Common Number Patterns

Numbers can have interesting patterns. Here we list the most common patterns and

how they are made.

Arithmetic Sequences

An Arithmetic Sequence is made by adding some value each time.

Examples:

1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, ...

This sequence has a difference of 3 between each number. 

The pattern is continued by adding 3 to the last number each time.

3, 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, 33, 38, ...

This sequence has a difference of 5 between each number. 

The pattern is continued by adding 5 to the last number each time.

The value added each time is called the "common difference"

What is the common difference in this example?

19, 27, 35, 43, ...

Answer: The common difference is 8

The common difference could also be negative, like this:

25, 23, 21, 19, 17, 15, ...

 This common difference is -2 

The pattern is continued by subtracting 2 each time.

Geometric Sequences

A Geometric Sequence is made by multiplying by some value each time.

Examples:

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, ...

This sequence has a factor of 2 between each number.

The pattern is continued by multiplying the last number by 2 each time. 

3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2187, ...

This sequence has a factor of 3 between each number.

The pattern is continued by multiplying the last number by 3 each time.

Special Sequences

Triangular Numbers

1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ...

This sequence is generated from a pattern of dots which form a triangle.

By adding another row of dots and counting all the dots we can find the next number

of the sequence:
Square Numbers

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, ...

The next number is made by squaring where it is in the pattern. 

The second number is 2 squared (22 or 2×2) 

The seventh number is 7 squared (72 or 7×7) etc

Cube Numbers

1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, ...

The next number is made by cubing where it is in the pattern. 

The second number is 2 cubed (23 or 2×2×2) 

The seventh number is 7 cubed (73 or 7×7×7) etc

Fibonacci Numbers

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...

The next number is found by adding the two numbers before it together. 

The 2 is found by adding the two numbers in front of it (1+1) 

The 21 is found by adding the two numbers in front of it (8+13) 

The next number in the sequence above would be 55 (21+34)

Factors
A number may be made by multiplying two or more other numbers together.

The numbers that are multiplied together are called factors of the final number.

All numbers have a factor of one since one multiplied by any number equals

that number. All numbers can be divided by themselves to produce the

number one. Therefore, we normally ignore one and the number itself as

useful factors.

The number fifteen can be divided into two factors which are three and five.

The number twelve could be divided into two factors which are 6 and 2. Six

could be divided into two further factors of 2 and 3. Therefore the factors of

twelve are 2, 2, and 3.

If twelve was first divided into the factors 3 and 4, the four could be divided

into factors of 2 and 2. Therefore the factors of twelve are still 2, 2, and 3.

There are several clues to help determine factors.

 Any even number has a factor of two

 Any number ending in 5 has a factor of five

 Any number above 0 that ends with 0 (such as 10, 30, 1200) has

factors of two and five.

To determine factors see if one of the above rules apply (ends in 5, 0 or an

even number). If none of the rules apply, there still may be factors of 3 or 7 or

some other number.

Multiple
In mathematics, a multiple is the product of any quantity and an integer. In other

words, for the quantities a and b, we say that b is a multiple of a if b = na for some

integer n , which is called the multiplier or coefficient. If a is not zero, this is

equivalent to saying that b/a is an integer with no remainder. If a and b are both

integers, and b is a multiple of a, then a is called a divisor of b.

The product of two integers is sometimes called an integer multiple.

Example

14, 49, 0 and -21 are multiples of 7 whereas 3 and -6 are not. This is because there

are integers that 7 may be multiplied by to reach the values of 14, 49, 0 and -21,

while there are no such integers for 3 and -6. Each of the products listed below, and

in particular, the products for 3 and -6, is the only way that the relevant number can

be written as a product of 7 and another real number:

 ;

 ;

 ;

 ;

 , and 3 / 7 is a rational number, not an integer;

 , and − 6 / 7 is a rational number, not an integer.

Properties

 0 is a multiple of everything ( ).

 The product of any integer n and any integer is a multiple of n. In particular, n,

which is equal to  , is a multiple of n (every integer is a multiple of itself),

since 1 is an integer.

 If a and b are multiples of x then a + b and a − b are also multiples of x.

Square Number (Perfect Square)

In mathematics, a square number, sometimes also called a perfect square, is

an integer that is the square of an integer; in other words, it is the product of some

integer with itself. So, for example, 9 is a square number, since it can be written as

3 × 3. Square numbers are non-negative. Another way of saying that a (non-

negative) number is a square number, is that its square root is again an integer. For

example, √9 = 3, so 9 is a square number.

A positive integer that has no perfect square divisors except 1 is called square-free.

The usual notation for the formula for the square of a number n is not the

product n × n, but the equivalent exponentiation n2, usually pronounced as

"n squared". For a non-negative integer n, the nth square number is n2, with 02 = 0

being the zeroth square. The concept of square can be extended to some other

number systems. If rational numbers are included, then a square is the ratio of two

square integers, and, conversely, the ratio of two square integers is a square (e.g.,

4/9 = (2/3)2).

Starting with 1, there are   square numbers up to and including m.

Example

The squares (sequence A000290 in OEIS) below 502 are:

02 = 0

12 = 1

22 = 4

32 = 9

42 = 16
The difference between any perfect square and its predecessor is given by the

following identity,

Properties

The number m is a square number if and only if one can arrange m points in a

square:

m = 12 = 1

m = 22 = 4

m = 32 = 9

m = 42 = 16

m = 52 = 25

The expression for the nth square number is n2. This is also equal to the sum of the

first n odd numbers as can be seen in the above pictures, where a square results

from the previous one by adding an odd number of points (shown in cyan). The

formula follows:

So for example, 52 = 25 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9.

The nth square number can be calculated from the previous two by doubling the

(n − 1)-th square, subtracting the (n − 2)-th square number, and adding 2,

because n2 = 2(n − 1)2 − (n − 2)2 + 2. For example, 2 × 52 − 42 + 2 = 2 ×

25 − 16 + 2 = 50 − 16 + 2 = 36 = 62.

A square number is also the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers. The

sum of two consecutive square numbers is a centered square number. Every

odd square is also a centered octagonal number.

Another property of a square number is that the number its divisor is odd, while

other number have even number of divisors. Lagrange's four-square

theorem states that any positive integer can be written as the sum of 4 or fewer

perfect squares. Three squares are not sufficient for numbers of the form

4k(8m + 7). A positive integer can be represented as a sum of two squares

precisely if its prime factorization contains no odd powers of primes of the form

4k + 3. This is generalized by Waring's problem.

A square number can only end with digits 00,1,4,6,9, or 25 in base 10, as

follows:

1. If the last digit of a number is 0, its square ends in 00 and the

preceding digits must also form a square.

2. If the last digit of a number is 1 or 9, its square ends in 1 and the number

formed by its preceding digits must be divisible by four.

3. If the last digit of a number is 2 or 8, its square ends in 4 and the

preceding digit must be even.

4. If the last digit of a number is 3 or 7, its square ends in 9 and the number

formed by its preceding digits must be divisible by four.

 5. If the last digit of a number is 4 or 6, its square ends in 6 and the

preceding digit must be odd.

6. If the last digit of a number is 5, its square ends in 25 and the preceding

digits must be 0, 2, 06, or 56.

In base 16, a square number can only end with 0,1,4 or 9 and

- in case 0, only 0,1,4,9 can precede it,

- in case 4, only even numbers can precede it.

There is a simple Boolean formula to perform this test on any number n using

only the least significant byte:

if (n and 7) = 1 or (n and 31) = 4 or (n and 127) = 16 or (n and 191) = 0 then

print n "is probably square" else print n "is definitely not square".

In general, if a prime divides a number then also the square of that prime must

divide the number, if it fails to divide it second time, the number is definitely not

square. Every prime must divide the number even times. At certain point it is

faster to run square root on the number than to test it for all primes up to 4th root

of the number.

Squarity testing can be used as alternative way in factorization of large

numbers. Instead of testing for divisibility, just test for squarity: for given m and

some number k, if k²- m is square of any number n then k - n divides m. For

example 100² - 9991 is square of 3, consequently 100 - 3 divides 9991. This test

is deterministic for odd divisors in range from k - n to k + nwhere k covers some

range of natural numbers k ≥ √m.

A square number cannot be a perfect number.

Special Cases

 If the number is of the form m5 where m represents the preceding digits, its

square is n25 where n = m × (m + 1) and represents digits before 25. For

example the square of 65 can be calculated by n = 6 × (6 + 1) = 42 which makes

the square equal to 4225.

 If the number is of the form m0 where m represents the preceding digits, its

square is n00 where n = m2. For example the square of 70 is 4900.

 If the number has two digits and is of the form 5m where m represents the

units digit, its square is AABB where AA = 25 + m and BB = m2. Example: To

calculate the square of 57, 25 + 7 = 32 and 72 = 49, which means 572 = 3249.

Odd and Even Square Numbers

Squares of even numbers are even, since (2n)2 = 4n2.

Squares of odd numbers are odd, since (2n + 1)2 = 4(n2 + n) + 1.

It follows that square roots of even square numbers are even, and square roots of

odd square numbers are odd.

Negative number

A negative number is a number that indicates an opposite. If a positive number is

distance above sea level, then a negative number is distance below sea level. If a
positive number is distance up, then a negative number is distance down. If a

positive number is distance to the right, then a negative number is distance to the

left. If a positive number is a deposit to a bank account, then a negative number is a

withdrawal from that bank account. if a positive number is number of minutes in the

future, then a negative number is number of minutes in the past. If a positive number

means addition, then a negative number means subtraction.

The numbers you are most familiar with, the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on,

are all positive numbers. The positive numbers, negative numbers, and the number

zero, taken together, are called "signed numbers". The signed whole numbers are

called integers.

The number zero is neither positive nor negative. Zero is its own opposite, so +0 =

-0. That is, zero steps to the right is the same as zero steps to the left.

A negative number is said to be less than zero.

A negative number is written by putting a minus sign, "−", in front of a positive

number. For example, "−3" is a negative number. It is read "negative three" or

"minus three" and it means the opposite of 3.

Negative numbers are left of zero on a number line. A number and its opposite are

always the same distance from zero. The negative number -3 is just as far to the left

of zero as 3 is to the right of zero:

Sometimes, for emphasis, we write the pair of opposite number as -3 and +3.
A number and its opposite always add to zero. The sum of -3 and +3 is 0. We can

write this either as -3 + 3 = 0 or as 3 - 3 = 0. In addition, a number and its opposite

are said to "cancel each other out".

Arithmetic with negative numbers

 Adding a negative number to something is the same as subtracting a positive

number from it. For example, to add the negative number "−1" to the number

"9" is the same as subtracting one from nine. In symbols:

9 + (−1) = 9 − 1 = 8

 Subtracting a negative number from something is the same as adding a

positive number to it. For example, to subtract the negative number "−8" from

the number "6" is the same as adding the number "6" and the number "8". In

symbols:

6 − (−8) = 6 + 8 = 14

 A negative number multiplied by another negative number gives you a

positive number. For example, to multiply the negative number "−3" by the

negative number "−2" is the same as multiplying the number "3" by the

number "2". In symbols:

(−3) × (−2) = 3 × 2 = 6

 A negative number multiplied by a positive number gives you a negative

number. For example, to multiply the negative number "−4" by the positive
 number "5" is like multiplying the number "4" by the number "5", but the

answer is negative. In symbols:

(−4) × 5 = −(4 × 5) = −20

Negative number uses

When a person or company is in debt, people sometimes say they have a negative

amount of money. Negative numbers are used in accounting and science.

Modular Arithmetic
In mathematics, modular arithmetic (sometimes called clock arithmetic) is a

system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" after they reach a

certain value—themodulus. Modular arithmetic was introduced by Carl Friedrich

Gauss in his book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, published in 1801.

Time-keeping on a clock gives an example of modular arithmetic.

A familiar use of modular arithmetic is its use in the 12-hour clock, in which the day is

divided into two 12 hour periods. If the time is 7:00 now, then 8 hours later it will be

3:00. Usual addition would suggest that the later time should be 7 + 8 = 15, but this

is not the answer because clock time "wraps around" every 12 hours; there is no "15

o'clock". Likewise, if the clock starts at 12:00 (noon) and 21 hours elapse, then the

time will be 9:00 the next day, rather than 33:00. Since the hour number starts over

when it reaches 12, this is arithmetic modulo 12.[1]

The Congruence Relation

Modular arithmetic can be handled mathematically by introducing a congruence

relation on the integers that is compatible with the operations of the ring of

integers: addition, subtraction, and multiplication. For a positive integer n, two

integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, written:

if their difference a − b is an integer multiple of n. The number n is called

the modulus of the congruence. An equivalent definition is that both numbers have

the same remainder when divided by n.

For example,

because 38 − 14 = 24, which is a multiple of 12. For positive n and non-

negative a and b, congruence of a and b can also be thought of as asserting that

these two numbers have the same remainder after dividing by the modulus n. So,

because both numbers, when divided by 12, have the same remainder (2).

Equivalently, the fractional parts of doing a full division of each of the numbers by 12

are the same: 0.1666... (38/12 = 3.1666..., 2/12 = 0.1666...). From the prior definition

we also see that their difference, a − b = 36, is a whole number (integer) multiple of

12 (n = 12, 36/12 = 3).

The same rule holds for negative values of a:

A remark on the notation: Because it is common to consider several congruence

relations for different moduli at the same time, the modulus is incorporated in the

notation. In spite of the ternary notation, the congruence relation for a given modulus

is binary. This would have been clearer if the notation a ≡n b had been used, instead

of the common traditional notation.

The properties that make this relation a congruence relation (respecting addition,

subtraction, and multiplication) are the following.

If

and

then:

It should be noted that the above two properties would still hold if the theory were

expanded to include all real numbers, that is if   were not necessarily

all integers. The next property, however, would fail if these variables were not all

integers:

The ring of congruence relation

Like any congruence relation, congruence modulo n is an equivalence relation, and

the equivalence class of the integer a, denoted by  , is the

set  . This set, consisting of the

integers congruent to a modulo n, is called the congruence class or residue

class of a modulo n. Another notation for this congruence class, which requires that

in the context the modulus is known, is  .

The set of congruence classes modulo n is denoted as   (or, alternatively,   

or  ) and defined by:

When n ≠ 0,   has n elements, and can be written as:

When n = 0,   does not have zero elements; rather, it is isomorphic to  ,

since  .

We can define addition, subtraction, and multiplication on   by the following

rules:

The verification that this is a proper definition uses the properties given before.

In this way,   becomes a commutative ring. For example, in the ring  ,

we have

as in the arithmetic for the 24-hour clock.

The notation   is used, because it is the factor ring of   by the ideal   

containing all integers divisible by n, where   is the singleton set  . Thus   

is a field when   is a maximal ideal, that is, when n is prime.

In terms of groups, the residue class   is the coset of a in the quotient group 

, a cyclic group.

The set   has a number of important mathematical properties that are

foundational to various branches of mathematics.

Rather than excluding the special case n = 0, it is more useful to include   

(which, as mentioned before, is isomorphic to the ring   of integers), for example

when discussing thecharacteristic of a ring.

Functional representation of the remainder

Computation with modular arithmetic can be implemented using other functions.

One such functional representation uses the floor function. If a ≡ b (mod n), a ≥ 0,

and 0 ≤ b < n, then there exists an integer k ≥ 0 such that a = kn + b. The

remainder b can be written

where   is the largest integer less than or equal to  . If instead −n ≤ b < 0,

then

Another functional representation uses sine and arcsine, taking advantage

of the fact that arcsine is multivalued. Let

 Then

g(x) = x (mod n)

for 0 ≤ πx/2n < π/2 or π ≤ πx/2n < 3π/2, and

g(x) = −x (mod n)

for π/2 ≤ πx/2n < π or 3π/2 ≤ πx/2n < 2π.

Number Patterns
Factors
Multiples
Perfect Square
Negatives Numbers

Modulars Numbers