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Synchrotron Radiation
1 Dipartimento di Fisica, Universita Roma Tre, Via della Vasca Navale 84,
00146 Roma, Italy
2 I. N. F. N., Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati,Via E. Fermi 40,
Abstract
In this lecture the main characteristics of synchrotron radiation
emitted by magnetic devices like bending magnets, wigglers and un-
dulators will be illustrated.
1 Introduction
When electric or magnetic fields force electrons or other charged particles,
moving with relativistic speeds, to follow curved trajectories, they radiate
electromagnetic radiation in a narrow cone in the direction of their motion.
This highly collimated radiation is called synchrotron radiation.
Synchrotron radiation emitted by electrons in particle accelerators is
extremely intense and extends over a broad energy range from the infrared
through the visible and ultraviolet, into the soft and hard x-ray regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
Due to these and other characteristics, nowadays synchrotron radiation is
used to study many aspects of the structure of matter at the atomic and
molecular scale, from surface properties of solids to the structure of protein
molecules.
For the first time synchrotron radiation was observed in 1947 from the
General Electric synchrotron in the USA. For a long while it was considered
1
only as a problem for particle physics experiments since it is the major
source of energy loss in high energy particle accelerators. Only in the late
sixties it was realized that synchrotron radiation was useful for condensed
matter research. Since then, an explosive growth in the building of
dedicated synchrotron radiation facilities made this radiation a unique tool
in many research fields.
1. high intensity;
2. very broad and continuous spectral range from infrared up to the hard
x-ray region;
6. high brilliance of the source due to small cross section of the electron
beam and high degree of collimation of the radiation (see fig. 2);
4
2 e2 c E
Z Z
PT ot = P (, )dd = (1)
3 R2 mc2
where is the wavelength of the emitted radiation, is the azimuthal or
vertical half- opening angle perpendicular to the orbital plane. P( , ), the
power radiated by an electron in an unit wavelength interval centered at
and in an unit vertical angular aperture centered at is given by:
()2
4 " #
27 e2 c c
h i2
8 2 2 2
P (, ) = 1 + () K2/3 () + 2 K1/3 () . (2)
32 3 R3 1 + ()
In this equation c is the speed of light, R is the bending radius of the electron
orbit, K 1 /3 and K 2 /3 are the modified Bessel functions of the second kind.
is the relativistic quantity E/(mc 2 ), where mc 2 is the electron rest mass
energy. c is the so called critical wavelength given by:
= (c /2)[1+() 2 ]3/2 .
For a relativistic effect, when the speed of the emitting electrons increases to
relativistic values (v c) the radiation pattern is compressed into a narrow
cone in the direction of motion, resulting into an emission tangential to the
particle orbit. The vertical half-opening angle, , is given by:
mc 2 / E 1 .
It means that all the radiation emitted along an orbital arc, , is collected
and summed incoherently. For this reason the natural narrow collimation,
, is preserved only in the vertical direction, the direction perpendicular to
the plane of the orbit as also shown in fig. 4. We anticipate here that using
special insertion devices the collimation can be kept in both directions.
The spectral distribution of synchrotron radiation is shown in fig. 5: it has a
very specific shape, is continuous and extends from the x-ray to the infrared
region.
The physical origin of such broad distribution can be qualitatively under-
stood. Let us suppose to have a single electron in the storage ring and to
record the emitted radiation using a point detector which looks tangentially
at a specific point of the orbit (see fig. 6). The detector will receive a short
pulse of radiation every time the electron passes through that point of the
orbit, i.e. at a frequency equal to the frequency of the period of motion
= v/2 R.
In the frequency domain the spectral distribution will be composed of the
fundamental frequency and of its harmonics. At high frequency a cutoff
will be present because the detector will receive the radiation emitted by
the electron along the arc 2/ (fig. 6). This originates a pulse of non zero
duration, , given by the difference between the time for the electron to
Figure 5: Universal curve function of the spectral distribution of synchrotron radi-
ation.
travel along the arc and the time for the light to travel along the chord
subtended by this arc (see fig. 6):
R 1 1 R
= 2sin 3.
c 2 c
A light pulse of this duration has frequency components up to about:
cutoff 1 = c 3 / R
3 Z
35/2 e2 c 7 c 35/2 e2 c 7 erg
P () = K5/3 ()d = G3 (3)
16 2 R3 c / 16 2 R3 s cm
Figure 6: Graphical view of the origin of the duration of the light pulse emitted
by a bending magnet. The detector records the radiation emitted by the electron
along the path from A to B (the figure was redrawn: it is based on Fig. II.2 of Ref.
[7]).
From eq. 3 we can calculate, N (), the number of photons emitted by the
electron in all the vertical angles, in a band of width / centered at ,
while moving along an arc of length R . In order to do this, we have to
divide eq. 3 by the photon energy hc/ and multiply it by the wavelength
band , and by the ratio R/2 R. This simple calculation gives for
N ():
31/2 e2
N () = G1 (4)
2 hR
where all quantities are expressed in CGS units. G 1 is known as the universal
synchrotron radiation function.
In order to calculate the emission from a storage ring, it is necessary to
multiply eq. 4 by N e the number of electrons in the storage ring given by:
Ne = I (2R)/ec
where I is the electron current. This gives for N () the following equation:
e
N () = 31/2 IG1
hc
that in practical units [8], assuming / = 103 and = 1 mrad can be
written as:
photons
13
N () = 2.457 10 E[GeV ]I[A]G1 . (5)
s 0.1%BW mrad
The spectral distribution of the emitted photons given by this formula is
shown in fig. 5. The critical wavelength, c , represented by the discontinu-
ous line, divides the spectrum into two parts of equal radiated power: means
50% of the total power is radiated at wavelengths shorter than c and 50%
at wavelengths longer than c .
For c the spectral distribution falls off exponentially while for c
it decreases slowly, it is practically independent of the energy of the elec-
trons and it is mainly determined by the current of the machine.
The photon flux is frequently expressed as a function of energy; in order to
do this, y = c / is replaced by y = /c where c = hc/c represents the
critical energy given by:
6 Polarization
In a storage ring the radiation emitted by a bending magnet is mostly lin-
early polarized. When observed on the horizontal plane, the electric field
is parallel to the plane of the electron orbit (horizontal). Above and below
this plane, at finite vertical angles, a polarization component perpendicular
to the orbit plane is present. The two terms reported, in square brackets,
in eq. 2, describe the two components of the polarization [10]. Namely the
term, K 2 2 /3 , describes the one with the electric field parallel to the orbital
plane while the term, K 2 1 /3 , the one with the electric field perpendicular
to the orbital plane, i.e.
I// I
PLinear =
I// + I
that gives:
2 () [()2 /(1 + ()2 )K 2 ()
K2/3 1/3
PLinear (, ) = 2 () + [()2 /(1 + ()2 )K 2 () .
K2/3 1/3
In the orbital plane, ( = 0), P is equal to 1, i.e. the light is 100% linearly
polarized. When the observation is off axis the linear polarisation decreases
as a function of .
In fig. 10 the fraction of parallel polarized radiation is reported as a function
of wavelength; from this we see that the degree of linear polarisation goes
from 100% for <<c to 50% for >>c .
The integration over all wavelengths gives:
q
IR I L 2 (I// I )
PC = =
IR + I L I// + I
where I R and I L are the intensities of the right and left polarized light and
the sign, , corresponds to positive or negative values of , is shown in fig.
11, and compared with the degree of linear polarisation.
is determined by the size of the source, that is by the size of the electron
beam and by the angular spread of the radiation, given by the convolution
of the angular distribution of synchrotron radiation, with the angular
divergence of the electron beam. Therefore the quality of the electron beam
source is essential in order to determine the brilliance of the photon source.
In a storage ring the product of the electron beam dimension and of the
electron beam divergence is a constant along the ring and is called the emit-
tance of the ring. There is a horizontal and a vertical emittance of the ring.
In order to get high brilliance, small emittance machines must be used.
Brilliance is the main figure of merit of synchrotron radiation sources. The
huge increase in the value of the brilliance achieved during the last 10 years
(see fig. 2) was obtained by designing low emittance machines, like the Eu-
ropean Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), that minimize the source
size and the beam divergence.
Figure 13: Sinusoidal time dependence of the RF cavity field which effects energy
restoration (the figure was redrawn: it is based on Fig. 15 of Ref. [11]).
The stability condition is effectively more strict, and only 5% - 10% of the
RF period is effective in restoring the electron energy. All the electrons,
passing through the RF, not in phase with this 5% - 10% effective time, do
not follow the ideal circular orbit of the ring and therefore are lost. As a
consequence the electrons in the storage ring are grouped in bunches with
a time length that are typically 5% - 10% of the RF period. Of course the
radiation appears in pulses with the same duration (see fig. 14).
Along the storage ring more bunches can be distributed. The time interval
Figure 14: Time structure of the intensity for a typical storage ring.
9 Insertion devices
Insertion devices (ID) are periodic magnetic structures installed in the
straight sections of a storage ring. Passing through such structures, electrons
are accelerated and therefore emit synchrotron radiation. The primary role
of the ID is to increase the spectral brilliance with respect to that achievable
with bending magnets. The insertion devices are of two kinds, wigglers and
undulators. Inside both these devices the electron beam is periodically de-
flected but outside no deflection or displacement of the electron beam occurs
(fig. 15).
A wiggler is a multipole magnet made up of a periodic series of magnets (N
periods of length u , the overall length being L = N u ), whose magnetic
field forces the electrons to wiggle around the straight path. The alternating
Figure 15: Schematic view of the radiation beams from a bending magnet and from
a multipole magnetic structure (the figure is based on fig.II.5 of Ref. [7]).
where B is the magnetic field strength given in Tesla, the critical energy c
Figure 16: Comparison between the spectral flux from a bending magnet and from
a wiggler (N=1).
where B and L are the maximum magnetic field and length of the device.
To characterize the emission of an insertion device, it is useful to introduce
the dimensionless parameter K. It is given by the ratio between the wiggling
angle of the trajectory, , and the natural angular aperture of synchrotron
radiation, 1/, (fig. 17) i.e.
K = .
Figure 17: Schematic view of the wiggler regime, where u represents the period
of the oscillations (the figure was redrawn: it is based on Fig. II.6 of Ref. [7]).
Figure 18: Schematic view of the undulator regime (the figure was redrawn: it is
based on Fig. II.6 of Ref. [7])
In this case interference occurs between the radiation emitted by the same
electron at different points along the trajectory. Considering the phase dif-
ferences between the photons emitted at different points along the sinusoidal
orbit, it is easy to show that observing the radiation in a direction forming
an angle with the axis of the undulator, constructive interference occur
for the wavelength:
!
u K2
= 2 1+ + 2 2 .
2 2
In addition to this fundamental wavelength, also higher harmonics of shorter
wavelength, n = /n, are emitted. Their number and intensity increases
with K ; on the axis ( = 0 ) only odd harmonics are emitted.
Acknowledgments
The authors are very grateful to Mr. Vinicio Tullio for his help in the
realization of many figures of this paper.
References
[1] E.E. Koch, D. E. Eastman and Y. Farges in Handbook of Synchrotron
Radiation, Vol. 1a, Chapter 1, Ed. by E.E. Koch (North-Holland Pub-
lishing Company, Amsterdam), 1983