General Gear Theory PDF

Chapter 14: General Gear Theory;
Spur Gears
We are what we repeatedly do.

Excellence, therefore, is not an act,
but a habit.

Aristotle
An assortment of gears. Source: Courtesy of

Quality Transmission Components.
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Spur Gears
Face view
Edge view
(a) (b)
Figure 14.1: Spur gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing spur gears; (b) a
collection of spur gears. Source: Courtesy of Boston Gear Works, Inc.

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Helical Gears
(a) (b)
Figure 14.2: Helical gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing helical gears; (b) a
collection of helical gears. Source: Courtesy of Boston Gear Works, Inc.

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Bevel Gears
(a) (b)
Figure 14.3: Bevel gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing bevel gears with
straight teeth; (b) a collection of bevel gears. Source: Courtesy of Boston Gear Works, Inc.

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Worm Gears
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 14.4: Worm gear drive. (a) Cylindrical teeth; (b) double enveloping; (c) a
collection of worm gears. Source: Courtesy of Boston Gear Works, Inc.

2014 CRC Press
Spur Gear
Geometry
Pinion
dia Outs r bp
Line of me ide rp
ter
action ,d r op
op
Pitch circle
Base circle
Pressure
angle, q Tooth profile
Center
Pitch circle distance, c d
Whole depth, h t
Addendum, a
Working
depth, hk Root (tooth)
Clearance, cr Fillet
Base diameter, dbg Top
Ro Dedendum, b land
ot
dia
m
et r bg
Circular tooth er
thickness rg
Chordal tooth
thickness rog
Circular pitch, pc
g
,d
ter
me
dia
ch
Gear
Pit
Figure 14.5: Basic spur gear

geometry.
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Gear Tooth Nomenclature
th
id
w
Outside
ce
nd
circle
Fa
la
p
To
ce
Fa
Addendum
Circular pitc
h
Tooth
k
Pitch
an
Dedendum thickness Width
circl
Fl
of space e
dn
la
m
tto
Bo
Clearance Fillet Dedendum
radius circle Clearance
circle
Figure 14.6: Nomenclature of gear teeth.

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Tooth Size
2 2 12 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16
Figure 14.7: Standard diametral pitches compared with tooth size. Full size is assumed.

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Preferred Pitches
Diametral pitch,
Class pd , in 1
Coarse 1/2, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
Medium coarse 12, 14, 16, 18
Fine 20, 24, 32, 48, 64
72, 80, 96, 120, 128
8OWUDQe 150, 180, 200
Table 14.1: Preferred diametral pitches for four tooth classes.

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Power Capacity
150 3 pitch; d = 8.00 in.
Power transmitted, kW
100 (m = 8; d = 200 mm)
= 1 0 0 m m)
50
d= 4 . 0 0 in. (m = 4 ; d
i tc h ;
30 6p
20
10.0 2; d = 50 mm)
2. 0 0 in. (m =
h; d =
5.0 i tc
1 2p
2.0
1; d = 25 mm)
1 .0 0 in. (m =
=
1.0
itc h; d
2 4p
0.5
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600

Pinion speed, rpm
Figure 14.8: TransmiWed power as a function of pinion speed for a number of diametral
pitches. For all cases shown, gr=4, Np=24, Ko=1.0, =20. Source: From MoW [2003].

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Pitch and Base Circles; Line of
Action
Base circle
Pitch circle
Base circle (pinion) tp
Pinion rbp tp
rp
Pitch point
A
q Outside circle
A (pinion)
Line of action Outside circle
Pitch point, pp (gear)
tg L1
Pitch circle
B
L2 Lab
B (Length of action)
q Base circle (gear) tg
Base circle rg
rbg Gear Line of centers
(a) (b)
Figure 14.9: (a) Pitch and base circles for pinion and gear as well as line of action and
pressure angle. (b) Detail of active prole, showing detail of line of action and length of
action, Lab.
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Addendum, Dedendum &
Clearance
Metric
Coarse pitch Fine pitch module
Parameter Symbol (pd < 20 in. 1 ) ( pd 20 in. 1 ) system
Addendum a 1/p d 1/p d 1.00 m
Dedendum b 1.25/p d 1.200/p d + 0 .002 1.25 m
Clearance c 0.25/p d 0.200/p d + 0 .002 0.25 m
Table 14.2: Formulas for addendum, dedendum and clearance (=20; full-depth
involute).

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Involute Curve
Base circle
Involute
A4
A3 C4
B4
A2 C3
A1 C2 B3
C1 B2
Ao B
1
Figure 14.10: Construction of involute curve.

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Arc of Approach
Arc of approach qa Arc of recess qr
Line
o f actio
n a Out
side
circl
P e
Pitc
b hc
ircle
Outside circle
Motion
Lab
Figure 14.11: Illustration of arc of approach, arc of recess and length of action.

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Backlash
Diametral
e
pitch Center distance, cd , in.
Pitc Bas pd , in. 1 2 4 8 16 32
h circ
le 18 0.005 0.006
0
Pitch 12 0.006 0.007 0.009
q
8 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.014
Base Pressure line 5 0.010 0.012 0.016
3 0.014 0.016 0.020 0.028
2 0.021 0.025 0.033
Backlash 1.25 0.034 0.042
Backlash
Figure 14.12: Illustration of backlash Table 14.3: Recommended minimum backlash

in gears. for coarse-pitched gears.

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Meshing Gears
Gear 2
Gear 1 (N2 teeth)
(N1 teeth)
t2
r2 Gear 2
t1 Gear 1 (N2)
(N1)
r1
r2 r11
t1
(+) t2
()
Figure 14.13: Externally meshing Figure 14.14: Internally meshing

spur gears. spur gears.

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Gear Trains
N2
N1
Shaft 2
Figure 14.15: Simple gear train. N2 Shaft 3 N

5
N1
N6
Shaft 4
Shaft 1 N3
N4 N7 N8
Shaft 5
Figure 14.16: Compound gear train.

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Example 14.6
Input
NA = 20
Shaft 1 A A
Only pitch
circles of
B NB = 70 gears shown
B
NC = 18
Shaft 2 C
C
ND = 22
D D
Shaft 3
E N = 54
E E
Shaft 4
Output
Figure 14.17: Gear train used in Example 14.6.

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Planetary Gear Train
Ring
R R
Planet
Arm
P P
Sun
A
S S
P P
(a) (b)
Figure 14.18: Illustration of planetary gear train. (a) With three planets; (b) with one
planet (for analysis only).

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Gear Cost vs. Quality
Dimensional tolerance (in.)
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2
100
Special methods
Production
10
Relative cost
grinding
Shaping &
Shaving
Hobbing
1
0.5 Powder
Metal
16 14 12 10 8 6 4
AGMA quality index
Figure 14.19: Gear cost as a function of gear quality. Note that the powder metallurgy
approaches of pressing and sintering and metal injection molding can produce gears up
to a quality index of 8 without additional machining. Recent research has suggested that
similar quality levels can be achieved from cold forging as well.

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Quality Index
Application Quality index, Qv
Cement mixer drum driver 3-5
Cement kiln 5-6
Steel mill drives 5-6
Corn pickers 5-7
Punch press 5-7
Mining conveyor 5-7
Clothes washing machine 8-10
Printing press 9-11
Automotive transmission 10-11
Marine propulsion drive 10-12
Aircraft engine drive 10-13
Gyroscope 12-14
Pitch velocity Quality index, Qv
ft/min m/s
0-800 0-4 6-8
800-2000 4-10 8-10
2000-4000 10-20 10-12
> 4000 > 20 12-14
Table 14.4: Quality index Qv for various applications. Source: Courtesy of the American
Gear Manufacturers Association.

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Form CuWing of Gears
Form
cutter
Gear
blank
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 14.20: Form cuWing of gear teeth. (a) A form cuWer. Notice that the tooth prole is
dened by the cuWer prole; (b) schematic illustration of the form cuWing process; (c)
form cuWing of teeth on a bevel gear. Source: (a) and (b) From Kalpakjian and Schmid
[2010]; (c) Courtesy Schafer Gear Works, Inc.

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Shaping
Figure 14.21: Production of gear teeth with a pinion-shaped cuWer. (a) Schematic
illustration of the process. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010]; (b) photograph of
the process with gear and cuWer motions indicated. Source: Courtesy Schafer Gear
Works, Inc.

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Hobbing
Top view
Gear
blank (b)
Helical gear
Hob
Hob rotation
Hob
Gear
blank
(b)
(a)
Figure 14.22: Production of gears through the hobbing process. (a) A hob, along with a
schematic illustration of the process. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010]; (b)
production of a worm gear through hobbing. Source: Courtesy Schafer Gear Works, Inc.

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Gear
Gear
Finishing
Grinding
wheel
Worm
gear
Single-ribbed Multiribbed Two grinding

grinding wheel grinding wheel wheels
(a)
Grinding wheels
Gear
15 or 20 position 0 position
(b)
Figure 14.23: Finishing gears by grinding: (a) form grinding with shaped grinding
wheels; (b) grinding by generating, using two wheels. Source: From Kalpakjian and
Schmid [2010].
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Hardness Eects on Bending
Strength
500
70
60 .5% Chro
me
400 Grade 3 -
2
Grade 2 60
400
Bending strength, Sb, MPa

ome
Bending strength, Sb, MPa
ed 2.5% Chr
350 rid 50 Grade 2 -
Nit
Nit ralloy
e2- 50
300 ne
d G ra d
ksi
e
h a rd d
h- i de 40 300 m e
Nitr 2.5% Chro
ksi
g
250 hr
ou Grade 1 -
T d 40
ene Grade 1 e1-N
itralloy
ar d Grad
200 g h-h 30
rou
Th 30
200
150
20
100 20
10 100
120 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
250 275 300 325 350
Brinell hardness, HB
Figure 14.24: Eect of Brinell hardness on allowable bending stress for steel gears. (a)
Through-hardened steels; (b) Flame or induction hardened nitriding steels. Note that
Brinell hardness refers to case hardness for these gears. Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard
2101-D04 [2004].
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Hardness Eects on Contact
Strength
1400
Grade 1:
1300
{
Sc = 2.41 HB +237 (MPa)
0.349 HB + 34.3 (ksi) 175
Contact strength, Sc, MPa
1200
Grade 2: e2
ad
Gr
1100 {
Sc = 2.22 HB +200 (MPa)
0.322 HB + 29.1 (ksi) 1 150
e
1000 rad
ksi
G
900 125
800
700 100
600
75
150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Figure 14.25: Eect of Brinell hardness on allowable contact stress number for two
grades of through-hardened steel. Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004]
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Strength of Gear Materials
Material designation Grade Typical Bending strength, S b Contact strength, S c
a 2
Hardness lb/in. MPa ksi MPa
Steel
Through-hardenedb 1 180-400 HB 0.0773 HB + 12.8 0.533 HB + 88.3 0.349 HB + 34.3 2.41 HB + 237
2 180-400 HB 0.102 HB + 16.4 0.703 HB + 11.3 0.322 HB + 29.1 2.22 HB + 200
Carburized & hardened 1 55-64 HRC 55.0 380 180.0 1240
2 58-64 HRC 65.0c 450c 225.0 1550
3 58-64 HRC 75.0 515 275.0 1895
Nitrided and through- 1 83.5 HR15N 0.0823 HB +12.15 0.568 HB + 83.8 150,000 1035
hardenedb 2 0.1086 HB + 15.89 0.749 HB + 110 163,000 1125
Nitralloy 135M and 1 87.5 HR15N 0.0862 HB + 12.73 0.594 HB + 87.76 170,000 1170
Nitralloy N, nitridedb 2 87.5 HR15N 0.1138 HB + 16.65 0.784 HB + 114.81 183,000 1260
2.5% Chrome, nitridedb 1 87.5 HR15N 0.1052 HB + 9.28 0.7255 HB + 63.89 155,000 1070
2 87.5 HR15N 0.1052 HB + 22.28 0.7255 HB + 153.63 172,000 1185
3 87.5 HR15N 0.1052 HB + 29.28 0.7255 HB + 201.81 189,000 1305
Cast Iron
ASTM A48 gray cast Class 20 5.00 34.5 50.0-60.0 345-415
iron, as-cast Class 30 174 HB 8.50 59 65.0-75.0 450-520
Class 40 201 HB 13.0 90 75.0-85.0 520-585
ASTM A536 ductile 60-40-18 140 HB 22.0-33. 150-230 77.0-92.0 530-635
(nodular) iron 80-55-06 179 HB 22.0-33.0 150-230 77.0-92.0 530-635
100-70-03 229 HB 27.0-40.0 185-275 92.0-112.0 635-770
120-90-02 269 HB 31.0-44.0 215-305 103.0-126.0 710-870
Bronze
S ut > 40, 000 psi 5.70 39.5 30.0 205
(S ut > 275 GPa)
S ut > 90, 000 psi 23.6 165 65.0 450
(S ut > 620 GPa)
Powder Metal
FL-4405, = 7 .30 g/cm3 80 HRB 49.0 340 282.0 1945
FLN2-4405, = 7 .35 g/cm3 90 HRB 60.0 410 180.0 1240
FLC-4608, = 7 .30 g/cm3 65 HRB 95.72 660 210.0 1450
FN-0205, = 7 .10 g/cm3 69 HRB 30.0 210 180.0 1240
a Hardness refers to case hardness unless through-hardened.
b See Figs. 14.24 and/or 14.25.
c 70,000 psi (485 MPa) may be used if bainite and microcracks are limited to grade 3 levels.
Table 14.5: Bending and contact strength for selected gear materials. Source: Adapted
from ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 [2004] and MPIF Standard 35 [2009].
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Gear Strength Modication Factors
and Reliability Factor
Allowable bending stress: Probability of Reliability factora
survival, percent Kr
50 0.70b
Sb YN 90 0.85b
b,all = 99 1.00
ns Kt Kr 99.9 1.25
99.99 1.50
Allowable contact stress: a
Based on surface pitting. If tooth breakage is
considered a greater hazard, a larger value may
Sc ZN CH be required.
c,all = b
At this value, plastic flow may occur rather
ns Kt Kr than pitting.
Table 14.6: Reliability factor, Kr.

Source: From ANSI/AGMA 2101-
D04 [2004].

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Bending Stress Cycle Factor
4.0
400 HB: YN = 9.4518 N -0.148
3.0 Case Carb.: YN = 6.1514N -0.1192

Stress cycle factor, Yn
250 HB: YN = 4.9404 N -0.1045
2.0
Nitrided: YN = 3.517 N -0.0817
YN = 1.3558 N -0.0178
-0.0538
1.0 160 HB: YN = 2.3194 N
0.9
0.8
0.7 YN = 1.6831 N -0.0323
0.6
0.5
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
Number of load cycles, N
Figure 14.26: Stress cycle factor. (a) Bending strength stress cycle factor YN; Source:
ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004].

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PiWing Resistance Cycle Factor
2.0
Grade 1 & 2
Nitrided
1.5
Zn = 1.47, N < 104 Hydrodynamic: Zn = 2.466 N -0.056
Stress cycle factor, Zn
Zn = 1.10, N < 104

1.1 Zn = 1.4488 N -0.023
1.0
0.9 Zn = 1.249 N -0.0138 M
ixe
d:
Z
0.8 n =
3.
83
4
0.7 N -0
.0
94
Boundary: Zn = 7.821 N -0.156,
N> 105 ,N
0.6 >
10 5
0.5
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
Number of load cycles, N
Figure 14.26: Stress cycle factor. (b) PiWing resistance stress cycle factor ZN. Source:
ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004].

2014 CRC Press
Loads on Gear Tooth
W
Tangential load:
Wr
q
Wt
hp 60hp
Wt = =
Pitch circle
u dNa
If hp is in horsepower:
126, 050hp
Wt =
dNa

Normal load:
Wt
W =
cos
Radial load:
Figure 14.27: Loads acting on an individual gear
Wr = Wt tan
tooth.


2014 CRC Press
W
Bending of Gear
Wr
q
Wt
Teeth _
rf
x _
(a)
Wt
bw
Figure 14.28: A crack that has developed at

the root of a gear tooth due to excessive
(b)
bending stresses. Source: Courtesy of the Figure 14.29: Loads and length dimensions
American Gear Manufacturers Association. used in determining tooth bending stress.
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed. (a) Tooth; (b) cantilevered beam.
2014 CRC Press
Lewis Form Factor
Lewis Lewis
Number form Number form
of teeth factor of teeth factor
10 0.176 34 0.325
11 0.192 36 0.329
12 0.210 38 0.332
13 0.223 40 0.336
14 0.236 45 0.340
15 0.245 50 0.346
16 0.256 55 0.352
17 0.264 60 0.355
18 0.270 65 0.358
19 0.277 70 0.360
20 0.283 75 0.361
22 0.292 80 0.363
24 0.302 90 0.366
26 0.308 100 0.368
28 0.314 150 0.375
30 0.318 200 0.378
32 0.322 300 0.382
Table 14.7: Lewis form factor for various numbers of teeth

(pressure angle, 14.5; full-depth involute).

2014 CRC Press
Spur Gear Geometry Factors
0.60
Number of
teeth in 1000 Number of
0.50 170 teeth in
mating gear. 85 1000
Load considered 50 mating gear. 85
applied at Load considered 50
35
highest point 25 applied at 25
0.40 0.50 17
of single-tooth 17 highest point
Geometry factor, Yj
Geometry factor, Yj
contact. of single-tooth
contact.
0.30
0.40
Load applied at
0.20 tip of tooth
0.30
Load applied at
0.10 tip of tooth
125 125
0 0.20
12 15 20 25 30 40 60 80 275 12 15 20 25 30 40 60 80 275
Number of teeth, N Number of teeth, N
(a) (b)
Figure 14.30: Spur gear geometry factors for full-depth involute prole. (a) =20; (b)
=25. Source: AGMA Standard 908-B89 [1989].
2014 CRC Press
AGMA Bending Stress Equation
W t pd K o K s K m K v K b
b =
bw Yj
where
Wt = transmiWed load, N
pd = diametral pitch, m-1
Ko = overload factor
Ks = size factor
Km= load distribution factor
Kv = dynamic factor
Kb = rim thickness factor

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Overload and Size Factors
Driven Machines
Light Moderate Heavy Figure 14.8: Overload factor, Ko, as
Power source Uniform shock shock shock function of driving power source and
Uniform 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
Light shock 1.20 1.40 1.75 2.25 driven machine.
Moderate shock 1.30 1.70 2.00 2.75
Diametral pitch, pd , Module, m ,

in. 1 mm Size factor, K s
Table 14.9: Recommended values 5 5 1.00
of size factor, Ks. 4 6 1.05
3 8 1.15
3 12 1.25
1.25 20 1.40

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Load Distribution Factor
Load distribition factor:

Km = 1.0 + Cmc (Cpf Cpm + Cma Ce )

where
Cmc = lead correction factor
Cpf = pinion proportion factor
Cpm = pinion proportion modier
Cma = mesh alignment factor
Ce = mesh alignment correction factor

Lead correction factor:

1.0 for uncrowned teeth
Cmc =
0.8 for crowned teeth

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Pinion Proportion Factor
Face width, bw (in.)
0 10 20 30 40
0.70
Pinion proportion factor:
0.60
If bw < 25 mm,
Pinion proportion factor, Cpf
bw
0.50
C = 0.025
pf 10dp
0.40 For 25 mm < bw < 432 mm,
.00
= 2
0 bw
0.30 /d p 1.5 0 Cpf = 0.0375 + 0.000492bw
bw
1.0 50 10dp
0.
0.20
For bw/dp < 0.5 use For 432 mm < bw 1020 mm,
curve for bw/dp = 0.5 b
0.10 w
Cpf = 0.1109 + 0.000815bw
10dp
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000
(3.53 107 )b2w
(see text if bw is in inches)
Face width, bw (mm)
Figure 14.31: Pinion proportion factor, Cpf.

Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004].
2014 CRC Press
Mesh Alignment Factor
Face width, bw (in)
0 10 20 30 40
0.80
C ma = A + Bb w + Cb 2w
0.70
Mesh alignment factor, Cma
If b w is in inches:
0.60 Condition A B C
s Open gearing 0.247 0.0167 0.765 10 4
0.50 g r u n it Commercial enclosed gears 0.127 0.158 1.095 10 4
ari
n
d g ea Precision enclosed gears 0.0675 0.0128 0.926 10 4
ge cl ose
0.40 en en Extraprecision enclosed gears 0.000380 0.0102 0.822 10 4
Op l u n it s
er cia d ge
ar
m se it s If bw is in mm:
0.30 Co
m
e n clo e d g e ar u n
on n c lo s Condition A B C
r e cisi i si on e Open gearing 0.247 6.57 10 4 1.186 10 7
0.20 P e c
a -p r
E xt r Commercial enclosed gears 0.127 6.22 10 4 1.69 10 7
0.10 Precision enclosed gears 0.0675 5.04 10 4 1.44 10 7
Extraprecision enclosed gears 0.000380 4.02 10 4 1.27 10 7
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Face width, bw (mm)
Figure 14.33: Mesh alignment factor. Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004].

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Pinion Proportion and Mesh Alignment
Modiers
Pinion proportion modier:

Cpm = 1.0, (S1 /S) < 0.175
S1 S/2
1.1, (S1 /S) 0.175
S

Figure 14.32: Evaluation of S and S1.

Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04
[2004].
Mesh alignment correction factor:

0.80 when gearing is adjusted at assembly

0.80 when compatibility between gear teeth is
Ce =

improved by lapping

1.0 for all other conditions

2014 CRC Press
Dynamic Factor
Dynamic factor:
Pitch line velocity, ft/min
0 2500 5000 7500
1.8
Qv = 5 Qv = 6
A + C vt B
1.7 Qv = 7
Kv =
1.6 A
Qv = 8
Where
Dynamic factor, Kv
1.5
A = 50 + 56(1.0 B)
Qv = 9
1.4
Qv = 10
B = 0.25(12 Qv )0.667

1.3
Qv = 11
1.2
C = 1 for vt in ft/min
1.1

"Very accurate" gearing
C = 200 = 14.14 for vt in m/s
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50

Pitch line velocity, m/s
Figure 14.34: Dynamic factor as a function of Maximum recommended pitch line
pitch-line velocity and transmission accuracy velocity:
level number. Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard 1 2
2101-D04 [2004]. vt,max = 2 [A + (Qv 3)]
C
2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.2: Methods to
Increase Bending Performance of Gears
If a gear does not produce a satisfactory design based on bending
requirements, a design alteration may be needed. This is not always
straightforward, since such alterations may help in one area and hurt in
another, and may aect associated machine elements such as bearings.
However, some factors that improve bending performance are the following:
1. Reduction in the load, such as by increasing contact ratio, or altering
other aspects of the system.
2. Increase the center distance.
3. Apply gears with a coarser pitch.
4. Use a higher pressure angle.
5. Use a helical gear instead of a spur gear.
6. Use a carburized material.
7. Improve the gear accuracy through manufacturing process selection.
8. Select a beWer (stronger) gear material.
9. Use a wider eective face width.
10. Apply shot peening to the teeth.

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PiWing
Figure 14.35: A gear showing extreme piWing or spalling. Source: Courtesy of the
American Gear Manufacturing Association.
2014 CRC Press
AGMA Contact Stress Equation

12
W Ko Ks K m Kv 1
c = E = pH (Ko Ks Km Kv ) 2
2
12
Maximum Hern pressure: W
pH = E
2
Where
2
E
= eective elastic modulus =
1 a2 1 b2
+
Ea Eb

w W
W = dimensionless load =

=
E Rx E R x bw

1 1 1 1 1 1 2
= + = +
Rx rp rg sin dp dg sin

8W 1/2
b
= Rx

Ko, Ks, Km, and Kv are dened as with the AGMA Bending Stress
Equation.
2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.3: Methods to
Increase PiWing Resistance
If a gear does not produce a satisfactory design based on surface piWing
requirements, a design alteration may be needed. This is not always
straightforward, since such alterations may help in one area and hurt in
another, and may aect associated machine elements such as bearings.
However, some factors that improve piWing performance are the following:
1. Reduction in the load, such as by increasing contact ratio, or altering
other aspects of the system.
2. Increase the center distance.
3. Apply gears with a ner pitch.
4. Use a higher pressure angle.
5. Use a helical gear instead of a spur gear.
6. Use a carburized material.
7. Increase the surface hardness by material selection, or by performing a
surface hardening operation.
8. Improve the gear accuracy through manufacturing process selection.
9. Use a wider eective face width.
10. Increase the lubricant lm thickness.
2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.4: Lubricant
Film Thickness
It will be assumed that the power transmiWed, gear and pinion angular velocity, number
of teeth in pinion and gear, gear materials, lubricant properties, and geometry of the
pinion and gear are known or can be determined from design constraints. Of these, the
lubricant properties, especially the pressure exponent of viscosity, are most likely to be
unknown or will have the largest uncertainty. Regardless, these properties should be
aWainable from the lubricant supplier.
The normal force acting on the gear teeth can be obtained from Eq. (14.50) as:
Wt
W =
cos
The lubrication velocity for the pinion and gears is obtained from Eqs. (14.29) and (14.30)
as
up + ug p rp sin + g rg sin
u = =
2 2

The eective radius is obtained from Eq. (14.74) as

1 1 1 1
= +
Rx rp rg sin

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.4 (concluded)
5. The eective modulus of elasticity is obtained from Eq. (8.16):
2
E =
(1 a2 ) (1 b2 )
+
Ea Eb

6. For steel-on-steel, E= 227.5$ GPa (32.97 Mpsi).
7. Equations (13.68), (13.69), and (13.72) yield the dimensionless load, speed,
and materials parameters as:
W o u
W = ; U= ; G = E
bw E R z E Rx
8. The lubricant lm thickness is then obtained from the Hamrock-Dowson
equation for rectangular contacts given by Eq.~(13.71):
hmin
Hmin = = 1.714(W )0.128 U 0.694 G0.568
Rx

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.5: Gear
Design Synthesis
1. From design requirements, determine the power transfer, total life
required, and pinion and gear speed.
2. The gear ratio, gr, must be known from design requirements. If this value is
near or in excess of 6:1, a second stage is advisable.
3. If the pinion face-to-diameter ratio is not a design requirement, it can be
estimated from the following equation for spur gears:
bw gr
= ,
dp gr + 1
Where gr = Ng/Np is the gear ratio.

4. Estimate Ko from Table 14.8.


2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.5 (continued)
5. The load distribution factor, Km, cannot be determined until knowledge of
the design, manufacturing approach, and mounting is established. A
rough approximation based on pinion torque can be made according to
0.33
bw Tp Ko
Km = 1 + 0.2 + 0.0112
dp bw /dp
However, if the pitch diameter is known (from design requirements or
selected based on experience), then the load distribution factor can be
more accurately estimated from
bw
Km = 1 + (0.2 + 0.0012dp )
dp
Recall that the torque is related to the power by hp = T.
6. The dynamic factor, Kv, depends on gear speed and quality. For simplicity,
a value of Kv = 1.43 can be assumed, which is conservative for most
applications.


2014 CRC Press
7. The pressure angle, , is generally chosen as 20, since these gears are widely
available. However, the pressure angle can be reduced to obtain higher
contact ratios, or increased when precision and noise are not issues.
Regardless, it is recommended that standard values of 14.5, 17.5, 22.5, or
25 be used.
8. A geometry factor for spur gears is given by:
sin cos gr
I=
2 gr 1
Where gr is the gear ratio. Note that the plus sign in the denominator of Eq.~
(14.79) applies for external gearsets, the negative sign for internal gearsets.
9. Yj can be conservatively estimated as approximately 0.45 (see Fig. 14.30).
10. The life factors Yn and Zn can be estimated from Fig. 14.26.
11. Obtain the bending (b) and contact (c) strengths for the gear material
according to Eqs.~(14.45) or (14.46), respectively.

2014 CRC Press
12. An estimate for the preferred number of pinion teeth is then:
1 Yj b E n2sc
Np =
Kb I c2 2 nsb
For the special case of steel gears (E = 227 GPa) a pressure angle of =20,
Kb=1, nsc=nsb=ns, and Yj=0.45, the preferred number of pinion teeth becomes
gr + 1 b
Np = (101.17 GPa) ns
gr c2
13. Obtain the piWing resistance constant:
2
0.3183E hp Ko Km Kv nsc

Kc =
Ip c
14. The pinion pitch diameter is then estimated as
1/3
Kc
dp =
bw /dp

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.5 (concluded)
15. The face width can be calculated from the ratio of bw/dp established in
step 3 if a specic value was not specied as a design requirement.
16. When the gear prole is selected from this design procedure, it is
necessary to analyze the design more closely in accordance with the
approaches described in Sections 14.11 and 14.12. This is clearly required
since a number of approximate values were used.
17. It should also be noted that an essential part of the gear design synthesis
is calculating lubricant lm thickness as described in Section 14.13.

2014 CRC Press
Upper punch
PM Spur Gear
Powder shape
Manufacture
Compacted
Feed (green)
Shoe
Die
Lower punch
1. 2. 3. 4.
Ejector
(a)
Upper punch
PM spur gear
(green)
Die
Core rod
Lower punch
(b)
Figure 14.36: Production of gears through the powder compaction process. (a) Steps
required to produce a part; (b) illustration of tooling required for a simple spur gear.
Source: After Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010].
2014 CRC Press
Surface Densied PM Gears
Subsurface porosity
100 m
Densified surface
Figure 14.37: Image of a Figure 14.38: A stepped

PM material after roll Figure 14.39: A collection
gear produced through
densication. Note the of PM gears used in
the metal injection
low porosity near the automotive applications.
molding process. Source:
surface, resulting in high Source: Courtesy Capstan
Courtesy Perry Tool &
Atlantic Corp.
allowable contact stresses. Research, Inc.
Source: Courtesy Capstan
Atlantic Corp.
2014 CRC Press

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Chapter 14: General Gear Theory;

We are what we repeatedly do.

An assortment of gears. Source: Courtesy of

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

(a) (b) (c)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 14.5: Basic spur gear

Figure 14.6: Nomenclature of gear teeth.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Table 14.1: Preferred diametral pitches for four tooth classes.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 14.10: Construction of involute curve.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 14.12: Illustration of backlash Table 14.3: Recommended minimum backlash

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 14.13: Externally meshing Figure 14.14: Internally meshing

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 14.15: Simple gear train. N2 Shaft 3 N

Figure 14.16: Compound gear train.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 14.17: Gear train used in Example 14.6.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

(a) (b) (c)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Single-ribbed Multiribbed Two grinding

Bending strength, Sb, MPa

Table 14.6: Reliability factor, Kr.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

3.0 Case Carb.: YN = 6.1514N -0.1192

250 HB: YN = 4.9404 N -0.1045

Number of load cycles, N

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Zn = 1.10, N < 104

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 14.28: A crack that has developed at

Table 14.7: Lewis form factor for various numbers of teeth

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Diametral pitch, pd , Module, m ,

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 14.31: Pinion proportion factor, Cpf.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Pinion proportion modier:

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Where gr = Ng/Np is the gear ratio.