2017 The Role of Knowledge Brokers in Communities of Practice in Japan

Journal of Knowledge Management
Role of knowledge brokers in communities of practice in Japan

Nobutaka Ishiyama
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Nobutaka Ishiyama , (2016),"Role of knowledge brokers in communities of practice in Japan ", Journal of Knowledge
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Role of knowledge brokers in
communities of practice in Japan
Nobutaka Ishiyama
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of knowledge brokers in Japanese
communities of practice (CoP). This is because if knowledge brokers can connect across boundaries
and introduce practices into another CoP, they can contribute by introducing practices as tacit
knowledge to another CoP.

Design/methodology/approach This study examines five hypotheses on knowledge brokers with
respect to multi-membership in CoPs, knowledge brokering and career adaptability. In this study, an
Nobutaka Ishiyama is
online questionnaire was administrated to 412 business persons, all employed by Japanese
based at Hosei Graduate companies.
School of Regional Policy Findings In line with the predictions, the results show that the cognition and behavior of
Design, Hosei University, multi-membership were composed of two factors: creation and integration of diverse opinions and
Tokyo, Japan. acceptance of diverse opinions. With respect to covariance structure analysis, concern, one of the
factors of career adaptability, had both direct and indirect effects on knowledge brokering. Creation
and integration of diverse opinions, one of the factors of the cognition and behavior of
multi-membership, had direct effects on knowledge brokering.
Research limitations/implications Given that the data presented in this study are limited to
knowledge brokers in Japanese CoPs, the study needs to be extended to an international context and
to other kinds of knowledge brokers.
Originality/value This study contributes to the findings which show the complexity of
multi-membership and career adaptability. Upon closer examination, each subscale of
multi-membership and career adaptability shows a different effect on knowledge brokering. In other
words, this study reveals the importance of proactive behavior in integrating diverse opinions for
knowledge brokering.
Keywords Communities of practice, Knowledge brokering, Career adaptability, Gatekeepers,
Knowledge brokers, Multi-membership
Paper type Research paper
1. Purpose
Numerous studies have stressed on the importance of the communities of practice (CoP)
approach in a knowledge-based society. Wenger and Snyder (2000, p. 139) defined CoPs
as follows: they are groups of people informally bound together by shared expertise and
passion for a joint enterprise. Furthermore, participation in multiple CoPs at once was
defined as multi-membership. Those who have multi-membership can act as knowledge
Received 1 March 2016 brokers. Knowledge brokers can introduce practices into another CoP (Wenger, 1998,
Revised 10 July 2016
17 July 2016 2000).
Accepted 18 July 2016
Different CoPs have different practices that are unique and based on tacit knowledge.
The author would like to
acknowledge the constructive Therefore, if knowledge brokers try to connect across boundaries, it would not be easy.
comments and Miscommunication and misunderstanding are natural and common.
encouragement of Rory
Chase, the Editor in Chief of
JKM, and anonymous
The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of knowledge brokers in CoPs. This is
reviewers. because if knowledge brokers can connect across boundaries and introduce practices into
PAGE 1302 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016, pp. 1302-1317, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1367-3270 DOI 10.1108/JKM-03-2016-0098
Different CoPs have different practices that are unique and
based on tacit knowledge.
another CoP, they can contribute by introducing practices as tacit knowledge into another
CoP.
In particular, in Japan, knowledge workers in external CoPs try to introduce external
practices into internal CoPs (Araki, 2007, 2009; Ishiyama, 2013). One of the labor practices
of Japanese-style human resource management is on-the-job training (OJT). Through OJT,
Japanese companies can achieve high performance with a committed and skilled
workforce (Moriguchi, 2013). However, to acquire new knowledge, Japanese knowledge
workers have recently focused on external knowledge. Therefore, the focus of in this study
is on Japanese knowledge workers who try to learn from external CoPs.
2. Approach
2.1 The difference between learning transition and legitimate peripheral participation
On one hand, in CoP, the importance of situated learning is stressed. On the other hand,
in the learning transition model, learning occurs mostly in the classroom without any
specific social context. In this model, learning is considered didactic instruction (Anderson
et al., 1996).
Situated learning has been tied to day-to-day activities (Lave, 1988), learning in cognitive
apprenticeship (Brown et al., 1989) through social interaction. Lave and Wenger (1991)
focused on social interaction in a shared practice of people and developed the CoP
concept in situated learning. Furthermore, Lave and Wenger developed the legitimate
peripheral participation theory. In the five apprenticeship examples, namely, midwives in
Yucatec, Vai and Golan tailors, quartermasters, meat cutters and non-drinking alcoholics,
legitimate peripheral participation is considered a learning process. In these five examples,
the novices are considered to be legitimate members of CoP. They have legitimacy;
therefore, even though they start off as peripheral in CoP, they can learn many things taking
place in CoPs. After that, they can acquire more legitimacy and will consequently become
young masters and old masters.
Lave and Wenger defined this learning process as participation. Participation includes
contribution as novices, young masters and old masters. Regardless of the member status,
members in a CoP can learn tacit knowledge through this participation concept because
they can access resources in CoP, thanks to their legitimacy. In this process, CoPs can
generate knowledge; therefore, CoPs play an important role in knowledge creation.
2.2 Knowledge creation in communities of practice

Thereafter, Lave and Wenger (1991); Wenger (1998); Wenger and Snyder (2000) and
Wenger et al. (2002) focused on knowledge creation, which is the unique feature of CoPs.
To generate knowledge, CoPs have the following features:
Membership is voluntary, as members join a CoP because of their interest, passion, and
commitment to their expertise.
CoPs foster mutually beneficial cooperation, trust and openness.
CoPs are informal and non-hierarchical.
CoPs can generate not only explicit knowledge but also tacit knowledge.
VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PAGE 1303

For instance, HewlettPackard Company, Shell Oil Company and the World Bank are large
multinational companies in which CoPs play an important role as knowledge-emergent
communities (Wenger et al., 2002). Why can CoPs become knowledge-emergent
communities?
The reason is that CoPs are different from formal organizations. The purpose of a CoP
is to generate, build and exchange knowledge. On the other hand, the purpose of
formal organizations is to accomplish business goals or specific tasks (Wenger, 1998;
Wenger et al., 2002). Therefore, Wenger and Snyder (2000) stressed that senior
executives should support CoPs and invest time in helping them and formal
organizations.
Furthermore, multi-membership contributes to knowledge creation. Multi-membership is
defined as belongingness to multiple CoPs (Wenger, 1998) and belongingness to CoPs
and formal organizations at the same time (Wenger et al., 2002). For instance, in Japan,
knowledge workers join external CoPs that cross the border of workplaces for the purpose
of individual career development (Araki, 2007, 2009; Ishiyama, 2013) or to learn the
knowledge and skills that are essential to their formal tasks (Matsumoto, 2013; Nakanishi,
2013).
Araki (2008) argued that these kinds of external CoPs can encourage vocational identities
and career development for knowledge workers. Therefore, the CoP concept is extended
from the apprenticeship model to the loose relationship model for knowledge workers.
These types of loose relationship models for knowledge workers can be applied to a wide
variety of CoPs. For instance, significant learning and innovation are generated by informal
CoPs (Brown and Duguid, 1991) and CoPs in Australian higher education (Nagy and
Burch, 2009). Knowledge transfer and exchange are also observed between academics
and practitioners on community policing in Scotland (Henry and Mackenzie, 2012) and the
Journal of Mental Health as CoPs (Ponton, 2014).
Nagy and Burch (2009) highlighted that people in CoPs do not necessarily work together
every day. Furthermore, CoPs that have the features of being non-hierarchical, informal,
lacking an actual leader, voluntary and accumulating tacit knowledge are suited for
professional groups. Henry and Mackenzie (2012) emphasized on brokering CoP to
promote knowledge transfer and exchange between academics and practitioners.
Accordingly, such features of CoPs as being mutually beneficial, non-hierarchical and
open can contribute to knowledge creation. Thus, knowledge workers can utilize CoPs as
a loose relationship model. However, Roberts (2006) highlighted that there is a significant
difference between the two types of CoP. On one hand, CoPs are spontaneous,
self-organizing and small (Lave and Wenger, 1991). On the other hand, CoP can be found
in large multinational organizations and can have large memberships. For example, the
CoP in Shell Oil Company has 1,500 members (Wenger et al., 2002). Therefore, Roberts
suggested that CoPs should be differentiated in terms of these features, although certain
features may be common to all CoPs.
The author classifies CoPs into two categories depending on previous studies. According
to Roberts, the nature of CoPs can be diverse depending on several features. The author
classifies CoP into the homogenous and heterogeneous types. Homogenous types include
CoPs with the five apprenticeships examples (Lave and Wenger, 1991) and those in
If Japanese companies realize the importance of knowledge

creation, they need to promote knowledge brokering
between internal and external CoPs.
PAGE 1304 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016

To promote knowledge creation, Japanese companies should
develop their knowledge workers as knowledge brokers so
that knowledge brokering can create knowledge internally.
insurance claim processing offices (Wenger, 1998). Heterogeneous types refer to the loose
relationship model for knowledge workers, as Nagy and Burch (2009) showed in the CoPs
for Australian higher education. As previously mentioned, knowledge workers can utilize
heterogeneous CoPs because the loose relationship model can be effective for knowledge
creation. Therefore, for the purpose of investigating knowledge brokers, the author focuses
on the heterogeneous CoPs in the succeeding pages.
Despite the difference between the homogenous and heterogeneous types, both have the
common nature of legitimate peripheral participation. According to Wenger et al. (2002),
heterogeneous CoPs have a certain domain. Domain refers to interest and expertise, which
are connected to membership. In other words, the members of a CoP have passion,
commitment and identification with the interest related to the domain. Such passion,
commitment and identification generate legitimacy. However, if legitimacy is fixed, CoPs

tend to lose flexibility and openness. To avoid this kind of immobilization, heterogeneous
CoPs try to acquire new members. Therefore, heterogeneous CoPs have diverse members
that include novices, young masters and old masters. This feature shows the framework of
legitimate peripheral participation.
2.3 Knowledge broker and gatekeeper

As previously noted, knowledge brokers are those who have multi-membership (Wenger,
1998) and who introduce the practices of a CoP to another CoP (Wenger, 2000). This
concept of practice means doing in a historical and social context, and it includes the
language, tools, documents, images and symbols as the explicit. It also includes the
implicit relations, tacit conventions, subtle cues and untold rules of thumb as the tacit
knowledge (Wenger, 1998). In other words, it includes the explicit and the tacit (Wenger
et al., 2002).
As an example, knowledge brokers are brokering through discursive practice among CoPs
of engineers, site foremen and main contractors (Gherardi and Nicolini, 2002). Japanese
knowledge workers in external CoPs formed an informal study group of global human
resource development, and they introduced external practices into internal CoPs
(Ishiyama, 2013).
Brown and Duguid (1991) argued that knowledge is described as contradictory views, i.e.
sticky and leaky or tacit and explicit. These contrary descriptions of knowledge are created
by practice in CoPs. Therefore, the role of knowledge brokers and brokering practices
among CoPs is important. This effect of knowledge brokering is similar to the concept of
learning by expanding (Engestrm, 1987, 2008). Learning by expanding stresses the
importance of horizontal movement and boundary crossing. The concept of CoP is
influenced by learning and expanding. Furthermore, brokering should interconnect
different CoPs with practice. In this case, knowledge brokers need to utilize horizontal
movement and boundary crossing.
Having defined and described the nature of knowledge brokers, it is helpful to compare
other similar concepts, such as a gatekeeper. For the innovative performance of a firm, it
is critical to have the capability labeled as a firms absorptive capacity, which refers to the
ability of a firm to recognize the value of new, external information (Cohen and Levinthal,
1990).

The actor who provides new and external information to other organization members is
called a gatekeeper or boundary spanner. In research and technical laboratories,
gatekeepers are important contributors to organizations. Gatekeepers are sociometric
communication stars that use various sources, such as the literature and oral sources (Allen
and Cohen, 1969).
However, the process of gathering and transmitting information is not simple. Gatekeepers
need to assume special boundary roles to link the internal network to the external source
at several organizational boundaries, in line with the nature of the organizations work
(Tushman, 1977). For instance, a gatekeeper in an R&D project is important, depending
only on the circumstances, such as the case of development projects with complex
technologies. If conducting basic research or using well-established technologies, there is
little need for gatekeepers (Allen et al., 1979). Furthermore, Boari and Riboldazzi (2014)
argued about how actors who are positioned in a network can evolve into knowledge
brokers. However, in this context, the label of knowledge brokers refers to gatekeepers,
because the focus is on different brokerage roles in line with the status of different
organizations.
Compared with that on knowledge brokers, the literature on gatekeepers focused on the
function of knowledge transfer in organizations. Such literature stressed the concept of
contingency relative to different organizations work or the nature of their projects.
Meanwhile, the focus of knowledge brokers in CoPs is on learning through the interaction
between individuals and the organization. According to the legitimate peripheral
participation theory, knowledge brokers in CoP can learn tacit knowledge through
participation as the contribution for their CoP. At the same time, through horizontal
movement and boundary crossing, knowledge brokers introduce external practices into
internal CoPs. This process refers to learning by expanding.
However, introducing external practices into internal CoPs is not easy. In Japan, knowledge
workers can acquire company-specific knowledge through OJT with organizational
commitment (Moriguchi, 2013). Therefore, internal CoPs whose members possess
company-specific knowledge and organizational commitment tend to be homogenous.
Araki (2007, 2009) and Ishiyama (2013) argued that knowledge brokers who attempt to
introduce external practices into internal CoPs face difficulties owing to the homogeneity of
internal CoPs. Thus, one of the important roles of knowledge brokers is to change the
culture of internal CoPs.
2.4 Career adaptability

In Japan, Araki (2007, 2009) suggested that boundary crossing and brokering between
external and internal CoPs contributed to the career development of knowledge brokers.
The boundaryless career theory focuses on boundary crossing. A boundaryless career is
the opposite of the concept of an organizational career. Specific meanings relate to
crossing career boundaries, such as moving across separate employers, practicing with
marketability and sustaining external networks (Arthur, 1994).
However, Gunz et al. (2000) argued that a boundaryless career is a highly modern concept,
and career boundaries have become considerably more complex. Therefore, it is
suggested that pure boundarylessness be seen as a special case that occurs under
certain very special circumstances. This means that career boundaries still exist, but they
have changed to become more complex situations. Thus, Inkson et al. (2012) suggested
that career theories should focus on the creation and crossing of career boundaries,
because there are so many variations of career boundaries. Career actors have been
significantly affected by the experience of career boundary crossing.
Career adaptability is a theory related to career boundary crossing. Savickas (1997)
defined career adaptability as the readiness to cope with the predicable tasks of
preparing for and participating in the work role and with the unpredictable adjustments

prompted by changes in work and working conditions (Savickas, 1997, p. 254). That is the
responsive capability toward the uncertain world.
Savickas (2005) defined four dimensions of career adaptability, namely, concern, control,
curiosity and confidence. Masuda (2008) created a career adaptability scale in line with
these four dimensions. In a survey of three Japanese companies, Masuda found career
adaptability to be positively related to the recognition of the career transition of employees.
Thus, these findings mean that career actors who have career adaptability have a tendency
to adopt career boundary crossing. Furthermore, CoP boundaries comprise one of the
categories of career boundaries. Therefore, career adaptability is an important concept for
knowledge brokers.
2.5 Hypothesis of knowledge brokers

Knowledge brokers have multi-membership and introduce the practices of CoPs into
another CoP. Ishiyama (2013) argued that Japanese knowledge workers have
knotworking skill, community skill and acceptance of diverse opinions as the features
of cognition and behavior for multi-membership.
The notion of knot means the rapidly pulsating, distributed, and partially improvised
orchestration of collaborative performance between otherwise loosely connected actors

and activity systems (Engestrm, 2008, p. 194). Therefore, knotworking is an adequate
concept to describe the tying of loosely connected knowledge workers without the
perspective of the center of coordination or control in external CoP. The feature of
knotworking skill deals with loosely connected actors who have diverse opinions
extemporarily in the short term.
Community skill refers to the coordination of various members of a CoP, such as
novices, young masters and old masters. Araki (2007, 2009) highlighted that the
essential role of a heterogeneous CoP is as a coordinator. Coordinators should give full
consideration to diverse members to energize CoP activities, because all CoP members
need to have passion, commitment and identification depending on their participation
level.
Multi-membership is a necessary condition needed to be a knowledge broker. Therefore,
the author predicts that:
H1. The scale of multi-membership in CoPs consists of the features of cognition and
behavior as knotworking skill, community skill and acceptance of diverse
opinions.
With multi-membership, knowledge brokers perform knowledge brokering between
internal and external CoPs. Knowledge brokering is similar to the concept of learning by
expanding (Engestrm, 1987, 2008), and it introduces discursive practices, including
explicit and tacit knowledge, from one CoP into another CoP. Therefore, the author
predicts that:
H2. The scale of knowledge brokering among CoPs consists of building relationships
and gathering information in external CoPs and introducing practices into internal
CoPs purposefully.
Previous studies have suggested that career adaptability is the theory that refers to the
readiness to cope with the unpredictable changes in work and working conditions.
Therefore, career adaptability prompts the cognition and behavior of career boundary
crossing, which includes CoP boundaries. This means that career boundary crossing is the
same as CoP boundary crossing. In other words, career adaptability prompts the cognition
and behavior of multi-membership. Therefore, the author predicts that:
H3. Career adaptability is positively related to the cognition and behavior of multi-
membership.

As previously discussed, knowledge workers with multi-membership in internal and
external CoPs can contribute to knowledge creation and develop their identities. This kind
of knowledge creation based on multi-membership is essential for knowledge brokering. In
other words, multi-membership is a prerequisite to becoming a knowledge broker.
Therefore, the author predicts that:
H4. The cognition and behavior of multi-membership is positively related to knowledge
brokering.
As noted earlier, prior studies have not examined whether and how the cognition and
behavior of multi-membership may mediate the relationship between career adaptability
and knowledge brokering. The author examines the mediating effects of the cognition and
behavior of multi-membership.
Ishiyama (2013) argued that knowledge brokering generates a backlash in internal CoPs.
This is because, as noted earlier, in a Japanese cultural context, internal CoPs tend to be
homogenous, and their members tend to refrain from accepting new knowledge. To deal
with such conflict, career adaptability is effective. Career adaptability is the readiness to
cope with the uncertain world. Moreover, it can deal with career boundary crossing. Thus,
career adaptability could prompt the features of cognition and behavior of multi-
membership. Multi-membership deals with loosely connected actors. Career actors who
have career adaptability are accustomed to dealing with people with diverse opinions.
Therefore, career actors who have career adaptability and multi-membership in internal
and external CoPs are accustomed to such conflicts, which involve the confrontation of
diverse opinions. Therefore, the author predicts that:
H5. The cognition and behavior of multi-membership mediates the relationship between
career adaptability and knowledge brokering.
3. Methodology
3.1 Sample
In this study, the author analyzed the data from 412 regular employees in Japanese
companies. Japanese companies tend to divide their employees into two groups:
employees who share their companies expectation of long-term service and employees
who neither expect long-term service nor are committed to their companies (Takanashi,
1999). Regular employees are those who share their companies expectation of long-term
service. Thus, in many cases, regular employees have organizational commitment to some
extent. Furthermore, Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) argued that regular employees in
Japanese companies generate tacit and explicit knowledge in the informal and flexible
organization layer. They defined the layer as the knowledge-based layer in a hypertext
organization. The nature of the knowledge-based layer is similar to that of internal CoPs.
Thus, the author posits that regular employees in Japanese companies participate in an
internal CoP in many situations.
Knowledge brokers play important roles in knowledge organizations as regular employees
because they have organizational commitment to some extent. Owing to their
organizational commitment, they try to perform knowledge brokering between external and
internal CoPs. Therefore, the author focused on regular employees in Japanese
companies. Moreover, participants were chosen from a wide range of industrial sectors to
examine the commonalities among knowledge brokers in Japan. Participants received
online questionnaires, which were used to collect a wide range of samples throughout
Japan via the Web system of Macromill, Inc. from November 14 to 15, 2013. The sample
consisted of 295 males and 117 females with an average age of 42.45 (SD 10.15).
3.2 Measurements
In all measurements, a five-point Likert-type scale with anchors of 1 (strongly disagree) to
5 (strongly agree) was used.

3.2.1 Multi-membership. The author assessed the cognition and behavior of
multi-membership using original items based on the concepts of knotworking skill,
community skill and acceptance of diverse values, which were generated through an
interview (Ishiyama, 2013).
3.2.2 Knowledge brokering. The author assessed knowledge brokering using the items
from Miwas (2011) external interaction and learning, Ishiyamas (2011) cross-border
learning and original items based on the concept of knowledge brokering from external
CoPs to internal CoPs, which were generated through an interview (Ishiyama, 2013).
3.2.3 Career adaptability. The author assessed career adaptability using the items from
Masudas (2008) scale. The scale consists of four subscales and 18 items. The four
subscales are based on the four dimensions of career adaptability, namely, concern,
control, curiosity and confidence, which were proposed by Savickas (2005).
4. Findings
4.1 Measurements
An exploratory factor analysis on all measurements was performed using principal axis
factoring and promax rotation. With respect to the multi-membership scale, the eigenvalues
and the scree plot of the initial principal axis factoring results indicated that a two-factor solution
would be appropriate. Based on the initial principal axis factoring results, items that were low
factor loadings were removed, and the remaining items were then subjected to principal axis
factoring restricted to two factors. When the solution was restricted to two factors, the items
were clearly loaded on two separate factors (see Table I for the rotated pattern matrix).
The first factor consisted of ten items, which showed the feature of knotworking skill and
community skill. The ten items included cognition and behavior, which showed the
interaction with someone new and diverse, thus eliciting a great variety of views from those
people and integrating those views into new ideas. Therefore, the author named the first
factor as creation and integration of diverse opinions. The Cronbachs alpha for this scale
was 0.88, which was acceptable.
The second factor consisted of seven items, which showed the feature of acceptance of
diverse values. The seven items included cognition, which showed the acceptance of new and
divers values, opinions and views. Therefore, the author named the second factor as
acceptance of diverse opinions. The Cronbachs alpha for this scale was 0.87, which was
acceptable.
Table I Pattern matrix factor loadings for multi-membership scale

Factor loadings I II
I can form a definite opinion from diverse opinions through understanding of

a common purpose 0.83 0.19
I speak up about my feelings in communities which have diverse opinions 0.80 0.18
I try to contribute to belonging communities with my own value 0.75 0.01
I can open up and start a conversation with a stranger 0.72 0.04
I have contact with diverse people who have different views from my view 0.70 0.08
When I convey new things, I try to deliver a simple message with metaphor 0.58 0.12
I do not stick to ones status and age for discussion 0.54 0.13
I try to understand and persuade the opposite perspective 0.53 0.07
I am open to differing views 0.49 0.22
I am happy to see new members in belonging communities 0.41 0.37
It is reasonable that we have many differing views 0.22 0.93
It is natural I face resistance because our views are different 0.08 0.80
It is important to understand different views 0.00 0.71
It is natural that we face ambiguity because we cannot have an absolute fact 0.12 0.63
I enjoy new perspective through dialogue 0.27 0.57
It is important to have associates who share my perspective 0.28 0.54
I want to know diverse views 0.23 0.52

The common denominator of both factors was welcoming diverse opinions. However, on
one hand, the second factor only positively accepted the diverse opinions. It did not intend
to integrate these opinions. On the other hand, the first factor included the intention to
integrate diverse opinions and create new ideas.
Therefore, H1 was partially supported. The multi-membership scale included the feature of
cognition and behavior as knotworking skill, community skill and acceptance of diverse
opinions. However, the scale consisted of only two factors, namely, creation and
integration of diverse opinions and acceptance of diverse opinions.
With respect to the knowledge brokering scale, the eigenvalues and the scree plot of the
initial principal axis factoring results indicated that a one-factor solution would be
appropriate. Based on the initial principal axis factoring results, items that were low factor
loadings were removed, and the remaining 12 items were then subjected to principal axis
factoring restricted to one factor. When the solution was restricted to one factor, the items
were clearly loaded on one factor (Table II).
As predicted, this factor includes the behavior that showed building relationships and
gathering information in external CoPs and introducing practices into internal CoPs
purposefully. Therefore, the author named this factor as knowledge brokering. The
Cronbachs alpha for this scale was 0.94, which was acceptable. Therefore, H2 was supported.
With respect to the 18 items of the career adaptability scale, the eigenvalues and the scree
plot of the initial principal axis factoring results indicated that a three-factor solution would
be appropriate. Based on the initial principal axis factoring results, items that were low
factor loadings were removed, and the remaining items were then subjected to principal
axis factoring restricted to three factors. When the solution was restricted to three factors,
the items were clearly loaded on three factors (Table III).
The first factor consisted of four items from Masudas concern and two items from
Masudas curiosity. The two items of curiosity showed the cognition of coping with
environmental changes. Thus, these items can be construed as concern for the
environment. Therefore, the author named this factor as concern. The second factor
consisted of five items from Masudas control. Therefore, the author named this factor as
control. The third factor consisted of three items from Masudas confidence. Therefore,
the author called this factor confidence. The Cronbachs alpha for concern was 0.85,
that for control was 0.85 and that for confidence was 0.85, all of which were acceptable.
4.2 Regression analysis

To test H3 and H4, the author conducted a series of regression analysis. Table IV presents
the means, standard deviations, correlations among variables and Cronbachs alpha.
For each equation, the author first included the following control variables: age, gender,
position and job change. As noted earlier, knowledge workers in Japan can develop their
Table II Pattern matrix factor loadings for knowledge brokering scale

I have sought opportunities to gather information with diverse people 0.89
I sometimes introduce my acquaintance to my communities 0.80
I have regularly interacted with people who have the same beliefs as me beyond my
workplace 0.79
I try to expand my perspective by interacting with diverse people 0.78
I enjoy creating communities with diverse people 0.77
I participate in communities involving people outside of my organization 0.77
I try to make a network of people outside of my organization to gather information 0.76
I try to gather valuable information from outside of my organization 0.74
I convey knowledge and information learned outside to my organization 0.73
I explain my opinion to people in other departments on a daily basis 0.72
I utilize learning opportunities outside of my office 0.72
I often take charge of communities as an organizer 0.70

Table III Pattern matrix factor loadings for career adaptability scale
Factor loadings I II III
I think about my future specifically 0.77 0.14 0.09

I enjoy new opportunities 0.74 0.18 0.12
I have a concrete plan for my future career 0.74 0.01 0.01
I prepare for my career development 0.73 0.03 0.05
I am adaptable enough for new surroundings 0.57 0.03 0.07
I gather information for my career development in a positive manner 0.42 0.32 0.08
I want to enrich my future career 0.05 0.78 0.08
I am responsible for my career success 0.00 0.76 0.07
I often think how my career should be 0.11 0.71 0.12
I am concerned about my career 0.05 0.65 0.08
I want to be responsible for my career 0.06 0.61 0.25
I enjoy my job assignments 0.05 0.06 0.89
I think I am fit for my job 0.02 0.01 0.77
I feel my job is important 0.05 0.19 0.60
skills through OJT, suggesting that stable employment in a single company can affect the
skill acquisition of knowledge workers in Japan. Therefore, the author included position and
job change, which are factors of employment, as control variables. Subsequently, the
author incorporated the predictors into an equation.

Table V displays the result of an ordinary least squares regression for creation and
integration of diverse opinions and acceptance of diverse opinions. Model 1 in
Table II showed that after controlling for the control variables, concern and control
were positively and significantly related to creation and integration of diverse
opinions. Model 2 in Table II showed that only control was positively and significantly
related to acceptance of diverse opinions. Overall, the factors of career adaptability
were positively related to the multi-membership scale. Therefore, H3 was supported.
Table VI displays the three ordinary least squares regression models. Step 1 reported the
results for the control variables. Step 2 added the multi-membership scale and Step 3
added the career adaptability scale.
As shown in Step 2, on one hand, creation and integration of diverse opinions was
positively and significantly related to knowledge brokering. On the other hand,
acceptance of diverse opinions was negatively related to knowledge brokering,
suggesting that the factors of the multi-membership scale were positively and partially
related to knowledge brokering. Thus, H4 was partially supported.
As shown in Step 3, concern was positively and significantly related to knowledge
brokering. On the other hand, control was negatively related to knowledge
brokering. This finding suggests that the factors of career adaptability have both
positive and negative effects on knowledge brokering.
Table IV Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations between knowledge brokering scale, multi-membership
scale and career adaptability scale
Variables N Mean SD a 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Knowledge brokering 412 2.62 0.84 0.94

2. Creation and integration of diverse opinions 412 3.06 0.69 0.88 0.74***
3. Acceptance of diverse opinions 412 3.67 0.72 0.87 0.28*** 0.63***
4. Concern 412 2.88 0.73 0.85 0.65*** 0.66*** 0.33***
5. Control 412 3.45 0.77 0.85 0.36*** 0.62*** 0.70*** 0.56***
6. Confidence 412 3.14 0.95 0.85 0.38*** 0.52*** 0.38*** 0.54*** 0.59***
Note: ***p 0.001

Table V Ordinary least square regression
Model 1: creation and integration Model 2: acceptance
of diverse opinions of diverse opinions
Variables
Age 0.02 0.02

Gender 0.02 0.04
Position 0.08* 0.04
Job change 0.03 0.02
Concern 0.41*** 0.08
Control 0.33*** 0.75***
Confidence 0.09* 0.02
R2 0.54*** 0.50***
Adjusted R2 0.53*** 0.49***
Notes: *p 0.05; ***p 0.001; VIF: 1.08-1.85; Gender: 1 female, 0 male; Position: 1
managerial class, 0 other classes; Job change: 1 change, 0 no change
Table VI Three ordinary least square regression models

: knowledge brokering
Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Age 0.01 0.04 0.05

Gender 0.02 0.00 0.01
Position 0.14* 0.02 0.02
Job change 0.05 0.01 0.01
Creation and integration of diverse opinions 0.93*** 0.76***
Acceptance of diverse opinions 0.31*** 0.21***
Concern 0.30***
Control 0.12*
Confidence 0.03
R2 0.02* 0.60*** 0.64***
Adjusted R2 0.02* 0.59*** 0.63***
R2 0.58*** 0.04***
Notes: *p 0.05; ***p 0.001; VIF: 1.07-2.97; Gender: 1 female, 0 male; Position: 1
managerial class, 0 other classes; Job change: 1 change, 0 no change
4.3 Covariance structure analysis

Step 3 in Table VI suggests that the factors of career adaptability have both positive and
negative effects on knowledge brokering. However, whether and how the cognition and
behavior of multi-membership may mediate the relationship between career adaptability
and knowledge brokering remains unclear. Therefore, to test H5, the author used the
covariance structure analysis using IBM SPSS Amos.21.
Figure 1 displays the result of the covariance structure analysis. The goodness of fit index
(GFI) of 999, the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) of 0.992, the comparative fit index
(CFI) of 1.000 and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) of 0.000 showed
that the hypothesized model fits the data reasonably well.
Table VII shows the direct effect, the indirect effect and the total effect for knowledge brokering.
With respect to H5, concern had both positive direct and indirect effects through
creation and integration of diverse opinions on knowledge brokering. The total effect of
concern on knowledge brokering was positive.
On the other hand, control had both negative direct and indirect effects through acceptance
of diverse opinions on knowledge brokering. Furthermore, control had a positive indirect
effect through creation and integration of diverse opinions on knowledge brokering. The
total effect of control on knowledge brokering was positive. Confidence had only a positive
indirect effect through creation and integration of diverse opinions on knowledge brokering.

Figure 1 Covariance structure analysis
R = 0.53
Creation and e1
0.43***
Concern integration
of diverse
opinions
0.32***
0.56***
0.75***
0.11**
0.28***
R = 0.64
0.54*** Knowledge
Control e3
0.12** brokering
0.09* 0.20***
0.59*** R = 0.49
0.75*** Acceptance
of diverse
Confidence opinions
e2
Career adaptability The cognition and behavior

of multimembership
Notes: ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05

Table VII Direct effect, indirect effect and total effect for knowledge brokering
Dependent variable
Variables Knowledge brokering
Concern
Direct effect 0.28***
Indirect effect 0.34
Total effect 0.62
Control
Direct effect 0.12**
Total effect 0.03
Confidence
Direct effect
Total effect 0.08
Creation and integration of diverse opinions
Direct effect 0.75***
Indirect effect
Total effect 0.75
Acceptance of diverse opinions
Direct effect 0.20**
Indirect effect
Total effect 0.20
Notes: ***p 0.001; **p 0.01
Overall, the factors of career adaptability were positively related to the knowledge
brokering scale through the multi-membership scale, although control had both negative
direct and indirect effects. Therefore, H5 was partially supported.
5. Conclusions
5.1 Summary of conclusions
This article focuses on knowledge brokers in CoPs who have multi-membership and who
introduce practices from one CoP to another CoP. Therefore, the author developed a

theoretical model for knowledge brokers. First, knowledge brokers purposefully gather
information in external CoPs and introduce these practices into internal CoPs. Second, the
features of cognition and behavior of knowledge brokers are knotworking skill,
community skill and acceptance of diverse opinions. Last, career adaptability is
positively related to the cognition and behavior of multi-membership, and the cognition and
behavior of multi-membership is positively related to knowledge brokering. Furthermore,
the cognition and behavior of multi-membership mediates the relationship between career
adaptability and knowledge brokering. To test the hypothesis, the author collected data
from 412 regular employees in Japanese companies.
In line with the predictions, the results show that the cognition and behavior of
multi-membership was composed of two factors: creation and integration of diverse
opinions and acceptance of diverse opinions.
With respect to H3-H5, overall, the career adaptability scale was positively related to the
knowledge brokering scale through the multi-membership scale. However, control, one of
the factors of career adaptability, had both negative direct and indirect effects on
knowledge brokering. Acceptance of diverse opinions, one of the factors of the
cognition and behavior of multi-membership, was negatively related to knowledge
brokering.
5.2 Implications for researchers and practitioners

5.2.1 Theoretical implications. This article contributes to the literature as follows:
With respect to the multi-membership scale, creation and integration of diverse opinions
was positively related to knowledge brokering. On the other hand, acceptance of diverse
opinions was negatively related to knowledge brokering. This finding suggests that the
influence of multi-membership on knowledge brokering is complex.
Acceptance of diverse opinions includes the cognition that shows the acceptance of new
and divers values, opinions and views. However, it does not include proactive behavior,
such as speaking up about ones opinion in such a diverse environment or integrating
diverse views into new ideas. On the other hand, creation and integration of diverse
opinions includes the kind of proactive behavior that shows the integration of diverse
views.
This finding suggests that acceptance of diverse opinions may mean a passive attitude
for knowledge brokering. Given that it may only refer to the cognition of the acceptance of
diversity, it cannot lead to proactive behavior for the integration of diverse views. On the
other hand, it is suggested that creation and integration of diverse opinions can play an
important role in knowledge brokering. This suggests that multi-membership in CoPs could
generate a proactive and passive attitude towards knowledge brokers. Therefore, this
article contributes to the mechanism of multi-membership. It includes the complex attitudes
of actors in CoPs.
With respect to the factors of career adaptability, they were generally positively related to
the multi-membership scale and the knowledge brokering scale. In particular, concern
was positively related to creation and integration of diverse opinions and knowledge
brokering. However, concern was negatively related to acceptance of diverse
opinions. Furthermore, control had both negative direct and indirect effects on
knowledge brokering.
Concern includes the planning for ones career development, the cognition of coping with
environmental changes and gathering information with curiosity. The results show that such
a kind of career attitude can play an important role in knowledge brokering. This career
attitude could lead to proactive behavior towards knowledge brokers. This is because
concern, which includes readiness for environmental changes, can involve conflict with
other CoP members for the purpose of integrating diverse views.

Control means the cognition and behavior of self-determination and autonomy for ones
career (Savickas, 2005). It may be suggested that this kind of independence does not
promote the cognition and behavior that influences diverse people to change their mind.
Therefore, control has a negative effect on knowledge brokering, which includes the
behavior to affect diverse people.
In conclusion, this study contributes to the findings that show the complexity of
multi-membership and career adaptability. Upon closer examination, each subscale of
multi-membership and career adaptability shows different effects on knowledge brokering.
In other words, this study reveals the importance of proactive behavior in integrating
diverse opinions for knowledge brokering.
5.2.2 Practical implications. As noted, Japanese companies have the tendency to focus on
OJT, because it can generate a committed and skilled workforce (Moriguchi, 2013).
However, this study reveals the importance of multi-membership in external CoPs for
knowledge workers. If Japanese companies realize the importance of knowledge creation,
they need to promote knowledge brokering between internal and external CoPs.
To promote knowledge creation, Japanese companies should develop their knowledge
workers as knowledge brokers so that knowledge brokering can create knowledge
internally. However, as noted earlier, knowledge brokers who attempt to introduce external
practices into internal CoPs face difficulties owing to the homogeneity of internal CoPs.
Thus, Japanese companies should encourage their knowledge workers to overcome such
difficulties. To do so, Japanese companies should pay attention to the importance of
multi-membership and career adaptability, because both have a positive effect on the
knowledge broker scale. At the same time, Japanese companies should pay attention to
the complexity of multi-membership and career adaptability.
In the subscale of multi-membership, creation and integration of diverse opinions has a
positive effect on knowledge brokering. In the subscale of career adaptability, concern
has a positive effect on knowledge brokering.
In particular, Japanese companies should include the elements of mindset focused on
career concern, external orientation and integration of diversity in their career development
policy and training, because both creation and integration of diverse opinions and
concern have such kinds of elements. Meanwhile, too much emphasis on independence
in companies career development policy should be taken with caution. Both control and
acceptance of diverse opinions, which have the aspect of independence, have negative
effects on knowledge brokering.
5.3 Limitations of research

This study only focuses on Japanese knowledge workers who try to learn from external
CoPs. In particular, the focus only covers knowledge brokers who have multi-membership
among internal and external CoPs. Therefore, this study does not cover other kinds of
knowledge brokers. Furthermore, the context of knowledge brokering in Japanese culture
might be very different from that in another culture.
Given that the data presented in this study are limited to knowledge brokers in Japanese
CoPs, the study needs to be extended to an international context and to other kinds of
knowledge brokers.
5.4 Areas of future study

This study does not cover the effect of knowledge brokering on companies performance. It is
possible that knowledge brokering, which contributes to knowledge creation with external
perspectives, may affect companies performance. Thus, the author recommends that future
research should cover these areas to clarify the mechanism of knowledge brokering.

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About the author

Nobutaka Ishiyama is a Professor of Hosei Graduate School of Regional Policy Design. He
received his PhD in policy, planning and development from Hosei Graduate School of
Regional Policy Design. Nobutaka Ishiyama can be contacted at: nobutaka.ishiyama.33@
hosei.ac.jp
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knowledge to another CoP.

2.2 Knowledge creation in communities of practice

VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PAGE 1303

If Japanese companies realize the importance of knowledge

PAGE 1304 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016

commitment and identification generate legitimacy. However, if legitimacy is fixed, CoPs

2.3 Knowledge broker and gatekeeper

VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PAGE 1305

2.4 Career adaptability

PAGE 1306 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016

2.5 Hypothesis of knowledge brokers

orchestration of collaborative performance between otherwise loosely connected actors

VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PAGE 1307

PAGE 1308 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016

Table I Pattern matrix factor loadings for multi-membership scale

I can form a definite opinion from diverse opinions through understanding of

VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PAGE 1309

4.2 Regression analysis

Table II Pattern matrix factor loadings for knowledge brokering scale

PAGE 1310 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016

I think about my future specifically 0.77 0.14 0.09

author incorporated the predictors into an equation.

1. Knowledge brokering 412 2.62 0.84 0.94

VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PAGE 1311

Age 0.02 0.02

Table VI Three ordinary least square regression models

Age 0.01 0.04 0.05

4.3 Covariance structure analysis

PAGE 1312 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016

Career adaptability The cognition and behavior

Notes: ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05

VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PAGE 1313

5.2 Implications for researchers and practitioners

PAGE 1314 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016

5.3 Limitations of research

5.4 Areas of future study

VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PAGE 1315

Engestrm, Y. (1987), Learning by Expanding: an Activity-Theoretical Approach to Developmental

Gherardi, S. and Nicolini, D. (2002), Learning in a constellation of interconnected practices: canon or

Henry, A. and Mackenzie, S. (2012), Brokering communities of practice: a model of knowledge

Lave, J. (1988), Cognition in Practice, Cambridge, Boston, MA.

PAGE 1316 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016

Miwa, T. (2011), Knowledge Workers Career Development, Chuokeizai-Sha, Tokyo.

Nagy, J. and Burch, T. (2009), Communities of practice in Academe (Cop-iA): understanding

Nakanishi, Y. (2013), Effect of secondary community on expertise: learning through participation in a

About the author

VOL. 20 NO. 6 2016 JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PAGE 1317

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Notes: p < 0.001; p < 0.01; p < 0.05