Significance Level, = 0.05
Method for hypothesis testing: r test
Test Value: r
Using the program Microsoft Excel, the following results were generated applying the
regression analysis.
Regression Statistics
r 0.999
r2 0.999
Standard Error 0.342
n 11
Figure 1 shows the linear correlation coefficient, r, of the sample data is found outside
the boundary or the critical value.
Conclusion:
There is sufficient evidence to support the claim of a linear correlation between the
calculated molar refraction and mole fraction of methanol and toluene
After knowing there is linear correlation between molar refractive index and mole fraction of
methanol/toluene, the following graphs and corresponding regression equations were generated
using the data of the molar refractive index and the mole fraction of methanol/toluene.
50
45
CALCULATED RM 40
35
30
25
Calculated Rm
20
Linear (Calculated Rm)
15
10
5 y = -31.697x + 43.346
R = 0.999
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
XMEOH
Figure 2 shows the plot of the calculated molar refraction versus the molar fraction of methanol
in the methanol/toluene mixture.
50
45 y = 31.697x + 11.649
R = 0.999
40
35
Calculated Rm
30
25
Calculated
20 Rm
15
10 Linear
(Calculated
5 Rm)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Xtol
Figure 3 shows the plot of the calculated molar refraction versus the molar fraction of
toluene in the methanol/toluene mixture.
The regression equation for the relationship of Rm vs XMeOH is given by y = 43.346 31.697x,
and that of Rm vs XTol is expressed by y = 11.649 + 31.697x. Since there is a significant
correlation (r = 0.999) between the variables, these equations can later be used for the
prediction of the value of molar refraction given the molar ratio.
The coefficient of determination (r2) is the measure of the variation of the observed data to the
predicted values according to the fitted regression line. As noticed from the regression analysis,
the value of the coefficient of determination is 0.999. This means the linear model perfectly
fits the data. The standard error was also calculated and was found out to be 0.342 indicating
a small difference between the observed molar refraction and the predicted molar refraction
based on the regression model.
Regression Statistics
r 0.967462541
2
r 0.935983767
Standard Error 0.009092399
n 11
Decision:
Figure 4 shows the linear correlation coefficient, r, of the sample data is found outside
the boundary or the critical value.
Conclusion:
There is sufficient evidence to support the claim that a linear correlation exists between the
calculated specific refraction and mole fraction of methanol/toluene.
Like what was done previously, graphs and equations relating the specific refractivity and the molar
fraction of methanol/toluene was generated after verifying their linear correlation. As shown in figure 5,
the relationship between the specific refraction and the molar fraction of methanol is given by the equation
y= -0.1023x +0.4842, while between of specific refraction and mole fraction of toluene is given by y=
0.1023x +0.3819.
The coefficient of determination, r2, for the both equation is 0.936. Meaning, 93.6% of the variation
of the specific refraction can be explained by the linear relationship present between specific refraction and
the molar fraction of methanol/toluene. Meanwhile, 6.4% of the variation in specific refraction cannot be
explained by the molar fraction of methanol/toluene.
0.6
0.5 Calculated
Rs
CALCULATED RS
0.4
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
XMEOH
Figure 5 shows the plot of the calculated specific refraction versus the molar fraction of methanol in the
methanol/toluene mixture.
Calculated Rs vs Xtol
0.6
0.5
0.4
Calculated Rs
y = 0.1023x + 0.3819
R = 0.936
0.3 Calculated
Rs
0.2
Linear
0.1 (Calculated
Rs)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Xtol
Figure 6 shows the plot of the calculated specific refraction versus the molar fraction of
toluene in the methanol/toluene mixture.
V. References
Buechler, Steven. (2007). Statistical Models in R. Retrieved from
https://www3.nd.edu/~steve/Rcourse/Lecture7v1.pdf on May 31, 2016
Creative Research Systems. (2012). Correlation. Retrieved from
http://www.surveysystem.com/correlation.htm on May 31, 2016
HyperPhysics. (nd). Refraction of Light. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/geoopt/refr.html on May 31, 2016
Koohyar, F. (2013). Refractive Index and Its Applications. J Thermodyn Catal 4:e117. doi:
10.4172/2157-7544.1000e117
Rudolph Research Analytical. (nd). Refractometer Uses in Industry and selection. Retrieved
from http://rudolpresearch.com/refractometers-use-selection on May 30, 2016
Science Daily. (nd). Mathematical Model. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/mathematical_model.htm on May 31, 2016
Statwing. (nd). T-test. Retrieved from http://docs.statwing.com/examples-and-definitions/t-
test/statistical-significance/ on May 31, 2016
The Physics Classroom. (nd). Optical density and light speed. Retrieved from
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/refrn/u14l1d.cfm on May 31, 2016