Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Content
Table of Content
1 6
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION INTRODUCTION
2 9
LABOUR MIGRATION THE BACKGROUND
3 12
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION PROGRAM
4 14
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION FROM INDEPENDENT INDIA
5 16
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR MIGRATION
6 18
CAUSES OF MIGRATION
7 22
DATA AND METHODS
8 23
IMPACT OF MIGRATION
9 27
EMPLOYMENT ORIENTED MIGRATION
10 28
TRENDS IN GLOBAL MIGRATION
11 32
EFFECTS OF MIGRATION
12 36
CONCLUSION
1
International Migration Introduction
people from one country to another for the purpose of employment. Today,
an estimated 105 million persons are working in a country other than their
globalization and the global economy with migrant workers earning US$
440 billion in 2011, and the World Bank estimating that more than $350
people from one country to another for the purpose of employment. Today,
an estimated 105 million persons are working in a country other than their
globalization and the global economy with migrant workers earning US$
440 billion in 2011, and the World Bank estimating that more than $350
potential for the migrants, their communities, the countries of origin and
destination, and for employers. While job creation in the home country is
2
the preferred option, demographic, social and economic factors are
boundaries and stay in the host state for some minimum length of time.
Migration occurs for many reasons. Many people leave their home
migrants, one system organizes them into nine groups: temporary labour
migrants can also be divided into two large groups, permanent and
3
Temporary migrants intend only to stay for a limited periods of time;
perhaps until the end of a particular program of study or for the duration of
countries which encouraged labour migration after World War II, European
from their former colonies, and countries which formerly were points of
4
LABOUR MIGRATION THE BACKGROUND
Industrialisation widens the gap between rural and urban areas, inducing a
debate on the factors that cause populations to shift, from those that
vastly different for men and women, for different groups and different
locations. In the past few decades new patterns have emerged, challenging
old paradigms. First, there have been shifts of the workforce towards the
sector, which has grown over time. In countries like India, permanent shifts
populations between lagging and developed regions and between rural and
5
economy. Such movements show little sign of abating with development.
of slavery and the demand for replacement labour. This was normally
return for payment of their passage. They left for British, Dutch and French
colonies to work in sugar plantations and subsequently for the tea and
internally with the growth of tea, coffee and rubber plantations, coal mines
and, later, modern industry. Much of this labour was procured through
circulatory and retained strong links with the areas of origin. But as it
grew to satisfy colonial demand. Urban pockets like Kolkatta and Mumbai
attracted rural labourers mainly from labour catchment areas like Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh and Orissa in the east and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
parts of Kerala and Karnataka in the south. The historical pattern of the
67.2% lived in rural areas and 32.8% in towns and cities. Between 1951
6
and 2001, the proportion of the population living in urban areas rose from
disparities should not come as a surprise. The scale and growth of these
disparities is, however, of concern. The ratio between the highest to lowest
state per capita incomes, represented by Punjab and Bihar in the first
period, and Maharashtra and Bihar in the second period, has increased from
26.1% of Indias population lives below the poverty line (based on the
gradually concentrated in eastern India and rain fed parts of central and
19992000, the states with the highest poverty levels were: Orissa (47.2%),
(31.2%) Generally, Indias poor have meagre physical assets and human
construct a livelihood; wage labour and cultivation are the most important.
India.
7
International Migration Program
birth, the ILO estimates that almost 90 per cent are migrant workers and
for migrant workers, many suffer poor working and living conditions,
been dealing with labour migration since its foundation in 1919. The very
8
advisory services and a forum for consultations; serves as a global
9
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION FROM INDEPENDENT
INDIA
In India, the migration of its labour force within and across its
ensured contact with the Persian Gulf region and South East Asian
countries for trade in goods and movement of people, a contact which goes
was, however, to come much later. It began in the colonial era and
very much tied to the investment interests of the colonial rulers and took
place under their aegis. For instance a great part of the nineteenth century
and Fiji, to not so-distant lands such as Malaysia and Singapore and even to
10
industrialized countries like the United States, Britain and Canada which
pertains to the flow of labour to the oil exporting countries of the Middle
East which acquired substantial dimensions after the dramatic oil price
increases of 1973-74 and 1979. The nature of this recent wave of migration
11
International Organization for Migration
IOMs Vision
labour migration for both the country of origin and destination as well as
IOMs Objectives
flows;
nationals;
embarkation preparedness;
society.
Principal Beneficiaries
12
migrants, their families and their communities;
regional organizations.
IOMs Approach
Through its global network of more than 440 offices, IOM is able to bring
13
Causes of migration
causes are also bound to vary. Migration is influenced both by the pattern
development was the main cause of seasonal migration. Along with inter
pull and push factors, which, however, do not operate in isolation of one
another. Mobility occurs when workers in source areas lack suitable options
over the year At one end of the migration spectrum, workers could be
locked into a debt-migration cycle, where earnings from migration are used
14
The NCRL has recognized the existence of this continuum for poor
for subsistence. The landless poor, who mostly belong to lower caste,
the late 1960s has led to peak periods of labour demand, often also
flows to the rice producing belt of West Bengal, wage differentials between
the source and destination have been considered as the main reason for
studies.
landowners recruit labourers from other districts for harvesting as they can
have effective control over the labour. Local labourers are thus forced to
15
Labour mobility is one of the key features of economic development
and its characteristics are closely tied with the nature of this development.
another, and from one sector to another. Even within the macro-structural
features which determine the supply of, and demand for, certain types of
causes of migration. On the other hand, labour migration plays a key role
areas.
to formal sectors. However, the workforce pattern has changed across the
16
world in favour of the services sector, and the informal sector is more
migration.
the population and for women, men, the elderly and children separately,
leave out those types of forced labour migration, which are not
17
Data and methods
The paper uses data from Census of India 2001 as well as data
in India during the period July 1999-June 2000. This 55th Round Data was
stayed continuously for at least six months or more in a place other than the
place of enumeration. It collects the reasons for leaving the last usual place
(d) transfer of service/contract (e) proximity to place of work (f) studies (g)
the paper to bring out the extent of employment oriented migration in India.
Moreover, the paper also attempts to study the difference between the
stated reasons for migration and the labor force participation, taking into
18
Impact of migration
labour market, have few entitlements vis a vis their employers or the public
authorities in the destination areas. They have meagre personal assets and
migration has both negative and positive consequences for migrants and
their families.
makeshift shelters in spite of the Contract Labour Act which stipulates that
1991; GVT, 2002; Rani and Shylendra, 2001). Apart from seasonal
workers, workers who migrate to the cities for job live in parks and
conditions, with inadequate water and bad drainage. Food costs more for
migrant workers who are not able to obtain temporary ration cards.
construction sites and mines suffer from various health hazards, mostly
lung diseases. As the employer does not follow safety measures, accidents
19
are quite frequent. Migrants cannot access various health and family care
programmes due to their temporary status. Free public health care facilities
and programmes are not accessible to them. For women workers, there is
factories and brick kilns suffer from occupational health hazards such as
environment, including the stresses that it carries, has a deep impact on the
the length of migration and the place to which it occurs. Changes are more
20
Impact on source areas
the labour market, income and assets, changes in the pattern of expenditure
and investment.
smoothing out employment over the annual cycle, rural outmigration could
empirical evidence from out-migrant areas does not often attest to this. This
female and even child labour. Study of seven villages in Uttar Pradesh
showed some variation over regions. While the situation in the study
labour surplus, this was not the case in Western Uttar Pradesh where
seasonal migration coincided with the agricultural peak season (Rabi) and
areas, and thereby affect the pace of change. This may occur in several
and awareness as migrant labourers and return migrants are more reluctant
21
to accept adverse employment conditions and low wages. Secondly,
wages) in rural areas and may make certain forms of abour relationships (as
Such outmigration may or may not eliminate the causes of debt. The
22
Employment oriented migration
migrants that have given work/employment and business as their reason for
migration.
23
Trends in Global Migration
Mankind and migration have been linked to each other since the
Migration has a history of its own, both at the national and international
levels. The mobility of capital and technology has indeed changed the
history of peoples. At the same time, migration has created a greater impact
on history.
In India, the cultural ethos of the country has actually dissuaded people
Such myths were prevalent also in other ancient cultures like China and
consequent ostracism prevented people from leaving their home soil until
stories about coercion, and how these people were picked up literally from
did not come in the way, and women picked up as indentured labour were
24
made to stay with men. Many were declared man and wife, and packed off
countries not being very cooperative towards the migrant community. The
embassies are not exactly attuned to the needs of these people, nor are the
officials always aware of their problems, their issues and their needs be it
in terms of their labour contracts, or the laws of the land. There is greater
room for the Indian embassies to play a more effective and cooperative role
in this context. Many a time, because of the indifference and the ignorance
of the Indian missions in these countries, the migrant workers are almost
always at the mercy of the employers and the laws that they adhere to. It is
only in recent years that the Government is waking up to the need for
countries, to cater to the demands of the workers, and to take care of their
needs.
on this report, the Prime Minter of the day announced the institution of the
by the Indian Diaspora, to the nation. The report also raised major issues of
25
issues pertaining to culture, economic development, education, health,
Indians overseas. Till now, these relations had been discussed in a tentative
and casual manner. The report is full of highly novel and important
will increase the general level of consciousness in India about the countrys
ourselves as a people 7 whose history was made only in India. The report
shows how wrong this view is, and how PIOs are a part of the body politic
in 119 countries
networks are also contributory factors. There is also the factor of newer
26
now the Global Organization for the People of Indian Origin (GOPIO),
which has set its priorities in pooling resources, both financial and
professional, for the benefit of PIOs, in the countries they come from, and
in India. In all this, India derives material support from the Diaspora, and
27
EFFECTS OF MIGRATION
Positive Effects:
1. Wage Rate: Labourers usually migrate from low wage counties to higher
wage nations. Unless prevented or guarded by law, wages will change in both
foreign. It is also possible that over a period of time real wages may increase
and United States of America and native (home) countries Ireland, Italy,
Norway and Sweden between the period 1870 and 1913 has come to the
conclusion that real wages during this period had increased in all the countries,
unskilled labour. Many Asian doctors and engineers, nurses and teachers are
countries, provided labour to those areas where the native people would not
wish to take up the jobs. This is more evident in the so called dirty jobs. In
USA such jobs are taken up by labourers from Mexico, South American,
earn, more income and to enjoy better quality of life. While enjoying these
28
benefits in the host countries the migrants at the disguised unemployment. In
the early stages of large scale migration from Europe to North America, it
their native country. Many of the European countries, Mexico and Asian
china and India receive a substantial amount of remittance. It helps the home
Remittance would reduce over a period of time as the emigrants settle in the
migrated country along with their families. The size of the remittance depends
on the number of emigrants from a country and the nature and duration of
emigrants to remit and keep the money back in their home country.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
from India migrate to countries like USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
Germany, France and to some rich gulf countries. These students take the
29
argued that educated emigrants help the home countries when these
countries rare not in a position to employ them. Beside it also reduces the
claim on goods and service of the home country when labourers migrate.
countries, race, religion and culture. They form their own groups based on
the above factors. In the initial stages these groups live in ghettoes. Social
assimilation with the people of the host country becomes difficult. In USA,
another factor which makes immigrants identify with the host country where
the majority belong to another religion. Cultural differences also deter the
large number of illegal immigrants from Mexico. Similar problems are faced
economic, social and religious factors. India is facing such a problem with
their Trade Union oppose the liberal migration policy. They argue that the
migrant labourers who are willing to work at lower workers. However this
argument does not merit serious consideration wage rate in such economies
30
is determined by market forces, Exploitation can be prevented through
minimum wage law, which also safeguards the interest of migrant labourers.
host country. When immigrants constitute in large numbers, the host country
these counts may create fiscal imbalance in the form of increased budgetary
deficit.
31
CONCLUSION
economic and political are the important ones. From our earlier explanation
the host and native countries. In a globalised world, the number of migrants
effects are maximised while the negative ones are minimised if they cannot
be totally eliminated.
32