Tng quan cc phng php xc nh khun
mt ngi
Phm Th Bo, Nguyn Thnh Nht, Cao Minh Thnh, Trn Anh Tun, Phan Phc Don
I. GII THIU
Hn mt thp k qua c rt nhiu cng trnh
nghin cu v bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi t
nh en trng, xm n nh mu nh ngy hm nay.
Cc nghin cu i t bi ton n gin, mi nh ch
c mt khun mt ngi nhn thng vo thit b thu
hnh v u t th thng ng trong nh en trng.
Cho n ngy hm nay bi ton m rng cho nh
mu, c nhiu khun mt trong cng mt nh, c
nhiu t th thay i trong nh. Khng nhng vy
m cn m rng c phm vi t mi trng xung
quanh kh n gin (trong phng th nghim) cho
n mi trng xung quanh rt phc tp (nh trong
t nhin) nhm p ng nhu cu tht s v rt nhiu
ca con ngi.
1. nh ngha bi ton xc nh khun mt
ngi
Xc nh khun mt ngi (Face Detection) l
mt k thut my tnh xc nh cc v tr v cc
kch thc ca cc khun mt ngi trong cc nh
bt k (nh k thut s). K thut ny nhn bit cc
c trng ca khun mt v b qua nhng th khc,
nh: ta nh, cy ci, c th, [105].
2. ng dng ca phng php xc nh khun
mt ngi
C nhiu ng dng c v ang thit k, ti
ch xin a ra mt s loi ng dng sau:
o H thng tng tc gia ngi v my:
gip nhng ngi b tt hoc khim khuyt
c th trao i. Nhng ngi dng ngn
ng tay c th giao tip vi nhng ngi
bnh thng. Nhng ngi b bi lit thng
qua mt s k hiu nhy mt c th biu l
nhng g h mun, . l cc bi ton
iu b ca bn tay (hand gesture), iu b
khun mt, [5, 6, 7, 32, 54, 95, 118,
130].
o Nhn dng ngi A [29, 38, 46, 55, 56, 58,
60, 61] c phi l ti phm truy n hay
khng? Gip c quan an ninh qun l tt
con ngi. Cng vic nhn dng c th
trong mi trng bnh thng cng nh
trong bng ti (s dng camera hng
ngoi).
o H thng quan st, theo di [35, 35, 106] v
bo v. Cc h thng camera s xc nh
u l con ngi v theo di con ngi
xem h c vi phm g khng, v d xm
phm khu vc khng c vo, .
o Lu tr (rt tin ATM, bit ai rt tin
vo thi im ), hin nay c tnh trng
nhng ngi b ngi khc ly mt th
ATM hay mt m s PIN v nhng ngi
n cp ny i rt tin, hoc nhng ngi
ch th i rt tin nhng li bo cho ngn
hng l mt th v mt tin. Cc ngn hng
c nhu cu khi c giao dch tin s kim tra
hay lu tr khun mt ngi rt tin sau
i chng v x l [66, 81, 98, 133].
o Th cn cc, chng minh nhn dn (Face
Identification) [114].
o iu khin vo ra: vn phng, cng ty, tr
s, my tnh, Palm, . Kt hp thm vn
tay v mng mt. Cho php nhn vin c
ra vo ni cn thit, hay mi ngi s ng
nhp my tnh c nhn ca mnh m khng
cn nh tn ng nhp cng nh mt khu
m ch cn xc nh thng qua khun mt
[44].
o An ninh sn bay, xut nhp cnh (hin nay
c quan xut nhp cnh M p dng).
1
 Dng xc thc ngi xut nhp cnh v
kim tra c phi l nhn vt khng b
khng.
o Tng lai s pht trin cc loi th thng
minh c tch hp sn c trng ca ngi
dng trn , khi bt c ngi dng khc
dng truy cp hay x l ti cc h thng
s c yu cu kim tra cc c trng
khun mt so vi th bit nay c phi l
ch th hay khng.
o Tm kim v t chc d liu lin quan n
con ngi thng qua khun mt ngi trn
nhiu h c s d liu lu tr tht ln, nh
internet, cc hng truyn hnh, . V d:
tm cc on video c tng thng Bush pht
biu, tm cc phim c din vin L Lin
Kit ng, tm cc trn banh c Ronaldo
, [50, 94, 134].
o Hin nay c nhiu hng tip cn xc
nh mt nh c phi l nh kha thn hay
khng? Khun mt ngi c xem nh
mt yu t xc nh cho mt hng tip
cn m c dng gn y [271, 272].
o ng dng trong video phone [10].
o Phn loi trong lu tr hnh nh trong in
thoi di ng. Thng qua bi ton xc nh
khun mt ngi v trch c trng, ri da
vo c trng ny sp xp lu tr, gip
ngi s dng d dng truy tm khi cn
thit [69, 105].
o Kim tra trng thi ngi li xe c ng gt,
mt tp trung hay khng, v h tr thng
bo khi cn thit [109].
o Phn tch cm xc trn khun mt [112].
o Trong lnh vc thit k iu khin robot
[42, 43, 124, 151, 236].
o Hng my chp hnh Canon ng dng
bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi vo my
chp hnh th h mi cho kt qu hnh
nh p hn, nht l khun mt ngi
[277].
II. PHNG PHP XC NH KHUN MT
NGI
C nhiu nghin cu tm phng php xc nh
khun mt ngi, t nh xm n ngy nay l nh
mu. Ti s trnh by mt cch tng qut nht nhng
hng gii quyt chnh cho bi ton, t nhng
hng chnh ny nhiu tc gi thay i mt s nh
bn trong c kt qu mi.
Da vo tnh cht ca cc phng php xc nh
khun mt ngi trn nh. Cc phng php ny
c chia lm bn [9] hng tip cn chnh. Ngoi
bn hng ny, nhiu nghin cu c khi lin quan
n khng nhng mt hng tip cn m c lin
quan nhiu hn mt hng chnh:
o Hng tip cn da trn tri thc: M ha cc
hiu bit ca con ngi v cc loi khun mt
ngi thnh cc lut. Thng thng cc lut
m t quan h ca cc c trng.
o Hng tip cn da trn c trng khng
thay i: Mc tiu cc thut ton i tm cc
c trng m t cu trc khun mt ngi m
cc c trng ny s khng thay i khi t th
khun mt, v tr t thit b thu hnh hoc
iu kin nh sng thay i.
o Hng tip cn da trn so khp mu: Dng
cc mu chun ca khun mt ngi (cc mu
ny c chn la v lu tr) m t cho
khun mt ngi hay cc c trng khun mt
(cc mu ny phi chn lm sao cho tch bit
nhau theo tiu chun m cc tc gi nh ra
so snh). Cc mi tng quan gia d liu
nh a vo v cc mu dng xc nh
khun mt ngi.
o Hng tip cn da trn din mo: Tri
ngc hn vi so khp mu, cc m hnh (hay
cc mu) c hc t mt tp nh hun luyn
trc . Sau h thng (m hnh) s xc
nh khun mt ngi. Hay mt s tc gi cn
gi hng tip cn ny l hng tip cn theo
phng php hc.
1. Hng tip cn da trn tri thc
Trong hng tip cn ny, cc lut s ph thuc
rt ln vo tri thc ca nhng tc gi nghin cu v
bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi. y l hng
tip cn dng top-down. D dng xy dng cc lut
c bn m t cc c trng ca khun mt v cc
quan h tng ng. V d, mt khun mt thng c
hai mt i xng nhau qua trc thng ng gia
khun mt v c mt mi, mt ming. Cc quan h
2
ca cc c trng c th c m t nh quan h v
khong cch v v tr. Thng thng cc tc gi s
trch c trng ca khun mt trc tin c c
cc ng vin, sau cc ng vin ny s c xc
nh thng qua cc lut bit ng vin no l
khun mt v ng vin no khng phi khun mt.
Thng p dng qu trnh xc nh gim s
lng xc nh sai.
Mt vn kh phc tp khi dng hng tip
cn ny l lm sao chuyn t tri thc con ngi sang
cc lut mt cc hiu qu. Nu cc lut ny qu chi
tit (cht ch) th khi xc nh c th xc nh thiu
cc khun mt c trong nh, v nhng khun mt
ny khng th tha mn tt c cc lut a ra.
Nhng cc lut tng qut qu th c th chng ta s
xc nh lm mt vng no khng phi l khun
mt m li xc nh l khun mt. V cng kh khn
m rng yu cu t bi ton xc nh cc khun
mt c nhiu t th khc nhau.
Hnh 1: (a) nh ban u c phn gii n=1;
(b), (c), v (d) nh c phn gii n=4, 8, v 16.
Hnh 2: Mt lai tri trc ca ngi nghin cu phn tch trn khun mt.
Yang v Huang [261] dng mt phng thc
theo hng tip cn ny xc cc khun mt. H
thng ca hai tc gi ny bao gm ba mc lut.
mc cao nht, dng mt khung ca s qut trn nh
v thng qua mt tp lut tm cc ng vin c th
l khun mt. mc k tip, hai ng dng mt tp
lut m t tng qut hnh dng khun mt. Cn
mc cui cng li dng mt tp lut khc xem xt
mc chi tit cc c trng khun mt. Mt h
thng a phn gii c th t c dng xc
nh, hnh 1. Cc lut mc cao nht tm ng
vin nh: vng trung tm khun mt (phn ti hn
trong hnh 2) c bn phn vi mt mc u c
bn, phn xung quanh bn trn ca mt khun mt
(phn sng hn trong hnh 2) c mt mc u c
bn, v mc khc nhau gia cc gi tr xm
trung bnh ca phn trung tm v phn bao bn trn
l ng k. phn gii thp nht (mc m) ca
nh dng tm ng vin khun mt m cn tm
cc mc phn gii tt hn. mc hai, xem xt biu
histogram ca cc ng vin loi bt ng vin
no khng phi l khun mt, ng thi d ra cnh
bao xung quanh ng vin. mc cui cng, nhng
ng vin no cn li s c xem xt cc c trng
ca khun mt v mt v ming. Hai ng dng
mt chin lc t th n mn hay lm r dn
gim s lng tnh ton trong x l. Mc d t l
chnh xc cha cao, nhng y l tin cho nhiu
nghin cu sau ny [200].
Kotropoulos v Pitas [200] a mt phng
php tng t [191, 261] dng trn phn gii
thp. Hai ng dng phng php chiu xc nh
cc c trng khun mt, Kanade thnh cng vi
phng php chiu xc nh bin ca khun mt
[191]. Vi I(x,y) l gi tr xm ca mt im trong
nh c kch thc m x n ti v tr (x,y), cc hm
chiu nh theo phng ngang v thng ng c
n
nh ngha nh sau: HI ( x) = y=1
I ( x, y) v
V I ( y) = x=1 I ( x, y) . Da trn biu hnh chiu
m
ngang, c hai cc tiu a phng khi hai ng xt
qu trnh thay i c ca HI, chnh l cnh
bn tri v phi ca hai bn u. Tng t vi hnh
chiu dc VI, cc cc tiu a phng cng cho ta
bit v tr ming, nh mi, v hai mt. Cc c trng
ny xc nh khun mt. Hnh 3.a cho mt v
d v cch xc nh nh trn. Cch xc nh ny c
t l xc nh chnh xc l 86.5% cho trng hp ch
c mt khun mt thng trong nh v hnh nn
khng phc tp. Nu hnh nn phc tp th rt kh
tm, hnh 3.b. Nu nh c nhiu khun mt th s
khng xc nh c, hnh 3.c.
Hnh 3: Phng php chiu:
(a) nh ch c mt khun mt v hnh nn n gin;
(b) nh ch c mt khun mt v hnh nn phc tp;
(c) nh c nhiu khun mt
3

Hnh 4: Chiu tng phn ng vin xc nh khun mt.
Fan [82] phn on nh mu tm cnh thng
qua thut ton tng vng xc nh cc ng vin.
Dng c tnh hnh ellipse ca khun mt ngi
xc nh ng vin no khun mt ngi.
Kim [65] kt hp thut ton watershed cho cc
nh c nhiu phngii cng m hnh mu da
ngi tm ng vin, ri xc nh khun mt
ngi trong video. T l chnh xc khong 87-94%.
Phng php ch x l cho cc frame nh ch c mt
khun mt v nh ny phi chp thng ch c u v
vai.
Sahbi v Boujemaa [8] s dng mng neural hc
c lng cc tham s cho m hnh Gauss, mc
ch tm ng vin trn sc mu da ca ngi. Sau
khi c ng vin, hai ng chiu ln hai trc: ng v
ngang xc nh khun mt ngi.
C nhiu nghin cu sau ny s dng phng
php chiu xc nh khun mt ngi. Min [80]
dng m hnh mu da khng tham s, Baskan [76],
Mateos [74], v Nicponski [45] xy dng b lc,
tm ng vin khun mt, sau chiu ln hai trc
xc nh cc thnh phn khun mt xc nh ng
vin c phi l khun mt hay khng. Cn
Mateos v Chicote [34] dng kt cu xc nh
ng vin trong nh mu. Sau phn tch hnh dng,
kch thc, thnh phn khun mt xc nh
khun mt. Khi tm c ng vin khun mt, hai
ng trch cc ng vin ca tng thnh phn khun
mt, sau chiu tng phn ny xc thc c
phi l thnh phn khun mt hay khng, hnh 4. T
l chnh xc hn 87%.
Farhad v Abdolhorsein [136] dng tri thc v
histogram xc nh khun mt trong cc frame
lin tc trong mt on video. Tng t, Hidekazu
v Mamoru [100, 139] cng dng histogram, nhng
hai ng dng thut gii di truyn (Genetic Algorithm
GA) lai nh l mt phng php tm kim ngu
nhin da vo nh ca biu mu ca nh.
Rodrigues v Buf [132] dng phng php chn
cc keypoint trong nhiu t l khc nhau, c bit
tc gi ch dng cc keypoint d tha da trn nhiu
phn gii. Da trn quan h hnh hc ca cc
thnh phn khun mt, hai ng nhm cc keypoint
li xc nh khun mt ngi.
Fred [1140] d trn tnh cht i xng ca
khun mt ngi, ng xem xt cc phn b trn
histogram c tnh cht gn i xng xc nh
khun mt ngi trong nh xm n c khun mt
chp thng.
Berbar [279] kt hp m hnh mu da ngi v
xc nh cnh tm ng vin khun mt ngi. Sau
kt hp quan h cc c trng v phng php
chiu cc ng vin khun mt xung hai trc: dng
v ngang xc nh ng vin no tht s l khun
mt ngi.
2. Hng tip cn da trn c trng khng
thay i
y l hng tip cn theo kiu bottom-up. Cc
tc gi c gng tm cc c trng khng thay i ca
khun mt ngi xc nh khun mt ngi. Da
trn nhn xt thc t, con ngi d dng nhn bit
cc khun mt v cc i tng trong cc t th
khc nhau v iu kin nh sng khc nhau, th phi
tn ti cc thuc tnh hay c trng khng thay i.
C nhiu nghin cu u tin xc nh cc c trng
khun mt ri ch ra c khun mt trong nh hay
khng. Cc c trng nh: lng my, mt, mi,
ming, v ng vin ca tc c trch bng
phng php xc nh cnh. Trn c s cc c
trng ny, xy dng mt m hnh thng k m t
quan h ca cc c trng ny v xc nh s tn ti
ca khun mt trong nh. Mt vn ca cc thut
tan theo hng tip cn c trng cn phi iu
chnh cho ph hp iu kin nh sng, nhiu, v b
che khut. i khi bng ca khun mt s to thm
cnh mi, m cnh ny li r hn cnh tht s ca
khun mt, v th nu dng cnh xc nh s gp
kh khn.
a) Cc c trng khun mt
Sirohey a mt phng php xc nh khun
mt t mt nh c hnh nn phc tp [240]. Phng
php da trn cnh (dng phng php Candy [155]
v heuristics loi b cc cnh cn li duy nht
4
mt ng bao xung quanh khun mt. Mt hnh
ellipse dng bao khun mt, tch bit vng u
v hnh nn. T l chnh xc ca thut tan l 80%.
Cng dng phng php cnh nh Sirohey,
Chetverikov v Lerch dng mt phong php da
trn blob v streak (hnh dng git nc v sc xen
k), xc nh theo hng cc cnh [157]. Hai ng
dng hai blob ti v ba blob sng m t hai mt,
hai bn g m, v mi. M hnh ny dng cc treak
m t hnh dng ngoi ca khun mt, lng my,
v mi. Dng nh c phn gii thp theo bin
i Laplace xc nh khun mt thng qua blob.
Graf a ra mt phng php xc nh c
trng ri xc nh khun mt trong nh xm [180].
Dng b lc lm ni cc bin, cc php tan hnh
thi hc (morphology) c dng lm ni bt cc
vng c cng cao v hnh dng chc chn (nh
mt). Thng qua histogram tm cc nh ni bt
xc nh cc ngng chuyn nh xm thnh hai
nh nh phn. Cc thnh phn dnh nhau u xut
hin trong hai nh nh phn th c xem l vng
ca ng vin khun mt ri phn loi xem c phi l
khun mt khng. Phng php c kim tra trn
cc nh ch c u v vai ca ngi. Tuy nhin cn
vn , lm sao s dng cc php ton morphology
v lm sao xc nh khun mt trn cc vng ng
vin.
Leung trnh by mt m hnh xc sut xc
nh khun mt trong nh c hnh nn phc tp
trn c s mt b xc nh c trng cc b v so
khp th ngu nhin [205]. chnh l xem bi
ton xc nh khun mt nh l bi ton tm kim
vi mc tiu l tm th t cc c trng chc chn
ca khun mt to thnh ging nht mt mu
khun mt. Dng nm c trng (hai mt, hai l
mi, phn ni gia mi v ming) m t mt
khun mt. Lun tnh quan h khong cch vi cc
c trng cp (nh mt tri, mt phi), dng phn b
Gauss m hnh ha. Mt mu khun mt c
a ra thng qua trung bnh tng ng cho mt tp
a hng, a t l ca b lc o hm Gauss. T
mt nh, cc c trng ng vin c xc nh bng
cch so khp tng im nh khi lc tng ng vi
vector mu (tng t mi tng quan), chn hai ng
vin c trng ng u tm kim cho cc c
trng khc ca khun mt. Ging nh xy dng mt
th quan h mi node ca th tng ng nh
cc c trng ca mt khun mt, a xc sut vo
xc nh. T l xc nh chnh xc l 86%.
Bn cnh tnh khang cch lin quan m t
quan h gia cc c trng nh Leung [154, 206].
Kendall [195] v [212] dng l thuyt xc sut thng
k v hnh dng. Dng hm mt xc sut
(Probility Density Function - PDF) qua N im c
trng, tng ng (xi, yi) l c trng th i vi gi s
da vo phn b Gauss c 2N-chiu. Cc tc gi p
dng phng thc cc i kh nng (Maximum-
Likelihood - ML) xc nh v tr khun mt. Mt
thun li ca phng php ny l cc khun mt b
che khut vn c th xc nh c. Nhng phng
php khng xc nh c a khun mt trong nh.
Yow v Cipolla [265, 266] trnh by mt
phng thc da vo c trng, dng s lng ln
cc du hiu t nh v c du hiu v ng cnh. u
tin dng b lc o hm Gauss th hai, xc nh
cc im mu cht ti cc i a phng trong b
lc, ri ch ra ni c th l c trng. Giai on hai,
kim tra cc cnh xung quanh im mu cht v
nhm chng li thnh cc vng. Tiu chun nhm
cc cnh l gn v tng t hng v cng . o
lng cc c tnh vng nh: chiu di cnh, cng
cnh, v bin thin cng c lu trong mt
vector c trng. T d liu c trng khun mt
c hun luyn, s tnh c gi tr trung bnh v
ma trn hip phng sai ca mi c trng khun
mt. Mt vng l ng vin khun mt khi khong
cch Mahalanobis gia cc vector c trng u
di mt ngng. Ri thng qua mng Bayes xc
nh ng vin c phi l khun mt khng. T l
chnh xc l 85% [267], tuy nhin mc sai l
28%, v ch hiu qu vi hnh khun mt c kch
thc 60x60 im nh. Phng php ny c dng
thm vi m hnh ng vin linh hat [158, 267].
Takacs v Wechsler trnh by mt phng php
da trn tch c trng vng mc v c ng theo
dao ng nh ca mt [250]. Thut ton hot ng
trn bn hay vng ca cc mu cht, m hnh ha
li vng mc. u tin tnh ton c lng th
vng khun mt trn c s b lc. Giai on th hai
5
tinh ch trn phn gii mn hn. T l sai l
4.69%.
Han pht trin mt k thut trn c s
morphology trch cc on ging mt (eye-
analogue) xc nh khun mt ngi [182]. ng
ni rng mt v lng my l c trng ni bt nht
v n nh nht ca khun mt con ngi, v n rt
hu dng xc nh khun mt ngi. ng nh
ngha cc on ging mt nh l cc cnh trn
ng vin ca mt. u tin, cc php tan
morphology nh ng, ct b sai khc, v phn
ngng trch cc im nh c gi tr cng
thay i ng k. Cc im nh ny s tr thnh cc
im nh ging mt. Sau mt tin trnh gn nhn
sinh cc on ging mt. Cc on ny c
dng ch dn tm kim cc vng tim nng c th
l khun mt qua kt hp cc c tnh hnh hc ca
mt, mi, lng my, v ming. Cc vng ny s
c mt mng neural xem xt c phi l khun mt
khng, ging [48]. Theo tc gi t l chnh xc l
94%.
Amit a ra phng thc xc nh khun mt
da trn hnh dng v p dng cho cc khun mt
chp thng [145]. C hai giai on xc nh
khun mt ngi: tp trung v phn loi chi tit.
Lm c th t cc mnh cnh, cc mnh ny c
trch t b xc nh cnh n gin thng qua s
khc bit cng l qu trnh tp trung. Khi c cc
ng vin t qu trnh trn, dng thut ton CART
[152] xy dng mt cy phn loi t cc nh
hun luyn, xem xt ng vin no l khun mt
ngi.
Jin [90] dng cu trc hnh hc ca khun mt
ngi tm ng vin khun mt trong nh xm v
hnh nn khng phc tp. Mi nh ch c mt khun
mt ngi, nhng t th iu kin nh sng, khng
c nh. T l chnh xc khang 94.25% v thi gian
kh nhanh.
Chan v Lewis [16] dng k thut lc loi
bt tc ng ca nh sng, sau phn on tm
v tr cc ng vin l con mt. T cc ng vin ny
xy dng mng neural nh Rowley [48] xc nh
khun mt ngi. Phng php ny c th xc nh
nhiu khun mt trong mt nh, cc khun mt ny
c th c cc t th, v tr, t l khc nhau. T l
chnh xc l 53%.
Kruppa [21] dng sc mu ca da ngi tm
ng vin, nhng ng khng x l cho tng im nh
theo cch thng thng, m ng dng m hnh mu
da ngi trn tng phn nh ri x l phn on
trn . Sau khi c ng vin khun mt, ng dng
mt s c tnh v hnh dng xc nh khun mt
ngi. T l chnh xc l 85%.
Park dng Gaze tm ng vin gc mt, ming
v tm mt [27]. ng xy dng SVM c hc
trc xc nh cc v tr ng vin c phi l
gc mt, ming, v tm mt hay khng theo vt
con mt ngi.
Sato [67] dng quan h ng vin cm ca
khun mt. Tc gi chia lm hai trng hp: thon
di v trn xem xt. Tc gi dng GA xem xt
mi tng quan ca ng cong, hnh dng khun
mt xc nh khun mt.
Chai v Ngan [708] xy dng phng php xc
nh khun mt ngi da trn c trng v: quan
h hnh hc, mt , chi trong nh mu ch c
u v vai ca ng vin xc nh. Kim [47] cng
phn on tm ng vin khun mt, nhng xc
thc khun mt thng qua cc cu trc cc c trng
mt, mi, ming, v ng vin ca ng vin.
Jang [53] dng phn b mu da phn on
tm ng vin ri dng cc c trng hnh hc xc
nh khun mt.
Christian v Jonh [135] xy dng mt loi c
trng mi, l c trng v cong ca cc ng
trn khun mt gii quyt vn iu kin nh
sng. T c trng cong ny, hai ng quay li
phng php PCA xc nh khun mt.
Juan v Narciso [111] xy dng mt khng gian
mu mi YCgCr lc cc vng l ng vin khun
mt da trn sc thi ca mu da ngi. Sau khi c
ng vin, hai ng dng cc quan h v hnh dng
khun mt, mc cn i ca cc thnh phn
khun mt xc nh khun mt ngi. Tng t,
Chang v Hwang [127] cng dng mt phng thc
nh [111], t l chnh xc hn 80% trong nh xm.
Dae v Nam [116] xem xt cc c trng khng
thay i khi thay i t th ca khun mt bng
cch xem xt cc quan h hnh hc. Sau c
6
lng cc t th ca khun mt ri xy dng d liu
xc nh thng qua PCA. T l chnh xc l 76%.
Jin [128] xy dng mt b lc xc nh ng
vin khun mt ngi theo mu da ngi. T ng
vin ny tc gi xc nh khun mt ngi theo hnh
dng khun mt v cc quan h c trng v thnh
phn khun mt, vi mt phi c chn lm gc
ta xt quan h. T l chnh xc cho khun
mt chp thng trn 80%.
b) Kt cu
Khun mt con ngi c nhng kt cu ring
bit m c th dng phn loi so vi cc i
tng khc. Augusteijn v Skufca cho rng hnh
dng ca khun mt dng lm kt cu phn loi
[147], gi l kt cu ging khun mt (face-like
texture). Tnh kt cu qua cc c trng thng k th
t th hai (SGLD) [183] trn vng c kch thc
16x16 im nh. C ba loi c trng c xem xt:
mu da, tc, v nhng th khc. Hai ng dng mng
neural v mi tng quan cascade [170] cho phn
loi c gim st cc kt cu v mt nh x c trng
t t chc Kohonen [199] gom nhm cc lp kt
cu khc nhau. Hai tc gi xut dng phng
php bu c khi khng quyt nh c kt cu a
vo l kt cu ca da hay kt cu ca tc.
Dai v Nakano dng m hnh SGLD xc nh
khun mt ngi [165]. Thng tin mu sc c kt
hp vi m hnh kt cu khun mt. Hai tc gi xy
dng thut gii xc nh khun mt trong khng
gian mu, vi cc phn ta mu cam xc nh cc
vng c th l khun mt ngi. Mt thun li ca
phng php ny l c th xc nh khun mt
khng ch chp thng v c th c ru v c knh.
Mark v Andrew [12] dng phn b mu da v
thut ton DoG (a Difference of Gauss) tm cc
ng vin, ri xc thc bng mt h thng hc kt
cu ca khun mt.
Manian v Ross [88] dng bin i wavelet
xy dng tp d liu kt cu ca khun mt trong
nh xm thng qua nhiu phn gii khc nhau kt
hp xc sut thng k xc nh khun mt ngi.
Mi mu s c chn c trng. T l chnh xc l
87%, t l xc nh sai l 18%.
c) Sc mu ca da
Thng thng cc nh mu khng xc nh trc
tip trn ton b d liu nh m cc tc gi dng
tnh cht sc mu ca da ngi (khun mt ngi)
chn ra c cc ng vin c th l khun mt
ngi (lc ny d liu thu hp ng k) xc
nh khun mt ngi. Ti s trnh by chi tit v
m hnh ha mu da ngi mt bi sau.
d) a c trng
Gn y c nhiu nghin cu s dng cc c
trng ton cc nh: mu da ngi, kch thc, v
hnh dng tm cc ng vin khun mt, ri sau
s xc nh ng vin no l khun mt thng qua
dng cc c trng cc b (chi tit) nh: mt, lng
my, mi, ming, v tc. Ty mi tc gi s s dng
tp c trng khc nhau [70, 186].
Yachida a ra mt phng php xc nh
khun mt ngi trong nh mu bng l thuyt logic
m [156, 259, 260]. ng dng hai m hnh m
m t phn b mu da ngi v mu tc trong khng
gian mu CIE XYZ. Nm m hnh hnh dng ca
u (mt thng v bn xoay xung quanh) m t
hnh dng ca mt trong nh. Mi m hnh hnh
dng l mt mu 2-chiu bao gm cc vung c
kch thc mxn, mi c th cha nhiu hn mt
im nh. Hai thuc tnh c gn cho mi l: t
l mu da v t l tc, ch ra t l din tch vng da
(tc) trong so vi din tch ca . Mi im nh s
c phn loi thnh tc, khun mt, tc/khun mt,
v tc/nn trn c s phn b ca m hnh, theo
cch s c c cc vng ging khun mt v
ging tc. M hnh hnh dng ca u s c so
snh vi vng ging khun mt v ging tc. Nu
tng t, vng ang xt s tr thnh ng vin khun
mt, sau dng cc c trng mt-lng my v
mi-ming xc nh ng vin no s l khun
mt tht s.
Sobottka v Pitas dng cc c trng v hnh
dng v mu sc xc nh khun mt ngi [241].
Dng mt ngng phn on trong khng gian
mu HSV xc nh cc vng c th l mu da
ngi (vng ging mu da ngi) [251, 252], cc
tin ng vin. Cc thnh phn dnh nhau s c xc
nh bng thut ton tng vng phn gii th.
Xem xt tin ng vin no va khp hnh dng
7
ellipse s c chn lm ng vin ca khun mt.
Sau dng cc c trng bn trong nh: mt v
ming, c trch ra trn c s cc vng mt v
ming s ti hn cc vng khc ca khun mt, sau
cng phn loi da trn mng neural bit vng
ng vin no l khun mt ngi v vng no khng
phi khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc l 85%.
Da vo mc cn xng ca cc mu khun
mt ngi xc nh khun mt ngi [154]. Mt
b phn loi mu da/khng phi mu da dng trong
khng gian mu YES cho php lm mn cc vng k
c ng cong khng mn, sau khi lc cc vng c
th l mu da ngi. Mt mu khun mt dng
ellipse c dng xem xt mc tng t ca
cc vng c cng mu da ngi vi mu ny thng
qua khong cch Hausdorff [188]. Sau cng, xc
nh tm mt thng qua cc hm tnh gi tr da trn
quan h cn i ca khun mt v v tr hai mt.
nh ca mi v tm ca ming c c lng qua
khong cch tm mt. Mt hn ch ca phng php
ny l ch xc nh trn nh chp thng khun mt,
ch c duy nht mt khun mt trong nh, v xc
nh c v tr ca c hai mt. Cng c tc gi dng
phng php tng t gii quyt [245].
Tri ngc vi phng php x l trn im
nh, mt phng php c xy dng trn cu trc,
mu sc, v lin quan hnh hc c ngh
[262]. u tin dng phn on a t l [144]
trch cc vng ng u trong nh da vo m hnh
mu da ngi theo Gauss c c cc vng c
mu cng vi mu da ngi, gom cc vng ny vo
trong cc vng c hnh dng ellipse. Mt vng c
hnh dng ellipse c xc nh l mt khun mt
ngi nu tn ti mt ming trong vng . Tc gi
cho bit c th xc nh cc khun mt cc hng
khc nhau khi c thm cc c trng ph nh: ru,
mt knh.
Kauth trnh by mt biu din dng blob trch
c trng, m c trng ny dng t t c ngha
cu trc ca a ph ca nh chp t v tinh [194].
Mi vector c trng ti mt im nh bao gm cc
ta ca im nh v lin quan theo cc thnh
phn ph (hay cc thnh phn kt cu). Cc im
nh ny c gom nhm bng cch dng vector c
trng c cc vng dnh lin nhau, hoc c dng
blob. Mi vector c trng bao gm ta nh v
sc mu c chun ha,
r g
X = ( x, y, , ) [218, 243]. Dng
r + g+ b r + g+ b
mt thut ton to cc vng lin kt li vi nhau
tng kch thc ca blob v xem xt nu ng vin
dng blob no tha mn hnh dng kch thc khun
mt th xem l khun mt.
Phm vi v mu sc c Kim [197] dng
xc nh khun mt ngi. Tnh biu chnh lch
ri phn on da trn biu histogram vi gi
thuyt cc im nh l nn s c cng su v s
lng s nhiu hn cc im nh trong i tng.
Dng phn b Gauss trong khng gian mu RGB
c chun ha, c cc ng vin ri dng phn
loi xc nh cui cng ng vin no l khun
mt ngi. Cng cc tip cn ny c Darrell [84].
Hsu c xem l ngi kh thnh cng khi xc
nh khun mt ngi trong nh mu [1, 96]. ng
xy dng mt b phn loi xc nh cc v tr ca
ng vin mt v ming da trn sc mu c trng
ca mt v ming. Trn quan h v khong cch ca
hai mt v ming xc nh ng vin no s l
khun mt thng qua bin i Hough c ng vin
no gn ging dng ellipse nht.
Jesorsky [270] xc nh cnh ca cc i tng
trong nh ri so snh hnh dng kt hp dng
khong cch Hausdorff o mc tng t ca
khun mt ngi vi cc mu. Sau Kirchberg
[17] ci tin dng m hnh Gen (Genetic Model)
pht sinh m hnh khun mt ngi t d liu ln
xn sau khi phn on trong nh xm kt hp
khong cch Hausdorff. Mc chnh xc khang
85%.
Yen v Nithianandan [66] dng GA trch cc
c trng khun mt, nh mt (lng my), mi, v
ming. p dng hnh thi khun mt ging hnh
ellipse xc nh khun mt bng GA trong nh
mu. Phng php ny cho php gii quyt trong
iu kin nh sng khc nhau, t th khun mt khc
nhau.
Chang [89] xem xt tnh a dng v mt ca
khun mt ngi. T y ng xy dng mng
wavelet tch cc (Active Wavelet Network) trch
cc c trng ca khun mt ri dng hai phng
8
php lm gim s chiu ca khng gian c trng l
LLE (Locally Linear Embedding) v LE (Lipschitz
Embedding) v hc cu trc a dng ny xc nh
khun mt.
Daidi v Irek [117] trch cc c trng ca
khun mt bng s phn b tham s xc nh
khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc cho nh xm v
khun mt c chp thng l 91.4%.
Ehsan v Jonh [125] dng tp h s Gabor
wavelet cc hng khc nhau trch cc c
trng ca khun mt. Sau dng entropy cc b
xc nh khun mt trong nh xm v khun mt
c chp thng hay ta thng nhng c cc v tr
khc nhau. T l chnh xc l 94%.
Bao [281, 282] dng sc thi mu da ngi
xc nh ng vin trong nh mu. Tc gi xy
dng cc lut m da vo hai loi c trng: (1) bn
ngoi v (2) bn trong. c trng bn ngoi gm: t
l chiu cao, din tch, chu vi, mc trn, c
trng bn trong gm: quan h mc cn i ca
hai mt v ming cng nh t l khong cch vi
khun mt. Phng php ny cho php xc nh
khun mt nhiu t th, v tr, mc nghing
khc nhau trong mi trng phc tp. c bit, tc
gi xy dng b iu khin m tch cc khun
mt dnh ln nhau. T l chnh xc khong 87%-
89%.
3. Hng tip cn da trn so khp mu
Trong so khp mu, cc mu chun ca khun
mt (thng l khun mt c chp thng) s c
xc nh trc hoc xc nh cc tham s thng qua
mt hm. T mt nh a vo, tnh cc gi tr tng
quan so vi cc mu chun v ng vin khun
mt, mt, mi v ming. Thng qua cc gi tr tng
quan ny m cc tc gi quyt nh c hay khng c
tn ti khun mt trong nh. Hng tip cn ny c
li th l rt d ci t, nhng khng hiu qu khi t
l, t th, v hnh dng thay i ( c chng
minh). Nhiu phn gii, a t l, cc mu con, v
cc mu bin dng c xem xt thnh bt bin v
t l v hnh dng.
Oh [119] phn on tm ng vin khun mt,
tc gi dng cc mu mt c trc so khp vi
cc vng quan tm tm v tr mt trong ng vin.
Sau tip tc tm ming v lng my xc nh
ng vin ny c phi l khun mt ngi hay khng.
a) Xc nh cc mu trc
Sakai c gng th xc nh khun mt ngi
chp thng trong nh [232]. ng dng vi mu con
v mt, mi, ming, v ng vin khun mt m
hnh ha mt khun mt. Mi mu con c nh
ngha trong gii hn ca cc on thng. Cc ng
thng trong nh c trch bng phng php xem
xt thay i gradient nhiu nht v so khp cc mu
con. u tin tm cc ng vin thng qua mi tng
quan gia cc nh con v cc mu v ng vin.
Sau , so khp vi cc mu con khc. Hay ni mt
cch khc, giai on u xem nh l giai on s
ch tm ng vin, giai an th hai l giai on
tinh ch xc nh c tn ti hay khng mt khun
mt ngi. tng ny c duy tr cho n cc
nghin cu sau ny.
Craw a ra mt phng php xc nh khun
mt ngi da vo cc mu v hnh dng ca cc
nh c chp thng (dng v b ngoi ca hnh
dng khun mt) [163]. u tin dng php lc
Sobel tm cc cnh. Cc cnh ny s c nhm
li theo mt s rng buc. Sau , tm ng vin
ca u, qu trnh tng t c lp i lp li vi
mi t l khc nhau xc nh cc c trng khc
nh: mt, lng my, v mi. Sau Craw m t mt
phng thc xc nh dng mt tp c 40 mu
tm cc c trng khun mt v iu khin chin
lc d tm [164].
Govindaraju ngh mt phng thc xc nh
khun mt ngi c hai giai an pht sinh cc
gi thuyt khun mt v kim tra n [177, 178, 179].
Mt m hnh khun mt c xy dng trong cc
giai on xc nh c trng bng cc cnh. Cc
c trng c m t nh cc ng cong ca pha
bn tri, ng vin tc, pha bn phi ca khun
mt c chp thng. Dng php ton Marr-Hildreth
xc nh cnh. Sau dng mt b lc loi b
cc i tng khng tham gia vo xy dng khun
mt. Lin kt cc cp ca cc on ng vin trn
c s mc k v cc hng lin quan. Xc nh
cc gc phn on ng vin thnh cc ng
cong c trng. Gn nhn cc ng cong c trng
bng cch kim tra thuc tnh hnh hc v cc v tr
9
lin quan trong lng ging ca n. Ni cc cp ca
cc ng cong c trng thng qua cc cnh nu
cc thuc tnh ca n tng thch. So snh cc t l
ca cc cp thuc tnh cho mt cnh v n ng mt
gi tr tng ng. Nu gi tr ca mt nhm ca ba
ng cong c trng (vi cc nhn khc nhau) thp
th nhm ny s tr thnh mt gi thuyt. Khi xc
nh khun mt trong cc bi bo th thng tin ph
s c dng thm l s lng ngi trong nh
chn gi thuyt ti u [178] . T l chnh xc ca
phng php ny l 70%, tuy nhin cc khun mt
phi c chp thng v khng b che khut.
Venkatranman v Govindaraju dng cch tip cn
tng t, nhng dng wavelet trch cnh [257].
Tsukamoto trnh by mt m hnh hiu qu khi
dng mu khun mt (QMF) [253, 254]. Trong
QMF , mi nh mu c chia thnh nhiu khi, cc
c trng hiu qu c c lng cho mi khi.
Tham s ha mt mu khun mt theo: lightness v
edgeness l cc c trng trong m hnh. Sau
dng cc mu ( c chia thnh cc khi) tnh
gi tr faceness (mc l khun mt) ti mi v
tr ca nh. Mt khun mt c xc nh khi gi tr
faceness vt mt ngng c cho trc.
Hnh chiu c dng nh cc mu xc nh
khun mt ngi [233]. Dng PCA (phn tch thnh
phn chnh Principal Component Analysis - PCA)
c mt tp hnh chiu c bn t cc mu khun
mt, hnh chiu c m t nh mt mng cc bit.
Dng c trng hnh chiu ring kt hp bin i
Hough xc nh khun mt ngi. Sau mt
phng php xc nh da trn a loi mu xc
nh cc thnh phn ca khun mt c trnh by
[244]. Phng php ny nh ngha mt s gi
thuyt m t cc kh nng ca cc c trng
khun mt. Vi mt khun mt s c mt tp gi
thuyt, l thuyt DepsterShafer [166]. Dng mt
nhn t tin cy kim tra s tn ti hay khng ca
cc c trng ca khun mt, v kt hp nhn t tin
cy ny vi mt o xem xt c hay khng c
khun mt trong nh.
Sinha dng mt tp nh cc bt bin nh trong
khng gian nh m t khng gian cc mu nh
[238, 239]. T tng chnh ca ng da vo s thay
i mc sng ca cc vng khc nhau ca khun
mt (nh hai mt, hai m, v trn), quan h v mc
sng ca cc vng cn li thay i khng ng
k. Xc nh cc cp t s ca mc sng ca mt
s vng (mt vng ti hn hay sng hn) cho ta mt
lng bt bin kh hiu qu. Cc vng c sng
u c xem nh mt mu t s m l mu th
trong khng gian nh ca mt khun mt vi
thch hp t dng chn nh cc c trng chnh
ca khun mt nh hai mt, hai m, v trn. Lu gi
thay i sng ca cc vng trn khun mt trong
mt tp thch hp vi cc cp quan h sng hn ti
hn gia cc vng nh. Mt khun mt c xc
nh khi mt nh tha tt c cc cp sng hn ti
hn. tng ny xut pht t s khc bit ca
cng gia cc vng k cc b, sau ny c m
rng trn c s bin i wavelet biu din cho
xc nh ngi i b, xc nh xe hi, xc nh
khun mt [222]. tng ca Sinha cn c p
dng cho h thng th gic ca robot [151, 236].
Hnh 5 cho thy mu ni bt trong 23 quan h c
nh ngha. Dng cc quan h ny phn loi, c
11 quan h thit yu (cc mi tn mu en) v 12
quan h xc thc (cc mi tn xm). Mi mi tn l
mt quan h. Mt quan h tha mn mu khun mt
khi t l gia hai vng vt qua mt ngng v 23
quan h ny vt ngng th xem nh xc nh
c mt khun mt.
Hnh 5: Mt mu khun mt, c 16 vng v 23 quan h (cc mi tn).
Phng php so khp mu theo th t xc
nh khun mt ngi do Miao trnh by [214].
giai on u tin, nh s c xoay t -20o n 20o
vi mi bc l 5o v theo th t. Xy dng nh a
phn gii, hnh 1, ri dng php tan Laplace
xc nh cc cnh. Mt mu khun mt gm cc
cnh m t su thnh phn: hai lng my, hai mt,
mt mi, v mt ming. Sau p dng heuristic
xc nh s tn ti ca khun mt trong nh, phng
php ny cho php xc nhiu khun mt, nhng kt
10
qu khng tt bng xc nh mt khun mt (chp
thng hoc xoay) trong nh xm.
Wei v Lai [78] dng b lc phn on kt
hp thut ton tm lng ging gn nht xc nh ng
vin khun mt, t ng vin ny sau so khp vi
cc mu xc nh trc bit ng vin c phi
l khun mt hay khng. T l chnh xc l 80%.
Darrell [84] dng phn on tm ng vin,
dng ng vin ny xc nh khun mt ngi da
vo mu ri theo vt chuyn ng ca ngi.
Dowdall dng ph ca mu da ngi xc
nh ng vin. Sau chiu cc ng vin ny so
sanh vi cc mu c trc xc nh ng vin no
l khun mt ngi. Phng php ny ch xc nh
cho khun mt chp thng v gn thng, gc quay
khong t -10o n 10o [86].
Holst xy dng mt h thng t cc mu vi cc
c trng kp [92]: (1) thnh phn, gm: mt, mi,
v ming; (2) hnh dng khun mt, trn phn
gii thp. ng dng hai phng php tm kim trong
khng gian d liu ca mnh xc nh khun mt
ngi.
Hnh 6: Phn nhm d liu khun mt
v nhm d liu khng phi khun mt.
Froba v Zink lc cnh phn gii thp ri
dng bin i Hough so khp mu theo hng
cnh xc nh hnh dng khun mt dng chp
hnh thng dng xm. T l chnh xc trn 91%
[25].
Shu v Jain xy dng ng ngha khun mt [85].
Ng ngha theo hnh dng v v tr cc thnh phn
khun mt. Hai ng t b ng ngha ny xy dng
mt th quan h d dng so khp khi xc nh
khun mt ngi.
Iwata [39] xy dng mu mi c trng gm
bn c trng theo bn hmg: ngang, bn phi pha
trn, ng, v bn tri pha trn ca khun mt chp
thng hoc gn thng trong nh xm. so khp
tng phn ca mu kt hp xc sut cc lng ging.
T l chnh xc ca phng php ny l gn 99%.
Keren [33] xy dng khi nim Antifaces xc
nh khun mt ngi (tng qut cho cc i tng
3-chiu). Da trn nhiu loi mu kt hp gi thuyt
phn b xc sut tm nhng i tng khng c
mi tng quan tm khun mt ngi. ng cho
bit, phng php ny nhanh hn eigenface v SVM
v mc chnh xc gn tng ng.
Feris [59] dng mng wavelet th nht xc
nh ng vin khun mt khi so khp vi cc mu
hc trc. Sau tc gi dng mng wavelet th
hai xc nh cc thnh phn nh mt, mi, v
ming thng qua cc c trng gc cnh. T cc
thnh phn ny xem xt tnh ha hp c quyt
nh cui cng ng vin no l khun mt ngi.
b) Cc mu b bin dng
Yuille dng cc mu bin dng m hnh ha
cc c trng ca khun mt, m hnh ny c kh
nng linh hot cho cc c trng khun mt [268].
Trong hng tip cn ny, cc c trng khun mt
c m t bng cc mu c tham s ha. Mt
hm nng lng (gi tr) c nh ngha lin kt
cc cnh, nh, v thung lng trong nh tng
ng vi cc tham s trong mu. M hnh ny tt
nht khi ti thiu hm nng lng qua cc tham s,
Mc d kt qu tt vi mu bin dng trong theo vt
i tng trn c trng khng m hnh theo li,
mt hn ch ca hng tip cn ny l cc mu bin
dng phi c khi to trong phm vi gn cc i
tng xc nh.
Mt hng tip cn da trn dng gp khc
(snake) [193, 208] v cc mu xc nh khun
mt [202]. u tin mt nh s c lm xon li
bi mt lc lm m ri dng php ton morphology
lm ni bt cnh ln. Dng mt ng gp khc
c n im nh (gi tr n nh) tm v c lng
cc an cong nh. Mi khun mt c xp x
bng mt ellipse v bin i Hough, ri tm mt
ellipse ni tri nht. Mt tp c bn tham s m t
nt ellipse c dng nh ng vin xc nh
11
khun mt. Vi mi ng vin, mt phng thc
tng t nh phng thc mu bin dng [268]
dng xc nh cc c trng mc chi tit. Nu
tm thy s lng ng k cc c trng khun mt
v tha t l cn i th xem nh xc nh c
mt khun mt. Lam v Yan cng dng ng gp
khc xc nh v tr u vi thut ton greedy
cc tiu ha hm nng lng [203].
Thay v dng ng gp khc th Huang v Su
[13] dng l thuyt dng chy xc nh ng
vin khun mt da trn c tnh hnh hc. Hai ng
dng l thuyt tp ng mc (Level Set) loang t
cc khi ng ban u c c cc khun mt
ngi.
Lanitis m t mt phng php biu din khun
mt ngi vi c hai thng tin: hnh dng v cng
[204]. Bt u vi cc tp nh c hun luyn
vi cc ng vin mu nh l ng bao mt, mi,
cm/m c gn nhn. Dng mt vector cc im
mu m t hnh dng. Tc gi dng mt m hnh
phn b im (Point Distribution Model PDM)
m t vector hnh dng qua ton b cc c th. Dng
tip cn nh Kirby v Sirovich [198] m t cng
b ngai ca hnh dng c chun ha. Mt
PDM c hnh dng nh khun mt dng xc nh
khun mt bng m hnh hnh dng tch cc (Active
Shape Model - ASM) tm kim v c lng v
tr khun mt cng nh cc tham s v hnh dng.
Cc mnh ca khun mt c lm bin dng v
hnh dng trung bnh ri trch cc tham s cng .
Cc tham s hnh dng v cng c dng
phn loi. Cootes v Taylor p dng cch tip cn
ny xc nh khun mt [161]. u tin, hai ng
nh ngha nt vng hnh ch nht cha cc c
trng quan tm. Dng phn tch nhn t [146] lm
va cc c trng hun luyn c mt hm phn
b. C uc cc c trng l ng vin nu o xc
sut vt qua mt ngng khi dng ASM. Sau khi
hun luyn xong c th xc nh khun mt ngi.
Hng tip cn theo ASM c m rng bng hai
lc Kalman c lng cc tham s v hnh dng
v cng dng theo vt khun mt ngi
[169].
4. Hng tip cn da trn din mo
Tri ngc vi cc phong php so khp mu
vi cc mu c nh ngha trc bi nhng
chuyn gia, cc mu trong hng tip cn ny c
hc t cc nh mu. Mt cc tng qut, cc phng
php theo hng tip cn ny p dng cc k thut
theo hng xc sut thng k v my hc tm
nhng c tnh lin quan ca khun mt v khng
phi l khun mt. Cc c tnh c hc trong
hnh thi cc m hnh phn b hay cc hm bit s
nn dng c th dng cc c tnh ny xc nh
khun mt ngi. ng thi, bi ton gim s chiu
thng c quan tm tng hiu qu tnh ton
cng nh hiu qu xc nh.
C nhiu phng php p dng xc sut thng
k gi quyt. Mt nh hay mt vector c trng
xut pht t mt nh c xem nh mt bin ngu
nhin x, v bin ngu nhin c c tnh l khun mt
hay khng phi khun mt bi cng thc tnh theo
cc hm mt phn lp theo iu kin
p(x | khuo
n mat) v p(x | kho
ng pha i khuo
n mat) .
C th dng phn loi Bayes hoc kh nng cc i
phn loi mt ng vin l khun mt hay khng
phi l khun mt. Khng th ci t trc tip phn
loi Bayes bi v s chiu ca x kh cao, bi v
p(x | khuo t) v p(x | khong phaikhuon mat)
n ma
l a phng thc, v cha th hiu nu xy dng
cc dng tham s ha mt cch t nhin cho
p(x | khuo t) v p(x | khong phaikhuon mat) .
n ma
C kh nhiu nghin cu theo hng tip cn ny
quan tm xp x c tham s hay khng c tham s
cho p(x | khuo
n mat) v
p(x | kho
ng pha
i khuo t) .
n ma
Cc tip cn khc trong hng tip cn da trn
din mo l tm mt hm bit s (nh: mt phng
quyt nh, siu phng tch d liu, hm ngng)
phn bit hai lp d liu: khun mt v khng
phi khun mt. Bnh thng, cc mu nh c
chiu vo khng gian c s chiu thp hn, ri sau
dng mt hm bit s (da trn cc o khong
cch) phn loi [255], hoc xy dng mt quyt
nh phi tuyn bng mng neural a tng [48]. Hoc
dng SVM (Support Vector Machine) v cc
phng thc kernel, chiu hon ton cc mu vo
12
khng gian c s chiu cao hn d liu b ri rc
hon ton v ta c th dng mt mt phng quyt
nh phn loi cc mu khun mt v khng phi
khun mt [220].
a) Eigenface
Kohonen a ra phng php dng vector
ring nhn dng khun mt [199], ng dng mt
mng neural n gin chng t kh nng ca
phng php ny trn cc nh c chun ha.
Mng neural tnh mt m t ca khun mt bng
cch xp x cc vector ring ca ma trn tng quan
ca nh. Cc vector ring sau ny c bit n vi
ci tn Eigenface.
Kirby v Sirovich chng t cc nh c cc
khun mt c th c m ha tuyn tnh bng mt
s lng va phi cc nh c s [198]. Tnh cht
ny da trn bin i Karhunen-Leve [176, 192,
211], m cn c gi di mt ci tn khc l PCA
[189] v bin i Hotelling [104]. tng ny c
xem l ca Pearson trnh by u tin vo nm 1901
[223] v sau l Hotelling vo nm 1933 [185].
Cho mt tp cc nh hun luyn c kch thc n x
m c m t bi cc vector c kch thc m x m,
cc vector c s cho mt khng gian con ti u
c xc nh thng qua li bnh phng trung bnh
khi chiu cc nh hun luyn vo khng gian con
ny. Cc tc gi gi tp cc vector c s ti u ny
l nh ring sau gi cho n gin l vector ring
ca ma trn hip phng sai c tnh t cc nh
khun mt vector ha trong tp hun luyn. Nu
cho 100 nh, m mi khun mt c kch thc
91x50 th c th ch dng 50 nh ring, trong khi
vn duy tr c mt kh nng ging nhau hp l
(gi c 95% tnh cht).
Turk v Pentland p dng PCA xc nh v
nhn dng khun mt [255]. Tng t [198], dng
PCA trn tp hun luyn nh cc khun mt sinh
cc nh ring (cn gi l eigenface) tm mt
khng gian con (khng gian khun mt) trong khng
gian nh. Cc nh khun mt c chiu vo khng
gian con ny v c gom nhm li. Tng t cc
nh khng c khun mt dng hun luyn cng
c chiu vo cng khng gian con v gom nhm
li. Cc nh khi chiu vo khng gian khun mt th
khng b thay i tnh cht c bn, trong khi chiu
cc nh khng c khun mt th xut hin s khc
nhau cng khng t. Xc nh s c mt ca mt
khun mt trong nh thng qua tt c khong cch
gia cc v tr trong nh v khng gian nh. Khong
cch ny dng xem xt c hay khng c khun
mt ngi, kt qu khi tnh ton cc khong cch s
cho ta mt bn v khun mt. C th xc nh
c t cc tiu a phng ca bn ny. C
nhiu nghin cu v xc nh khun mt, nhn dng,
v trch c trng t tng vector ring, phn r,
v gom nhm. Sau Kim [23] pht trin cho nh
mu, bng cch phn on nh tm ng khng
gian tm kim bt i.
b) Hng tip cn da trn phn b
Sung v Poggio pht trin mt h thng xc nh
khun mt ngi da trn phn b [246, 247], chng
t bng cch dng phn b cc cc mu nh cng
mt lp i tng c th c hc t cc mu
negative v positive. H thng ca hai ng bao gm
hai thnh phn: m hnh phn b ca cc mu l
khun mt/khng phi khun mt v mt phn loi
a tng da vo th gic. Mi mu l khun mt v
khng phi l khun mt c chun ha v x l
thnh nh c kch thc 19 x 19 im nh v xem
nh mt vector hay mu c 361-chiu. Sau cc
mu c nhm vo cc nhm, mi nhm gm su
mu cng loi l khun mt hoc nhm khng phi
l khun mt bng thut ton k-trung bnh (k-mean),
hnh 6. Mi nhm s c m t nh mt hm
Gauss a chiu vi mt nh trung bnh v ma trn
hip phng sai. Hnh 7 cho thy cch tnh khong
cch ca hai ng. Hai o khong cch dng
tnh khong cch gia nh a vo v tm ca
nhm. Thnh phn khong cch u tin l khong
cch Mahalanobis c chun ha gia hnh chiu
ca mu cn kim tra v tm ca nhm, tnh trong
khng gian con c s chiu thp hn, c m t
bng 75 vector ring ln nht. Thnh phn khong
cch th hai l khong cch Euclide gia mu cn
kim tra v hnh chiu ca n trong khng gian con
c 75- chiu ny. Dng hai khong cch ny xc
nh khong cch t mu cn kim tra n tm mt
nhm. T nay chng ta c th bit mu cn kim tra
gn nhm no nht. Bc cui cng dng mng a
tng (Multilayer Perceptron Network MLP)
13
phn loi da vo 12 cp khong cch (c 12 nhm)
khi mng ny c hun luyn trc . D dng
chn mu khun mt hun luyn, nhng khng
d chn mu khng phi l khun mt hun
luyn. Dng phng php bootstrap gi gii
quyt vn ny. Bt u t tp nh khng phi
khun mt trong tp mu hun luyn hun luyn
MLP. Dng b xc nh khun mt ngi xc
nh mt ngi trn mt dy cc nh ngu nhin, sau
chn cc mu khng phi khun mt ngi m b
xc nh l khun mt ngi xem nh l mu khng
phi khun mt ngi mi hun luyn tip tc.
Phng php ny b qua vn chn mu no trong
cc mu tng tnh hiu qu, c nhiu nghin cu
sau ny v vn ny [48, 220].
Hnh 7: (a) Khong cch gia mu cn kim tra v cc nhm;
(b) hai thnh phn khong cch.
Moghaddam v Pentland a ra mt m hnh hc
theo xc sut da trn c lng mt trong khng
gian c s chiu cao bng khng gian ring [216].
Hai ng dng PCA tm khng gian con m t
tt nht mt tp cc mu khun mt ngi. Phng
php ny vn gi li cc mi tng quan tuyn tnh
chnh trong d liu v loi b cc th yu khc.
Phng php ny phn r mt khng gian vector
thnh hai khng gian con m hai khng gian con ny
loi tr ln nhau v cng b sung cho nhau: khng
gian con chnh (khng gian c trng) v phn b
trc giao. V th, mc tiu mt c phn r lm
hai thnh phn: mt trong khng gian chnh (da
vo cc thnh phn chnh) v phn b trc giao,
hnh 8. Xy dng h thng hc da vo Gauss nhiu
bin v Gauss hn hp, h thng ny hc da trn
thng k cc c trng cc b ca mt khun mt.
Dng cc mt xc sut xc nh khun mt
trn c s c lng kh nng cc i. Phngphp
ny uc p dng cho xc nh khun mt, m ha
khun mt, v nhn dng. So snh vi hng tip
eigenface c in [255], phng php ny cho thy
hiu qu hn trong xc nh v nhn dng khun
mt [196].
Yang s dng mt hn hp nhiu phn tch h s
lm tiu ch xc nh khun mt. Phn tch h s
(Factor Analysis FA) l mt phng php thng
k m hnh ha tnh hip bin cu trc ca d
liu c s chiu cao bng cch dng m lng nh
cc bin tim tng. FA cng tng t PCA trong vi
kha cnh. Tuy nhin, PCA khng ging FA, khng
nh ngha mt m hnh mt thch hp cho d
liu. Hn na, PCA khng hiu qu khi c nhiu
c lp trong cc c trng ca d liu. Tng hp t
[148, 150, 167, 168] cho thy cc mu c chiu t
cc lp khc nhau vo khng gian con PCA thng
c th khng hiu qu. Trong cc trng hp khi cc
mu c mt cu trc chc chn, dng PCA s cho
kt qu kh tt. Hinton dng FA nhn dng cc
con s, ng so snh FA v PCA [184]. Mt m
hnh hn hp ca cc phn tch h s c m rng
nhn dng khun mt ngi [174]. C hai nghin
cu u cho thy FA tt hn PCA. T t th, hng,
cm xc, v nh hng nh sng trn din mo ca
khun mt ngi, phn b cc khun mt trong
khng gian nh c th c biu din tt hn bng
mt m hnh mt a phng thc khi mi
phng thc gi cc c tnh chc chn ca din
mo chc chn ca khun mt. H trnh by mt
m hnh theo xc sut khi dng mt hn hp cc
phn tch h s (Mixture of Factor Analyzer MFA)
xc nh khun mt ngi. Dng thut ton EM
c lng cc tham s trong m hnh hn hp.
Hnh 8: Phn r mt nh khun mt vo khng gian chnh F
---
v phn b trc giao F .
Phng php th hai [263] dng bit s tuyn
tnh Fisher (Fishers Linear Discriminant FLD)
chiu cc mu t khng gian nh c s chiu cao
sang mt khng gian c trng c s chiu thp hn.
14
V trn c s phn tch bit s tuyn tnh, cc tc gi
xy dng phng php Fisherface [148] v
nhng phng php khc [249, 269] gii quyt tt
hn phng php Eigenface [255] trong nhn dng
khun mt. Khi dng FLD phn loi mu s tt
hn PCA khi chiu. Do , kt qu phn loi trong
khng gian con c chiu c th kh hn cc
phng php khc ( [213] trnh by r v kch
thc tp hun luyn). Trong phng thc th hai,
cc tc gi phn r cc mu hun luyn khun
mt v khng phi khun mt vo trong vi lp con
bng nh x t t chc Kohonen (Kohonens Self
Organizing Map SOM) [199]. Hnh 9 cho thy mt
i din ca mi lp khun mt. T cc mu c
gn nhn li, tnh cc ma trn cc gi tr ri rc v
tnh cht mu trong lp hay gia lp, bng cch
pht sinh php chiu ti u trn c s FLD. Mi
nhm con, m hnh ha mt nh mt phng
thc Gauss vi cc tham s trong Gauss c c
lng bng phng php cc i ha kh nng
[167]. Qut trn ton b nh a vo bng mt ca
s ri tnh xc sut mc ph thuc lp. Dng lut
quyt nh da trn cc i ha kh nng xc
nh c phi l khun mt hay khng. C hai
phng php trong [263] c t l chnh xc l 92.3%
cho MFA v 93.6% khi dng FLD.
Hnh 9: i din ca mi lp khun mt.
Mi i din tng ng tm ca mt nhm.
Choi [31] xy dng h thng xc nh khun mt
ngi trong nh mu bng c trng ca mt ngi
thng qua phn on xc nh ng vin khun
mt da trn phn b mu da ca khun mt.
c) Mng Neural
Mng neural c p dng kh thnh cng trong
cc bi ton nhn dng mu, nh: nhn k t, i
tng, robot t vn hnh. Xc nh khun mt ngi
c th xem l bi ton nhn dng hai loi mu, c
nhiu kin trc mng neural c trnh by. Mt
thun li khi dng mng neural xc nh khun
mt l tnh kh thi ca h thng hc khi c s phc
tp trong lp ca cc mu khun mt. Tuy nhin,
mt iu tr ngi l cc kin trc mng u tng
qut, khi p dng th phi xc nh r rng s lng
tng, s lng node, t l hc, , cho tng trng
hp c th, hnh 10.
Hnh 10: M hnh mng Neural theo Rowley
Agui trnh by mng neural x l c th t
[143]. Gia on u dng hai mng con song song
m d liu vo l cc gi tr cng ca nh ban
u v cc gi tr cng ca nh c lc
bng thut ton lc Sobel vi ca s lc 3x3. u
vo ca mng giai on hai bao gm d liu u ra
t hai mng con v cc gi tr c trng c
trch ra, nh: c trng lch chun ca cc gi tr
im nh trong mu a vo, mt t l ca s im
nh trng trn tng s im nh ( chuyn sang nh
nh phn) trong mt ca s, v c trng thit yu v
hnh hc. Mt gi tr xut ti giai on hai cho bit
c tn ti hay khng khun mt ngi trong vng
a vo. Qua kinh nghim, tc gi ch ra rng nu
cc nh cng mt kch thc th mi dng phng
php ny c.
Propp v Samal pht trin mng neural xc
nh khun mt ngi sm nht [224]. Mng neural
ca hai ng gm bn tng vi 1,024 u vo, 256
u k tip trong tng n th nht, tm u k tip
trong tng n th hai, v hai u ra. Tng t nh
mng neural x l theo th t c a ra sau
[251]. Phng php ca Soulie [242] duyt mt nh
a vo vi mng neural c thi gian tr [258] (kch
thc ca s l 20x25 im nh) xc nh khun
mt. Dng bin i wavelet phn r nh cc phn
15
c kch thc khc nhau xc nh khun mt.
Vaillant dng mng neural dng xon xc nh
khun mt ngi [256]. u tin to cc nh mu
khun mt v khng phi khun mt c kch thc
20x20. Dng mt mng neural, mng ny c
hun luyn, tm cc v tr tng i ca cc
khun mt cc t l khc nhau. Ri dng mt
mng khc xc nh v tr chnh xc ca cc
khun mt. Mng u tin dng tm cc ng vin
khun mt, ri dng mng th hai xc nh ng
vin no that s l khun mt. Burel v Carel dng
mng neural a tng c t mu hn vi thut ton
Kohenens SOM hc cc mu khun mt v hnh
nn, m cc mu ny c phn loi trc. Giai
on xc nh khun mt bao gm duyt trn mi
nh c bin i t nh bn u cc phn nh mu no l khun mt) v mt m un quyt
gii khc nhau. ti mi v tr v kch thc ca s
duyt, iu chnh sng. Mi ca s c
chun ha s c phn loi bng MLP.
Feraud v Bernier dng mng neural kt hp t
ng [171, 172, 173]. tng da trn [201] mng
kt hp t ng c nm tng th c th biu din mt
phn tch thnh phn chnh phi tuyn. Dng mt
mng kt hp t ng xc nh cc khun mt
chp thng ri m rng bng cch xoay 60 t tri
sang phi khun mt chp thng, mng ny s tn
dng cc trng s khi xy dng vi d liu khun
mt chp thng cho cc t th mi. Hai ng cho bit
kt qu cng tng t [231]. Phng php ny cng
dng cho LISTEN [159] v MULTRAK [149].
Lin xy dng mng neural quyt nh trn c s
xc sut (Probabilistic Decision-based Neural
Network PDBNN) [209]. Kin trc ca PDBNN
th tng t mt mng c hm trn nn tng tng
t tia (Radial Basis Function RBF) vi cc lut
hc c h tr xc sut. Thay v chuyn ton b
nh khun mt thnh mt vector c cc gi tr cng
hun luyn cho mng neural, ng s trch
vector c trng da trn cng v thng tin
cnh trong vng khun mt c cha lng my, mt,
v mi. Hai vector c trng c trch th a
vo hai PDBNN v hp nht cc kt qu c kt
qu phn loi. Trn c s 23 nh ca Sung v
Poggio [248]. ng cho mt s kt qu so snh
vi cc mng khc [48, 248].
Theo nh gi cc phng php dng mng
neural xc nh khun mt ngi ca nhiu tc
gi, th nghin cu ca Rowley [48, 231] c xem
l tt nht i vi nh xm. Mt mng a tng c
dng hc cc mu khun mt v khng phi
khun t cc nh tng ng (da trn quan h
cng , v mt khng gian ca cc im nh)
trong khi Sung [246] dng mng neural xc nh
mt hm bit s cho mc ch phn loi mu c phi
l khun mt hay khng da vo o khong cch.
Hai ng cng dng nhiu mng neural v vi
phng thc quyt nh ci thin kt qu, trong
khi Burel v Carel [153] dng mt mng n, v
Vaillant [256] dng hai mng phn loi. C hai
thnh phn chnh x l: nhiu mng neural (xc
nh (a ra quyt nh cui cng t nhiu kt qu
xc nh). Hnh 9, thnh phn u tin ca phng
php ny l mt mng neural nhn mt vng nh c
kch thc 20x20 im nh v xut ra mt gi trc
trong khong t -1 n 1. Khi a vo mt nh, nu
kt qu gn -1 th ngha l mu ny khng phi l
khun mt ngi, nhng nu kt qu gn 1 th y
chnh l khun mt ngi. xc nh khun mt
c kch thc ln hn 20x20 im nh, c chn mt
t l ri duyt ri xc nh, ri li thay i t l
(bin thin t l ny do ngi xy dng quyt nh).
Gn 1050 mu khun mt c kch thc, hng, v
tr, v cng khc nhau dng hun luyn
mng. S gn nhn cho mt, nh ca mi, gc cnh,
v tm ca ming ri dng chun ha khun mt
v cng mt t l, hng, v v tr. Thnh phn th
hai l phng php trn cc xc nh chng cho
nhau v a ra quyt nh. Php ton logic
(AND/OR) l mt quyt nh n gin nht v
phng php bu c c dng tng tnh hiu
qu. Rowley [48] a nhiu cch gii quyt bi ton
quyt khc nhau nhng chi ph tnh ton t hn Sung
v Poggio nhng t l chnh xc cao hn.
Mt gii hn ca phng php ca Rowley [48]
v Sung [246] l ch c th xc nh khun mt chp
thng v ta thng (nghing u). Sau Rowley
[49] ci tin c th xc nh khun mt b xoay
bng mng nh hng (Router Network), hnh 11,
s thm tin trnh xc nh hng khun mt v
16
xoay v li t th chun (chp thng), tuy nhin khi
quay li d liu nh trn th t l chnh xc li gim
i, ch cn khong 76.9%.
Hnh 11: Mt v d cho d liu vo v d liu ra ca mng nh hng.
Lee [71] pht trin tng ca Rowley [48] cho
xc nh khun mt trong nh mu. ng dng m
hnh mu da ngi bng Gauss xc nh cc ng
vin, sau loi bt nhng ng vin no khng tha
mn tnh cht hnh dng gn ging hnh ellipse. Cui
cng ng dng mt mng neural c hun luyn
xc nh khunmt ngi. T l xc nh chnh
xc l 88.9%, cn t l xc nh sai l 11.1%.
Da trn nghin cu ca Rowley [48], Hazem
[108] ci tin tc x l tng ln ng k.
Kwolek [131] dng b lc Gabor trch c
trng, dng c trng ny hun luuyn cho mng
neural xon. Mng neural xon l mng neural m
mi node mi tng c th lin kt vi cc lng
ging cc b tng pha trc ca n. T l chnh xc
l 87.5%.
d) SVM
Support Vector Machine (SVM) c Osuna
[220] p dng u tin xc nh khun mt
ngi. SVM c xem nh l mt kiu mi dng
hun luyn phn loi theo hm a thc. Trong khi
hu ht cc phng php khc hun luyn phn
loi (Mng Bayes, Nueral, RBF) u dng tiu ch
ti thiu li hun luyn (ri ro do kinh nghim),
trong khi SVM dng quy np (c gi l ti thiu
ri ro cu trc), mc tiu l lm ti thiu mt bao
bn trn trn li tng qut. Mt phn loi SVM l
mt phn loi tuyn tnh, dng mt siu phng
tch d liu. Da trn mt kt hp c cc trng s
ca mt tp con nh cc vector hun luyn, cc
vector ny c gi l support vector. c lng
siu phng th tng ng gii mt bi ton tuyn
tnh bc hai. Osuna [220] pht trin mt phng
php hiu qu hun luyn mt SVM vi t l ln
p dng cho bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi.
ng dng 10,000,000 mu c kch thc 19x19
im nh, h thng ca ng c t l li t hn Sung
v Poggio [247], nhng nhanh hn gn 30 ln. SVM
cng c th dng xc nh khun mt ngi v
ngi i b vi phn tch Wavelet [219, 221, 222].
Shihong v Masato s dng bin i wavelet
Gabor trch c trng ca khun mt cng nh
khng phi khun mt a vo cho SVM hc
[15].
Kang v Lee [14] xy dng ng dng cho robot
i b vt qua con ngi v chng ngi vt da
trn xc nh khun mt. Hai ng dng phn on
ni kt hp SVM phn loi. Tng t Kui v
Silva [22] cng xy dng ng dng cho phng thng
minh bng cch xc nh khun mt ngi da trn
eigenface lm d liu cho SVM hc phn loi.
Bileschi v Heisele [18] dng phn gii thp
hc thnh phn khun mt trong nh xm vi cc
khun mt chp thng hoc ta thng cho SVM
xc nh khun mt. Trong khi Terrillon [20] dng
tnh cht mu da ngi tm ng vin kt hp
SVM v cc m men Fourier-Mellin trc giao
gii quyt. Thay v lc n gin, Shu-Fai v Kwan-
Yee [72] dng QuaTree tm ng vin khun mt
ngi trong nh mu. Sau kt hp wavelet phn
tch mu cho SVM hc trong nhiu t l. a phn
khi cho SVM hc, cc tc gi u dng hai lp
khun mt v khng phi khun mt hc. Wang
[75] ch dng mt lp khun mt trong nh mu
xc nh khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc khong
81%. Fang v Qiu [83] kt hp SVM v thut ton
leo i xc nh khun mt. Zhang v Zhao [51]
xy dng SVM da trn histogram ca khun mt
v khng phi khun mt xc nh khun mt. T
l chnh xc khong 92% cho khun mt chp thng
hoc gn thng trong nh mu. Je li xy dng nhiu
SVM xc nh khun mt ngi theo th t quyt
nh kt hp phng php bu c trong nh mu
[30].
Julien [129] xy dng mt cu trc SVM mi
gm nhiu SVM kt ni song song vi nhau hc d
liu t khng gian eigenface. T l chnh xc hn
93% trong nh xm vi khun mt n c chp
thng.
17
 e) Mng lc tha
Yang xut mt phng php dng mng lc
d tha (Sparse Network of Winnows SNoW)
[181, 230] xc nh khun mt ngi vi cc c
trng khc nhau v biu din trong cc t th khc
nhau, v di iu kin nh sng khc nhau [264].
ng thi nghin cu phng php hc s khai tt
nh th no khi dng cc c trng a t l. SNoW
l mt mng tha dng cc hm tuyn tnh v dng
lc cp nht lut [210]. Phng php ny thch
hp cho hc trong min khi cc c trng tim nng
to cc quyt nh sai khc nhau m khng bit mc
u tin. Mt vi c tnh ca kin trc hc ny l
rt him d liu c phn chung, c ch nh cc c
trng v lin kt trong d liu, k thut quyt nh,
v cp nht lut hiu qu. T l li l 5.9%, hiu qu
cng nh cc phng php khc [48, 160, 220, 237].
Gundimada [4] da trn kin trc SNoW xy
dng ba mng, mng th nht phn loi da trn
phn b cng , hai mng da trn phn b mu
da ngi tm ng vin kt hp phng php lm
ni bt cnh. Xy dng cc mu y t th ca
khun mt, mi b phn loi s tng ng cho mt
hng, mi hng lch nhau 10o.
f) Phn loi Bayes
Tri ngc vi cc phng php trong [48, 220,
248] da vo din mo trn ton khun mt,
Schneiderman v Kanade m t mt phn loi naive
Bayes uc lng xc sut ni cc din mo ti
v tr cc b trn khun mt v v tr ca cc mu
khun mt ngi (cc vng con trn khun mt)
trong nhiu phn gii [73, 237]. Hai ng nhn
mnh tnh cht din mo khun mt v tr cc b
bi v vi vi mu v tr cc b ca mt i tng
s c tnh cht duy nht, cng xung quanh mu
mt th c bit hn v tr m. y l hai l do
dng phn loi naive Bayes (khng xem xt thng
k nhng ph thuc gia cc vng). u tinphn
loi ny cung cp c lng tt hn ca cc hm
mt c iu kin ca cc vng ny. Th hai, mt
phn loi Bayes cung cp mt dng hm ca theo
xc sut nhn thng k ca din mo v tr cc
b v v tr ca n trn i tng. Ti mi t l, mt
nh khun mt ngi c phn r lm bn vng
hnh ch nht con. Chiu cc vng ny xung khng
gian c s chiu thp hn (dng PCA xy dng)
v lng t ha thnh mt tp cc mu c gii hn,
v thng k mi vng c chiu, cc thng k
ny c c lng t cc mu c chiu xung
khng gian c s chiu nh hn, m ha din
mo cc b. Khi t l kh nng ln hn t l ca cc
xc sut u tin th c khun mt ngi. ng cng
cho thy so snh gia phng php ny v [48],
hng tip cn ny cho php xc nh cc khun
mt b xoay v nhn nghing. Schneiderman v
Kanade sau kt hp bin i wavelet xc nh
cc khun mt nhn nghing v xe hi [58].
Rickert cng dng cch chn cc c trng cc
b [229]. Cc c trng cc b c trch ra bng
cch p dng cc b lc a t l v nhiu phn
gii trn d liu nh a vo. Dng phng php
gom nhm d liu v mt Gauss hn hp tm
phn b ca cc vector c trng. Sau khi hun
luyn cho m hnh v tinh ch, tnh kh nng ca
cc vector c trng ca cc nh phn loi.
Phng php ny cho kt qu tt cho xc nh
khun mt ngi cng nh xe hi.
Thang [77] xc nh khun mt ngi thng qua
phn loi mng Bayes kt hp, hay cn gi l mng
Bayes c cu trc nh rng (Forest-Structured
Bayesian Network), xc nh cc bit s. Kt hp
phng php Bagging xy dng phn loi tch
hp nhm xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh xm.
T l chnh xc hn 90%.
Nam v Rhee [110, 123] xy dng mng Bayes
hc phn loi theo ng cnh: mu da, nh sng, v
kt cu khun mt v kt hp mng FuzzyART
xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh. Hai tc gi ny
cng dng thm khong cch Mahalanobis [122] khi
kt hp mng RBF v FuzzyART xc nh khun
mt c nhiu t l khc nhau. Hai tc gi pht trin
bng cch dng nhiu phn loi Bayes chn ng
vin thng qua cc c trng thng tin v cng
v kt cu ca khun mt [126]. T l chnh xc hn
87%.
Lee v Kim [120] dng c trng Haar wavelet
1-chiu hun luyn cho mng Bayes xc nh
nhiu khun mt chp thng trong nh xm thng
qua PDF ca cc mu khunmt ngi v mu
18
khng phi khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc l
98%.
Zhu [97] dng wavelet trch cc tham s c
trng da vo histogram ri dng mng Bayes
c hc xc nh khun mt ngi trong nhiu
t l khc nhau.
Duy Nguyen [280] dng b lc Sobel xc
nh cc c trng ri dng phn loi naive Bayes
nh Schneiderman v Kanade xc nh khun
mt ngi.
g) M hnh Markov n
Mt gi thuyt quan trng ca m hnh Markov
n (Hidden Markov Model HMM) l cc mu c
th c c tnh ha nh cc tin trnh ngu nhin
c tham s v cc tham s ny c c lng
chnh xc, y l mt trong nhng nh ngha r
rng. Khi pht trin HMM gii quyt bi ton
nhn dng mu, phi xc nh r c bao nhiu trng
thi n u tin cho hnh thi m hnh. Sau , hun
luyn HMM hc xc sut chuyn tip gia cc trng
thi t cc mu, m mi mu c m t nh mt
chui cc quan st. Mc tiu hun luyn HMM l
cc i ha xc sut ca quan st t d liu hun
luyn bng cch iu chnh cc tham s trong m
hnh HMM thng qua phng php phn on
Viterbi chun v cc thut ton Baum-Welch [227].
Sau khi hun luyn xong, da vo xc sut xc
nh mt quan st thuc lp no.
Mt cch trc quan, c th chia mt mu khun
mt ngi thnh nhiu vng khc nhau nh u,
mt, mi, ming, v cm. C th nhn dng mt mu
khun mt ngi bng mt tin trnh xem xt cc
vng quan st theo mt th t thch hp (t trn
xung di, t tri qua phi). Thay v tin tng vo
mc chnh xc v tr l dng cho cc phng
php da trn so khp hay da trn din mo (ni
xut hin cc c trng nh mt v mi cn xc nh
v tr l tt ly c ton b chi tit ca c
trng). Mc tiu ca hng tip cn ny l kt hp
cc vng c trng khun mt vi cc trng thi ca
m hnh. Thng cc phng php da vo HMM
s xem xt mt mu khun mt nh mt chui cc
vector quan st, vi mi vector l mt dy cc im
nh, hnh 12a v hnh 13. Trong qu trnh hun
luyn v kim tra, mt nh c qut theo mt th
t v mt quan st c xem nh mt khi cc im
nh, hnh 12a v hnh 13. p dng mt nh hng
theo xc sut chuyn t trng thi ny sang trng
thi khc, hnh 12b, d liu nh c m hnh ha
bng phnb Gauss nhiu bin. Mt chui quan st
bao gm tt c gi tr cng t mi khi. Kt qu
xut ra cho bit quan st thuc lp no. HMM c
dng nhn dng khun mt ngi v xc nh
khun mt ngi. Samaria [235] dng nm trng
thi tng ng nm vng, hnh 12b m hnh ha
tin trnh xc nh khun mt ngi. ng hun
luyn tng vng cho HMM. Mi tnh trng s ph
trch xem xt vng tng ng a ra quyt nh
ph hp. Nu kt qu xem xt cui cng vt qua
mt ngng th quan st ny s l khun mt ngi.
Hnh 12: M hnh Markov n:
(a) cc vector quan st hun luyn cho HMM;
(b) nm trng thi n.
Samaria v Young dng HMM 1-chiu (hnh
12) v 2-chiu (hnh 13) trch c trng khun
mt dng nhn dng khun mt [234, 235]. HMM
khai thc cu trc ca khun mt tun theo cc
chuyn tip trng thi. T cc cng c c trng
quan trng nh: tc, trn, mt, mi, v ming, hai
ng phn tch theo t nhin t trn xung di, mi
vng c thit k thnh mt trng thi 1-chiu. Mi
nh c phn on chun thnh nm vng theo th
t t trn xung di to thnh nm trng thi. Hai
ng dng phn on Viterbi thay cho phn on
chun v cc tham s trong HMM c ti c
lng bng thut ton Baum-Welch. Tng t
[234], Nefian v Hayes dng HMM v bin i
Karhunen Leve (Karhunen Leve Tranform
KLT) xc nh khun mt ngi v nhn dng
[217]. Thay v dng cc gi tr cng th, cc
vector quan st s bao gm cc h s (dng KLT
c) th kt qu s tt hn [234], v t l chnh xc
khi dng HMM 2-chiu (hnh 13) l 90%.
19

Hnh 13: Xc nh khun mt bng HMM cc trng thi, mi trng thi
li c nhng trng thi nh bn trong: trng thi trn c ba trng thi nh
bn trong; trng thi mt c nm trng thi nh bn trong.
Rajagopalan a ra hai phng php xc sut
xc nh khun mt ngi [228]. Tng phn vi
[248], dng mt tp cc Gauss nhiu bin m
hnh ha phn b ca khun mt ngi, phong
php u tin trong [228] dng htng k c th t
mc cao hn (Higher Order Statistic - HOS) c
lng cng . Tng t [248], cc phn b khng
bit ca khun mt v khng phi khng mt c
gom nhm bng su hm cng da trn HOS
ca cc mu. Nh trong [246], s dng tri gic nhiu
tng phn loi, mt vector a vo x l gm
mi hai o lng khong cch gia mu nh v
mi hai nhm. Tip cn ny da trn c s sinh
mt dy quan st t nh ri dnh HMM hc cc
tham s tng ng. Kt qu ca ng cho thy c hai
phng php HOS v HMM u c kt qu xc nh
khun mt ngi cao hn [48, 248], nhng nhiu
xc nh nhm hn.
Filareti dng c trng sc mu kt hp thng
tin v su ca nh lm d liu u vo dy cho
HMM xc nh khun mt ngi [63]. Phng
php ny cho php gii quyt vn v iu kin
hnh nn, sng, che khut, t th khun mt.
Hong [121] xy dng m hnh Markov n hc
d liu da trn cc c trng Haar-like xc nh
khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc l 96%.
h) Hng tip cn l thuyt thng tin
Thuc tnh trong khng gian ca mu khun mt
c th c m hnh ha qua nhiu din mo khc
nhau. Dng ng cnh phn on l mt phng
php hiu qu, xc nh ng cnh thng qua cc
im nh ln cn. L thuyt trng ngu nhin
Markov (Markov Random Field MRF) cung cp
mt tin li v cch ph hp m hnh ha cc
thc th da vo ng cnh nh cc im nh v cc
c trng c mi tng quan. Theo nh l
Hammersley-Clifford, mt MRF c th c c
tnh ha tng ng bng mt phn b Gibbs v
cc tham s thng cc i ha sau khi c lng
[225]. Nh mt s la chn, cc phn khun mt
ngi v khng phi khun mt c th c c
lng qua cc histogram. Dng thng tin quan h
Kullback, tin trnh Markov cc i ha bit s trn
c s thng tin gia cc lp xc nh khun mt
ngi [160, 207].
Lew p dng thng tin quan h Kullback [162]
kt hp hm xc sut p(x) khi mu l khun mt
ngi v q(x) khi mu khng phi l khun mt
ngi xc nh khun mt ngi [207]. ng dng
100 c th khun mt ngi gm chin quang cnh
c lng phn b ca khun mt. Dng 143,000
mu khng phi khun mt c lng hm mt
xc sut (PDF) thng qua histogram. T y
chn c cc im nh giu thng tin nht (Most
Informative Pixel MIP) cc i ha thng tin
quan h Kullback gia p(x) v q(x) (c c mt
phn tch lp cc i). Phn b MIP tp trung cc
vng mt v ming, nhng b qua vng mi. MIP
c dng c c cc c trng tuyn tnh dng
cho phn loi v m t bng phng php ca
Fukunage v Koontz [175]. Dng mt ca s duyt
trn tan b nh xy dng khong cch t khng
gian khun mt (Distance From Face Space
DFFS), c nh ngha [283]. Nu DFFS n
khng gian con khun mt ngn hn khong cch
n khng gian con khng phi khun mt, hnh 8,
th xem nh xc nh c khun mt trong ca
s.
Thng tin quan h Kullback cng c
Colmenarez v Huang dng cc i ha bit s
trn c s thng tin gia cc mu negative v
positive ca khun mt [160]. Phn tch cc nh t
tp hun luyn ca mi lp (lp khun mt ngi v
lp khng phi khun mt ngi) nh cc quan st
trong tin trnh ngu nhin v ac c tnh ha
bng hai hm xc sut. Hai ng dng mt hc cc
qu trnh x l Markov ri rc m hnh cc mu
khun mt v hnh nn ri c lng m hnh xc
sut tng ng. Qu trnh hc c chuyn thnh
bi tan ti u chn c tin trnh cc i bit
s trn c s thng tin gia hai lp. Tnh t l kh
20
nng dng cho m hnh xc sut c hun luyn
ri dng xc nh khun mt ngi.
Qian v Hang [225] trnh by mt phng php
dng c hai phng php trn c s quang cnh v
m hnh ha. u tin, mt thut ton dng tri thc
min mc cao ca nhng g khi nhn vo th quan
tm ngay gim s chiu khng gian tm kim
(thay v tm trn ton b khng gian c trng, ch
cn tm trn khng gian con c nhng c trng
quan tm). Thut ton ny chn cc vng trn nh
lm mc tiu khi c din mo quan tm xut hin
bng thut ton xc nh vng (phng php water-
shed). Dng cc vng c chn xc nh
khun mt so khp mu v so khp c trng thng
qua trng ngu nhin Markov v cc i c lng
sau.
Feng v Shi [102] dng KFD (Kernel Fisher
Discriminant) phn tch nh c khun mt ngi
ri hc cc c trng ny xc nh khun mt
ngi. T l chnh xc trong nh xm khong 72%.
i) Hc theo quy np
Cc thut ton hc theo quy np c p dng
xc nh khun mt ngi. Huang dng thut
ton C4.5 [226] xy dng cy quyt nh t cc mu
khun mt ngi [187]. Mi mu hun luyn l mt
ca s c kch thc 8x8 im nh v c m t
nh mt vector c 30 thuc tnh v entropy, trung
bnh, v lch chun ca cc gi tr cng ca
im nh. Mi node ca cy quyt nh s ch r
quyt nh trn mt thuc tnh n. T l chnh xc
khi xc nh khun mt c chp thng l 96%.
Duta v Jain [273] m t mt phng php hc
khi nim khun mt ngi bng thut ton Find-S
ca Mitchell [215]. Tng t [248], hai ng c
on phn b ca cc mu khun mt ngi bng
p(x | khuo
n mat) thng qua mt tp cc nhm theo
Gauss v khong cch t mu khun mt n tm
nhm nn nh hn khang cch ln nht t cc im
n tm nhm (ngha l name trong phn bao ca
nhm). Sau dng thut ton Find-S hc khong
cch ngng. Phng php ny c vi c tnh
ring. Th nht, khng dng cc mu khng phi l
khun mt ngi, trong khi [48, 248] dng c hai
loi mu. Th hai, ch dng duy nht phn tm
hun luyn. Th ba, cc vector c trng gm c cc
nh vi 32 mc cng hac kt cu, trong khi
[248] dng ton b t l cc gi tr cng . T l
chnh xc l 90%.
Bernhard Froba v Andreas Ernts [25] dng cy
quyt nh c nhiu nhnh cho php xc nh khun
mt ngi nhn nghing t -60o n 60o, mi node
c kh nng loi b ca s con hin hnh ang xt
hoc phn loi vo mt trong ba lp quay. T l
chnh xc cho nh xm l 90%.
Socolinsky [91] dng phn loi CCCD (Class-
Cover Catch Digraph) kt hp boosted tree-like
thng qua o cross-correlation xc nh khun
mt ngi da trn tp mu hun luyn.
Ramana [112] dng cy quyt nh nh mt
cng c phn loi xem phn no s l khun mt
ngi. Trong khi xy dng cy ng kt hp c
cascade tng tnh hiu qu.
j) AdaBoost
Hc vi AdaBoost l mt phn loi mnh phi
tuyn phc HM(x), c xy dng t M phn loi
mhm ( x)
M
yu [274], H M ( x) = m=1 vi x l mu cn
M
m=1 m
phn loi, hm(x){-1,1} l M phn loi yu, m0 l
m l nhn t
M
cc h s trong , v m=1
chun ha. Mc tiu ca Adaboost l hc mt dy
cc phn loi yu. Gi s c mt tp N mu hun
luyn c gn nhn {(x1,y1), , (xN,yN)}, vi yi
l nhn tng ng ca mu xi n . Tnh mt phn
b ca cc mu hun luyn [w1, , wN] cp nht
trong sut qu trnh hc. Sau bc lp m, mu kh
phn loi (xi,yi) c trng mi wi(m), n bc lp th
(m+1), mu ny s c tm quan trng hn.
Viola v Jones dng AdaBoost kt hp cascade
xc nh khun mt ngi [52] vi cc c trng
dng Haar wavelet-like [221, 275]. Tc x l kh
nhanh v t l chnh xc hn 80% trn nh xm.
Schneiderman v Kanade dng wavelet trch
c trng ri xy dng h thng hc vi Adaboost,
da trn xc sut v histogram xc nh khun
mt ngi [26]. T l chnh xc trn 90%.
Chen [37] c lng tham s nh iu chnh
nh sng cho ph hp cho cc mu bng SVM. Sau
21
cng dng Adaboost xc nh khun mt ngi
vi t th chp thng. T l chnh xc l 89.7%.
Lu [58] dng phn tch bit s tuyn tnh (Linear
Discriminant Analysis LDA) trch c trng.
Sau hun luyn b phn loi yu boosting
phn loi khun mt ngi.
Shinji v Osamu [137] xy dng cc trng ca
khun mt bng cch s dng nhiu mc phn
gii thp xc nh khun mt ngi thng qua
Adaboost.
Jin [113] ch ra nu dng tng phng php so
khp mu hay cascade ring r th mc chnh xc
gn nh nhau, nhng mc xc nh sai kh cao.
Tc gi kt hp hai phng php ny gim t l
sai ca phng php xc nh khun mt ngi.
Ou [115] thy rng khi dng cascade AdaBoost
xc nh khun mt ngi th thng thng dng
thut ton greedy tm cc trng ca b phn loi
yu th khng uc ti u. Tc gi xut dng GA
thay th cch tm trn nhm tng tnh hiu qu.
k) Cc c trng Haar-like v phn loi vi
cascade
Viola v Jones dng bn loi c trng Haar-
like c bn xc nh khun mt ngi [52, 221],
hnh 13. c trng Haar c a thch v c hai l
do: (1) phn loi mnh trong vic xc nh khun
mt ngi hay khng phi khun mt ngi; v (2)
c hiu qu [276] khi dng bng tng cc vng
[284] hoc k thut nh y [52].
Hnh 13: Bn loi c trng Haar wavelet-like.
nh y II(x,y) ti v tr (x,y) l tng cc
im nh trn v bn tri ca (x,y) [52],
II ( x, y) =
x ' x , y ' y
I ( x, y)
Lienhart pht trin cc c trng Haar-like thnh
mt b c trng mi [19] kt hp phn loi cascade
xc nh khun mt ngi.
Lin [79] dng boost loi trng hp hc qu
khp ng thi s dng hun luyn tng cng
gim t l sai. Cui cng dng cascade x l
khut.
Maeynet v Thiran [62] xc nh c trng
Gauss khng ng hng v Haar-like kt hp
Adaboost xc nh khun mt ngi.
Tng t Song [99] cng dng AdaBoost xc
nh khun mt ngi kt hp mu da ngi. Ri
dng cc thng tin ny theo vt cc i tng l
con ngi trong phng.
Ishii [64] xy dng phng php BDF (Block
Difference Feature) vi cc c trng Haar-like
xc nh cc t th ca khun mt, ri dng kt qu
ny so snh vi d liu c hc trc v
xc nh c khun mt hay khng trong nh.
l) Hc vi FloatBoost
Li v Zhang a ra mt khi nim mi l
FloatBoost [103]. Phng php ny hc da trn
phn loi boosting t l li cc tiu. Nhng
phng php ny cho php quay lui sau khi ti mi
bc khi hc bng AdaBoost cc tiu c t l
li trc tip, cc tiu theo hm m. C hai vn
gp khi dng phng php AdaBoost:
o Th nht: AdaBoost cc tiu theo hm m ti
bin qua tp hun luyn. y l tin li, tuy
nhin mc tiu cui cng trong cc ng dng
dng phn loi mu th thng l cc tiu
mt gi tr trc tip (tuyn tnh) kt hp vi
t l li. Mt phn lai mnh c hc bng
AdaBoost th gn im ti u ca ng dng
trong iu kin t l li. Vn ny khng
thy ti liu ni n c li gii.
o Th hai: AdaBoost li mt thch thc nu
dng phn lai yu hc. Hc phn loi
ti u khi dng phn loi yu cn c lng
mt khng gian c trng, iu ny l vn
kh, c bit khi s chiu ca khng gian
kh ln.
Mt thut ton hc yu c hiu qu v d dng
th rt cn thit. FloatBoost xem nh mt cu ni
gia mc tiu ca hc boosting thng thng (cc
i bin) v nhiu ng dng dng cc tiu t l li
thng qua vic kt hp phng php tm kim
Floating v AdaBoost kt hp k thut quay lui.
Tian [101] xy dng cy xc nh trn c s hc
tch cc bng thut ton gom nhm c-mean m da
22
trn nn tng FloatBoost. Tc gi dng cc c trng
Harr wavelet-like p dng cho phng php ca
mnh. Phng php ny cho php xc nh nhiu
khun mt ngi nhiu t th khc nhau trong nh
mu.
Hnh 15: Mt v d v c php nh.
m) Phn loi da trn c php hay mnh
Tu [141] da trn khi nim c php trong x l
ngn ng xy dng th c php ca nh da
trn ni dung nh, hnh 15, vi chui Markov. Sau
khi c c cc t vng, ng dng phng php
Adaboost c hun luyn trc xc nh
cc i tng.
Hoc c th xem tng vng ca khun mt
ngi nh cc phn cu thnh mt khun mt, ri
xy dng cc gi thuyt xc nh khun mt
ngi. Bastian [278] xy dng mt l thuyt tng
qut cho cc loi i tng.
n) Phn loi da trn loi b
Elad xy dng mt phn loi da trn khi nim
loi b ti a (Maximal Rejection Classifier MRC)
khc hn tng phn loi khc. Cc phng php
khc tm mc chung ca mt cc th no so
vi cc lp chn c th vo lp no. ng chn
cch loi b nhng lp m c th ny khng c hoc
c t mi tng quan, chi ph loi b khng cao lm
[28]. ng tnh PDF ca hai lp: khun mt ngi v
khng phi khun mt ngi. ng xem khun mt
ngi l target v khn phi khun mt ngi l
clutter. ng tm ngng loi b theo xc sut thng
qua bit s tuyn tnh Fisher (FLD). ng chiu d
liu xung mt vector chiu, thng qua php chiu
ny xc nh khunmt ngi.
o) Hng tip cn tng hp
Cc cc phng php c chia lm bn phn
loi chnh theo bn hng tip cn. Tuy nhin, c
nhiu phng php khng hon ton ri vo mt
trong bn hng tip cn ny m trong nhiu
hng tip cn khc nhau. V d, phng php so
khp mu dng m hnh khun mt ngi v cc
mu con trch cc c trng khun mt [163, 177,
232, 238, 269], v sau dng cc c trng ny
xc nh khun mt. Hn na phng php da trn
tri thc v phng php so khp mu khng tht s
tch bit, t c nhiu hng gii quyt dng tri
thc ca con ngi nh ngha cc mu khun
mt ngi [164, 232, 238].
Kim [24] kt hp cc c trng lng ging ca
khun mt xy dng cc mu theo cc hng, sau
dng k thut xc nh cnh EBM (Edge-like
Blob Map) theo cng . ng xy dng logic m
kt hp PCA c lng t th cc khun mt.
Taur v Tao [68] xy dng phn loi neuro-
fuzzy (neuro-fuzzy classifier NEFCAR) c o
tin cy bit nh no l khun mt ngi. Cc ng
vin c chn thng qua phn an mu da.
Chen s dng MRF kt hp hnh thi hc xc
nh khun mt ngi [87]. ng dng cc b lc
top-hat, bottom-hat, v watershed phn on nh
i tng ang di chuyn nhm tm ng vin khun
mt. Sau cng dng MRF v hnh dng ellipse ca
khun mt xc nh ng vin no l khun mt.
Garcia v Tziritas [2, 11] sau khi lc nhng
vng no c mu l mu da ngi tm ng vin,
sau dng thut ton trn vng to ng vin
mn hn. Hai ng dng phn tch theo wavelet
phn r ng vin xem c cng kt cu vi khun
mt ngi hay khng thng qua khong cch
Bhattacharrya. T l chnh xc khong 95%.
Cooray v Connor [3] v Lee [36] dng k thut
lai trn c s trch c trng v PCA xc nh
khun mt ngi. Hai ng dng cc c trng v
mu sc ca mt v ming xc nh cc vng ny.
T nay p dng l thuyt eigenface chun ha
khng gian tm kim, ng thi dng khong cch
gia hai mt c kt qu cui cng.
Zhang [41] kt hp m hnh mu da ngi
phn on tm ng vin khun mt. ng xy dng
mng neural nh ca Rowley [49] quay khun
23
mt sau so khp cc mu c sn. Phng php
ny cho xc nh cc khun mt cc t th khc
nhau trong nh mu, thi gian x l s gim hn v
khng gian tm kim b thu hp. Tng t
Haizhou [40] cng dng phng php nh th
nhng thay i qu trnh xc nh. ng so khp mu
dng tm ng vin. Sau dng mng neural
phn lai ng vin no l khun mt ngi.
Li [138] dng kernel hc nh l mt nh x
phi tuyn, u tin ng dng KPCA (Kernel PCA)
chn cc c trng v khng gian c trng
hc. Sau ng dng KSVC (Kernel Support
Vector Classifier) kt hp FLD phn loi u l
khun mt ngi.
Yin v Meng [107] dng phn on nh tnh
cht mu da ngi, t y tc gi tm c v tr ca
mt theo tiu chun mc cn i xem cc
vng ny l cc ng ng ca khun mt. T cc ng
vin ny, tc gi so khp vi cc mu c sn xc
nh ng vin no l khun mt ngi. T l chnh
xc l 85%.
Lingmin [93] v Emanuele [142] dng l thuyt
hc theo xc sut xy dng m hnh xc nh
khun mt ngi. Trong khi Emanuele dng c
trng Haar wavelet xc nh c trng ri dy
cho SVM phn loi. Lingmin dng ba lp: tng
cui dng mi tng quan hnh hc cc mu, tng
gia xt tnh a dng ca cc thnh phn khun mt
ngi vi HMM, v tng trn cng dng m hnh
th cho quan h ba thnh phn to thnh mt hnh
tam gic (xt tnh can i).
III. KH KHN V THCH THC TRONG
BI TON XC NH KHUN MT NGI
Vic xc nh khun mt ngi c nhng kh
khn nht nh [57] nh sau, hnh 16:
o Hng (pose) ca khun mt i vi my nh,
nh: nhn thng, nhn nghing hay nhn t
trn xung. Cng trong mt nh c th c
nhiu khun mt nhng t th khc nhau.
o S c mt ca cc chi tit khng phi l c
trng ring ca khun mt ngi, nh: ru
quai nn, mt knh, .
o Cc nt mt (facial expression) khc nhau trn
khun mt, nh: vui, bun, ngc nhin, .
o Mt ngi b che khut bi cc i tng
khc c trong nh.
o iu kin nh, c bit l v sng v cht
lng nh, cht lng thit b thu hnh.
o Trc to ca my nh so vi nh.
o Kch thc khc nhau ca cc khun mt
ngi, v c bit l trong cng mt nh.
o Mu sc ca mi trng xung quanh, hay mu
sc qun o ca ngi c chp ly nh.
o Xut hin thnh phn khun mt hay khng.
o Nhiu khun mt c vng da dnh ln nhau.
Cc kh khn trn chng t rng bt c phng
php gii quyt (thut tan) bi tan xc nh khun
mt ngi s khng th trnh khi mt s khim
khuyt nht nh. nh gi v so snh cc
phng php xc nh mt ngi, ngi ta thng
da trn cc tiu ch sau:
o T l xc nh chnh xc l t l s lng cc
khun mt ngi c xc nh ng t h
thng khi s dng mt phng php xy
dng so vi s lng khun mt ngi tht s
c trong cc nh (detection rate).
o S lng xc nh nhm l s lng vng
trong nh khng phi l khun mt ngi m
h thng xc nh nhm l khun mt ngi
(false positives).
o Thi gian thc hin l thi gian my tnh
xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh (running
time).
IV. KT LUN
Bi vit ny c gng cung cp mt ci nhn tng
quan cc phng php xc nh khun mt ngi v
mt cch phn loi cc hng tip cn t nh xm
n nh mu da vo gn 300 bi bo, bo co ca
cc phng nghin cu, v lun vn trn th gii.
Xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh l mt bi
ton hp dn, thch thc nhiu ngi nghin cu
v tnh ng dng to ln trong thc t. Hy vng vi
bi vit ny s gip nhiu ngi c c nhng kin
thc nht nh, gip nhiu ngi khng phi mt
nhiu thi gian khi bt u nghin cu bi ton hp
dn ny, cng nhau vn ra bin khi tri thc ca
th gii.
24

(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
(e) (f)
Hnh 16: Cc kh khn ca vic xc nh mt ngi:
(a) hng mt nghing; (b) mt knh en v nn; (c) nh b chi bi n;
(d) my nh t pha trn v sau lng ngi b chp;
(e) vng da cc khun mt dnh nhau;
(f) mu mi trng xung quanh gn vi mu da ngi;
(g) cht lng nh km.
TI LIU THAM KHO
[1] Rein-Lien Hsu, Mohamed abdel-Mottaleb, and Anil
K. Jain, Face Detection in Color Images, IEEE
Transaction on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligent, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 696-706, 2002.
[2] C. Garcia, G. Zikos, and G. Tziritas, Face Detection
in Color Images using Wavete Packet Analysis,
Proc. of IEEE International Conference on
Multimedia Computing and System, vol. 1, pp. 703-
708, IEEE, 1999.
[3] Saman Cooray and Noel OConnor, Facial Feature
Extraction and Principal Component Analysis for
Face Detection in Color Image, ICIAR 2004, LNCS
3212, pp. 741-749, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2004.
[4] Satyanadh, Li Tao, and Vijayan Asari, Face
Detection Technique Based on Intesity and Skin
Color Distribution, International Conference on
Image Processing, IEEE, 2004.
[5] Rainer Stiefelhagen, Jie Yang, and Alex Waibel,
Tracking Eyes and monitoring Eye Gaze,
Proceedings of the Workshop on Perceptual User
Interfaces (PUI'97), Alberta, Canada. pp. 98-100,
1997.
[6] Carlos Morimoto, Dave Koons, Amon Amir, and
Myron Flickner, Real-Time Detection of Eyes and
Faces, In Proc. Workshop on Perceptual User
Interfaces, pp. 117-120, 1998.
[7] Eun Yi Kim, Sin Kuk Kang, Keechul Jung, and
Hang Joon Kim, Eye Mouse: Mouse
Implementation using Eye Tracking, IEEE, 2005.
[8] Hichem Sabbi and Nozha Boujemaa, Coarse to Fine
Face Detection Based on Skin Color Adaption,
Biometric Authentication, LNCS 2359, pp. 112-120,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002.
[9] Ming-Hsuan Yang, David J. Kriegman, and
Narendra Ahuja, Detecting Faces in Images: A
Survey, IEEE Transaction on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligent, vol. 24, no. 1, 2002.
[10] Douglas Chai and King N. Ngan, Face
Segmentation Using Skin-Color map in Videophone
Applications, IEEE Transaction on Circuits and
Systems for Video Technology, vol. 9, no. 4, 1999.
[11] Christophe Garcia and Georgios T zirita, Face
Detection Using Quantized Skin Color Region
Merging and Wavelet Packet Analysis, IEEE
Transaction on Multimedia, vol. 1, no. 3, 1999.
[12] Mark Everingham and Andrew Zisserman,
Automated Person Identification in Video, CIVR
2004, LNCS 3115, pp. 289-298, Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[13] Fuzhen Huang and Jianbo Su, Multiple Face
Contour Detection Using adaptive Flows,
Sinobiometrics 2004, LNCS 3338, pp. 137-143,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[14] Seonghoon Kang and Seong-Whan Lee, Object
Detection and Classification for Outdoor Walking
Guidance System, BMCV 2002, LNCS 2525, pp.
601-610, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002.
[15] Shihong Lao and Masato Kawade, Vision-Based
Face Understanding Technologies and Their
Application, Sinobiometric 2004, LNCS 3338, pp.
339-348, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[16] Stephen C. Y. Chan and Paul H. Lewis, A Pre-filter
Enabling Fast Frontal Face Detection, Visual99,
LNCS 1614, pp. 777-785, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 1999.
[17] Klaus J. Kirehberg, Oliver Jeorsky and Robert W.
Frischholz, Genetic Model Optimization for
Hausdorff Distance-Based Face Localization,
Biometric Authentication, LNCS 2359, pp. 103-111,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002.
[18] Stanley M. Bileschi and Bernd Heisele, Advances
in Component-Based Face Detection, SVM 2002,
LNCS 2388, pp. 135-143, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2002.
[19] Rainer Lienhart, Alexander Kuranov, and Vadim
Pisarevsky, Empirical Analysis of Detection
Cascades of Boosted Classifiers for Rapid Object
Detection, DAGM 2003, LNCS 2781, pp. 297-304,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2003.
[20] Jean-Christophe Terrillon, Mahdad N. Shirazi,
Daniel McReynolds, Mohamed Sadek, Yunlong
Sheng, Shigeru Akamatsu, and Kazuhiko
Yamamoto, Invariant Face Detection in Color
Image Using Orthogonal Fourier-Mellin Moments
and Support Vector Machines, ICAPR 2001, LNCS
25
 2013, pp. 83-92, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
2001.
[21] Hannes Kruppa, Martin A. Bauer, and Bernt Schiele,
Skin Patch Detection in Real-World Images,
DAGM 2002, LNCS 2449, pp. 109-116, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002.
[22] Jia Kui and Liyanage C. De Silva, Combined Face
Detection/Recognition System for Smart Rooms,
AVBPA 2003, LNCS 2688, pp. 787-795, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2003.
[23] Jin Ok Kim, Sung Jin Seo, Chin Hyun Chung, Jun
Hwang, and Woonglae Lee, Face Detection by
Facial Features with Color Images and Face
Recognition Using PCA, ICCSA 2004, LNCS
3043, pp. 1-8, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
2004.
[24] YoungOul Kim, SungHo Jang, SangJin Kim, chang-
Woo Park, and Joonki Paik, Pose-Invariant Face
Detection Using Edge-Like Blob Map and Fuzzy
Logic, IEA/AIE 2005, LNCS 3533, pp. 695-704,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2005.
[25] Bernhard Froba and Walter Zink, On the
Combination of Different Template Matching
Stategies for Fast Face Detection, MCS 2001,
LNCS 2096, pp. 418-428, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2001.
[26] Henry Schneiderman, Statistical Approach to 3D
Object Detection Applied to Faces and Cars,
Ph.D. Thesis, Carnegie Mellon University, 2000.
[27] Kang Ryoung Park, Gaze Detection System by
Wide and Auto Pan/Tilt Narrow View Camera,
DAGM 2003, LNCS 2781, pp. 76-83, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2003.
[28] Michael Elad, Yacov Hel-Or, and Renato Keshet,
Pattern Detection Using Maximal Rejection
Classifier, LNCS 2059, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2001.
[29] Gil Friedrich and Yehezkel Yeshurun, Seeing
People in the Dark: Face Recognition in Infrared
Images, BMCV 2002, LNCS 2525, pp. 348-359,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002.
[30] Hong-Mo Je, Daijin Kim, and Sung Yang Bang,
Human Face Detection in Digital Video Using
SVM Ensemble, Neural Processing Letter 17:239-
252, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands,
2003.
[31] Jongmoo Choi, Sanghoon Lee, Chilgee Lee, and
Juneho Yi, PrimeEye: A Real-Time Face Detection
and Recognition System Robust to Illumination
Changes, AVBPA 2001, LNCS 2091, pp. 360-365,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2001.
[32] A Jonathan Howell and Hilary Buxton, Visual
Mediated Interaction Using Learnt Gestures and
Camera Control, GW 2001, LNAI 2298, pp. 272-
284, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002.
[33] Daniel Keren, Margarita Osadchy, and Craig
Gotsman, Antifaces: A Novel, Fast Method for
Image Detection, IEEE Transaction on Pattern
26
Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. 23, no. 7,
IEEE, 2001.
[34] Gines Garcia Mateos and Cristina Vicente Chicote,
Face Detection on Still Images Using HIT Maps,
AVBPA 2001, LNCS 2091, pp. 102-107, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2001.
[35] M. Castrillon Santana, J. Lorenzo Navarro, J.
Cabrera Gamez, F. M. Hernandez Tejera, and J.
Mendez Rodriguez, Detection of Frontal Faces in
Video Streams, Biometric Authentication, LNCS
2359, pp. 91-102, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2002.
[36] Chang-Woo Lee, Yeon-Chul Lee, Sang-Yong Bak,
and Hang-Joon Kim, Real-Time Face Detection and
Tracking Using PCA and NN, PRICAI 2002, LNAI
2417, pp. 615, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
2002.
[37] Jie Chen, Yuemin Li, Laiyun Qing, Baocai Yin, and
Wen Gao, Face Samples Re-lighting for Detection
Based on the Harmonic Images, PCM 2004, LNCS
3332, pp. 585-592, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2004.
[38] Hazem El-Bakry, A Rotation Invariant Algorithm
for Recognition, Fuzzy day 2001, LNCS 2206, pp.
284-290, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2001.
[39] Kenji Iwata, Hitoshi Hongo, Kazuhiko Yamamoto,
and Yoshinori Niwa, Robust Facial Parts Detection
by Using Four Directional Features and Relaxation
Matching, KES 2003, LNAI 2774, pp. 882-888,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2003.
[40] Ai Haizhou, Liang Luhong, and Xu Guangyou, A
General Framework for Face Detection, ICMI
2000, LNCS 1948, pp. 119-126, Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg, 2000.
[41] Hongmin Zhang, Debin Zhao, Wen Gao, and Xilin
Chen, Combining Skin Color Model and Neural
Network for Rotation Invariant Face Detection,
ICMI 2000, LNCS 1948, pp. 237-244, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2000.
[42] Rob McCready, Real-Time Face Detection on a
Configurable Hardware System, FPL 2000, LNCS
1896, pp. 157-162, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2000.
[43] J. Fritsch, S. Lang, M. Kleinehagenbrock, G. A.
Fink, and G. Sagerer, Improving Adaptive Skin
Color Segmentation by Incorporating Results from
Face Detection, In Proc. IEEE Int. Workshop on
Robot and Human Interactive Communication,
Germany, IEEE, 2002.
[44] Raquel Montes Diez, Cristina Conde, and Enrique
Cabello, Automatic Detection of the Optimal
Acceptance Threshold in a Face Verification
System, BioAW 2004, LNCS 3087, pp. 70-79,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[45] Henry Nicponski, Understanding In-Plane Face
Rotations Using Integral Projections, ICIAR 2004,
LNCS 3213, pp. 633-642, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2004.
[46] Tony W.H. Ao leong and Raymond S.T. Lee, iJade
Face Recognizer A Multi-agent Based Pose and
Scale Invariant Human Face Reconition System,
KES 2004, LNAI 3214, pp. 594-601, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[47] Jin Ok Kim, Jin Soo Kim, and Chin Hyun Chung,
Face Region Dectection on Skin Chrominance from
Color Images by Facial Features, ICADL 2004,
LNCS 3334, pp. 646, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2004.
[48] Henry A. Rowley, Shumeet Baluja, and Takeo
Kanade, Neural Network-Based Face Detection,
IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 23-38, IEEE, 1998.
[49] Henry A. Rowley, Shumeet Baluja, and Takeo
Kanade, Rotation Invariant Neural Network-Based
Face Detection, Proc. IEEE Conf. Computer Vision
and Pattern Recognition, pp. 38-44, 1998
[50] Stephanie Jehan-Besson, Michel Barlaud, and Gilles
Aubert, DREAMS: Deformable Region Driven by
an Eulerian Accurate Minimization Method for
Image and Video Segmentation (Application to Face
Detection in Color Video Sequences), ECCV 2002,
LNCS 2352, pp. 365-380, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2002.
[51] Hongming Zhang and Debin Zhao, Spatial
Histogram Features for Face Detection in Color
Images, PCM 2004, LNCS 3331, pp. 377-384,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[52] Paul Viola, Robust Real-Time Face Detection,
International Journal of Computer Vision 57(2), 137-
154, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands,
2004.
[53] Kim-Fung Jang, Ho-Man Tang, Michael R. Lyu, and
Irwin King, A Face Processing System Based on
Committee Machine: The Approach and
Experimental Results, CAIP 2003, LNCS 2756, pp.
614-622, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2003.
[54] James W. Davis and Serge Vals, A Perceptual User
Interface for Recognizing Head Gesture
Acknoledgements, ACM International Conference
Proceeding Series, vol. 15, pp. 1-7, 2001.
[55] Chengjun Liu and Harry Wechsler, Gabor Feature
Based Classification Using the Enhanced Fisher
Linear Discriminant Model for Face Recognition,
IEEE Transactions on Iamge Processing, vol. 11, no.
4, IEEE, 2002.
[56] Wenchao Zhang, Shiguang, Wen Gao, Xilin Chen,
and Hongming Zhang, Local Gabor Binary Pattern
Histogram Sequence (LGBPHS): A Novel Non-
Statistical Model for Face Representation and
Recognition, Proceedings of the 10th IEEE
International Conference on Computer Vision
(ICCV05), IEEE, 2005.
[57] Peter N. Belhumeur, Ongoing Challenges in Face
Recognition, Frontiers of Engineering: Reports on
Leading-Edge Engineering from the 2005,
Symposium (2006).
27
[58] Juwei Lu, K.N. Plataniotis, A.N. Venetsanopoulos,
and Stan Z. Li, Ensenble-based Discriminant
Learning with Boosting For Face Recognition,
IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, vol. 17, pp.
166-178, 2006.
[59] Rogerio S. Feris, Jim Gemmell, Kentaro Toyama,
and Volker Kruger, Hierarchical Wavelet Networks
for Facial Feature Localization, Proceedings of
Fifth IEEE International Conference on Automatic
Face and Gesture Recognition, pp. 118-123, 2002.
[60] Baochang Zhang, Gabor-Kernel Fisher Analysis for
Face Recognition, LNCS 3332, Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[61] Paola Campadelli, Raffaella Lanzarotti, Chiara
Savazzi, A feature-based face recognition system,
Proceedings of 12th International Conference on
Image Analysis and Processing, pp. 68-73, IEEE,
2003.
[62] Julien Meynet, Vlad Popovici, and Jean-Philippe
Thiran, Face Detection with Mixtures of Boosted
Discriminant Features, Technical Report,
http://biomed.epfl.ch/index.php?module=people&PE
OPLE_MAN_OP=view&PHPWS_MAN_ITEMS%
5B%5D=14&show_publications=1, 2005.
[63] Filareti Tsalakanidou, Sotiris Malassiotis, and
Michael G. Strintzis, Face Localization and
Authentication Using Color and Depth Images,
IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, vol. 14, no.
2, IEEE, 2005.
[64] Yasunori Ishii, Kazuyuki Imagawa, Eiji Fukumiya,
Katsuhiro Iwasa, Yasunobu Ogura, Profile Face
Detection using Block Difference Feature For
Automatic Image Annotation, International
Conference on Consumer Electronics ICCE '06.
2006 Digest of Technical Papers, IEEE, 2006.
[65] Jong-Bae Kim, Su-Woong Jung, and Hang-Joon
Kim, Face Detection by Integrating
Multiresolution-Based Watersheds and Skin-Color
Model, IEA/AIE 2002, LNAI 2358, pp. 715-724,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002.
[66] Gary G. Yen and Nethrie Nithianandan, Automatic
Facial Feature Extraction Using Edge Distribution
and Genetic Search, International Journal of
Computational Intelligence and Applications, vol. 3,
no. 1, pp. 89-100, Imperial College Press, 2003.
[67] Hideaki Sato, Katsuhiro Sakamoto, Yasue
Mitsukura, and Norio Akamatsu, Face Edge
Detection System by Using the GAs, KES 2004,
LNAI 3213, pp. 847-852, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2004.
[68] J.S. Taur and C.W. Tao, A New Neuro-Fuzzy
Classifier with Application to On-Line Face
Detection and Recognition, Journal of VLSI Signal
Processing 26, 397-409, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, the Netherlands, 2000.
[69] Sang-Burm Rhee and Young-Hwan Lee, Improved
Face Detection Algorithm in Mobile Enviroment,
ICCS 2004, LNCS 3036, pp. 638-686, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[70] Douglas Chai and Kim N. Ngan, Locating Facial [83] Jianzhong Fang and Guoping Qiu, Learning an
Region of a Head-and-Shoulders Color Image, Information Theoretic Transform for Object
Proc. Third Intl Conf. Automatic Face and Gesture Detection, ICAR 2004, LNCS 3211, pp. 503-510,
Recognition, pp. 124-129, 1998. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[71] Bae-Ho Lee, Kwang-Hee Kim, Yonggwan Won, and [84] T. Darrell, G. Gordon, M. Harville, and J. Woodfill,
Jiseung Nam, Efficient and Automatic Faces Integrated Person Tracking Using Stereo, Color,
Detection Based on Skin-Tone and Neural Network and pattern Detection, International Journal of
Model, IEA/AIE 2002, LNAI 2358, pp. 57-66, Computer Vision 37(2), 175-185, Kluwer Academic
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002. Publishers, the Netherlands, 2000.
[72] Shu-Fai Wong and Kwan-Yee Keneth Wong, Fast
Face Detection Using QuadTree Based Color
Analysis and Support Vector Verification, ICIAR
2004, LNCS 3212, pp. 676-683, Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[73] Henry Schneiderman and Takeo Kanade,
Probabilistic Modeling of Local Appearance and
Spatial Relationship for Object Recognition,
Proceedings of IEEE Computer Society Conference
on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp.
45-51, IEEE, 1998.
[74] Gines Garcia_Mateos, Alberto Ruiz, and Perdo E.
Lopez-de-Teruel, Face Detection Using Integral
Projection Models, SSPR&SPR 2002, LNCS 2396,
pp. 644-653, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
2002.
[75] QingHua Wang, Luis Seabra Lopes, and David M.J.
Tax, Visual object recognition through one-class
learning, Image analysis and recognition:
international conference ICIAR, vol. 1, pp. 463-470,
2004.
[76] Selin Baskan, M. Mete Bulut, Volkan Atalay,
Projection based method for segmentation of
human face and its evaluation, Pattern Recognition
Letters 23, pp. 1623-1629, Elsevier Science, 2002.
[77] Thang V. Pham. Marcel Worring, and Arnold W.M.
Smeulders, Face Detection by Aggregated Bayesian
Network Classifiers, MLDM 2001, LNAI 2123, pp.
249-262, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2001.
[78] Shou-Der Wei and Shang-Hong Lai, An Efficient
Algorithm for Detecting Faces from Color Images,
PCM 2002, LNCS 2532, pp. 1177-1184, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2002.
[79] Yen-Yu Lin, Tyng-Luh Liu, and Chiou-Shann Fuh,
Fast Object Detection with Occlusions, ECCV
2004, LNCS 3021, pp. 402-413, Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[80] Kyongpil Min, Junchul Chun, and Goorack Prak, A
Nonparametric Skin Color Model for Face Detection
from Color Images, PDCAT 2004, LNCS 3320, pp.
116-120, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004.
[81] Herve Abdi, A Generalized Approach for
Connectionist Auto-Associative Memories:
Interpretation, Implication & Illustration for Face
Processing, Artificial intelligence and cognitive
sciences, Manchester University Press. pp. 149-165,
Manchester, 1988.
[82] Jianping Fan, David K.Y. Yau, Ahmed K.
Elmagarmid, an Walid G. Arref, IEEE Transactions
on Image Processing, vol. 10, no. 10, IEEE, 2001.

28