Bio 150 Molecular Cell Biology
Miriam de Vera, PhD
Lecture 1.3 Cell Evolution (Evolution of the beginnings of life)
Earth
- Approximate age of the earth: 4.5 BYO
- Conditions when it was formed:
Extreme
Many volcanic activities (pyroclastic)
Rough waters
Thunderstorms
Extremes of temperature (fire)
Crust of earth almost molten so we dont expect that
exactly 4.5 BY ago, theres already life
A lot of geologic activities going on
Major episodes in the history of life
*no need to memorize geologic timescale
1. Origin of solar system
- 4.5 BY ago
- Theres a mass at the very center which became the sun
- Surrounding the sun are coalescing particles which
comprise the planets
- Gravitational pull for the circling of planets is provided by the
central source of energy SUN
- Accretion Theory
One theory for the formation of solar system
Basin of water: represents space
Pour talcum powder on the surface only (do not
disturb water)
At the very center, stir using a stick (represents the
rotation of the sun)
A mass will form at the center while smaller masses
at the periphery will occur
Certainly, many of those particles obtain solid mass
unlike the peripheral planets, they are mainly gaseous
2. Archaean Eon
- Prokaryotes 3.8 BYO (earliest organisms), oldest life
forms on earth; based on radiocarbon dating of certain
rocks that are 3.8 BYO
- Earliest prokaryotes did not utilize oxygen
- Multicellular prokaryotes not mentioned in the figure
In the figure, prokaryotes may be single unicellular
organisms or colonial
3. Proterozoic Eon
- Oxygenated atmosphere needed prior to the evolution of
Eukaryotes
- Before you can have the major phyla of organisms, that
would have to be past 1 billion years ago
- Aquatic before terrestrial life forms
- Plantae most recent division to emerge
- 2.5 billion years atmospheric O2
Animals first formed before vascular plants
Colonization of land insects
- 1.75 billion years single celled eukaryotes
- 1.5 billion years multicellular eukaryotes
Evidences for these claims
- Earliest cells are most likely prokaryotic
All life begins from a simple cell prokaryotic
- Stromatolites (figure)
Banded domes or mats of sedimentary rocks
Age: roughly 3.5-3.8 BYO suggesting the earliest time
that prokaryotes evolved
Oldest known stromatolites: 3.8 BYA; rock materials
which contain evidence of ancient prokaryotes
Majority can be found in marine environments or near
coastal areas
Cross sections: layers/bands can be seen which are
typical of sedimentary rocks; these bands are from the
layering of the biofilm of the prokaryotes
Thrombolites: subtype of stromatolites; specifically
lain down by photosynthetic microorganisms. These
are not necesarilly photosynthetic
Figure: Reddish bands layers of iron oxides
suggesting that the process of oxidation is already
occurring to promote the layering some traces of
O2 are being generated by some of these bacteria
(although not yet fully integrated into the atmosphere
since they are still on the rock layers)
Minerals formed from energy processes of cells
Columnar, deeper in the oceans
Orange rocks: calcium and magnesium
Supp. Notes: Carbon isotopes (representing metabolic activity of
organisms) have been found in 3.5 BYO rocks.
Something should have been present between formation of earth
and existence of cells/prokaryotes (4.5 BYA 3.8 BYA)
- Many molecules formed (not only inorganic rocks)
- Simple molecules more complex (biomolecules)
1
Chemical Evolution
- The first cells may have arisen by chemical evolution on a
young Earth
- inorganic + organic compounds earliest life forms
- Inorganic organic molecules/compounds
- Stages:
1. Abiotic synthesis and accumulation of organic
molecules [monomers]
o Should be MONOMERS first
o Requires high energy reactions from the environment
synthesis of organic molecules
2. Assemblage of monomers into polymers
3. Aggregation of abiotically produced monomers or
polymers into protobionts (protocells)
o Protobionts - aggregates of abiotically produced
molecules surrounded by a membrane or
membrane-like structure; not alive yet; seemingly
resemble cells
o Experiments showed that protobionts can be
manufactured synthetically
4. Origin of heredity
o Heredity transmission of information
o Note: NON-LIVING
Prebiotic Chemical Evolution
1. Abiotic synthesis and accumulation of organic molecules
[monomers]
- Organic
they just simply form from strings of carbon
attached to hydrogen hydrocarbons (CH)
inorganic in origin
- Before this, only inorganic molecules are present which
are essentially elements by themselves or small
molecules without carbon
- C, H, O (little), N and other low mass elements
- Oparin and Haldane [1920s]
conditions on primitive earth favored chemical
reactions that synthesized organic compounds
from inorganic substances
Conditions: extreme, highly kinetic envt. (lighting,
hurricane, volcanic activities, etc.) wherein
inorganic molecules in any envt will tend to clash
with one another
1 billion years of clashing together in random will
ultimately form hydrocarbons linked together
ORGANIC compounds
There are chemical reactions everywhere that
favor these collisions of molecules to form organic
compounds (monomeric). Most likely, they will be
stored up in the sea (water bodies)
PRIMORDIAL SOUP (where the 1st monomeric
organic compounds may have formed)
- Oxidizing atmosphere of present earth not conducive
to spontaneous synthesis of complex molecules due to
electron extracting nature of O2 (destabilizing chemical
bonds)
much more diversity of organic compounds
- Miller and Urey [1953]
Attempted to simulate primitive earth conditions to
spontaneously produce organic cpds from
inorganic substances
Initial mixture containing inorganic substances
(water, liquid N, hydrogen, oxygen, etc. no
hydrocarbons at all) subjected to intense heat
simulating intense kinetic energy in primordial
earth exposed to electrical energy
After letting the set-up ran for a while, they
collected pure liquid from the apparatus
chemical analysis hydrocarbons were found
NOTE: no cells, enzymes, etc were used, only
kinetic energy and inorganic cpds
Figure: CH4 (methane) simplest organic
molecule
Before the sample for chemical analysis, there
were already some preformative polymers
There were others who replicated the expt and they
produced different organic cpds (simple
monomers/oligomers)
2. Assemblage of monomers into polymers
- Covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds
- Could not possibly spontaneously happen (no
involvement of any biotic elements)
- Ancient conditions still apparent, particularly heat
- Laboratory simulations of early earth conditions have
produced organic polymers
- S. Fox [U. Miami] produced protenoids (polymers)
from dilute solutions of organic monomers (amino
acids) applied unto hot substrate
Protenoids not cellular in origin; not fully
translated by cells unlike proteins
Polymers formed through exposure to heat
- G. Wachterhauser certain properties of pyrite (fools
gold) have catalyzed abiotic synthesis of organic
molecules
Pyrite heat absorbent and with electrical
properties; if papatak-patakan ng monomers
such as amino acids, polypeptides can be formed
spontaneously on the surface over time
Note: in very extreme conditions (as in SUPER
HOT!!!)
2
 - These 2 scientists mentioned showed that proteins can A. Liposomes
be formed abiotically - Very similar characteristic to a soap bubbles
- Have simple reproduction in a sense that it can be
3. Aggregation of abiotically produced monomers into amplified (like blowing soap bubbles, press mo lang
protobionts magiging marami na)
- Types of Protobionts (complex of molecules inside a - The fact that they can reproduce (chem nature), shows
membrane): that they somehow exhibit some living properties
A. Coacervates
combination of B. Coacervate
carbohydrates and - can be manufactured in the lab (using glucose
proteins or phosphate)
carbohydrates and - enzymes isolated
lipids; can have 2 - no need for triggers to activate enzymes, it can be injected
layers of membrane there or it might have been produced from some external
protein translation process (basta makapasok lang, after
B. Microspheres all, membrane is semipermeable)
proteins or amino - starting material + enzymes chemical process occurs
acids bounded by a - chemical reactions reflective of what happens in actual
membrane; used for living cells properties of living cells simulated
transport; used to - Coined by Oparin
introduce proteins to - Colloidal organic compounds (usually fatty acids) bounded
tissue and cells by membrane

C. Liposomes contains lipids (mostly 4. Origin of heredity

phospholipids) or fatty acids; semi-permeable
membrane properties; can transfer contents from
one liposome to another
- In certain industrial companies, they produce
microspheres and liposomes to serve as carriers of
proteins or fatty acids which are transferred to another
chemical batch (in manufacturing process esp in
pharmaceuticals)
- Protobionts may look cell-like but they are not alive;
exhibit some of the properties associated with life,
including:
Simple reproduction
Metabolism
Enzymes introduced into liposomes
enzymes released
With right conditions (though non-living), can
undergo processes
Maintenance of an internal chemical envt.
different from that of their surroundings
- Earliest ones evolved spontaneously
Properties of living cells can be simulated using protobionts
- Heredity - some molecular information must be passed
on
- There should be some means of a molecule being
reformed
- Among all of the various kinds of polymers
(biomolecules), it is believed that the nucleic acid (RNA
not DNA) is the best kind of molecule that can transmit
information
- RNA served as the first hereditary molecule, subject to
spontaneous reassembly
DNA: more complex and stable than RNA;
requires more components in order to be formed
- RNA can replicate themselves (self-replication)
DNA: still needs DNA polymerase, helicase, etc.
- Figure: Earliest kind of RNA replication
- Pink and blue: RNA
- Pink: single stranded but with bends (loops) making
some parts double stranded; RNA molecule functioning
as a ribozyme
- Ribozyme = enzyme & template
enzyme for producing its own copy and
template for the assemblage of nucleotides

3
 - Becomes a copy of a copy
- Ribozyme only. No need for other complex
accompaniments for the formation of complementary
RNA copy
- There are different kinds of ribozymes which can be used
for RNA replication
- Following the simplicity-complexity rule, RNA (simple) is
logically the first to arise before the DNA (complex)
- Even short pieces can be used for heredity

Picture: Sampling the water around a hydrothermal vent in the Sea

Supp Notes: Thomas Cech, of the University of Colorado, and
of Cartes. More than 1.5 km below the surface, the vent releases
Sidney Altman, of Yale University, found that RNA, which plays a
hydrogen sulfide and iron sulfide, which react and produce pyrite
central role in protein synthesis, can also carry out a number of
and hydrogen gas. Prokaryotes that live near the vent use the
enzyme-like catalytic functions. Cech called these RNA catalysts
hydrogen as an energy source. Such environments are among the
ribozymes. Some ribozymes can make complementary copies of
most extreme in which life exists today, and some researchers
short pieces of RNA, provided that they are supplied with
favor the hypothesis that life may have begun in similar regions of
nucleotide building blocks.
early Earth.

Present Trends (Transition from non-living to living)

Simpler self-replicating molecules (other than RNA)
Panspermia and Chemical Evolution [17th C.]
Trebek et al. [1991]
- Suggests that the earliest life forms might have had an
- produced aminoadenosine triacid ester (AATE)
extraterrestrial source
Has a composition and properties for self-replication
Life on earth came from somewhere else in the
(essential characteristic of heredity)
universe
Very simple, rel. small molecule
- Meteorites
- Figure: amino adenosine and ester can be combined through
Extraterrestrial
heat or any anabolic process to form a template molecule
If proven that there is no contamination on these
- If you have a mixture of several of these molecules, one can
meteorites (from organic materials found on earth),
serve as template (see fig)
they may have had organic materials coming from
- Rightmost fig: when condition is reversed, ex. Cooling
outside of the Earth
you can have replicas (exactly the same)
Naturally, only inorganic compounds are found in
- No enzymes
meteorites. Surprisingly, organic cpds are found in
- Caused by extreme agitation
meteorites.
- So, there might be other molecules smaller than RNA that
Probably these cpds brought about the first
could have this property provided that you can provide the
prokaryotes from protobionts
necessary conditions for their formation (abiotic)
- It is possible that at least some organic compounds reached
the earth from space in the form of meteorites or comets
hitting the earth (extraterrestrial origin)

Wachterhauser et al. [1970s]

- Explored hydrothermal vents (very deep water)
- Hydrothermal vents
Represent some of the most extreme environments on
earth
Mirror the extreme conditions of the earths marine envt
in the past
- Samples of organic polymers and prokaryotes are gathered
from these hydrothermal vents
- No protobionts found yet (so theres still no transitional
evidence between molecules and cells)
- Its possible that the process of evolving is still happening so
we should continue to explore these hydrothermal vents
- Organisms from hydrothermal vents
H2S + Fe2S Pyrite + H2(g)
- Newer species of archaea bacteria from extreme environments
F. Dyson
- Has suggested that the 1st RNA molecules may have been
short, virus-like sequences (aided in their replication by
random amino acid polymers that had rudimentary catalytic
capabilities)
- short virus-like sequences might be the earliest self-
replicating molecules (if no other molecules are self-
replicating)
Earliest Prokaryotes
- Originated 3.5-4 billion years ago
- Metabolically simple with few enzymes
- Most likely: anaerobic and opportunistic
Anaerobic: no O2 when they first evolved
Opportunistic: utilized whatever resources is
abundant; usually facultative

4
Mode of Nutrition (theyre alive and can metabolize already! )
Inorganic
Inorganic
*Heterotrophs cant produce organic cpds from inorganic cpds
Heterotroph
Autotroph
- Heterotroph mode of nutrition which evolved first among
prokaryotes
ATP organic
From simple breakdown, you can immediately have
energy
Organic cpds polymers in the envt; present even
before protobionts existed; used by heterotrophs
- Autotroph
More complex
Needs transporter, proton gradient, means of
utilizing energy to fix CO2 to form hydrocarbon
The process of producing organic material from
inorganic sources is a more complex process so it
evolved later than heterotrophs
Opportunistic: can use inorganic sources
- The earliest prokaryotic ancestors are likely to be
anaerobic heterotrophic cells
- Their energy has to be derived from food materials (pre-
made source of energy from outside their body.
- They can exist without molecular oxygen
Supp Notes:
a) An early chemoheterotroph lives on ATP and other
organic compounds absorbed from its surroundings.
Enyzmatic breakdown of the organic compounds
provided energy and carbon.
b) Earliest mode of energy metabolism was
chemoautotrophic (among autotrophs). Ancestral cells
obtain carbon from CO2 and synthesize their own ATP by
simple chemiosmotic mechanism. The model shows
enzymes promoting chemical reactions among simple
inorganic cpds. Hydrogenase couples the release of
energy from inorganic compounds to the splitting of H2
and maintenance of a proton gradient across the plasma
membrane. The potential energy of the proton gradient
drives the enzymatic synthesis of ATP.
**Eventually, certain prokaryotes have evolved systems which
utilize light Contain photosynthetic pigments
Photosynthetic Pigments found among prokaryotes
- Examples (figure):
Bacteriorhodopsin found in purple sulfur bacteria
(use H2S rather than H2O)
Chlorophyll
Bacteriorhodopsin Chlorophyll
- Light absorbing pigments may have been coupled with
membrane proteins involved in ATP synthesis
The light that is utilized in these processes for the
photoautotrophs drive the machinery for proton
pumps (for ATP synthesis)
- Photosynthesizing bacteria evolved later after the anaerobic
chemoheterotrophs
- Photosystems may have evolved that use light to drive
electrons from H2S to NADP+, generating the reducing power
to fix CO2
H2S not H2O since theres still no oxygen (later,
organisms which utilize water will arise)
NADP+ nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide
phosphate; oxidized form of NADPH
CO2 fixation formation of carbon-based compounds
- Prokaryotes do not have internal membranes yet so these
proteins and machinery are associated with the inner side of
the plasma membrane (no mitonchondria and chloroplast)
Kailangan may kapitan yung machinery for ETC so
these proteins are attached/associated with the PM
- Membrane proteins that powered ATP synthesis may have
been opted
Co-option change of a structure with an initially
different function
5
Supp Notes:
Bacteriorhodopsin absorbs light and uses the energy for H+
pumping to drive ATP synthesis (simplest mechanism for
photophosphorylation). Membrane proteins that powered atp
synthesis may have been co-opted to provide the reducing power
to fix CO2 (e.g. bateriochlorophyll).
Purple sulfur and green sulfur bacteria split H2S instead of H2O.
First Cyanobacteria
- Figure:
Left Eutrophic lake (bluish greenish because of the
presence of cyanobacteria)
Right Anabaena; filamentous colonial cyanobacteria
Note: earliest prok are non-colonial or solitary
- Had the metabolic machinery to use H2O instead of H2S or
other compounds as a source of electrons and hydrogen for
reducing CO2 for CO2 fixation to make sugars,
carbohydrates inside the cells
- Anabaena Colonies (fig)
Multicellular
Some photosynthetic, involved in CO2 fixation
similar cells with pigments (near the arrowhead)
but there are others that are not heterocytes
- Heterocytes
multicellular/colonial
cells that are different from other cells in the Anabaena
colony
involved in nitrogen fixation, not photosynthesis
large; have thick cell walls to prevent diffusion of O2
because O2 is inhibitory to nitrogen fixation which is
necessary for the manufacture of amino acids and
nucleotides
- Implication of colonial/multicellular arrangement
can have specialization of function
some are photosynthetic, some are involved in N2
fixation
they can live in envt with minimal resources (just like
those in eutrophic lake)
**green fur of mammals in moist/wet areas due to blue-green
algae growing on their fur
**Nostocaceae family of Anabaena
**Atmosphere became more oxidizing than reducing due to
increasing photosynthetic organisms (high O2)
Consequences of O2 in the Atmosphere for Prokaryotes
- Extinction of anaerobes
Facultative anaerobes can survive; prefer anaerobic
conditions but can thrive in the presence of O2
- Evolution of obligate anaerobes
There are still environments which are anaerobic. They
can evolve here
Bacteria are ubiquitous
- Evolution of anti-oxidation systems
O2 attacks the bonds of organic molecules
(destructive)
Antioxidant systems evolved to tolerate rising O2
levels
Proteins that can sequester away oxygen to prevent it
from inhibiting some metabolic processes
- Modification of ETC co-opted from photosynthesis (resulting
in anaerobic respiration)
Aerobic respirations may have originated as a
modification of ETC co-opted from photosynthesis.
O2 - final e- acceptor in ETC
Co-opted - from the earliest cyanobacteria, it gets
modified to become functional even in the obligate
anaerobes
- Resorting to chemoheterotrophic nutrition most recently
evolved
Chemoheterotrophs adapt the ETC to function
exclusively in aerobic respiration. (e.g. purple sulfur
bacteria)
Natural selection tend to favor increasing complexity of earliest
cells
- Single, unicellular Multicellular prokaryotes
Natural selection favor colonial species
Advantage: specialization; division of labor
Differentiation of function (more functions = better
natural selection will favor them)
- Complex bacterial communities
Aggregate of different kinds of species co-existing
together
Biofilms some of the bacteria here can produce
signaling molecules for other members of the
community to gather or stay away; material containing
various bacterial populations and exudates [chemical
signals]
Leads to more diversity among prokaryotes
- Compartmentalization of functions within a cell
Prokaryotes do not have internal organelles at this
point yet
Localization of proteins in the PM
Compartmentalization is implied by the position of
certain proteins in some specific points of attachment
in the PM
Proteins for ETC transport, protein sorting, and
other metabolic transport assoc with the PM
Complete compartmentalization involves the
evolution of separate compartments organelles
Hence, this would necessarily be the step leading to
the evolution of eukaryotes
Eukaryotic Origins
Acritarchs
- earliest fossils of eukaryotes
- oldest one found from the fossil record is approx. 2 BYO
- resemble cysts of protists (spherical; thick capsule)
- Earliest protists [eukaryotes from gradual evolution of more
complex structures]
6
Mechanism of the development of internal membranes in
eukaryotic cells:
- Plasma membranes extent of infolding internally becomes
more and more complex organelle: ER
- Hypothesis: ER contributes to the formation of porous
nuclear membrane compartmentalization for the genome
- These internal membranes that are formed are part of the
endomembrane system so theres still no exact discrete
compartments (continuous pa rin because of pores)
- The endomembrane system of eukaryotes including the nuclear
membrane may have evolved by the in-folding of the plasma
membrane of an ancestral prokaryote.
- Diagram:
Membrane-enclosed compartments
PM develops in-foldings branching
Compartments detached from PM
Supp. Notes: The endomembrane system of eukaryotes including
the nuclear membrane may have evolved by the infolding of the
plasma membrane of an ancestral prokaryote.
EndosymbioticTheory
- Hypothesis that can exemplify the formation of the more
discrete organelles for the eukaryotic lineage
- Ancestral heterotrophic prokaryotes (early beginnings)
have a machinery similar to the ATP producing
machinery of the mitochondria
Heterotroph hid inside the larger ancestral cell for
protective measure. They just remained inside
because they benefit each other naman
Heterotroph can get protection; Host cell can get
energy
Large ancestral prokaryote engulfed heterotrophic
prokaryote harnessed ATP of prokaryote early
eukaryote with mitochondria
Heterotrophic eukaryotes Animalia
- Ancestral photosynthetic prokaryotes
precursor of chloroplasts
Large ancestral prokaryote engulfed photosynthetic
prokaryote eukaryote with chloroplast
1800s: Russian scientist Mereschkowski presented the
endosymbiont theory
1970s: Lynn Margulis revived the idea. She provided the molecular
and genetic evidences.
Supp Notes:
Mitochonrdria and chloroplasts evolved from prokaryotes that lived
symbiotically within some ancestral eukaryotes. The similarities in
appearance between these structures are pretty clear. The inner
membrane of the mitochondrion protrudes into the interior rion in
folds called cristae. This membrane is very similar in appearance
to the prokaryotic plasma membrane with its mesosomes.
Origin of Eukaryotes
[Refer to the article Origin of Eukaryotes (from Maam DV)]
See discussion on engulfed heterotrophic and photosynthetic
prokaryote

- Mesosomes found in prokaryotes; similar to the infoldings

in the mitochondria (cristae)
- Cristae more complex branching of infoldings
- Figure:
Ancestral host cell with endomembrane system and
apparent nucleus
More discrete organelles
- Margulis modern proponent of endosymbiont theory;
revived the idea of the concept that:
the cause of having discrete organelles in eukaryotic
cells is due to the entry of symbiotic bacteria into the
cytoplasm of the larger host cell

7
Figure: A phylogenetic tree based on rRNA sequence comparisons
showing the three domains of life. The Archaea are divided into two
subgroups as indicated.
Tree of Life
- 3 domains: Archaea, Eubacteria, Eukarya
- Previously K. Monera has been elevated to 2 separate
domains: Archaea and Eubacteria
- As seen in the grouping, Archaea and Eukarya are more closely
related
They have a common ancestor
- Archaea includes extremophiles, the most ancient of
prokaryotes
- Nucleotide sequences - molecular evidence used for the
relatedness of Eukarya to Archaeabacteria
- 2D electrophoretic gel of the components of small subunit
ribosomal RNA from 13 different species (see next table)
- 2 dimensional bc 2 step separation:
1st run: pH 3.5; based on size
2nd run: pH 2.3; based on charges
- Separated extracted determine nucleotide sequence for
the different species
- Woese and colleagues showed evidences on which
organisms are more related to one another
Depends on shared molecular characteristics
More similar = more related
molecules involved are informational molecules like
RNA and proteins; not metabolic molecules like carbs
and lipids
- READ THE ARTICLE
**PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy
- 13 organisms
- Similarity index (SI) used to compare extent of similarity
The higher the value, the greater the similarity in the
sequences
- 1 to 3: Eukarya (yeasts, animal cell line)
- 4 to 9: Eubacteria (bacteria, chloroplast with own RNA)
- 10 to 13: Archaea (extremophiles)
- From the 13 organisms that were used as test subjects, they
were essentially divided into 3 distinct groups
- However, there are other studies which showed more similar
nucleotide sequences between Archaea and Eukarya than
Euk and Eubac or Archaea and Eubac
- Informational molecules used: nucleic acids and proteins
used in transcription, translation, replication
- Informational molecules more reliable than metabolic ones
Metabolic proteins are not used (ex. cytochrome
proteins)
Lateral gene transfer
Ex. exchanging genes thru pilus
they do not transfer genetic info by
progeny/reproducing like cell division or cell
fission
Instead, they happen to pick up certain genes
from different species in which they share a
common environment
Therefore, it is possible that some genes from
the Archaea could have been mixed with
Eubacteria or vice versa (As well as Eubacteria
and Eukarya)
Usually such genes or molecules are metabolic
in nature
Vertical gene transfer from parents to offspring
(progeny); informational molecules
Di sure si maam ditto. Just read the article nalang.
- By comparing the nucleotide sequence of small subunit
rRNA, it shows that there are 3 very distinct evolutionary lines
- The table suggests that beyond the domains, the values with
the next succeeding highest levels of SI are shared between
Eukarya and Archaea
8
Comparing the Three Domains

- 3 domains occasionally have some similarities

- The greatest genetic similarities (sequences of info mol) are
between Archaea and Eukarya even though eukaryotic line
evolved later after Eubacteria line

LABAN LANG DI TAYO PINALAKI NG SEXBOMB PARA BUMAWI

-@IndividNoellism (Twitter)