The sixteen padarthas or categories identified by Goutama Muni in Nyaya Sutras -prama (valid

means of knowledge), prameya (objects of valid knowledge),saaya (doubt), prayojana (aim), dnta
(example), siddhnta (conclusion), avayava(members of syllogism), tarka (hypothetical reasoning),
niraya (settlement), vda (discussion),jalpa (wrangling), vita (cavilling), hetvbhsa (fallacy),
chala (quibbling), jti (sophisticatedrefutation) and nigrahasthna (point of defeat).

1)Pramana(Means to knowledge)
This is the most profound and important of all padarthas as obtaining right knowledge is a way out of
the worldly sufferings.Four means of right knowledge are perception (pratyaksa); inference
(anumana);comparison (upamana); and testimony (sabda).

a)Pratyaksha(Perception)-Knowledge from sense of an object/experience which is consistent and

distinguishable.It should be determinate by clearly distinctive feature.Seeing a blue chair from a short
distance with your eyes is true knowledge.

b)Anumana-(Inference)-Gaining knowledge by way of a cause and effect relationship or observed

correlations.Heavy rains in the city might lead to traffic blocks is a conclusion inferred from a
condition.

c)Upamana(Comparison)-When we obtain the knowledge of an unperceived object by comparing it

with something already perceived.A credible expert in football telling you that there is an Indian
player namely Anuj who has the same playing style of Messi and then you see such a guy you arrive
to the conclusion that he is Anuj.

d)Sabda(Words/testimony)-Knowledge expressed by an apta(sage) is seen to be valid.Ashtyadhyayi

written by Panini is seen as source of valid knowledge.

2)