2/9/2017 THEDIETOFPRAWNS

Producedby:FisheriesandAquaculture
Department
Title:Thedietofprawns...
Moredetails

THA:75:008/80/WP/12

THE DIET OF PRAWNS

by

MichaelB.New
SeniorFisheriesBiologist(Aquaculture)
ProgrammefortheExpansionofFreshwater
PrawnFarminginThailand

(FAO/UNDP/THA/75/008)

Bangpakong,Chacheongsao
Thailand
1980

HyperlinkstononFAOInternetsitesdonotimplyanyofficialendorsementoforresponsibilityforthe
opinions,ideas,dataorproductspresentedattheselocations,orguaranteethevalidityoftheinformation
provided.ThesolepurposeoflinkstononFAOsitesistoindicatefurtherinformationavailableonrelated
topics.

Thiselectronicdocumenthasbeenscannedusingopticalcharacterrecognition(OCR)software.FAO
declinesallresponsibilityforanydiscrepanciesthatmayexistbetweenthepresentdocumentandits
originalprintedversion.

THEDIETOFPRAWNSa

by

MichaelB.Newb

LECTUREI:WHATISKNOWNABOUTPRAWNNUTRITION?
1.INTRODUCTION
Theknowledgeofshrimpnutritionislessthanthataboutfishnutrition.Thisfirstpaperdealswiththeresult
ofcontrolledexperimentsthesecondisonamorepracticallevelanddealswithrealcommercial,rather
thanresearch,conditions.

Ifirstreviewedthistopicfouryearsago(New,1976).Inthesameyear,Biddlepresentedapaperonthe
sametopic,butrestrictedtothenutritionoffreshwaterprawns,atameetingintheUSA.Hispaperwas
largelybasedonminebutcontainedsomeadditionalpublicationandformedpartofabookonshrimp
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farming(Biddle,1976).Today'slecturehasbeenbasedonthesetworeviews,updatedbyanexamination
oftheliteraturepublishedsince1976.Abibliographyonthistopicisinpreparation(New,1980).

Thenotesthatfollowarearecordofmylecturenotesandthereforeonlysummarisewhatwasactually
said.

Briefcommentsweremadeontheconfusionintheterminology(i.e.,thewordshrimpversusprawn)the
differencesbetweenmarineandfreshwaterprawnsandbetweenpenaeidsandcarideansthemethodof
crustaceangrowth,etc.

Crustaceansabsorbnutrientsdirectlyfromthewateraswellasfromingestedmaterialthusphysiology
andnutritionislikelytobecomplex.Thislecturedealsonlywithnutrition(strictlydietaryexperiments),not
withphysiology.

Mostdietaryworkhasbeencarriedoutbyfeedstuffmanufacturerstheresultsarethereforeproprietary.

Theimportanceofdietinprawnculturemustbeborneinmindfoodwillbethesinglemostexpensive
runningcostinrearingprawnswhenthelabouroffeedingandofproducinglivefeedsistakeninto
account.Feedingprobablyrepresents5060%ofrunningcosts.
aThisworkingpaperisbasedontwolecturesgiventothe2ndInlandAquacultureCoursegivenattheNationalInlandFisheriesInstitute,
Bangkhen,Thailand(JuneAugust1979).

bSeniorFisheriesBiologist(Aquculture,(UNDP/FAO/THA/75/008).

SomeofthestatementswhichImakeaboutprawnnutritionmaybeapparentlyconflictingThisonly
demonstratesthepaucityofknowledgeonthesubjectandthefactthatcrustaceannutritionalresearchis
veryyoung.

2.POSTLARVALNUTRITION

a)PalatabilityandPhysicalDietaryStructure

Bothpalatabilityandstructureofthedietaffectingestion.

Themannerinwhichprawnseatinfluencestheneedfordietarywaterstability.

Wetdietsappeartogivesuperiorgrowthratesandsurvival.

Carideanslackthegastricmillingapparatuspresentintheanteriorchamberoftheproventriculusof
penaeids.Dryfeedsmaycongesttheproventriculusandhamperenzymaticmixingwithfoods.Penaeids
maytoleratedryfoodsbetter.Wetdietshoweverposemanufacturingandstorageproblems.

Theprocessingofdietaryingredientscandamagetheirnutritionalqualitythereissomeevidencethat
compoundingdoestoo.Caremustthereforebetakeniningredientselection.

Manybindersareusedinexperimentalrationsforpostlarvalprawnsthereisnoevidencethatthoseused
areinhibitorysomeareinfactnutritiousaswellasbeingbinders.Someexamplesofbinders:

Agar
Gelatin
Carboxymethylcellulose
Polyvinylalcohol
GuarGum
Sodiumalginate
Manucol(Glycolpolyesteralginate)
Collagen
LStarch
StickyRice
HighGlutenWheat
AmaizoStarch

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Dietswhicharenotwaterstablepolluteenvironmentmore.

Ingestionrateisgovernedbythefillingofthedigestiveglandthisisregulatedbyfoodsize.Thereforethe
animals'millingabilityisimportant.

Moreworkonfoodformandsizeisneededprawnswillacceptmostfoodspresentedthisdoesnotmean
thatthiscriterioncanbeusedtojudgetheefficacyofafeed.

Wetdietsarelesspracticalhowever,waterstabilitymaybelessimportantifthelabourtofeedseveral
timesadayorautomaticfeedersareavailable.

Foranydiet,thefinalarbiterofitscharacteristicswillbeitsefficiencvbythisIdonotmeanfood
conversionrateproteinconversionrate,etc.,Imeanthecostofthefoodneededtoproduceeach
kilogramofmarketableprawns.

Thechemosensorypropertiesofdietsarealsoimportant.Dietsshouldreleaseattractantsubstances.Live
feedsandfreshanimalproductsdothis.Prawnsareattractedeventootherprawnswhicharedying.This
phenomenonisquiteseparatetothetopicofpheromones.

Prawnsarestimulatedintofeedingactivitybysubstancessuchasbetaine(trimethylammoniumhydroxide),
morin(afragrantaromaticcompound),eggwhiteproteinsandindividualnonessentialaminoacidssuch
asglutamicacid,glycineandtaurine.OneAmericancompanyhasevenpatented(forwhatthat'sworth)
amethodofinducinghuntingandfeedingreactionsinprawnsbytheuseofamixtureofmonosodium
glutamatewithsodiumorpotassiumaspartate.

b)LipidsandSterols

Lipids

Withcarbohydrates,theyformsourcesofenergyiffeedenergyistoolowanimalswillutiliseother
nutrients,e.g.protein,tosatisfydemandforenergy,whichisverycostlyiffeedenergyistoohigh,reduced
foodintakewillresultandthereforenotenoughproteinwillbeingestedtogivegoodgrowth.

However,optimumcalorieproteinratiosforprawnsarenotyetunderstood(althoughonegroupof
scientistsclaim40%proteinand3.3Kcal/gisagoodcombinationforPenaeusmonodon).

Iamgoingtotalkaboutcarbohydrateslaterletusconsiderlipidsfirst.

Thereseemstobesomeevidencethatprawnscannottoleratehighlevelsofdietaryfat.Ifthisisso,thenit
isinmarkedcontrasttofish.Thefactthatlipaseactivityinprawnsislimitedhasbeendemonstrated
(palmiticacidisincorporatedintotissuethreetimesasrapidlyastripalmitin).

Oneworkershowedthat10%ormoreofabeeftallow,cornoilandmenhadenoilmixture
depressedgrowthandsurvival.Anotherfoundthattoincreasethedietarylevelofcodliveroilover5%
producednobenefitsthesameappliedtocornoil.Confusingly,myownpersonalexperienceisthat
Macrobrachiumcantoleratehighoildiets,atleastwhentheyoriginatefromacceleratedfreezedriedegg.I
usedadietcontaining20%oil.Generally,57%levelsaresuggestedcertainlynotmorethan10%.

Thetypeoflipidisalsoimportant.Tissuelipidsmimicdietarylipidsinquality,althoughw3fattyacidsare
retainedinthetissueandw6fattyacidsaremetabolisedforenergy.Thepredominantfattyacidsinprawns
arepalmiticacidandw3polyunsaturatedfattyacids.Oilswithhighw6saturatedfattyacidsandlowlevels
ofw3fattyacidsseeminhibitory.Fatswhicharesuitableinclude:

Linseedoil
Linolenicacid(1%)
Clamoil
Fishoils
Shrimpheadoil

Fatsthatgivepoorresultsifusedaloneare:

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Soybeanoil
Cornoil
Coconutoil

Shrimpfeddietswithshrimpheadoilalsohavemorecarotenoidpigmentanimportantconsumer
characteristic.Theuseofshrimpmealsasasourceofw3fattyacidsiscautionarybecauseofthehigh
variabilityofthesemeals.

Bothlinoleic(w6)andlinolenic(w3)acidsareessentialfattyacidsforprawnsbutthenutritivevalueof
linolenicishigher.

Sterols

Prawns,likeothercrustaceans,cannotconvert(synthesise)acetateintosterols.

Dietarylevelsof0.5%cholesterolseemadvantageous1.0%levelsarenobetter5%cholesterol
depressesgrowth.

0.5%ofstigmasterol,ergosterolorBsitosterolgivesimilarsurvivalto0.5%cholesterolbutpoorergrowth
rates.Shrimpcanconvertthesetocholesteroland,incontrasttothefat,absorbothersterolswell.

Sterolsareimportantbecausetheyare:

Elementsofcellularstructure

Precursorsofsteroidhormones,brainhormones,ecdysonesandvitaminD.

Shrimpcanabsorbdietaryecdysones.

Itisn'tlikelythattherewillbeadeficiencyofcholesterolinanymixeddiet,especiallyifitcontainsfishmeal
dietaryexcessmusthoweverbewatchedinformulation.

Thereiscommercialinterestinthepossibilityofusingdietarysterols,suchasecdysone,etc.,for
suppressinggonadaldevelopment,reducingagression,synchronisingmolting,increasinggrowthrate,etc.

SubstancessuchasmusselsorclamsarerichinsteroidsIdoubtifanycompoundeddiethasyet
producedsuchgoodresultsasmusselasafoodforprawns.

c)ProteinsandAminoAcids

Proteinisofdominantnutritionalimportanceandalsoisresponsibleforthegreatestcostcomponentinany
diet.Ithasthereforereceivedmoreattentionthananyothernutrienttodate.Inspiteofthis,noclearcut
guidestooptimumproteinlevelsinprawndietshaveyetemerged.

Crustaceanproteasesaremainlytrypticnopepsinlikeenzymesarepresenthowever,afullenzymatic
complementisunnecessaryifpredigestedfoodisavailable.Shrimpdigestdetritusandfaeces,for
example:85%ofthemicroorganismsinshrimpgutproducechitinase.Thesebugsmultiplywithinthegut
alsotoprovideanextrasourceofnutritionmostimportantlytheygivetheabilitytotheprawnstodigest
chitinaprotein/carbohydratecomplex.

Nutritionalexperimentsusingcaseinastheonlysourceofprotein,thoughusedinsomemineraland
vitaminassessments,donotsucceedwell.Dietsbasedonchemicallydefinedingredients,e.g.,containing
mixturesofpureaminoacidsorpeptides,donotproducegoodgrowth.Earlyattemptstousechemically
defineddietsforprawnnutritionalstudiesthereforequicklygavewaytodietaryexperimentsusingcomplex
andvariablefeedstuffingredients.Forthisreason,reportsofoptimumproteinlevelforprawndiets
reportedintheliteraturearedifficult,ifnotimpossible,tointerpretbecauseofthepossibleeffectof
concomitantchangesinotherdietarycomponents.

Thereisthusaverywiderangeofoptimumproteinlevelsclaimedbydifferentworkers.Dependingonthe
ingredientsused,optimumproteinlevelsbetween15%andmorethan60%havebeenrecorded.
Comparisonisalsodifficultbecauseexperimentationhasbeenwithdifferentspecies.

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Fromaneconomicpointofview,perhapsthemostencouragingresultwasthatofoneworker,working
withMacrobrachium,whoreportedthatbestresultswereobtainedwithasoytunashrimpmealdietwith
only15%protein.Thedietprovedbetterwitholderprawns(morethan120daysold)younganimals
appeartorequireproteinlevelsinexcessof35%,usingthisrangeofingredients.

Avastrangeofhighanimalproteiningredientshavebeenusedinprawnrationsvirtuallyallthe
conventionalfeedstuffingredientsplussquidmeal,prawnmeal,poultryfaeces(becarefuloftoxicity),
singlecellproteins,etc.Macrobrachium,whichseemsmorevegetableinclinedthanPenaeus,thriveswell
onrationscontainingcoconutmeal,soybeanmealandacaciameal.

Theconsensusofopinionseemstobethatproteinlevelsinthe2735%regionarethebest,but
commercialrationsforshrimpusedintheUSAhave2025%levels.

Ithasnotyetbeenshownexperimentallywhetherlipidsparesdietaryproteinfortissueproductionrather
thanenergyutilisation.Workwithisocaloricdiets(increasinglipidlevelswhilereducingproteintoproduce
dietswiththesamelevelofenergy)hasnotbeendoneyet.Optimumproteincalorieratiosareunknown.

Thequantitativeaminoacidrequirementsofprawnsarecomparativelyunknownyetthereforemuchof
theproteinfedinrationsissuretobeunbalancedinitsaminoacidcomposition.Thismaskstheresultsof
proteinexperimentsandisprobablythecauseofreportsthatextremelyhighlevelsarerequired.

Preliminaryresultsindicatedietaryrequirementsfor:

1.4%lysine
1.3%arginine
3.0%menthionine
0.6%tryptophane

Qualitatively,theaminoacidswhichareessentialinthedietofprawnsseemtobesimilartothoseforother
animalsalthoughtherearesomedisagreementonthis.Apparentnonessentialityofsomeaminoacidsis
suspectedtobecausedbytheabilityofthegutbacteriatosynthesisethem.Thefollowingaminoacids
havebeenshowntobeessentialforPalamonserratus,PenaeussetiferusandMacrobrachiumohione:

Arginine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophane
Tyrosine
Valine

Thevalueoffreeaminoacids(i.e.,notboundinprotein)asattractantsinprawndietshasbeenmentioned
before.Freeaminoacidsinthebodyofprawnsplayanessentialroleinosmoregulation.

Prawnmealhas,inmanyrations,beenexperimentallyshowntobeaparticularlyusefulhighprotein
ingredientwhich,uptonow,hasbeenunderutilisedinanimalfeedstuffs.Oneresearchworker,working
withP.indicus,anomniverousspecies,suggestedthata60:40ratiooffishmeal:prawnmealgavethe
bestresultsinhisseriesofexperiments.

d)Carbohydrates

ManycarbohydrasesexistincrustaceaincludingLandBamylase,maltase,sacdharase,chitinaseand
cellulase.

Carbohydrates,withlipids,formasourceofdietaryenergyandarealsoimportantinthestorageofenergy
throughglycogen,inchitinsynthesis,andinsteroidandfattyacidsynthesis.

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Wheatstarch,dextrin,andoysterglycogenareassimilatedbetterthanpotatostarch.Notallspecies
assimilatespecificcarbohydrateswiththesameefficiency.

Celluloseisalsopartlydigestedthusprawnscanutilisemarinealgae.

Crustaceansareabletoutilisecomplexpolysaccharides(starches)muchmoreefficientlythansomesimple
sugarssuchasglucose.Thisisinmarkedcontrasttofish.Itispostulatedthatglucoseisrapidlybut
inefficientlyutilisedwhilepolysaccharidesareabsorbedmoreslowlybutmoreefficiently.Somerecentwork
indicatesagainthatglycogenisagoodsourceofcarbohydrateforprawnssoalsoissucrose,asimple
sugarthisisaconfusingpicturetherefore.

Starchesarealsousedindietsasbinders,ashasbeenmentionedpreviously.

Extracellularchitinasesenablethedigestionofchitinfromdietarysourcesorfromcastexuviae.

Dietarycarbohydratehasasparingeffectonthecarbonchainsfromaminoacids,andthereforeondietary
protein,forchitinsynthesis.Chitinsynthesisisrequiredfortheexoskeletonandfortheperiotrophicfaecal
membraneinpenaeidprawns.

Someworkershaveconcludedthatglucosamineisnonessentialinprawndietsbutothershavefoundthat
replacementofglucosaminewithglucosecheckedgrowthrate.Glucosamineisanintermediarybetween
glucoseandchitin,whichisaproteincarbohydratecomplex.

Littleisknownaboutfibrerequirementsinprawndietsbutoneworkermanagedtorestoredecreasesin
growthratecausedbyexcessivelevelsofproteinbyincreasingdietaryfibre(vegetable)contentinthediet.
However,thegastrointestinaltractinprawnsisshort.Thereforethepassageoffoodisrapidandtimefor
digestionlimited.Thereisthepossibilitythatfibremayincreasemotilityandreducetheefficiencyofthe
diet.

Althoughoptimumproteincalorieratiosarenotyetquantifiedadequately,thereissomeevidencethat,ata
25%proteinlevel,1:1and2:1ratiosofcarbohydrate:fatresultinproteincatabolism,whereas3:1and4:1
ratiosreducethiseffectandseemsufficienttosatisfyenergyrequirements.

e)Minerals

Fewstudieshavereportedonthissubjectbutmanydietshaveusedmineralpremixesasakindof
insurancepolicy.

Resultsofearlyexperimentsinvolveddifferentmineralsupplementlevelsandplacedemphasisonthe
Ca:Pratiosinthepremixwithoutreferencetothecontentofthesetwomineralsinotherdietary
ingredients,especiallyinmaterialslikefishandprawnmeal.

Todate,workersreportthatdietaryCA:Pratiosofabove2.4:1seemtodepressgrowth.However,one
workerwithmarineshrimpclaimsthattheCatheprawnsneedcanbetotallyabsorbedfromthe(sea)
watertheyliveinandthatdietaryCaisnonessential.HealsosaysthatMgandFearenonessentialbut
2%P1%Kand0.2%ofatraceelementpremixproveduseful.ThelevelofPinseawaterislowanditis
thereforeclaimedtobeessentialinthedietbecauseprawnfleshishighinit.

f)Vitamins

Manydietsforprawnshavealsousedvitaminmixesdesignedforotheranimalsasaninsurancepolicybut,
inmanycases,enormouslyhighlevelsofvitamins,particularlyofVitaminD,cholineandVitaminChave
beengivenandthepotentialforacutehypervitaminosisorantagonisticreactionsmusthavebeenhigh.

Studyofthevitaminrequirementsofprawnshas,asyet,receivedlittleattention,asisthecasewith
mineralrequirements.

Qualitatively,mostoftheBgroupofvitaminsseemessentialinthedietofcrustacea,asarevitaminsCand
E.VitaminDmaycomepartlyfromdietarysourcesbutitcanbesynthesisedfromergosterol.Ithasbeen
showntobenonessentialininsectdiets.VitaminKmayactuallybeantagonistictosomespeciesof
crustacea.
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VitaminAisprobablyinessentialbutitsprecursorsmaybeessential.OftentheoriginisBCarotene,which
isconvertedintoastaxanthinaswellandisindirectlyresponsibleforcrustaceanpigmentation.Prawnmeal
canbeusedasasourceofcarotenoidsbutthesecanbedestroyedbyexcessiveheatduringthe
productionofprawnmealandalsobyexposuretolightandatmosphericoxygen.Thequalityofprawn
mealutilisedisthereforeimportant.Spirulina,abluegreenalga,isabetterprecursorofastaxanthinthan
alfalfaorcorngluten.Artemiais,ofcourse,agoodsourceofcanthaxanthin.

VitaminCseemstobeessentialinprawndietsandappearstoaccelerategrowthatlowlevelsbutdepress
growthathighlevels.Stress(throughhighdensitycultureofdiseaseorbadwaterquality)cancause
vitaminCdepletionintissuestissuelevelscanbemaintainedbydietaryinclusionofVitaminC.One
workerhasclaimedthat0.51.0%dietaryvitaminCisthequantitativerequirementbutanother,testinga
rangeoflevelsbetween0%and1%suggestedthat0.3%wasoptimalandthathigherlevelsdepressed
growth.

Theonlyothervitaminwhichseemstohavebeenexaminedinprawndietsisinositolanda0.4%levelhas
beenpostulatedasoptimal.

g)OtherSubstances

Sofar,Ihaveonlyseenonereportofanantibioticusedinprawndiets.Thiswasinanexperiment
designedaspartofadiseaseinvestigationbutthereweresomeinterestingsideeffects.Inashortterm
experiment,usingdietarylevelsof1001000mg/kgofdryfoodofoxytetracycline,feedintakedroppedto
betweenandofthatofthecontrols.Foodconversionefficiencyhoweverincreasedand,whilelarger
shrimp(av0.46g)grewlesswell,smallshrimp(av.0.14g)actuallygrewfasterthanthecontrol.

h)FeedingRateandFrequency

Finally,inthissectiononthenutritionofpostlarvalprawns,afewwordsaboutfeedingmethods.

Dietaryexperimentshavebeencarriedoutmostlybyfeedingtodemandbutfeedingbasedonestimates
ofbiomasswouldbemoreefficient.

Ingestionratesareinverselyrelatedtoanimalsize.Feedingratesof10%ofbiomass(sometimesashigh
as100%)areemployedinthefirsttwopostlarvalmonthsbutthesedeclineto35%.

Littleisknownabouttheeffectsofvaryingenvironmentalconditionsonfoodconsumptionandtheefficiency
offoodutilisation.

Innature,prawnseatfrequentlyandrapidly.Theyalsohaveshortdigestivetractsandlittletimefornutrient
absorption.Feedingthreeorfourtimesperday,ratherthanonce,mayprovebetterandalsosolvesomeof
thedietarystabilityproblems.Decreasedingestionrateshavebeenobservedaftermorethan6hours
exposurebyprawnstothesamefood.Anotherimportantobservationisthat,eveninanapparentlywell
bounddiet,morethan90%ofitsthiaminecontentleachesfromthedietwithin18hours.Thissortofeffect
isprobablyexperiencedbyotherwatersolublenutrients.

3.LARVALNUTRITION
Althoughpenaeidandcarideanlarvaehavedifferentfoodrequirements(thistopicisdealtwithmorefullyin
mysecondtalk),theemphasisinlargescalelarvalproductionhasinbothcasesbeenontheuseof
mixturesoflivefeedswithothernaturalmaterials.Iamnotgoingtosayverymuchaboutthetopicof
experimentalartificialdietsforlarvae,becausenotmuchisknownyet.Iwillbetalkingmoreabout
practicaldietsinmysecondtalk.

Therehasbeensomepreliminaryworkonthedevelopmentofcompoundeddietsforprawnlarvaeanditis
tobeexpectedthatthistypeofresearchwillgrow,withthehighcostoflivefoods(thecostoflivefood
production,aswellasthecostofArtemiacysts,forexample,mustbeborneinmind)actingasan
importantstimulanttosuccess.

Thephysicalproblemsinmakingartificallarvalfoodinclude:

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1.Nutrientsmustnotleachout

2.Thefoodmustnotpollutetherearingwater

3.Thefoodmustbeavailablephysicallyclosetothelarvae

4.Itmustbeofasizewhichlarvaecantacklethezoeastagesofmarineprawnlarvaecanonlyeat
algaeatapproximately310ubutthemysisstagescaneatArtemianauplii,attentimesthesize
MacrobrachiumlarvaeontheotherhandcantackleArtemianaupaliialmostimmediatelyafter
hatching:theycanalsouselargerparticlesoffoodbutiftheparticlesaretoolarge,theweightof
severallarvaedragslarvaeandfoodtothebottomofthetank.

5.Itmustattractthelarvae

6.Itmustbedigestible

IfalarvaldietforMacrobrachiumistoconsistofparticlesofasizerangebetween250uand1500ufor
exampleandifeachparticleistorepresentabalancedmixtureofallthedietaryingredients,thelatterhave
tobegroundextremelyfineindeed.

Neutraldietarybuoyancyinwaterisdifficulttoachievebindingthedietwithoutmakingitinedibleisalso
difficult.

Somelarvaldietshavehoweverbeenformulated:

1.Microcapsuleswithcrosslinkednylonproteinwalls:thesecanbeproducedinarangeofsizesfrom
5uto250uwiththepropertyofneutralbuoyancy.Macrobrachiumlarvae,Artemiaandcrabzoea
havebeenshowntoingestthem.

2.Flakedandgel(alginate)andfreezedriedfeedshavebeentried.Gelandfreezedrieddietswere
neutrallybuoyant.

Sofar,resultsoflarvalproductionexperimentsusingsuchdietshavenotbeengoodunlessliveArtemia
arealsofedoranextractofArtemiaisincludedinthediet.

LECTUREII:WHATFEEDSAREUSEDINCOMMERCIALPRAWN
PRODUCTION?
1.INTRODUCTION
InmyfirsttalkIspokeaboutresearchworkdesignedtoincreaseourbasicknowledgeofthenutritional
requirementsofprawns.Inthecaseofpostlarvaldiets,suchknowledgeisfundamentallyimportantto
thosewhowishtocultureprawnsinenvironmentallycontrolledsystemswherenaturalfeedsmaybe
unavailable.Inthecaseoflarvae,artificialfeedsarecriticallyneededtoremoveorlessendependenceon
scarceandcostlyresourcesofsuitablelivefeed.InthissecondtalkIamgoingtospeakaboutthosefeeds
whichareusedinhatcheriesandpondswhereprawnsarereared.

Intheprevioustalk,Ispokefirstaboutpostlarvaldietsbecausemoreprogresshasbeenmadewiththem
thanwiththedevelopmentofartificiallarvaldiets.InthistalkIamgoingtoreversetheorder,sinceprimary
attentionhasbeenpaidtohatcherydietsratherthantodietsforuseinpondsforpostlarvalrearing,where
naturalfoodsarealsoavailable.

2.FEEDSFORLARVALPRAWNS
Intheirnaturalenvironmentitislikelythatprawnlarvaeconsumeavastrangeofmaterialswhichare
presentinthewatertablewiththemanythingprobablywhichpresentsitselftothemandisoftheright
particlesize.Thisincludeslivephytoplanktonandzooplanktonofmanytypesandnonliveparticles.

InmyfirsttalkIgeneralisedbetweencarideanandpenaeiddietaryrequirementsasmuchasIcould.Inthis
sectionofthistalkImustseparatethetwogroupssincetheyhaveratherdifferentrequirementsintermsof
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bothfoodandfeedingtechniques.Thereasonforthesedifferencescanbeunderstoodthroughan
examinationthedifferenceinthelifehistoryofPenaeusspp.andMacrobrachiumspp.Inmakingthese
comparisonsImustmakeitclearthattherearedifferencesbetweendifferentspeciesineachgroupaswell
so,whenItalkaboutthelengthofeachlarvalstage,forexample,Iamnottalkingaboutanyparticular
speciesbuttryingtopointoutmajordifferencesbetweenthetwogroupsofprawns.Basicdifferencesare
summarisedinthefollowingtable:

PENAEUSSPP. MACROBRACHIUMSPP.
0.25mm
0.60.7mm
Notcarriedbyfemale
EGG Carriedbyfemaleabout20days
Highfecundity:100,000
Lowerfecundity:10100,000
1,000,000
0.250.5mm
NAUPLIUS Doesnoteatlivesoffyolk None
Periodlasts23days
0.52.2mm
ZOEA Eatsalgae
Periodlasts5days
(Larvae=Zoea)
2.25mm
26mm
EatsArtemiaandother
EatsArtemiaandotherparticulatefoodfromfirst
MYSIS particulatefoods
orsecondday.Algaearenonessential
Periodlasts45days
Totallarvallife1825days
Totallarvallife1113days
METAMORPHOSIS
POSTLARVAE 56.7mm:Pelagic 6mm:Benthic
7.5:Benthic
Hastobeweanedslowlyoff Canbefedbenthicorartificialdietsimmediately

livefeedsontononlivediets aftermetamorphosis.

Thusitisnecessarytoculturealgaeinmarineshrimphatcheriesbutnotinfreshwaterprawnhatcheries
(althoughthiscommentisqualifiedlater).ThelarvallifeofpenaeidsisshorterandArtemiaareonly
requiredforabout5daysMacrobrachiumrequireArtemiaforthewholeofthelarvallifeof18days+.
Conversely,penaeidshavearequirementforlivefoodsintheirearlypostlarvallife,whereas
Macrobrachiumdoesnot.

Thushatcheriesdesignedformarineprawnproductionusequitedifferenttechniquestothosein
freshwaterprawnhatcheriesthisdoesnotonlyapplytofeedingregime.Perhapsthesedifferencesareso
greatastomakehatcheriesattemptingtorearbothtypesofprawninadvisable.Iwillthereforedealwith
thefeedingofmarineandfreshwaterprawnsseparately.Itmustbestressedthateverydifferenthatchery
usesadifferentfeedingregimeandfrequentchangesaremade,basedonlocalexperienceandonfood
availability.IcannothopetocoverallthesevariationsandthereforeIamjusttalkingaboutexamplesfor
illustrativepurposes.

a)PenaeidLarvae

Newlyhatchedmarineprawnlarvaeliveofftheireggyolkandthenaupliidonotfeed.However,chemical
fertilisationoftheirrearingtanksispractisedfromthefirstdaysothatphytoplanktonareavailablefor
consumptionassoonastheanimalsbecomezoea(insomehatcheries,phytopplanktonareculturedin
separatetanks).

After23daysthenaupliibecomezoeaandbegintofeedonphytoplankton.Diatomsarebest.Species
suchasSkeletonema,Thalassiosira,MelosiraandNitzschiahavebeenused,aswellasTetraselmis.
Whengrownwiththelarvae,phytoplanktonconcentrationsof5,00020,000cells/mlareused.23g/m3of
KNO3and0.20.3g/m3ofNaH2PO4willachievethislevel.Ifdiatomsfail,assometimesunpredictably

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happensinphytoplanktonculture,formulafeed,yeastandsoybeancake,crumbledtolessthan100u,has
beensuccessfullysubstituted.

Youcanalterthepredominantspeciesofphytoplanktonpresentbutthisisbestachievedifthealgaeare
grownseparatelyfromthelarvae.Thevariablequalityofseawateroftencausesproblemsinphytoplankton
cultureandartificialseawaterissometimesusedinhatcheries.Inmarineshrimplarvaltanks,brownwater
istakenasanindicationthatpredominantlydiatomsarepresent,whichisgoodgreenwaterheraldsa
failure.Theconverseisthecasewithfreshwaterprawnlarvaltanks.

Afteranother5days,thezoeachangeintothemysisstageandareabletotakeArtemia.Theyarenow
aboutthesamesizeasMacrobrachiumlarvaearewhentheyarefirsthatched.Artemiaareusually
suppliedtothemysislarvaeatdensitiesvaryingfrom0.33nauplii/ml.

Afterafurther45daysorso,thelarvaemetamorphoseintopostlarvaebutcontinuetobepresentedwith
Artemiaoverthefirst45days,whiletheyarechangingfromanomnivoroustoamainlycarnivorousdiet.
Atthisstagetheyareconsuming5090Artemianaupliieachperday.Afterthattheyarefedanaturalfood
suchasprocessedmolluscanfleshoraformulafeedaswellasArtemia,whichisdiscontinuedaftertwo
moredays.

Itisimportanttorealise,asisthecasewiththefeedingofMacrobrachiumlarvae,thatitisthedensityof
foodparticlesperunitofwatervolumethatismostimportant,notthenumberofparticlesperlarvapresent
inthetank.Thisiswhy,forefficientutilisationoffoodavailable,optimisationoflarvalrearingdensityis
sought.

Theabovedescribesatypicallarvalfeedingsystemforpenaeidsoneworkerhashoweverclaimed
successfulrearingoftwospeciesofPenaeusfedentirelyonamonocultureofthediatomChaetoceros
gracilisatconcentrationsof30,000100,000cellsperml.

b)Caridean(MacrobrachiumRosenbergii)Larvae

Unlikepenaeids,theyhavenoessentialrequirementforalgae.

TheywilleatlivinganimalfoodslikeArtemia,therotiferBrachionusandpreparedfoodsalmost
immediatelyafterhatching.

BythetimeMacrobrachiumlarvaehavereachedtheninthstagetheyare,likepostlarvalpenaeidprawns,
consumingabout80Artemianaupaliiperday.

Onceagain,thedensityoffoodisimportantand,whereArtemianaupliiarethesolesourceoffood,a
densityofnaupliiofbetween5and10/mlisessential,whateverthedensityoflarvaeinthetank.

LarvaewillgrowandsurvivewellandmetamorphoseonadietofArtemianaupliialone,butthereis
evidencethatthepresenceofotherfoodsafterthefirstfewdaysresultsinbetterproduction.Forthis
reasonandtoeconomiseintheuseofArtemia,otherfoodsareusedtoreplacepartoftheArtemia,such
assievedfishflesh,cookedeggcustard,frozenadultArtemia,etc.Althoughthereisevidencethatthe
nutritionalvalueofArtemianaupliicanbeimprovedbyallowingthemtograzeonphytoplanktonbefore
feeding,adultArtemiaareunsuitableasafoodasmanyevadethelarvae.

Otherlivefoodshavebeenused,suchasBrachionus,fisheggs,Daphnia,oysterlarvae,etc.,butnoneof
themandnoartificialfoodhasyetbeenfoundwhichcansuccessfullytotallyreplaceArtemiaasalarval
foodforprawnlarvae.ThecriticalrequirementoftheseandsomefishlarvaeforArtemiamakesthesupply,
demandandcostofbrineshrimpanoverwhelminglyimportanttopic.SuccessfulinsulationofArtemia,
leadingtotheproductionofThaigrowncystsinsaltponds,hasbeenreported(Tunsutepanich,1979).
Thisworkgiventhepossibilityofcheaper,localsupplyofArtemiawhichis,afterall,anidealprepackaged
larvalfood.

AlthoughMacrobrachiumlarvaedonotrequirephytoplankton(althoughtheywillingestalgae,evidence
showsthattheydonotderiveanynutrientsfromthephytoplanktontested),thereisevidencethatthe
presenceofphytoplanktoninlarvalrearingwater(greenwater),contrarytopenaeidlarvalculture,is
beneficial.Greenwaterisclaimedtoimprovewaterqualityandtoreducediseaserisks,butthereal
reasonsforitssuccessareunknown.Phytoplanktonarecapableofconvertingtheexcretaryproductstoxic
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tolarvae(unionisedNH3),whichareproducedbythelarvaethemselvesandalsobytheArtemianauplii
presentandbythedegradationofotherdecomposingfeeds,tolessharmfulnitrates.Manyhatcheries
however,includingthegovernmentoneclosetoushere,arecurrentlysuccessfullyusingaclearwater
systemwhichdoesnotinvolvegreenwater,usingonlyArtemianaupliiandfishfleshormussel/eggcustard
asfeeds.Oneofthebigproblemswiththeuseofagreenwater,orpolycultureofphytoplanktonspeciesis
thatitsproductionisunpredictable.

Asmentionedabove,theuseofotherfeedsenablesthequantityofArtemianeededtobereduced.For
example,inourhatcheryinEngland,whichbynecessitywasenvironmentallycontrolled,weoriginallyused
thenaupliifrom50gofArtemiacystsperdayper600litretank.Thiswasequivalenttoapproximately8
nauplii/ml/dayandanavailability(notaconsumption)of200nauplii/larvae/day.Byusingsievedmackerel
flesh(afishsimilartoskipjacktunainitscharacteristicsasafood),gradedtolessthan250uandfedata
rateof50gper600litresperday,wewereabletoreducethequantityofArtemiacystsusedto5gpertank
perdaytheequivalentofnearly1naupliipermlperdayortheavailabilityof20naupliiperlarvaeper
day.Ineachcasewewereraisingbatchesof20,00030,000larvaepertank(equivalentto3350larvae
stockedperml)andwewereusingsome5litresofphytoplankton(Chlamydomonas)atanoriginaldensity
of1,500,000cellsperml.Thusthedensityofphytoplanktonintherearingtankswasapproximately12,500
cells/mlonly:thesealgaewereaddedtoimprovethequalityofArtemia,notasafoodforprawnlarvae.

Ingeneral,inmixedfoodregimes,otherfoodsarepresentedduringthedaytime,whenutilisationcanbe
judgedbyeye,atseveraldifferentfeedingtimes.TheArtemianaupliiportionofthedietisnormally
presentedinthelateeveningasthelastfeedasameansofensuringthatfoodsuppliesdonotrunout
duringthenight.Itisessentialthatlarvaeareabletofeedcontinuously.

3.DIETSFORPOSTLARVAE
Undernaturalconditions,postlarvalprawnsconsumeaverywiderangeoffoods.

Penaeidsareconsideredtobeeitheromnivorousscavengersordetritusfeeders.Thenaturaldietofsuch
speciesasP.mondon,P.indicusandP.merguiensisconsistsofmolluscs,smallcrustaceans,polychaetes,
algaeanddetriuts.P.indicuscaneatlargercrutaceans.Allcanbecannibalistic.Metapenaeusspp.seem
tobemorevegetariananddetritusinclined.Thus,polycultureofpenaeids,ratherthanmonoculture,may
beamoreefficientwaytoutiliseapond.

Macrobrachiumpostlarvaeseemtofeedmostactivelyatnightandareomnivorous,eatingaquaticinsects,
fish,molluscs,othercrustaceans,algae,leavesandstemsofaquaticplants,plantseeds,detritus,etc.
ThereisabeliefthatMacrobrachiumspp.aremorevegetarianintheirdietthanpenaeids,buttheywillnot
thriveonadietofalgaealone.

Bothmarineandfreshwaterprawnshaveaccesstochitinfrominsects,crustaceaandbacteria.Thus
prawnmealmaynotbesoessentialindietsdesignedtobefedinpondsasitseemstobeincaseswhere
thecompoundeddietisthesolefeed.Obviously,inthepondcultureofprawns,dietcanbeveryvariedas
thereisagreatdealofnaturalfoodavailable.Thecompositionofsupplementarydietsmaynothavetobe
ascarefullyconsideredasmightatfirstbeexpected.However,inhighlyintensivesystems,wherenatural
foodwillbeinsufficient,thecompositionofsupplementaryfeedsmaybecomecritical.

Iamfirstgoingtodealbrieflywiththestimulationofnaturalpondfoodbeforegoingontotalkabout
supplementaryfeeds.

Inthecaseofmarineprawnculture,naturalfoodproductionisnormallyencouragedbyfertilisation.
Generallyfertilisationand/orfeedingisnecessaryifproductionlevelsaretoberaisedabove400
500kg/ha/yr.

Thepracticeoffertilisationbringswithitsomeproblemssuchasdensephytoplanktonbloomswhichmay
cause(inadditiontogrossturbidity)supersaturationofDO2bydayandDO2depletionatnight.The
subjectofpondfertilisationisawholeseparatetopiconitsownandIsuspectthatyouwillbereceiving
otherlecturesaboutthisinrelationtofishculturegenerally.

Whentalkingaboutfertilisationregimes,therecanbenotruegeneralisationsincethesystemoffertilisation
suitedbesttoeachindividualponddependsonthetypeoffertiliserlocallyavailable,onwaterquality,on

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soilconditions,onthefeedingregimetobeemployed,etc.Thefollowingaregivenasexamplesofsome
fertilisationprogrammeswhichhavebeenrecommendedformarineshrimpculture:

1.Sundrythepondsapply170kg/haofcottonseedmealaddafurther56kgtothewatereveryweek.

2.Fornurseryponds(thefirsttwomonths),encouragethegrowthoflablab,whichisabasisofblue
greenalgaeinwhichdiatomsandotherplantsandanimalsgrow,byapplying350kg/haofchicken
manuretothedriedpondalternatively,50100kg/haof18:46:0(N:P:K)or100150kg/haof16:20:0
(N:P:K)canbeusedtheseamountsarethenaddedtothewateragaineverytwoweeks.

3.Inproductionponds,toencouragethegrowthoflumut,basicallyafilamentousgreenalgae,addan
initial180200kg/haof16:20:0(N:P:K)fertilisertothewater,followedby90100kg/haofthesame
fertilisereveryotherweek.

4.Forphytoplanktongrowth,diatomsbeingpreferableforpenaeids,useof20:1or30:1ratiosofN:P
aresuggested.Ratiosof1:1arebestforflagellateproduction.

Note:Ammoniafertilisersaremostlyabsorbedbythesoil.Theyarethereforebetterforbluegreenalgae
production.Nitratefertiliserstendtoremaindissolvedinthewaterandarethereforebetterfor
phytoplanktonproduction.

Theamountoffertilisertouseforphytoplanktonproductionisbestassessedonatrialanderror
system.Tostartwith,1ppmofNand0.1ppmofPissuggestedfurtherapplicationsshouldbebased
onresults.

PondsforcultivationofMacrobrachiumareoftennotintentionallyfertilisedbutsomefarmersdosomainly
toencourageaphytoplanktonbloomtodiscouragefilamentousalgaeandprovidecover.Waterdepthand
flushingratesarealsomanipulatedtoencouragephytoplanktongrowthratherthanfilamentousalgaean
interestingcontrasttotheuseoflumutinmarineshrimpcultureharvestingtechniquesalso,ofcourse
differ.

NowwecometothepointwhereIshouldsaysomethingaboutsupplementalfoodforpostlarvalprawns
andIcouldeasilyendmylecturesimplybysayingyounameit,theyfeedit.Probablymuchofthe
supplementalfoodaddedactsasafertiliserandincreasesthebiologicalproductivityofthepondasa
wholeratherthanactingasatrueprawnfeed.Certainlyitseemsthat,particularlyinMacrobrachium
culture,muchofthepelletedfoodaddediseatenbysmallfish,whichthemselvesformasourceoffoodfor
theprawns.Largerfish,ofcourse,notonlybecomecompetitorsfortotalpondnutrientsbutmaybe
predatory.

Supplementalfoodsfallmainlyintothreecategories:

1.Rawmaterialsandwasteproducts

2.Compoundfeedstuffsdesignedforotheranimalsbutusedforprawns

3.Compoundedprawnfeeds

Iproposeonlytogivesomeexamplesofeach,withoutmakingjudgementsaboutwhichisbest.This
judgementmustdependentirelyontheinterrelatingfactorsoffoodavailability,foodcostandproductions
ratesofmarketableprawnsachievedineachspecificlocationgeneralisationisthereforeunwise.

a)Examplesofrawmaterialsandwasteproducts:

Ricebran
Brokenrice
Trashfish
Fishoffal
Deadpoultry
Slaughterhousewaste(poultry,beef,hog,etc.)
Fishprocessingwaste
Prawnprocessingwastes

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Snails
Mussels
Clam
Squid

Byproductsofvegetableoilmanufacture
Alltypesofplantwaste

b)Examplesofcompoundeddietsforotheranimals:

Chickenfeed(1826%protein)
Hogfeed(probably1420%protein)

c)Examplesofcompoundedprawndiets:

Afewdietsareonthemarketbuttheirformulaearekeptsecret.Althoughmajoringredientsmaybelisted,
thequantitiesofeacharenotgiven.RalstonPurinasell20%,25%and,Ibelieve,30%dietsforshrimp
(marine),whichhavealsobeenusedforfreshwaterprawns.

IbelievesomeproprietaryprawncompoundsareonsaleinJapan,thePhilippinesandTaiwan.Iam
hopingthat,inourdiscussiontimeinafewminutes,youwillbeabletotellmewhatfoodsareusedin
prawnproductioninyourowncountries.

ThefollowingisalistoftheingredientsofatypicalformulaforthePurina25%marineshrimpration.In
examiningitonemustremembernotonlythatthequantitiesarenotstatedbutthatitisnormalpolicyfor
feedstuffmanufacturerstoaltertheingredientcompositionofanyoftheircompounds,withoutnotice,
accordingtocurrentavailabilityandingredientcost.
Thelistisasfollows:

Fishmeal Proximateanalysis
Soybeanmeal
Groundwheat
Brewersdriedyeast H2 11%
Driedwhey
SoybeanOil Oil 12.5%
Decalciumphospate Protein 25.5%
Iodisedsalt
Fibre 4.1%
VitaminASupplement
Dactivatedanimalsterol Ash 6.7%
N.F.E. 40.2%
Menadionedimethylpyrimidinol
100.0%
bisulphite
VitaminEsupplement
VitaminB12supplement
VitaminC
Biotin
CholineChloride
Folicacid
PyrodoxineHCL Comments
Thiamin
Niacin Oilover10%
Contains
Calciumpantothenate
VitA
Riboflavinsupplement ContainsVitK
Copperoxide

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Manganousoxide
IronOxide Noprawnmeal
Zincoxide
Containssoybean
Calciumcarbonate
oil
Cobaltcarbonate

ThefollowingmixtureisusedbysomeHawaiianfreshwaterprawnfarmers:

90%BroilerStarterPellets
10%Prawnmeal

ThefollowingisashrimprationusedforpondcultureexperimentsforPenaeusmonodoninTahiti:

Shrimpmeal 8%
Bloodmeal 11%
Meatmeal 21.5%
Wheatgluten 10%
Rice 6%
Groundnutoilcake 17%
Solublefishproteinconcentrate(80%protein) 6%
Codliveroil 4%
Mineralmix 3%
Vitaminmix 5%
Methionine 0.5%

Thoseofyouwhoaregoodatmentalarithmeticandarestillawakeatthislatestageintheafternoonwill
noticethatthislistofingredientsonlyaddsupto92%.Anotherdietquotedonthesamepageasthisone
wasrecordedaddedupto101%abeautifulexampleoftheproblemsinreviewingandtryingtointerpret
theliteratureonprawnnutrition.Icouldgivemanyothers.

Icouldprovideotherformulaeforprawndietstherearemanyintheliteraturebutmosthavebeenusedfor
tankorlaboratoryexperimentsratherthanforcommercialprawnproduction.Inmostprawnfarmsfeeding
isanart,notascience,andthosematerialswhichareclosesttohandandcheapestareutilised.Whilethis
mayresultinprofitnow,intensiveculturewillrequireamuchfullerunderstandingofthedietary
requirementsofprawnsinpondculturethanwehaveavailablenow.

Itisn'treallypossibletosaymuchaboutfeedingratesforsupplementaryprawnrationsbecausethese
alwaysseemtobegovernedbyeyeballjudgementsonhowmuchfoodisuneatenfromyesterdays
feeding?.Thistechniqueislikelytoleadtoalternateperiodsofnearstarvationandsatiation,thelatter
combinedwithdubiouswaterquality.Tablesoffeedingrates,basedonbiomassweightsandprawnsizes,
suchasareusedinfishfeeding,arerequiredforprawns.Oncecompoundedprawndietsbecomereadily
andcommerciallyavailableitistobeexpectedthattheirmanufacturerswillresearchthissubject.One
feedingrateinpondswhichwasrecordedintheliteraturewasforMacrobrachiumfarminginHawaii,
whereaproductionof3000kg/hawasachievedthroughregularcullharvestingtechniques.Here
supplementalfeedwaspresentedatratesbetween28and45kg/ha/day.Onemoreexampleofthe
problemsofstudyingthistopic:thewriterofthereportgivingthisinformationwentontosaythatgallon
ofchow/acre/dayisagoodrateforanewlystockedpond.Suchastatementisalmostincomprehensible!
Howmuchdoesagallonofchowweigh?

4.REFERENCES
Biddle,G.N.,1976.Thenutritionoffreshwaterprawns.In:J.A.HansonandH.L.Goodwin(Editors),
shrimpandPrawnFarmingintheWesternHemisphere,Dowden,HutchinsonandRoss,Inc.,
Pennsylvania,USA.,pp.272291

New,M.B.,1976.Areviewofdietarystudieswithandprawns.Aquaculture,9:101144.

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New,M.B.,1980.AbibliographyofshrimpandprawnnutritionAquaculture,(inpress).

Tursutapanich,A.,1979.CystproductionofArtemiasalinainsaltpondsinThailand.FAOWorkingPaper
THA:75:008/WP/79/9.

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