Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Construction of Ecological Sanitation Latrine PDF
Construction of Ecological Sanitation Latrine PDF
Construction of ecological
sanitation latrine
This handbook is the outcome of the ecological sanitation latrine promotion projects carried
out by WaterAids partners in Nepal : the Environment and Public Health Organisation, Lumanti
Support Group for Shelter and Centre for Integrated Urban Development. The experiences
of agencies like the Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, UN-HABITAT, World Health
Organisation and D-Net have also been instrumental in developing this handbook.
This document sets out the principles for adopting an ecological sanitation approach, as well
as providing guidance on the construction ecological sanitation latrines and their operation.
It is intended to support sanitation field practitioners and WaterAid in Nepal s partners in
the delivery of appropriate services and technologies to fit the needs of different users. .It
is also equally hoped that this document will be of value to other organisations and sector
stakeholders involved in sanitation promotion and ecological sanitation.
The production of this document was led by Kabir Das Rajbhandari from WaterAid in Nepal .
Colleagues from the Advocacy team in Nepal reviewed the document, providing valuable input.
This document should be cited as WaterAid in Nepal (2011) Technical handbook - Construction
of ecological sanitation latrine.
The document can be found in the documents section of the WaterAid in Nepal country
programme website www.nepal.wateraid.org
Cover picture:
Top : Buddhi Sipai: A farmer from Layku, Thimee, Nepal front to his ECOSAN Latrine.
Middle : Gyani Maya Maharjan from Siddhipur, Lalitpur Nepal at her composting latrine near to her kitchen garden.
WaterAid/ Marco Betti
Bottom: : Chandrawati Maharjan from Gamcha, Kirtipur, Nepal puring ass at her ECOSAN latrine after use of the latrine.
WaterAid/ Anita Pradhan
Contents
Abbreviation iii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 What is ECOSAN? 1
1.3 Why ECOSAN 2
1.3.1 ECOSAN - a new paradigm 2
1.3.2 Inadequacy of current options 3
1.3.3 Merits of ECOSAN 4
1.3.4 Requirements for sustainable ECOSAN systems 5
1.4 Why this manual? 5
2 Planning for ECOSAN latrines 7
2.1 Knowledge management on ECOSAN 7
2.2 Planning of ECOSAN 8
2.3 Foundation of planning for ECOSAN latrines 8
3 Technology, design and management 11
3.1 Factors influencing design and management 12
3.2 Dealing with faeces 12
3.3 Dealing with liquids 14
3.4 Preventing odors and flies 17
3.5 Household management: removal and treatment 18
3.6 Technical options 18
3.7 Maintenance 20
3.8 General hygienic aspects of ECOSAN latrines 21
3.9 Technological aspects 22
3.9.1. Urine Diversion (UD) latrines 23
3.9.2. UD Dehydration (Dry ECOSAN) latrines 24
3.9.3. Wet ECOSAN (Twin Pit Pour Flush) latrines 28
3.9.4. Composting latrines 31
4 Implementation and construction 33
4.1 Software components for promoting ECOSAN latrines 33
4.1.1 Preparatory stage of implementation 33
4.1.2 Socio-cultural aspects of ECOSAN 35
4.1.3 Addressing gender issues 37
4.1.4 Financial aspects 38
4.1.5 Role of different stakeholders in promoting
ECOSAN latrines 40
4.2 Hardware components for implementation and construction 40
4.2.1 Components of ECOSAN latrine 40
4.2.2 Types of ECOSAN latrines 42
4.2.3 Construction details and other important information 45
4.2.4 Guidelines for construction 46
4.2.5 Quantity estimation for an ECOSAN latrine 48
5 Common problems and trouble shooting; potential problems
and constraints; dos and donts 51
5.1 Common problems and trouble shooting 51
5.2 Problems and constraints 52
5.3 Dos and donts with ECOSAN latrines 52
6 References 55
Annexes
Annex :1 - Sample drawings of ECOSAN latrines 57
Annex: 2a - Comparison of cost between ECOSAN and other latrines 59
Annex: 2b - Materials for double vault dry ECOSAN latrine up to pan level 60
Abbreviation
1.1 Background
The current global trend of urbanization is creating a pressure on Nepals
eco-system. Nepal is struggling with the most rapid urbanization trend
in the South Asian Sub-continent with approximately 15% of its total
population living in 58 designated urban areas. This is expected to reach
23% by 2016 as the urban population is increasing at 6.6% per annum
reflecting both an increase in migration to towns as an escape from rural
poverty, conflict and the reclassification of emerging towns from villages
to municipalities.
Figure 1:
ECOSAN - Closing the 1.2 What is ECOSAN?
sanitation loop
Ecological Sanitation (ECOSAN) is an environment
friendly sustainable sanitation system which
regards human waste as resource for agricultural
purposes and food security. In contrast to the
common practice of linear waste management
which views waste or excreta as something that
needs to be disposed, ECOSAN seeks to close the
loop of nutrients cycle, conserve water and our
surrounding environment.
Source: ENPHO
2 Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine
Figure 2: Figure 3:
Drop-and-Store Flush-and-Discharge
S A human being almost produces the amount of nutrients that is needed for growing his/her food:
S Urine (very few pathogens): 88% of the nitrogen, 67% of the phosphorus and 71% of the
potassium carried in domestic wastewater
S Faeces contain 12% of the nitrogen, 33% of the phosphorus, 29% of the potassium and also 46%
of the organic carbon but highly pathogenic.
1.3.4 Requirements for sustainable ECOSAN latrines thus ensuring the quality
ECOSAN systems control over the construction.
The ECOSAN Toilet System should be:
S Compatible with the socio-cultural and This manual is designed for professionals,
economic conditions of the target area and practitioners who are interested in
S Comprehensible to the uses promoting ECOSAN in Nepal and might be
S Simple, robust and easy to operate useful for other developing countries for
and maintain and should exploit locally the purpose mentioned. The manual briefly
available resources explains the basic concepts of ECOSAN and
S Protect the environment by isolating or its relevance in Nepal, and provides technical
destroying the faecal pathogens details on different types of ECOSAN toilets.
process without contradicting the needs This chapter will examine issues related
of other participants. Open channels of to planning, promoting and supporting
communication between users and system ECOSAN systems on a larger scale..
providers are a key feature of modernized
socio-technical systems, which build an
element of user choice and discursive 2.3 Foundation of planning for
awareness into the planning process ECOSAN latrines
(Spaargaren Andvan Vliet 2000).
Planning for ECOSAN systems takes place
in much the same way as planning for
2.2 Planning of ECOSAN conventional sanitation systems has taken
place in the past. The quantity and quality
ECOSAN systems may, for the user, of its water resources, its existing sanitation
seem more complex than conventional systems, and its storm drainage should
sanitation systems, and they do usually be considered. Like all other development
place more responsibility for appropriate planning, decisions as to whether to
functioning on individual families and local incorporate ECOSAN options into the
communities. Users must become aware existing system, or to maintain and extend
that, despite potential health benefits, an aging sewerage system, should normally
improper use of any toilet may turn it into be taken in a participatory approach.
a nuisance, threaten public health, and
pollute the environment. These problems Planning for sanitation and water supply
can best be avoided by adopting the systems should begin at the local level and
appropriate behaviours from the outset. moves upwards, and when communities
In addition, special care is required to take have more choice, there is a greater
full advantage of the significant resource chance of achieving sustainable systems.
potential of the recycled plant nutrients. This is because the systems are planned
in accordance with local ecological
At the household level individuals and conditions and local cultural practices.
families must understand how the ECOSAN Community management systems is now
system works, what can go wrong, and common in many parts of the world. Water
have the commitment and skills to manage committees are formed at the start of new
it correctly. For large-scale application, it is projects and they participate in the design
also essential that a significant part of the of the new scheme. Experience shows
local community shares this understanding that sustainability is more likely when
and commitment. users feel a sense of ownership of the
systems because they selected the design,
In urban areas the fundamental issue of participated in construction and made key
ECOSAN is how to establish a full-scale decisions along the way.
operation. It is one thing to operate
scattered ECOSAN devices spread over a The same principle can be applied to
large rural area; it is a different matter to ECOSAN systems. Local government
make thousands of ECOSAN devices work authorities and local community groups
properly in a densely populated urban area. should form partnerships to lead
Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine 9
Figure 4: Figure 5:
10 Steps approach for ECOSAN project Stakeholders in an ECOSAN Project
survive the desiccation/pH phase, they can by a community. (It should be noted,
be killed within days at temperatures above however, that these things are not static,
50C or within a relatively short time during and that new practices are constantly
thermophilic composting (Feachem et al. evolving in most societies.)
1983). Of course, over time pathogens will S Economic: the financial resources of
die if kept out of water and left undisturbed both individuals and the community as a
by weather or animals. whole to support a sanitation system.
S Technical capacity: the level of
If urine and faeces are combined, as is usual technology that can be supported and
in conventional systems, it is harder to maintained by local skills and tools.
render excreta safe, though not impossible. S Agriculture: the characteristics of local
More time, thermophilic composting and agriculture and homestead gardening.
sometimes chemicals, such as chlorine, are S Institutional support: legal framework,
necessary then to kill bacteria. extent of support for the ECOSAN concept
in government, industry, financial
In general, conventional sanitation institutions, universities and NGOs.
solutions fail to treat excreta on- or off-
site. Over 90% of sewage in developing
countries is discharged without any 3.2 Dealing with faeces
treatment, into receiving bodies of water,
and the figure for Latin America, which has The primary processing in an ECOSAN system
the highest rates of water-borne systems, is is generally either through dehydration
98% (Briscoe and Steer 1997). or decomposition, but a combination of
both is also possible. The purpose of the
primary processing is to destroy pathogenic
3.1 Factors influencing design organisms, to prevent nuisance and to
and management facilitate subsequent transport, secondary
processing and end use.
Many local variables influence the choice of
an ECOSAN system: Dehydration: Dehydration means lowering
S Climate: temperature, humidity, the moisture content of the material in the
precipitation and solar radiation. In processing vault or container to less than
dry areas it will be easiest to sanitize 25% through evaporation and addition
faeces through dehydration, whereas of dry material (ash, sawdust, husks). No
composting may be more successful in water, urine or moist plant material must
humid areas. be added to the processing chamber.
S Population density and settlement There is little reduction in volume because
pattern: the availability of space for of the added dry material, and minimal
on-site/off-site processing, storage and decomposition of organic material because
local recycling. of the low moisture content. The crumbly
S Social/cultural: the customs, beliefs, pile that remains when faeces dry out is
values and practices that influence the not compost but rather a kind of mulch
design of the social components of which is rich in nutrients, carbon and
a sanitation system, its acceptability fibrous material.
Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine 13
Dehydration is a way of destroying slower and foul-smelling and the heat given
pathogenic organisms. It does this by off is only a fraction of that under aerobic
depriving them of the moisture they need conditions. Earthworms and insects play
to survive. At this low moisture content an important role in aeration by burrowing
there is little odour and no fly-breeding. holes through the pile.
As there is so little breakdown of organic
material, toilet paper or other things placed Temperature: High-temperature aerobic
in the processing vault will not disintegrate composting (with temperatures reaching
regardless of storage time. Toilet paper >60C) will effectively destroy most
must therefore either be handled separately pathogenic organisms, but such process
(commonly by burning it) or be composted temperatures are in practice difficult to
in a secondary treatment process. reach in a composting toilet. The volume
of material is too small, it tends to be too
Urine diversion is essential in eco-toilets compact and it is difficult and unpleasant
based on dehydration. Where water is used to turn the pile to aerate the central part.
for anal cleaning, this water should be Occasionally higher temperatures can be
diverted and can either be treated separately found in a small part of the pile. To raise
or mixed and treated with the urine. the temperature for faster decomposition
and faster die-off of pathogens, there
Decomposition (composting): is a complex should be a large input (four to five
natural biological process in which organic times the weight of faeces) of carbon rich
substances are mineralized and turned material such as weeds, husks, wood
into humus. The speed of decomposition is shavings and kitchen waste, combined
influenced by a number of environmental with occasional turning to ensure a good
factors inside the pile such as the amount of supply of oxygen to the inside of the pile.
oxygen (aeration), temperature, moisture,
pH value, the ratio of carbon to nitrogen Its important to remember that temperature
(C:N ratio), competition among micro- is not solely important for destroying
organisms for nutrients, and the toxic by- pathogens. Pathogen destruction is a
products of decomposing organisms. function of both temperature and time,
so that lower temperatures can achieve
Aeration: Some of the micro-organisms in the acceptable pathogen kill if the material is
pile need oxygen in order to play their role in retained long enough. In many cases, this
decomposition. Such organisms are called lower temperature/longer time strategy is
aerobic. Others that do not require oxygen preferable to more intensive management
are called anaerobic. Many organisms can of the compost pile. Most composting
survive conditions with and without oxygen. toilets are designed for a retention time of
Air enters the processing chamber from the 812 months.
outside or is trapped inside the compost
heap. Near the surface of the pile the process Moisture: In a composting toilet we get
may be aerobic while in the interior it is the best results in terms of pathogen
often anaerobic. Under aerobic conditions, destruction with a moisture content of
decomposition is rapid and odour-free. 5060%. At higher moisture content
Under anaerobic conditions decomposition is conditions in the material become
14 Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine
soggy and compact, and the organisms of layers of finely chopped carbon-rich
are deprived of oxygen. A low moisture material also helps to provide oxygen to
content, on the other hand, slows down the the pile and to achieve rapid and complete
activity of the micro-organisms, as they are decomposition.
starved for water.
Life in the compost latrine: A rich variety of
An extremely wet compost toilet may organisms lives in the compost heap and
result from a combination of some of the contributes to the breakdown of the excreta.
following factors: humid climate, water They range in size from viruses, bacteria,
used for anal cleaning, too much urine has fungi and algae to ants, mites, spiders,
gone in, too many users (too much urine sowbugs and earthworms. Their activities
in relation to capacity to handle liquids), are responsible for rapid decomposition.
no addition of organic refuse, unventilated Earthworms and insects mix and aerate
processing chamber, entry of rainwater, the pile, tearing apart the contents. If the
surface water or groundwater. The most environment is favourable to them, they will
common reason for high moisture content multiply, burrow holes in the pile, eat odorous
in the pile is too much urine going into the organic material and convert it all into humus.
processing chamber. This can be corrected
by installing a urine-diverting toilet seat or
squatting plate which channels the urine 3.3 Dealing with liquids
away from the compost pile into a separate
container. Another possibility is to have A basic question when designing an ECOSAN
some type of false floor which allows the system is whether to divert urine or to mix
liquid to seep out, preferably into a place urine and faeces in a single receptacle. If the
from where it can evaporate. latter approach is used, effective processing
will, with few exceptions, require later
Ratio of Carbon to Nitrogen (C:N): separation of liquids and solids. Thus we
Micro-organisms feed on organic matter start with two basic options: divert urine; or
containing, among other nutrients, carbon mix urine and faeces.
and nitrogen. Carbon is used for energy and
nitrogen is for body building. The optimum Figure 6:
carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio is within the ECOSAN systems have two basic options for
range of 15:1 to 30:1 in the initial mixture. dealing with liquids: divert urine (left) or
mix urine and faeces (right)
Since faeces, and especially urine, are rich
in nitrogen, it is best to start a processing
chamber with materials rich in carbon
such as green grass clippings, vegetable
scraps, straw, husks, wood shavings or a
combination of these. Addition of these
materials to the compost increases the C:N
ratio. Excluding urine from the compost has
a similar effect, as it lowers the amount of
nitrogen in relation to carbon. The addition
Source: ECOSAN programme GTZ
Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine 15
Figure 7: Figure 8:
Historical examples of urine diversion. The Urine diversion: to the left a prefabricated
one from China (left) is emptied every day: squatting pan, to the right a bench-type
urine is used directly as liquid fertilizer and seat riser, built of wood and with a standard
faeces placed in a compost pile together plastic funnel as urine collector
with animal manure. In the example (right)
urine is evaporated and faeces dehydrated
and reused as fuel
Figure 9:
Alternative ways of handling urine diverted from faeces: used directly, disposed of in an
evapo-transpiration bed, stored in a tank for later use or evaporated
Fly breeding in toilets is basically related chamber for faeces; half-yearly emptying
to the wetness of the contents of the of the processing chamber, secondary
processing vault. In a properly functioning processing of chamber content; and the end
dehydration system there would be no fly use of the sanitized material. With proper
breeding, but if something goes wrong motivation and instruction this management
and the contents turn wet, fly breeding by the household can work well.
might occur. The risk of fly breeding is
greater in a composting system for two The advantage of this approach is that
reasons: it works with a much higher the user gets a direct feedback and can
process moisture content and fly eggs gradually improve his/her operation: take
may be introduced into the processing greater care in not allowing urine and water
vault with kitchen scraps. When a properly into the processing chamber, increase the
selected and well built eco-toilet fails, the amount of ash/lime, etc.
most common fault is that the process
has turned wet. In a system based on Problems tend to occur when new tenants/
dehydration the moisture content of the owners are taking over. As eco-toilets are
contents of the processing vault should still relatively unfamiliar the risk is that the
quickly be reduced to less than 25% newcomers do not understand how to use
through the addition of dry additives and them. And without instruction they would
ventilation in some cases helped by not know why and how to empty urine tank
the addition of a solar heating device. In and processing chamber, or about the need
a system based on decomposition the for secondary processing, etc.
corresponding moisture content should
ideally be between 50% and 60%. If this is 3.6 Technical options
achieved and fresh faeces are covered with
an absorbent, there is no smell, no fly- Solar heaters
breeding and rapid pathogen destruction. Solar heaters can be fitted to the processing
chambers of the toilet to increase
evaporation. This is more important in
3.5 Household management: humid climates and where urine and water
removal and treatment are mixed with the faeces. It is also more
important in a system based on dehydration
Probably the most unfamiliar aspect of than in one based on decomposition.
ecological sanitation options is that they
may require some handling of processed The main purpose of the solar heater is to
or partly processed human excreta at the increase evaporation from the material in
household level. In most existing ECOSAN the processing chamber. It is also likely to
projects this has been necessary because slightly increase the temperature of the pile
the projects were small and scattered. Each in the chamber and there are indications
household therefore had to manage the that pathogen destruction is faster in solar
total system: daily care of the eco-toilet; heated than in non-solar heated chambers.
weekly/monthly emptying of the storage The increase in pile temperature is, however,
tank for urine; recycling of urine in the unlikely to be high enough for high-
garden; monitoring the primary processing temperature composting.
Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine 19
The solar heaters used in some of the eco- second vault is nearly full. The assumption
toilets described in the previous chapter is that after a specified period (612 months
consist of a black-painted metal (aluminium) depending on climate) without new faecal
sheet covering the part of the processing material added, the contents of the dormant
chamber exposed to the sun. This metal vault should be safe to handle. A single
sheet may also acts as an access lid to the vault toilet with two or more moveable
processing chamber (see Figure 13). containers would offer the same advantage.
For ECOSAN systems with communal
The solar heater must be fitted so that it management moveable containers probably
prevents water and flies from entering the offer a more rational solution than fixed
processing chamber(s). It should be tight vaults or processing chambers.
enough to prevent air leakage.
Ventilation: Ventilation serves several
Single or double vault purposes: it removes odours, it dries out
Most eco-toilets built so far have two vaults, the contents and, in composting toilets,
each with its own seat riser or squatting slab provides oxygen for the decomposition
or with a movable device. The advantage process. A vent pipe is not always
with the double-vault design is that each necessary. The need for a vent pipe is
vault is used alternately for a certain period. determined by climate, wetness of the input
When the first vault is full it is left dormant into the processing chamber and standard
and the second vault is used. The contents desired. (With a well-functioning vent pipe
of the dormant vault are emptied when the from the processing chamber, the toilet/
20 Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine
is much, much less than when urine S They are not designed for composting to
and faeces are mixed together (as in a take place in faeces chamber
pit latrine). Therefore, a dry toilet with S High temperature in the chamber,
UD can even be placed indoors without together with sufficient ventilation is the
causing odour problems. most important mechanisms in the drying
process.
S To avoid production of wet, odorous S For the faeces, straight drop or chute is
faecal sludge: Which has to be removed provided to a collection chamber (vault)
by someone when the poit latrine is below the toilet and are dried.
full. Faeces collected dry, separately S A vent pipe is provided to ventilate faeces
from urine and water, are hardly chamber, reduces odour from the room
offensive, especially after an extended due to air currents (which flow towards
drying period in a faeces vault); this the vent pipe out of the chamber), and to
is particularly relevant for hilly or speed up the drying (digesting) process.
crowded areas with difficult access for S Moisture content below 25% facilitates
vacuum trucks to pit latrines. rapid pathogen destruction.
S No flush water is used at all. They use
S To reduce water consumption: in the case simple system to drain off the urine to a
where UD devices are of the waterless storage container
type or of the water saving type. S Absorbents, like lime, ash, or dry soil
S To be able to collect urine pure so should be added after each defecation to:
that it can, after sanitization by S Absorb excess moisture, make the pile
storage, be safely used as fertilizer less compact and make it less unsightly
in agriculture. This is particularly for the next user
important for small scale farmers of S Reduce flies and eliminate bad odours.
developing countries who cannot S Increase pH, and hence enhance
afford costly artificial fertilizers. bacterial pathogen die-off.
S Breakdown of organic material (e.g. toilet
Technical components paper) in UDD toilet is very slow in the
S Waterless urinals chamber
S Urine diversion toilet S Once the chamber is almost full, the
S Urine piping to a storage tank content need to be removed, further
S Reuse system for urine stored, used as a soil conditioner, buried
or composted either in home or in local
3.9.2 UD Dehydration (Dry ECOSAN) centre.
latrines: S The product from UDD toilet is not
compost but rich in carbon and fibrous
Principles material, phosphorous and potassium.
S The faeces / excreta are collected in a S Nutrients will be available to plants
dry state in a chamber below the toilet director or after further decomposition of
(or squatting hole) and excreta in-side the dehydrated materials.
the processing vault are dried with the S A third hole and conveyance pipe is used
help of sun, natural evaporation and to collect the anal wash water separately
ventilation. from urine and faeces. This should not
Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine 25
be mixed with urine to keep pathogen this type of toilet is not readily available in
levels in urine to a minimum, if urine is the market and most Nepalese are used to
to be used as a fertilizer squatting pans, this type of ECOSAN is not
S Dehydration toilets are increasingly very popular.
popular in the developing world and can
be successfully used in various climatic a. Double vault
conditions and are most advantageous S Designed to operate in batches;
in arid climates where water is scarce S Collection and storage of faeces is done
and faeces can be effectively dried. in twin pit compartments which are used
alternately;
The most common type of dry (UDD) S After each use a handful of cover
ECOSAN latrine in Nepal is based on the material (wood ash, saw dust, soil, etc.)
Vietnamese model. However, several is sprinkled over the faeces to absorb
variations have been made to suit local moisture and help in speeding up the
conditions and requirement of users. The dehydration process;
following types of dry ECOSAN latrines can S When full, the respective compartment
be adopted as they are widely used in Nepal: is sealed off while the other compartment
is put in use;
Dry ECOSAN with squatting pan: This type S Storage time is counted from the date of
of latrine has a single pan or double pan. the last faecal matter contribution to a
The double pan version which has two compartment and should be at least one
vaults is the most common type and is year;
usually constructed outdoors. The single S Urine and anal cleansing water diversion
pan version is more suitable for indoor is recommended for practical reasons;
conditions or where space is a constraint.
Summary
Dry ECOSAN with commode: This ECOSAN S Reuse: Reuse of urine and compost
is similar to the single pan dry ECOSAN, possible;
except a special type of commode that has S Social acceptance: Proper training on
separate outlets for urine and faeces is how to use the toilet and how to maintain
used instead of a squatting pan. This type it has to be done; Social acceptance
of ECOSAN is more common in western difficult in cultures where handling of
countries. As the commode required for human wastes is a taboo;
26 Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine
S Water saving: No water used for S Urine and anal cleansing water diversion
flushing; is equally important for Single-Vault
S Suitability for Difficult Ground UDD-Toilets as for dehydration toilets
Condition: Especially appropriate for providing twin compartments;
water scarce areas (no flush required)
as well as for rocky, flood-prone and Summary
high-groundwater table areas (whole S Reuse: Reuse of urine and compost
construction above ground and water possible;
tight). S Water saving: No water used for
S Affordability: Higher investment costs flushing;
compared to conventional pit latrines S Social acceptance: Proper training
but revenue from fertilizer value of on how to use the toilet and how to
urine and compost; maintain it has to be done; Social
acceptance difficult in cultures where
b. Single vault handling of human wastes is a taboo;
S Single-Vault UDD-Toilets, unlike S Suitability for difficult ground condition:
Double-Vault UDD-Toilets, provide Especially appropriate for water scarce
only one collection compartment for areas (no flush required) as well as for
collection and/or containment of rocky, flood-prone and high-groundwater
faeces; table areas (whole construction above
S Building costs of a single vault device ground and water tight).
is less than of a double-vault; S Affordability: Less expensive than
S Secondary storage or other types of Double-Vault UDDs, but secondary
treatment (e.g. co-composting, etc.) storage or other types of treatment (e.g.
must be planned for; co-composting, etc.) must be planned for;
Figure 15:
Single Vault dehydration latrine in El Salvador: the pile of faeces is regularly shifted to the rear
of the chamber for drying.
Precautions
S Sufficient users commitment to OandM
is required
S Careful cleaning of Dehydration toilet
seat or squatting pan is regularly
required to avoid entry of water into vault
Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine 29
Basic concept
S Use natural processes
to produce compost
from faeces (and co-
substrates);
S Basic principle is the
biological degradation
of excreta and toilet
paper in a specially
designed containers
and enhance the
process by the
use of additives
and adsorbents
like carboniferous
materials (such as
sawdust, straw, hay,
shredded paper, kitchen
waste, etc.) thus balancing
carbon-nitrogen ratio;
S Cleansing water (if used) can be its original volume. That is 70 90%
discharged into the composting volume reduction means 550 litres
compartment (if excess liquid is down to 55 litres;
drained away); S No system above 430C and there is risk
S Requires addition of bulking material of handling digested faeces;
(for composting toilets) and absorbing S To avoid Nitrogen Loss, this technique
material (for dry toilets); requires daily care and maintenance;
S Earthworms may be added to process
organics; Applicability of composting toilets (CTs)
S Operation may be either batch-wise or S Composting toilet eliminates the need
continuous-flow mode; for flushing water and hence no water
S Urine is usually collected separately supply is necessary
or in some types of composting toilets S With proper management, CT is easy
collect and treated together with to use and to maintain and the final
faeces; product is a high quality compost soil
S Basic Difference with UD Dehydration conditioner for garden or agriculture
toilet is the moisture content of faeces S It thus allows for recycling of valuable
within the vault (50% in CT compared plant nutrients via compost products
to 25% in UDDT); S CTs are sealed system that exclude
S Removes: 90% of N, 60 90% of P and any infiltration of contaminated liquids
40 - 60% of BOD; into groundwater or other harmful
S Toilet waste is reduced to 10 30% of emissions into the environment
32 Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine
Composting toilets
S The nutrients in products from CT are same with basic two elements in any
more readily available to plants than composting toilet:
from dehydration toilet S Place to sit
S CTs can be built above GL as S Composting chamber
permanent structure without requiring S Ventilation system is highly
deep digging of pit and periodical recommended in order to stimulate
replacement of pits when full as in case aeration and prevent odour
of VIP/Pit latrines S Composting toilets can be designed
S CT requires higher costs compared either with or without urine diversion.
to UDD toilet in terms of excreta S Without urine diversion composting
management toilet needs more bulking agent to
S CTs are most suitable in terms of significantly lower moisture level and
OandM even if CTs require more care increase C:N ratio to attain optimum
than UDD toilet in case of low tech treatment conditions
systems S Low tech High tech
S Single Vault (continuous) or multiple
Available technologies (batch)
S Although there are many different S On-site or off-site composting
composting toilets with different S Self-constructed or commercially
designs, the basic concept is the produced/procured
Implementation and
construction
a. Awareness raising
ECOSAN systems have the overriding aim of improving public health
and hygiene. However, the basic premise of ECOSAN, of closing the
nutrient loop between sanitation and agriculture, means that designers
of ECOSAN systems must consider a much wider range of factors than
those of conventional systems. This also leads to the consideration of
soil conservation, increased long-term food security, and the sustainable
use of resources (in the form of nutrients, organics, water and energy).
As ECOSAN aims to solve sanitation problems and ensure reuse at the
lowest possible level, promoters of these systems also have to consider
the active engagement of the local private sector, contributing to job
creation and poverty reduction.
Promotion to the public might involve 4. Household members must know how
meeting with smaller political units within to operate and maintain the ECOSAN
the area to seek their feedback on the devices in their homes.
proposal and to determine what further
information campaigns will be required for 4.1.2. Socio-cultural aspects of ECOSAN
the public in general. Ecological sanitation In recent years, there has been a growing
systems if they are to be managed less by realization that access to sanitation does
households, then the Households need to not increase unless there is demand
know how their new system works, how to from the user, and as most expenditure
use the ECOSAN devices properly and how for sanitation is at the household level,
much they need to pay. where promotional efforts are most
needed here. Previous attempts to market
A public education campaign needs to sanitation have relied on the promotion
be designed and implemented before of the health benefits that sanitation and
construction begins. Demonstration units hygienic behaviour can bring. Whilst this
should be built within neighbourhoods so is clearly the most important reason for
that households can see what is coming. promoting sanitation and hygiene from
All sorts of civil institutions could be an institutional point of view, it often
targeted such as mens and womens proves to be much less of a motivating
organisations, schools and religious factor for spending money on sanitation
institutions. Radio, television, newspapers at the individual or household level.
and magazines can be used extensively to When households contemplate a shift,
publicize the message. other factors may prove to be a greater
motivation. Research by the World Bank
Large-scale ECOSAN systems, however, Water and Sanitation Programme has
require training at various levels: identified several other factors that serve
1. Key local authorities and the people to motivate even very poor households
must be properly trained in the to invest in sanitation (Cairncross 2004).
principles, technical solutions, These include:
comparative advantages and S Convenience and comfort
limitations of ECOSAN systems and S Privacy and safety
may also need training in community S For women and girls, avoidance of
empowerment methods. sexual harassment and assault
2. While constructing the ECOSAN Toilets, S Less embarrassment with visitors
the builders need to understand the S Dignity and social status
basic principles of ECOSAN in addition
to practical training in ECOSAN specific Many sanitation projects have failed due to
construction and installation. a poor consideration of the socio-cultural
3. The person responsible for collection, sustainability of the system. Generally
transport and secondary treatment projects have to realize that:
must have a good understanding of S Defecation is a highly private and
sanitation-related public health, ECOSAN intimate topic and related habits may
principles and practical issues related to largely differ between regions and
ECOSAN operation and maintenance. cultures
36 Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine
S In some cultures handling of excreta is Summarizing the above we can say that
subject of strong taboos and may be no technical sanitation solution can be
related to aspects of human dignity successful unless it complies with the
S Knowledge and perception of the attitudes, norms and the cultural context.
reuse of excreta largely varies between Social acceptance is, therefore, a major
cultures and regions pre-requisite for promoting ECOSAN
S Sanitation practices differ (wet versus dry which represents a very different way
hygiene, squatting versus sitting, etc.) of managing excreta for many people.
In many societies, handling human
Problems to be addressed by projects excreta is considered to be a cultural
for socio-cultural sustainable sanitation taboo and this can be a major barrier
systems include: for promoting ECOSAN. Furthermore,
S Household motivations to invest in as flush toilets are generally associated
sanitation with a modern lifestyle, most people
S Household expectations from the system may be hesitant towards collecting and
S Lack of awareness of hygienic risks and recycling human excreta. Therefore, any
practices programme designed to promote ECOSAN
S Traditional practices which may be wise in a community should include a strong
or may pose severe hygienic risks component on public awareness and
S The need to modify existing practices community mobilization.
as a result of increasing urbanization in
recent years The term cultural covers a large
spectrum ranging from contemporary
All these socio-cultural aspects have a habits and perceptions over historical
large impact on the required design of heritage, religious norms, and the often
sanitation systems, their operation, and unpronounceable feelings of the
the possible reuse of products from waste population. It is obvious that research
water and excreta. Therefore research is on these viewpoints is still needed, both
required in order to take into consideration in general terms to allow methodologies
these aspects during the preparation, to assess this to be developed, and in
implementation and operation of the case specific studies, as each project
sanitation systems. and region has its own individual
particularities, and not taking them into
Although social norms may at first account may provide a false picture
complicate the introduction of innovative and lead to project failure. To allow an
sanitation systems, research should informed choice the decision should
concentrate on the flexibility of these be based on a broad pre-selection of
systems, and determine in what way sanitation alternatives.
ECOSAN systems could most acceptably
be introduced to society - for example after 4.1.2.1. Social Marketing:
seeing the benefits through pilot/demo Social marketing techniques are currently
systems. Social acceptance is not just a seen as an extremely useful tool in
simple yes or no, but a flexible parameter promoting sanitation amongst private
that changes with time. households. They involve the application
Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine 37
The household is the basic unit of sanitation corresponding costs for conventional on-site
planning, but even within the household, sanitation systems. In principle and in most
there are deep differences between cases, during the early pilot project phase,
children, women and men in terms of the organisation funding an ECOSAN project
behaviour, preferences, power, access to may need to pay the entire cost of holding
resources, time spent at home, information, workshops and courses, and building
and skills (Khyber 1994). demonstration toilets, greywater systems
and eco-stations. But once the project has
Addressing gender issues in sanitation been initiated and the local work teams
means to have a closer look at social have been set up along with national and
relationships to see the different roles of international experts, the scale-up costs
community members and the complicated need to be covered by the local authorities
structure between women and men, girls and and the users/beneficiaries.
boys with regard to decision making, choice
and manner of use of technology, hygiene, ECOSAN systems are usually cheaper
food security, financial security, crop than flush toilet systems built to the same
production and health issues. Participation standards of quality. Experience from
does not mean merely inviting the men from rural sanitation programmes around the
all types of households to come to a meeting world indicates that subsidies are often
and vote on toilet designs, it requires an impediment to progress in getting
deliberate and skilled facilitation to elicit this sanitation coverage. Either all households
same information from women, servants, and should be subsidized or none should
the social or ethnic classes who are given be. Subsidies frequently indicate that
the dirty work in any particular society. households cannot afford to build the type
The people charged with the dirty work have of toilet that has been selected (without
critical knowledge about the workings of the community involvement) by authorities
system, but they are frequently ignored as from outside the community. This approach
key stakeholders. in practice, sanitation programmes
involving free or highly subsidized
4.1.4. Financial aspects demonstration models, are likely to fail
The introduction of ECOSAN systems is in the long run when false expectations
bound to lower the total costs of urban have been raised regarding the cost of the
sanitation. Conventional sewers, treatment system. Successful sanitation relies on
plants and sludge disposal arrangements will sound finances. In principle, households
cost several times as much as an ECOSAN should fully repay investment and
system. ECOSAN systems require much operational and maintenance costs to
less investment as they need no water for ensure the sustainability of the system.
flushing, no pipelines for the transport Furthermore, an ECOSAN system will
of sewage, and no treatment plants and generate economic (and ecological) value of
arrangements for the disposal of toxic sludge. the fertilizers produced could be significant.
However, ECOSAN systems will involve ECOSAN offers a variety of options costing
costs for information, training, monitoring different amounts of money. Families
and follow-up that are greater than should be able to select an option that they
Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine 39
can afford. Costs can be influenced by the and discussed with potential consumers.
type of toilet system, choice of building Both willingness and capacity to pay
materials, financing arrangements, as well can be surprisingly elastic, depending
as whether paid labour or self-help owner on what options are being offered,
constructed. at what immediate and longer term
costs, and how clearly this information
4.1.4.1. Willingness to Pay and Degree of is communicated to and discussed
Participation in OandM System with women and men from wealthier,
When adopting a demand responsive intermediate, and poor groups, who
approach to sanitary provision on are all potential consumers of services.
the basis of a freedom of choice and Gender-sensitive methods play an
willingness to pay, the questions such as important role in assessing the overall
whose demand? and whose willingness demand for services.
to pay? etc. may have to be answered to
address equity concerns. In establishing demand, it is necessary
and essential to investigate and control
Payment in this case may include all for incentives in the potential users
forms in which the users may contribute, environment which may distort their
i.e., in cash, in kind, and with time willingness or capacity to pay. For
and energy for obtaining, operating, example, if people believe that services
maintaining, and managing services. might be provided free of charge, they
Also inherent in this definition is the may have an incentive to say that they
understanding that choice means a lot are too poor to pay. In such cases it
more than technology or cost options. It may not be possible to get an accurate
can also mean who participates in which assessment of demand until the initial
choices, i.e., which groups within the stages of project implementation
communities and households make which are under way. At this time potential
of the several key decisions, such as: consumers can begin to see the real
S initiation of the projects; terms under which the services are finally
S the type of technologies and service being provided.
levels;
S the location of the facilities; Demands and meeting demands
S the local management, maintenance, are not static issues. Continued
and financing systems; and maintenance and use of services and
S the candidates for training. user payments depend on how well the
improved facilities continue to match
The capacity to pay can be verified the expectations and resources of the
through the process of facilitating for different groups. Users also continually
an informed choice. This is an essential compare how benefits relate to the costs
requirement of the demand-responsive of obtaining them. A close monitoring
approach. It is not possible to assess and documentation of these processes in
willingness to pay with any accuracy designing and implementing the projects
in the absence of choices and full will provide valuable lessons for further
information about choices being offered implementation of ECOSAN systems.
40 Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine
is lighter and looks more attractive. prevent the loss of nutrient in the urine.
The fibre glass pans for wet and dry In the container, the urine pipe should
ECOSAN are currently made by a be dipped in the urine up to one fourth
manufacturer in Kathmandu. the container height in order to avoid
v. Combined type pan: In this type of splashing of urine and odour problems.
pan, there are two holes for faeces and
one hole for urine. This type of pans is f. Faeces emptying door
made of cement as well as PVC. Each faeces vault should have an opening
for emptying the vault. The size of opening
b. Pan cover should not be less than 30 cm in length
Pan cover is used in a dry ECOSAN to and breadth. Concrete slab, slate, wooden
cover the hole in the pan leading to the planks, or transparent PVC sheet can be
vault to prevent fly breeding and avoid used for shutting the opening.
water getting into the vault. It also helps
in controlling odour from vault. The lids 4.2.2. Types of ECOSAN latrines
may be made of cement, metal, PVC and
plastic. A small hook can be used to open Dehydration (Dry) ECOSAN latrines:
and close the lid. a. Double vault ECOSAN: This latrine
has two vaults each having capacity
c. Faeces collection tank (vault/chamber) of 0.3 m3, above the ground level for
The faeces collection tank or vault is faeces collection. Each vault has a
designed for a HH size of 6. It is generally length of 3 feet 4 inches, width of 2
constructed above the ground. There may feet and height of 2 feet, and each has
be one or two vaults in a dry ECOSAN. In a an opening of 12x12 inches in the back
single vault ECOSAN, a plastic container is side for emptying the faeces. In this
placed inside the vault to collect faeces. type of ECOSAN, one vault is used for
a period of approximately six months.
d. Vent pipe Once it is filled, the second one is used,
The vent pipe is made of polythene or PVC while the first one is left untouched for
and has a diameter of 75mm with cowl on dehydration. Once the second vault is
top. It is provided for air circulation inside also filled, the first vault is emptied and
the faeces chamber in order to reduce reused. The contents of the first vault is
odours inside the latrine. The vent pipe
should rise above the roof level of latrine.
There is a low health risk for those Typically, there are two pits made of
whom have to empty or change the urine concrete rings for collecting the faeces
container. Faeces that have been dried for and wastewater and the capacity of
over one year also pose a low health risk. a single pit is designed for 2 years.
As in dry ECOSAN the pits are used
Upgrading There is a risk however when alternatively. Urine is collected in
using single vaults, that the top portion a container fixed outside of latrine.
of the faeces will not be fully dried Currently, this type of latrine is being
and/or hygienic. Single vaults are not promoted in the Terai area of Nepal
recommended (because of the need to where water availability is not a major
handle fresh faeces) and should, whenever problem.
possible be upgraded to a double vault.
b. Biogas attached latrine: The biogas
Maintenance To prevent flies, minimize attached latrine recycles human
odours and encourage drying, a small excreta, along with other types of
amount of ash, soil, or lime should be used waste such as cattle dung, to produce
to cover faeces after each use. Care should biogas, which can be used for cooking
be taken to ensure that no water or urine and lighting and slurry that can be
gets into the Dehydration Vault. If this used for composting. Currently there
happens, extra soil, ash, lime, or sawdust are about 100,000 latrine attached
can be added to help absorb the liquid. biogas plants in Nepal. Almost all
of these are fixed dome type plants
Because the faeces are not actually with capacities of 4, 6, 8 or 10 m3. The
degraded (just dried), dry cleansing ordinary biogas attached latrine can
materials must not be added to the be slightly modified by replacing the
Dehydration Vaults as they will not pan in the latrine with a urine diverting
decompose. Occasionally, the mounded ECOSAN pan to collect urine separately
faeces beneath the toilet hole should be and send only the faeces along with the
pushed to the sides of the pit for an even flush water and anal cleaning water to
drying. the biogas digester.
Where water is used for cleansing, an 4.2.3. Construction details and other
appropriate User Interface should be important information
installed to divert and collect it separately. A list of suitable building materials is given
To empty the vaults, a shovel, gloves and below:
possibly a face mask (cloth) should be S processing compartments: natural
used to limit contact with the dried faeces. stone masonry, bricks, cement concrete
solid blocks, cement concrete hollow
Urine diversion wet (twin pit pour flush) blocks, solid blocks made from locally
latrines: availabe rock (e.g. Laterite, etc.), etc.
a. Urine diverting double pit latrine: S removeable cover: steel sheets, FRP
This type of latrine is similar to a pour sheets, cement concrete slabs, etc.
flush double pit latrine, except it has S squatting slab: reinforced cement
a separate system for collecting urine. concrete, etc.
46 Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine
2. Water enters into the faeces chamber during toilet cleaning: In the
dry ECOSAN, the faeces vault needs to be kept as dry as possible to
assist in the dehydration of the faeces and accelerate the die-off rate
of pathogens in the faeces. However sometimes, water may enter the
vault through the pan, through the vault opening or seepage from the
walls or ground. The following measures should be taken to prevent
water entering the vault:
S The pan should be raised slightly (about 1cm) above the floor
S Special care needs to be taken while cleaning the toilet to avoid
water from getting in the vault
S Users, especially guests, should be instructed not to put water in
the vault
S The vault opening should be tightly closed
S If water does get into the faeces vault, some more ash or other dry
materials should be put in the vault to assist in the absorption of
the water.
4. Urine collection pipe gets blocked: If S Excavation of dried faeces is easier than
inadequate slope is provided to urine faecal sludge
collection pipe, there is a chance of S No real problems with flies or odours if
urine getting crystallized blocking the used correctly
flow of urine. To prevent this problem, S Does not require a constant source of
pipe should be placed with proper slope water
and during casting of slab care should S Suitable for all types of user (sitters,
be taken that the pipe does not move. squatters, washers and wipers)
S Low (but variable) capital costs
depending on materials; no/low
5.2 Potential problems and operating costs
constraints S Small land area required
S Requires education and acceptance to be
S Can be built and repaired with locally used correctly
available materials S Requires constant source of ash, sand or
S Because double pits are used lime
alternately, their life is virtually S Requires a use/discharge point for urine
unlimited and faeces
S Good in rocky and/or flooded areas S Urine and faeces require manual removal
Del Porto D and Steinfeld C (1997) The Composting Toilet System Book.
Concord, Mass.: Center for Ecological Pollution Prevention
Annex: 2a
Comparison of cost between ECOSAN
and other latrines
S.N. Description Toilet Twin pit Single Flush toilet Flush ECOSAN Remarks
with sulabh pit with modern toilet with toilet
septic sulabh treatment reed bed
tank facilities treatment
facilities
Individual
1 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 16,000
Toilet Cost
Septic Tank
2 and Soakage 12,000 6,000 3,000
Pit
@ 2000 per
capita assum-
3 Sewer Line 12,000 12,000
ing average
HH size is 6
@500 per
Treatment
4 3,000 capita exclud-
Plant cost
ing land cost
RBT Treat- @11000 per
5 ment 11,000 family exclud-
plant cost ing land cost
@ 50/capita/
Operation
year in modern
Cost (Basi-
6 600 200 300 300 60 200 treatment and
cally for de-
10/capita/year
sludging)
for RBT
@1% mainte-
Maintenance nance cost for
8 186 140 100 250 300 185
cost all types of
facilities
Extracted
Monetary
from financial
9 value of Urine No Low Low No Low 2,100
analysis of
and Faeces
ECOSAN Toilet
*[= (sum of 1
Total 18,786 12,340 9,400 21,550 29,360 14,285*
to 8) (9)]
Fertilizer
10 No Low Low No Low High Note: All the
Value
amount is
Water Re-
11 High Medium Medium High High Low expressed in
quirements
Nepalese cur-
Risk of GW
12 Medium High High No No No rency
Pollution
Source: Assessment of ECOSAN Latrines in Nepal, WaterAid and ENPHO, 2006
60 Technical handbook - Construction of ecological sanitation latrine
Annex: 2b
Materials for double vault dry
ECOSAN latrine up to pan level
www.nepal.wateraid.org