Julie Ann C.

Bajado
2013-43340
CE 111 Finals Exam
May 24, 2017

Problem 1

a) Determine the available active storage of the reservoir.

The necessary data for calculation of the active storage are the following:
1. Stream flow data for a sufficiently long period at the site;
2. Evaporation losses from the water-spread area of the reservoir and seepage losses and
recharge into the reservoir when the reservoir is depleting;
3. The contemplated irrigation and water supply demand, and
4. Storage capacity curve at the site.

Assuming that all these necessary data have already been determined, a procedure called the
Mass Curve Technique is used to compute the required active storage. An example of a mass
curve is shown below.

Given the monthly data flow, the cumulative flow is obtained by successively adding the
monthly flow. The cumulative flow is then plotted against time to develop the mass curve.
The beginning of low flow periods and high-flow periods are determined from the graph.
Points A1, A2, A3, and A4 are the start of low-flow periods as evidenced by the relatively
flat slope after the points. B1, B2, B3, and B4 are the start of high-flow periods. Given the
required discharge of the reservoir, a line representing the flow is drawn and placed tangent
to each of the beginning of low flows. Then the locations in each low-flow period with the

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 largest vertical distance between the mass curves at B1, B2, B3, and B4 are identified. The
largest vertical distance is then taken as the required active storage of the reservoir.

Other methods used in determining the active storage are the flow duration curve and the
sequent peak analysis. Flow duration curves are the most commonly used as this is just a
graph of the discharge as a function of the percent of time that the flow is exceeded. The
procedure for FDC involves arranging the data in descending order, and the percentage for
each flow magnitude is computed. The active storage is the flow that is equaled or exceeded
100% of the time

Sequent peak analysis is used when synthetic data are analyzed. The general procedure is that
values of cumulative sum of inflow minus outflow are calculated. The peaks are identified
and the required storage is taken to be the difference between the initial peak and the lowest
trough in the interval.

b) Determine the dead storage in the reservoir.

The computation of the dead storage would be based on the sediment yield of the
catchment. Measurement of sediment yield can be done by (1) Sedimentation surveys of
reservoirs with similar catchment characteristics, or (2) Sediment load measurements of the
stream.
Reservoir Sedimentation Survey
It must be first established that the reservoir to be surveyed has similar characteristics with
the project. These parameters must be compared: slope of the valley, length of the reservoir,
constriction in the reservoir, and capacity-inflow ratio. Accumulation of sediment in the area
is measured for a certain period. This is done by echo sounders. The volume of accumulated
sediment is measured as the difference between the present reservoir capacity and the initial
capacity. The unit weights of the sediments are determined from laboratory tests, and the
total sediment yield is equal to the total weight deposited in the reservoir and the sediment
which escaped the reservoir by using the trap efficiency.
Sediment Load Measurements
Samples are taken from the stream at various discharges. Along with sampling, gauge
observations are done and the concentration of the suspended sediments is measured. From
the gathered data, a sediment rating curve, a plot of sediment concentration against
discharge, can be produced.

c) Determine the total inundated area of the reservoir at full capacity. The inundated
area will be used to estimate the number of trees that will be drowned and the extent
of environmental impact upstream.
The total capacity of the reservoir must be calculated first, this includes the dead storage, the
active storage, surcharge storage, and flood storage. Using the topographic map provided by
the geodetic engineer, the area-elevation curve and the elevation-storage curves are made.
The area-elevation curve is made by planimetring the area enclosed within each contour

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 within the reservoir site. The elevation-storage curve is simply the integral of the area-
elevation curve. The following diagram is an example of an area-elevation curve and storage-
elevation curve.

d) The total height of the dam considering allowable freeboard. This will be used to
determine the size of the dam which will be used in the design phase of the project.
Also, the reservoir is designed to store floodwater to reduce the peak flow
downstream of the reservoir.
The height of the dam depends on the required dead storage and the volume for the active
storage. The height of the dam must be sufficient to store the required water to be supplied.
Aside from this two factors, additional height to the dam are provided for wind-set up and
wave action in the reservoir.
First, the wind set-up is calculated using the equation:
6
2
= 2.025 10

Where, V is the wind velocity in ft/s or m/s, F is the basin length, and D is the water depth.
The additional height for wind waves, the significant wave height is computed using this
equation,
= 0.0341.06 0.47
The equation can be used, but for practicality, a graph is provided where the significant wave
height is a function of the fetch distance, wind velocity, and minimum time duration.

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 The wave period (T) is calculated to determine the wave length (Lo).

Based on the ratio of H and L, and the slope of the embankment, the relative run-up R/Ho
is obtained from the graph above. The run-up R is subsequently obtained by multiplying the
previous value with Ho.

Thus for the total freeboard, the wind set-up and wave run-up are computed, and an
additional height is provided for settlement of the foundation and the fill material.

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 e) The expected life of the reservoir considering sedimentation.
The ultimate fate of a reservoir is to be filled with sediment. Sedimentation is the number
one factor which dictates the life of the reservoir, thus mitigation measures must be installed
in order to lengthen the service life of a reservoir. Before the engineer can decide on
mitigation measures to lengthen the life of the reservoir, the rate of sedimentation must be
obtained. The rate of sediment accumulation is determined through surveys of existing
reservoirs. The following parameters are determined:
Specific weight of the settled sediments
Percentage of entering sediment that is deposited in the reservoir

Data gathered from reservoirs of similar size and physical environment must be obtained
and used with the estimation of sedimentation rates for the current reservoir project. For the
determination of specific weight of deposited sediments, there is a study conducted by the
US Army Corps of Engineers which lists the typical values specific weight (W) of sands, silts,
and clays. The constant B is related to the compaction characteristics of the soil. These
values are a function of the type of operation of the reservoir. The table is shown below.

After W and B are obtained, the specific weight of the sediments can be computed using the
following equation.

% % %
= (1 + 1 ) + (2 + 2 ) + (3 + 3 )
100 100 100
Where W is the dry specific weight, T is the age of deposit in years. The percent of sand, silt,
and clay is determined by conducting sieve analysis of the sediment sample. The volume
occupied by the sediment can then be computed from the calculated specific weight.

Another important parameter in sedimentation is the trap efficiency of the reservoir. Trap
efficiency is the percentage of annual sediment retained in a reservoir. This parameter is a
function of the capacity-inflow ratio. The graph below is used to determine the trap
efficiency.

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 The life of a reservoir terminates when 80% of its initial capacity has already been filled with
sediment. With data provided regarding the average annual inflow and the average annual
sediment inflow, the specific weight of the sediments, and the trap efficiency, the length of
time for which the reservoir can serve its intended purpose can be estimated.

Problem 2

a) What are the criteria for the design of the embankment dam?
The important criteria when designing for embankment dams are the following: static
stability of the dam, seepage and leakage through the embankments, and hydrologic and
seismic design loadings.
The stability of the dam is highly dependent on the driving forces provided by gravity, the
strength properties of the embankment and foundation materials, as well as the pore-water
pressure within those materials. To ensure the safety of the dam, the embankment,
foundation, and abutments must not develop excessive deformation under all loading
conditions. This means that the (1) foundation pressures must be within the strength of
the foundation material. Present practice in designing for the stability of an embankment
dam comes from the slope and design characteristics of existing successful dams. The
quantity and quality of materials for the foundation and the fill must be taken into account.
(2) Seepage and leakage through a dam must be controlled in order to eliminate the
risk of dam failure. Seepage or leakage may lead to excessive uplift pressures in the
foundation which may result to toppling of the dam, thus (3) uplift pressures must be
minimized. Other problems brought by seepage are internal erosion and piping, removal of
material, and erosion of the material. Reservoirs must be designed to withstand earthquake
loading without the catastrophic release of water. The (4) slope of the dam must be kept

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 stable at all times by choosing the proper design of the slope. Another criterion is that (5)
sufficient spillway capacity and freeboard must be provided to prevent overtopping.
Lastly, the (6) faces of the dam must be adequately protected from all destructive forces.

b) What are the typical modes of failure in an embankment dam?

There are three types of embankment dam failure: hydraulic failure, seepage failure, and
lastly, structural failure.
Hydraulic Failure
This type of failure is related to uncontrolled flow of water and may cause the erosion on the
embankment slopes. First is overtopping failure, this occurs when there is flow above the
crest of the embankment. Various causes such as insufficient freeboard and inadequate
spillway design make the dam vulnerable to erosion due to overflow. Secondly, the
embankment may be eroded by waves. When the material used cannot sustain the velocity of
incoming waves, it may lead to washing out of dam material or overturning. Lastly, the dam
may fail due to surface erosion of the downstream and upstream slope. This type of failure is
associated with heavy intensity of rainfall which leads to erosion thus forming gullies along
the slope.
Seepage Failure
The first is seepage through the fill. The water seeps through a weak portion of the upstream
face of the dam and pipes through the embankment. Then water will start to erode the fill
carrying it downstream. This ultimately leads to a breach in the embankment. Solutions to
possible seepage are the installation of filters throughout the dam which allows water to
drain but not soil material. The second type of failure is seepage through the foundation.
When water seeps to the foundation, it erodes the soil material leading to collapse of the
ground and unwanted settlement of the dam. The water induces also excessive uplift
pressure which may lead to toppling. Erosion is not only limited to the upstream face,
erosion at the toe may also occur. This is caused by misdirected spillway outlet discharge.
Seepage in the downstream part of the dam may also lead to sloughing, which is the repeated
wetting and sliding of the downstream face leading to failure.
Structural Failure
Structural failure involves the rupture of the embankment material or the foundation, as
evidenced by slides or displacement in material. Sloughs, bulges, cracks or other irregularities
in the embankment or dike generally are signs of serious instability and may indicate
structural failure. These are caused by several factors. First is pore-water pressure which
decreases the shear strength of the soil. Downstream slope failure may also occur by sliding;
the forces are due to seepage. If the dam rests on silt or soft soils, there is a possibility of the
whole dam sliding. The expansion of clay soils also decreases the shear strength of the
foundation material.

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 c) What are the design elements of an embankment dam?
Height of the dam: There must be enough height from the foundation to the water surface
of the reservoir when discharging at design capacity.

Crest Details
Top width
These are the following considerations when designing for the top width: (1) properties of
embankment materials and minimum allowable seepage distance through the embankment
at normal reservoir water level, (2) roadway requirements, (3) practicability of construction,
(4) designs for dams in high seismic areas, (5) any planned future crest raises, and (6)
potential security-related vulnerabilities. The minimum crest width must ensure a low
seepage gradient. It must be sufficient to keep the phreatic line within the surface of the
reservoir. For dams where seismic loading is a concern, the width of the crest may be
widened to provide more safety against breach.
The top width can be determined using the following equations:
For very low dams
For dams lower than 30m
For dams higher than 30m
Drainage
Proper drainage at the crest must be provided to prevent erosion. The crest is usually sloped
at an angle and drains towards the upstream slope.
Camber
This feature is provided at the crest to ensure that freeboard will not be diminished by post-
construction foundation consolidation and embankment compression. It is important to
determine the settlement that would occur to ensure that the phreatic line would always be
inside the dam surface. Dams with relatively incompressible foundations, cambers are usually
1% of the total height.
Surfacing
This is provided in order to protect the dam from wave action, rainfall, runoff, wind, and
traffic wear. Gravelly rock at a depth of 6 inches is usually provided at the top of the crest.
Paving is also recommended even if there is minimal vehicle traffic at the top. Adding a
pavement increases the protection against overtopping, and cracking would be easily visible
as opposed to gravel surface.

Side Slopes
In order to provide the required static stability, the slopes of the dam must be properly
designed. Initial side slopes are taken from the recommendations by Terzhagi. After side
slopes have been estimated, the stability can then be computed using various tools. The
values for initial side slopes are in the table below.

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 Berms
Berms are provided for observing the conditions of the protections at the slopes and their
repairs and also for increasing the width of dam at the end to increase the length of seepage.
Berms have a width of 1-2m and are placed at 10-15m high interval at the downstream face.

Freeboard
Freeboard is defined as the distance between the crest and the reservoir water surface.
Allowances are provided for wind set-up, waves, frost action and earthquake motions. The
freeboard is one of the most important design element because about 40% of dam failures
result from overtopping because of insufficient freeboard and spillway capacity. Minimum
freeboard is taken from the recommendations by USBR.

Upstream and Downstream Slope Protection

Protection must be provided against all possible destructive factors like rainfall and
burrowing animals. Dumped-rock, soil-cement, and riprap are the most common protection
used in the upstream face of the dam. Concrete pavement or asphalt pavement may also be
used on smaller structures. For the downstream face, slope protection like cobbles or rock is
preferred over a vegetative cover to prevent burrowing animals. However, this is only done
when cost is not prohibitive.

Seepage through dam

This element must be properly calculated in order to prevent piping.

Other design elements include surface drainage, flared slopes at the abutments, and
geotextiles and geomembranes.

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 d) Discuss how seepage through the dam is calculated for a homogeneous
embankment dam.

The solution in calculating for seepage through a homogeneous embankment dam includes
estimation of flow from flownets. Flow lines which are parallel to the velocity at any given
point are drawn, then perpendicular to the flow lines are the equipotential lines. The flow
lines and equipotential lines form a net of confocal parabolas (focus f) at the lower portion.

The parabola is drawn and is assumed to be 0.3m of the horizontal distance from the face of
the dam to the upstream toe of the embankment. The distance AD is the directrix of the
parabola, and every point in the parabola is equidistant from the focus and the directrix. The
intersection of the reservoir surface and the upstream face is the terminus(upstream). For the
downstream terminus, y is distance from the focus to the intersection of the parabola with
the downstream face. This is computed as:
180
y = (y + y)
400
Darcys Law is used to compute for the seepage rate. For simplicity in calculations, it is
assumed to have a unit width, thus the flow through any square is computed as,
h
q = KD( )
L
This can further be simplified into,
h
q = K
N

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 Where N is the number of increments to which the potential drop is divided.
The total flow rate through the dam is
h
q = N q = N K
N
where N is the number of spaces in between the flow lines.

e) Discuss the method of slices for the determination of stability of the upstream and
downstream faces of the dam. The slopes are important not only for stability of the
dam but for the computation of the estimated costs for construction of the dam.

The method of slices starts with assuming the location of the center of the failure arc. From
the center of the failure arc, the sliding surface is delineated.

The mass is then divided into several vertical segments. The smaller the segments are, the
more accurate the computation becomes. An important assumption in this step is that the
weight of the segment acts on the center of mass. The forces acting are the weight of the
mass as well as the friction between soils in the slide surface. The forces acting on the soil
mass and the individual segments must satisfy equilibrium. However, the forces acting in
between the soil masses are assumed to be negligible.

This is basically just a summation of moments about the assumed center of failure arc (point
O).
The moment tending to rotate the soil mass about O is:
=
Where, W is the weight of the segment and x is the moment arm.

The resisting moment is caused by the tangential shear stresses acting on the failure surface.
This is calculated as,
= ()

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 Where, Ss is the shear strength of the soil, is the length of the failure arc for a segment,
and r is the radius of the failure arc. Coulombs equation is used to compute for the shear
strength.
= +
Where, c is the coefficient of cohesion, is the effective pressure between soil particles and
is the angle of internal friction.
To compute for the effective pressure, we refer to the free-body diagram.

cos = + ()
cos
=

Where is the sliding angle of the slice and is the pore-water pressure. Cohesion and the
angle of friction are dependent on the type of soil material present and the moisture content
in the embankment. Sandy soils have zero cohesion, and clayey soils have a cohesion of 5 -
60 kN/m2. The angle of friction for sands is at around 30 while for clays, it is between 5-
20.

From the computed overturning and resisting moments, the factor of safety is obtained.
Several trials are done in order to determine the critical failure surface.

Problem 3

a) Discuss how you are going to determine the required return period for the design
discharge of the diversion dam.
The required return period is estimated through frequency analysis. It provides a systematic
approach for using historical data to relate the magnitude of a naturally occurring event. A
list of the annual maximum flows must be available, and then ranked from largest to
smallest. The recurrence interval of each flow is computed and plotted against the flood
discharge. The return period can now be determined by taking the average value of the
recurrence intervals.

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 b) Discuss how the shape of the ogee crest is designed. What are the needed data and
methodology to specify the shape of the ogee dam? Provide graphs and equations of
necessary.
The first step in designing for an ogee is crest is to determine the design head Ho, this value
is usually taken as 75%- 80% of the maximum head. Then, with the crest height from the
ground surface P, the discharge coefficient is obtained from the graph below.

The discharge coefficient for heads other than the design head, the following graph is used.

The previous graphs are limited only to das with vertical upstream faces. For sloping ogee
dams, another graph is used.

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 Corrections in the discharge coefficient are also added for dams with downstream aprons
and tailwater submergence.

Then the shape of the pier nose is determined from USBR Type 3 or 3A.

Another assumption for Ho is made when the minimum crest pressure is less than -1/2
atmosphere. Ho is increased until this condition is satisfied.

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 Then the shape of the ogee crest can now be determined. The value of K and n are
dependent on the ratio of h/Ho. These are used to determine the shape of the downstream
curve of the of the ogee as these defines the shape of the parabola.

The upstream face of the ogee crest is defined by x, y, R1, and R2. The following graph is
used to obtain these values. It varies depending on the slope of the upstream face.

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 The effective crest length is determined using the equation.

Lastly, the discharge rating curve is obtained from this equation.

c) What are the considerations in the design of a stilling basin?

When designing for a stilling basin, the main concern is the determination of the basin
width and elevation to allow the formation of the hydraulic jump in the basin. If the
width and elevation are not adequately designed, the hydraulic jump will either be swept out

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 of the basin or drowned by the upstream water level. Failure to produce a stable hydraulic
jump within the basin will result to the following failures of the basin.
1. Erosion in the downstream channel
2. Headcutting and progressive failure up spillway chute
3. Erosion of toe of embankment dam
4. Uplift pressure causing the stilling basin to float
5. Erosion of stilling basin foundation, and lastly,
6. Ultimate failure of the stilling basin.

d) Discuss the methodology on how to select the suitable USBR type stilling basin for
the diversion dam.
To determine the type of USBR Stilling to be used, we start with the energy equation from
the spillway crest to the point just before the jump. Given the necessary data, the Froude
number and the velocity of the flow just before the jump can be computed. The Froude
number and the flow velocity dictate which type of stilling basin is going to be used. Another
important factor in selection of stilling basin is the height of the spillway and the flow
discharge into the basin.
There are five models of stilling basins according to USBR and these are the following:
Type I Basin most appropriately used for Froude Numbers less than 1.7, but can
also be used for flows with Froude of 1.7 up to 2.5. These are typically used for low
spillways.
Type II Basin developed for approach Froude numbers greater than 4.5 and for
approach velocities higher than 15 m/s
Type III Basin this stilling basin is for approach velocities greater than 4.5, but
with velocities not exceeding 15-18 m/s
Type IV Basin for Froude numbers from 2.5 to 4.5
Type V Basin used for sloping aprons where structural economics make aprons
more desirable

e) What are the geometric characteristics that need to be specified in the design of the
stilling basin?
Type I Basin
For a Type I stilling basin, the length of the basin must be specified. It is a function of the
Froude number, the graph below is used.

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 Type II Basin
A USBR Type II Basin has chute blocks and dentated sills which reduces the needed length
of the basin.

The height of the chute blocks should be equal to the depth of the incoming flow
The width of the chute blocks should be equal to the depth of the incoming flow
The spacing between each chute block should be equal to the height of the incoming
flow
A spacing equal to half of the incoming flow height is recommended between the chute
blocks and the outside walls
The height of the dentated sill should be equa l to 0.2 times the depth of incoming flow
depth
The maximum width and maximum spacing of the dentated sill is 0.15 times the
incoming flow depth
Length of basin is dependent on Froude number and incoming flow depth

Type III Basin

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 The height, spacing, and width of the chute blocks should be equal to the depth of
incoming flow
The height and spacing of the baffle piers are relative to the Froude number and depth
of incoming flow
The distance from the back of the chute blocks to the front of the baffle piers should 0.8
times the depth of incoming flow
The height of the end sill is determined by the Froude number and the depth of
incoming flow
Length of basin is dependent on Froude number and incoming flow depth
The tail water depth must be equal to or greater than full conjugate depth
The baffle block height and the end of sill height and length of the jump are dependent on
the Froude Number, the graph below shows the relationship.

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 Type IV Basin

The maximum width of the chute blocks is equal to the depth of incoming flow
The spacing between the chute blocks is recommended to be 0.75 times the depth of the
incoming flow
The top of the chute blocks is located at height equal to twice the incoming flow depth
above the basin floor
The tail water depth should be 110% of the full conjugate depth
The height of the end sill is determined by the Froude number and the depth of
incoming flow
Length of basin is dependent on Froude number and incoming flow depth

References:

http://www.strukts.com/2012/06/failure-mode-of-earthen-embankment-dam_20.html
https://www.des.nh.gov/organization/commissioner/pip/factsheets/db/documents/db-4.pdf
https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/designstandards-datacollectionguides/finalds-
pdfs/DS13-1.pdf
https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/designstandards-datacollectionguides/finalds-
pdfs/DS13-2.pdf
https://www.engr.colostate.edu/~pierre/ce_old/classes/CIVE%20401/projects%202015/Stilling
%20Basins_Myers_Neuder_Oser.pdf
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105105110/pdf/m4l05.pdf

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