HISTORY EXAM PREP.

Semester 2 That moment when people plagiarise your 18/25 assignment

SECTION I: POPULAR CULTURE
What is popular culture?

Generally refers to shared value, beliefs, ideas, artefacts, etc.

Binds society together

- A historians definition of popular culture

o Sociologists suggests there are four distinguishing characters:
The ability to move from local to international significance
Having associated commercial products
Ability to change/evolve over time
Widespread access to them
o Historians: a cultural activity that reaches a level of wide acceptance
o E.g. AFL would not be popular culture in sociologists eyes (no international
significance), but historians qualify it for popularity
- Studying popular culture
o Allows you to trace the impact of changing technology on forms of
expressions

Popular culture in Australia at the end of World War II

Federal government changed from Labour to Liberal in 1949 elections

Post-war Australia looked to America rather than Britain for protection
Britain still had huge cultural influence on Australia
Culturally was a time of continuity

- Popular sports at the end of World War II

o Played key role in restoring normality after WWII traumas
o Test cricket clashes with England for the Ashes
Was disrupted by war, continued after war
Australia played to show the mother country their strength
Don Bradman led the Australian team to victory, remained undefeated
o Rugby League
Centred in NSW and QLD
NSWRL premiership
Matched by Australian Rules in southern states
Rugby and Australian Rules played throughout WWII, provided
normality as young men fought
o Baseball
Winter sport which complemented, not competed, cricket
Probably arrived with American gold miners in 1850s Victorian gold
rush
Interstate baseball games resumed after war
Shows British traditions were not the only once to influence Australian
sport
- Childrens literature at the end of World War II
o Reinforced cultural links with the mother country
o Two writers in particular: Enid Blyton and Captain WE Johns
- Radio in post-war Australia
 o Until 1920s, pianos/pianolas were main source of home entertainment
o 1923 public radio broadcasting began in Sydney with station 2SB
o Popularised jazz from USA, which arose in WWII with US servicemen in
Australia
During the war, clubs were established to cater for visiting African-
American troops, live jazz performances
American performers (e.g. Frank Sinatra) influenced music taste
o Technology 1930s more portable radios
Could be played outside living room
1950s transistor radios in cars
Radios became more widespread
o By 1946, all capital cities and most regional centres had their own radio
station
Introduced recorded music from USA
o Radio serials
Plays/stories played in instalments (e.g. weekly)
Covered all genres, styles, and age grnrooups
- Film in post-war Australia
o 1906-1912 Australia produced the most feature films in the world
o Victorian government banned bushranger films in 1912 to prevent rebellion
o Large import tax on foreign films
Lifted in 1918, American films dominated
o Disney movies were popular, Dumbo and Bambi were hits during the war
o Newsreels at cinemas were the only way to see major news events before the
television
Ensured people kept going to the cinemas weekly
- Fashion in post-war Australia
o Fabric rationed during WWII, shortage of dress-making material
Hemlines shorter, clothing simpler
Many Australian women wore an austerity suit (straight skirt and
jacket)
o Followed fashion trends particularly from Europe and USA
Ruffles and peplums (skirt-like extension to jacket)
Suit and hat were required business attire for men
Companies had clothing rules
o Clothes were most often sewn at home or at dressmakers

The arrival of rocknroll and television

Both rocknroll and television originated from the US

Transmission of American culture

- Rocknroll arrives in 1956

o Many adults originally thought rocknroll was just a fad
o E.g. Elvis Presleys Heartbreak Hotel
o Attendance of rocknroll concerts was a symbol of adoption of American
popular culture
o For teenagers, it signaled a break with their parents generation
- Introduction of television in 1956
o Television exposed rocknroll to a national audience
 o Small population of Australia and political disputes about broadcasting model
delayed televisions introduction
o Melbourne Olympic Games 1956 was the catalyst for the introduction of
television
Games were televised in Sydney and Melbourne
By 1960, Brisbane, Hobart, Perth, Adelaide all had stations
o Very expensive television sets
New set 1956: cost over $400, weekly wage $30
Estimated 5% Melbourne, 1% Sydney households had TV 1960

Rocknroll in Australia

Exposed generation gap

Associated with teenage rebellion
Two youths were fined for dancing in Pitt Street after viewing Rock around the Clock

- Australian origins
o Most likely pioneer of rocknroll: George Assang
1956 released version of Heartbreak Hotel
Stage name: Vic Sabrino
Acted as Italian immigrant rather than Indigenous
For more success
Shows status of Aboriginals and TSI
o Most records released were American songs
- Rocknroll goes global
o Radio, television, and film helped spread rocknroll
o Live tours were the next step
o Lee Gordon, American promoter living in Australia, booked Bill Haley and
the Comets on a 1957 tour in Australia
Musicians were of mixed race and gender
Controversial in white Australia and women were yet to be considered
equal
Sold out across the country
Played to 330 000 at a time when population was 9mil
o Differing perspective of Bill Haleys tour
Sydney Sun called it the noisiest show to hit Sydney
Described scenes of teen rebellion
Haley, in an interview with Sydney radio station 2GB, said rocknroll
was a way for people to relax and enjoy themselves
Haley was far from the rebeliious image the press created
Music was the easiest way for younger generations to express their
difference from their parents
Created a generation gap
- Australias early rock music industry
o Centred on Johnny OKeefe
Led what was regarded as Australias only working rocknroll band
- Surf music
o 1962 international surf music boom
o Summer 1963-1964 was high point of surf music craze in Australia before
British influence returned with The Beatles
 o E.g. Little Patties Hes My Blonde Headed Stompie Wompie Real Gone
Surfer Boy
- The Beatles Arrive
o 1964, The Beatles arrived in Australia for their only visit
o 350 000 people lined the entire drive from Adelaide airport to the citys when
The Beatles arrived
o Many teenagers disobeyed authority for the first time
Ignoring police instruction as they massed where The Beatles may
appear
o Mobilisation of teenagers was an early sign of the mass movement against the
Vietnam War
o Caused groups to replace solo singers
o Music became quickest way for migrants to assimilate into Australian culture

Television in Australia

Arrived in 1956
Television companies found it was cheaper to import ready-made shows from USA
Dominated by American films and shows
Few facilities and no equipment in Australia to produce programs, local content consisted of
live quiz and game shows

- The Mickey Mouse Club

o Featured talented young performers
o Tour encouraged a generation of Australians to become consumers/producers
of Australian popular culture
o Helped Australians connect to a global popular culture
- TV expands
o Early 1960s expansion of television
New stations
New commercial stations
Introduction of coaxial cable between Sydney and Melbourne
- The worlds first live satellite broadcast
o Helped bring the world to Australia
o 1967 watching The Beatles record All You Need Is Love live
SECTION II: VIETNAM WAR
Why Australia became involved in the Vietnam War

- US involvement in the Vietnam War

o US presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson regarded the war as one
between the free world and communism
o Domino theory was used to justify involvement, support to Sth Vietnam
o Over 500 000 US troops by 1968 in South Vietnam
- Australias decision to send troops to Vietnam
o Common belief: Australia followed the US in
Harold Holt: Australia would go all the way with LBJ
o Historians: Australia had its own agenda for encouraging US involvement
Government documents suggests Australia encouraged US to send
more troops
Explanation lies in the Indonesian Confrontation
- The Indonesia Confrontation
o Indonesia went on a small undeclared war with Malaysia
o Australia supported Malaysia
o Menzies government concerned about a possible Indonesian threat
o Indonesian president declared he favoured communism
o Menzies government wanted US presence in the region
o 1965 Australia promised to send troops to Vietnam in return for expanded
American role in Indonesian region
- Reasons for Australias involvement in the Vietnam War
o More to do with fear of Indonesia becoming communist than Vietnam
o Forward defence
o Belief in reliance on UK and US for security
o Show loyalty to UK and US
o Belief in Domino theory
o Australias obligations as member of UN
o Historical and ongoing fear of Asian invasion
o Eagerness to form the ANZUS Treaty
- The official reason for Australian involvement
o Decision to send troops without invitation would potentially create diplomatic
and media problems
o Kept from the public
o 1965 announced Australia would send troops to Sth Vietnam due to a request
from the South Vietnamese government
o No request was given, Menzies asked for a request to be cabled

Overview of Australian involvement

1973 almost 60 000 Australian personnel had served in Vietnam

- Australias main area of operations in Vietnam

o 1965 first 800 troops to Bien Hoa under US command
o Main area of operations was in Phuoc Tuy independent from US
o Combat troops and support personnel established at Nui Dat (living and
training)
 o Vung Tau: logistics, main base for air force, recreation and rest, wounded
soldiers recovery

- Who did the Australians fight against?

o Viet Cong
Sth Vietnamese supporters of communist Nth
Some were well equipped/trained
Some were villagers, part-time soldiers
Normal occupations by day, guerilla fighters by night
o North Vietnamese Army
Experienced fighters
Well-equipped

The nature of Australian operations in Vietnam

Mostly guerilla warfare

North/VC: hit and run, raids/ambushes
US: bombing campaign, helicopters to locate and attack draw enemy out and engage

- The Australian armys counter-guerilla warfare tactics

o Stop enemy units receiving supplies and support
o Patrol enemy area of operations in small units
o Locate and ambush
o Cordoned off villages between dusk and dawn (stop VC supplies/support)
- Battle of Long Tan
o 1966 Australian Nui Dat under mortar fire
o 105 Australian troops headed to Long Tan, believed to have been fired from
there
o They went under attack by 3000 Nth Viets/VC
o Australians: 18 killed 24 wounded North: 800 killed 1000 wounded
o 3000 were supposedly regular North Viet Army regiment moving into Nui Dat
 o Battle probably prevented major attack at Nui Dat

The end of the Vietnam war and Australian withdrawal

Unable to defeat
More casualties = stronger anti-war movement
Tet Offensive was turning point in general publics perspective on the war

- The Tet Offensive, January 1968

o North Viet/VC surprise coordinated attacks on over 100 towns and cities in
Sth
o Change from guerilla warfare, hopes of quick victory
o During the Tet festival, a holiday
o US embassy was targeted in Saigon
o Repelled by US forces
o Graphic images were televised to USA/Australia
Fueled anti-war movements
o Before offensive, military commanders told politicians and media they were
winning the war
Graphic televised images shattered all illusions that the war was going
well
- Withdrawal from Vietnam
o Tet Offensive caused political crisis in US
o President Johnson ceased bombing of North Vietnam in 1968
o 1968 Nixon elected, promised peace with honour while secretly expanding
war
o 1973 ceasefire agreement with North Vietnam
o 1973 last Australian troops left

Differing views on the reasons for involvement in the Vietnam War

Liberal supported war, Labour opposed

Labour believed war was civil, not political
Historians believed Ho Chi Minh as nationalist not communist
Historians argue Asian countries should be understood in terms of their history and desire for
independence, not Cold War thinking

Differing views on conscription and Australias involvement

Labours opposition to war was mainly conscription

Objected to fact that 20-year-olds could be sent to Vietnam but not vote (age 21 before)
Liberal convinced war was about communism and security
Liberal was supported by media, RSL, and Catholic Church
Many groups still opposed:
1. Conscientious objectors opposed war on moral/religious grounds (e.g. Quakers)
2. Save Our Sons mostly mothers of potential conscripts, peaceful public protests
3. Vietnam War Moratorium movement largest protest movement in Australian
history, marches and rallies

- The National Service Scheme

 o Conscription introduced by Menzies 1964
o Dates of birth on marbles in lottery barrel, 20-year-olds with DOB would be
considered for national service
- Growing opposition in Australia
o 1965 majority Australians favoured continued involvement in Vietnam
o 1969 majority favoured withdrawing troops
- The Vietnam War in the media
o Considered first televised war
o Images seen every night on televised evening news
o Media was supportive of involvement
o Some graphic images affected public opinion
o Tet Offensive in particular

Impact of the war for Vietnam veterans

Vietnam War was so unpopular there was no welcome home

Troops were often flown home after dark to avoid demonstrators
No official parade or welcome until 1987
Psychological issues, veterans felt alone and unappreciated
1979 formed Vietnam Veterans Association

- Exposure to Agent Orange

o Poison used to kill plant life in jungle areas that hid Viet Cong
o Exposure could cause higher instances of diseases/cancers and birth defects in
veterans children
o Long-term contamination of food sources
o Source of anger/disappointment among veterans as government was slow to
react to concerns

...veterans of the Vietnam War have increased rate of cancer overall rates of
melanoma and prostate cancer were consistently elevated Department of Veterans
Affairs
SECTION III: ESSAY
Impact on the Vietnamese people and migration to Australia

Hundreds of thousands of soldiers and up to a million civilians died in the war

Also suffer from Agent Orange and other chemicals
After withdrawal, north advanced southwards
1975 Vietnam unified as a communist country
All who worked with/supported West are suspects
Anyone considered under Western influence imprisoned in re-education camp
Estimated 1mil Viet imprisoned after war
~165 000 died in imprisonment

- Vietnamese emigration
o Families disrupted by war an imprisonment wanted to leave the country
o Fear of political persecution due to pro-Western beliefs
o Believed fewer opportunities under communism
o Began fleeing in 1970s
Described as internally displaced or stateless people: not a member
of any particular state, forced fleeing due to armed conflicts
Categorized as refugees/asylum seekers
o United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) established
refugee camps around Asia and resettled them in accepting countries
o Australia let in 137 000 refugees
Felt moral obligation
Some refugees were so desperate as to arrive by sea unofficially
Known as boat people

I lived my youth in constant fear people knew who we are, or know of our fathers
military background. Carina Hoang

- Boat people
o Refers to refugees who take to the sea to search for better future
o 1970s described Viet refugees, but remained part of Australian political vocab
o 1976 first Vietnam boats
Followed by another 2058 boats
1981 last boat arrived
o 1973 White Australia policy abolished
o The journey to Australia
Bribing local officials
Makeshift boats/rafts
Hope to drift onto open sea lanes, being picked up by vessel
Some made it to Australia, other only to Thailand
Families sold all belongings, and money converted to gold (convenient
carrying)
Boats were prime target for pirates (esp. along coast of
Thailand)
Pirates along with storms and rough seas
250 000-500 000 refugees perished at sea
Robbery, rape, murder by Thai pirates
 Families typically split before leaving in hopes at least 1 will survive
Very little food/water
Trip to Darwin 4 weeks

people threw up and urinated all over each other we lived with that horrible smell for
the next 7 days Carina Hoang

Australias changing society and relationship with Asia

End of WWII, Australians wanted security/stability after 2 wars and the Great Depression
Government priority: economic prosperity and security from threats to Australian way of
life
Felt closer to Britain than Asian neighbours
Felt threat of Asian invasion
White Australia policy in place
Conservative society
99% born in Europe/Australia
1950s-1960s economic prosperity, high wages, barely any unemployment
Population grew, partially due to post-war immigration
Consumer goods more available
Rocknroll/television
Britain influence strong, growing American influence
End of Vietnam war, changing views about role of women and White Australia policy
Anti-authoritarian behavior
Trends were already emerging, but government decisions (e.g. send National Servicemen to
Vietnam) led people to question authority
People more political than ever, joining political parties and movements (e.g. anti-
conscription)
1972, Gough Whitlam elected, first Labour government in 23 years

The 60s were a political education Now everyone who gets angry marches down the
streets Jean McLean

- Australias changing relationship with Asia

o Previously Australia considered itself an outpost of Europe
Viewed Asia with distrust/suspicion/ignorance
o Began to recognize they were part of Asian region
Saw economic benefits of having closer ties with Asian neighbours
o Whitlam government established diplomatic relations with China and Vietnam
o White Australia policy dismantled
Welcomed immigrants from Asia as well as Vietnamese refugees
o New era of cooperation and trade with Asia
o Australia became a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC), firmly placing itself as a part of Asia

1963-64: Australia exported 7.7% to China all exports

2013-2014: Australia exported 36.7% to China all exports
- ABS