MEA 2006 V 1.

0 08/2006

Topic 20
Instrumentation and
Monitoring

By: Mostafa Sharifzadeh

 MEA 2006 V 1.0 08/2006

COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA
Copyright Regulations 1969
WARNING
This material has been copied and communicated to you by or on behalf of
Curtin University of Technology pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act
1968 (the Act)
The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act.
Any further copying or communication of this material by you may be the
subject of copyright protection under the Act.
Do not remove this notice
Objectives
1. Objective of Monitoring
Explain the observational method of design in rock engineering.
Explain what may be learned from monitoring and how these results
may be used in design.
Describe the rock parameters/response which may be measured in a
monitoring programme.
2. Principles of Monitoring & Monitoring Systems
Describe the general features of a monitoring system.
Explain accuracy, error, sensitivity and precision of measuring
instruments.
Explain the principles of operation of mechanical, optical,
hydraulic, electrical strain gauges, vibrating wire sensors.
Explain how one would measure: tunnel wall deformation, stress
changes in rock, pressure changes in backfill, height of caving of
hanging wall.
Introduction
Throughout history, miners monitored with eyes and ears

Visual observations of rock falls, cracks and convergence

Listened to rock talking

Monitoring is the surveillance of engineering structures

Every instrument on a project should be selected and placed

to assist with answering a specific question: if there is no
question, there should be no instrumentation (Dunicliff, 1988).
 Site Characterisation
(Data collection and Analysis)

Mine model formulation

(Engineering Analysis)

Design (Global & Local)

Implementation

Rock Mass performance monitoring

Retrospective Analysis
Introduction
Overview: The why, what, where and when, and how
Planning monitoring programs
Monitoring systems general features and modes of
operation
Monitoring uncertainty
Measurement of
Deformation
Stress Change
Load and strain in structural members
Groundwater pressure
Why monitor?
Brady and Brown (2004) have
suggested 4 reasons:

1. To record the real values of and

variation in geotechnical parameters

2. To ensure safety during construction

and operation

3. To check the validity of assumptions &

conceptual models; and

4. To control and implementation of

ground treatment and remedial works

In mining mainly reasons 2 and 3

What is monitored?
Two basic physical responses: displacement and pressure

Absolute displacement (at the excavation boundary or within the

rock mass)

Convergence (relative displacement)

Groundwater pressure

Rock reinforcement load

Time is recorded as a fundamental variable

Where and when do we monitor?
Parameter estimation process (E.T. Brown, 1993)

Number of measurements

Location and accuracy of measurements

Direction of measurements

Distances between measuring points

Timing of measurements with respect to the excavation

process

Monitoring can be carried out before excavation, during

excavation, and after excavation
How do we monitor?
Visual Method:
Miners monitor excavation performance through their eyes and ears
Visual observations of rock falls
Crack opening
Load in rockbolt and cablebolt plates
Ground talk
Using an instrumentation system:
A sensor or detector, a transmitting system and a read-out or recording
unit
Easy installation, ease of reading, robustness, no interference with
mining activities
Adequate sensitivity, accuracy and measurement reproduction
Instrumentation - Key questions
Which parameters will be the most appropriate indicators of
excavation performance?
What are the inherent complications during measurement of
such parameters?
What techniques and equipment are most appropriate for
measuring such parameters?
Where and when do we monitor?

(CORE USA 1997, Product Catalogue)

Measurements prior to excavation

Characterization of the geotechnical

environment as an input to the
excavation design

Borehole/core logging data

To determine rock type, structure,

rock material properties and
hydrology conditions

(CORE USA 1997, Product Catalogue)

Measurements during excavation
To provide warning of safety hazards

Excessive rock stress, deformation and extent of

damage

Validation of material properties

To modify extraction rate and excavation sequencing

To optimize rock support and reinforcement schemes

Measurements after excavation
To obtain data required for
optimization of future excavation
designs (back analysis of
performance)
Measurement and control of dilution
and ore losses
To provide data on long term
stability, and environmental effects
Post-mining safety issues due to
instability of open pit walls, waste
dumps
Interpreting Results
Trends
Daily, Weekly, Monthly
Begin with large time frame
before examining smaller frame
Be mindful of accuracy,
precision and resolution of
readout before assessing trend
1. No increase in Movement
2. Steady in increase in
movement
3. Accelerating increase in
movement
1 and 2 OK
3 is cause for concern
Planning monitoring programs
1. Define the project conditions

2. Predict mechanisms that control behavior

3. Define the geotechnical questions that need to be answered

4. Define the purpose of the instrumentation

5. Select the parameters to be monitored

6. Predict magnitudes of change

7. Devise corrective action

(After Dunnicliff, 1988)

 Planning monitoring programs
1. Define the project conditions

Project type and layout, subsurface stratigraphy and

engineering properties of materials; groundwater
conditions; environmental considerations and planned
construction method

2. Predict mechanisms that control behavior

One or more hypothesis for mechanisms that are likely to

control behavior

(After Dunnicliff, 1988)

Planning monitoring programs
3. Define the geotechnical questions that need to be answered

Make a list of the geotechnical questions likely to arise during the

operation phase

4. Define the purpose of the instrumentation

Instrumentation must be able to answer question defined above

Dont select instruments on technology or capability low tech may be

better

Need to be accountable in cost and results

Every instrument on a project should be selected and placed to assist

in answering a specific question
Planning monitoring programs

5. Select the parameters

to be monitored

Slopes

Rotational failures

Plane failures

Wedge failures

Toppling

(Images after Hoek and Bray 1993)

Planning monitoring programs
5. Select the parameters to be monitored (cont.)
Underground
Gravitational failures (caving and ravelling)
Rockbursting
Squeezing
Swelling
Stress relief behavior
Rock reinforcement performance
Stress
In situ and induced
Water Pressures
 Planning monitoring programs
6. Predict magnitudes of change
Predictions are necessary so that required instrument
ranges and sensitivities or accuracies can be selected
Estimate maximum possible value
Estimate minimum possible value
Predetermine (if applicable) range of values required for
remedial action (refer to stage 7)
Select resolution
Dont seek unnecessarily high accuracy
High accuracy synonymous with delicacy and fragility
 Planning monitoring programs
7. Devise corrective action
Decide in advance a method for solving problems
Devise hazard warning levels (if appropriate)

Warning Criterion Action

Level

1 <5mm Mining can proceed. Monitor after every blast

2 5-10mm Mining can proceed as per level 1. When > 25% of the total installed prisms
record movement rates exceeding 5mm/day then go to Level 3

3 10-20mm Increase monitoring and assessment intensity/regularity and continue mining

operations around the Bull Nose.

4 >20mm The area beneath and adjacent to the Bull Nose is to be evacuated and
barricaded. Monitoring of the Bull Nose area should be increased to twice per
shift until movement rates subside, or until failure occurs.
Underground Monitoring
Measurement Suitable Instrument
Deformation of ground surface & structures Survey methods
Rod settlement gauges
Change of width of cracks in structures Crack gauges
Deformation within excavation Survey method
Convergence gauges
Fixed borehole extensometers
Subsidence soft rock Inclonometers
Probe extensometers
Fixed borehole extensometers
Subsidence hard rock Fixed borehole extensometers
Acoustic emission monitoring
Stress or loading on supports or structures Load cells
Strain gauges
Groundwater pressure Peizometers
 Underground Monitoring

Application Measurement

Routine Monitoring Surface settlement

Convergence within excavation

Groundwater pressure

Special applications Deformation of ground and/or support or reinforcement

Monitoring systems
Monitoring devices a system of 3 components:
1. Sensor or detector
Component responds to change in the variable being monitored

2. Transmitting system
e.g. rods, electrical cables, radiotelemetry device transmits
output to read-out location

3. Read-out or recording unit

e.g. dial gauge, digital display, magnetica tape recorder or
computer converts the data into usable form
 Monitoring systems
System should fulfill its intended function
economically and reliably

a) Easy installation;

b) Adequate sensitivity; accuracy and reproducibility of

measurements;

c) Robustness and suitable protection to ensure durability;

d) Ease of reading and immediate availability of the data to the

engineer
 Measurement Uncertainty
Conformance
Measuring instrument should not alter the value of the parameter
being measured if so poor conformance
Accuracy
Closeness of approach of a measurement to the true value (degree
of correctness)
Value; %; %Full Scale
Precision
Closeness of approach of each of a similar measurements to the
arithmetic mean (reproducibility and repeatability)
Resolution
The smallest division of the instrument readout scale
 Measurement Uncertainty

Precise & Imprecise & Precise &

Inaccurate Accurate (on average) Accurate
 Measurement Error
Type of Error Causes Remedies

Gross Error Inexperience Care

Misreading Training

Misrecording Duplicate readings (data acquisition systems)

Computational Error
Systematic Error Improper calibration
Loss of calibration
Nonlinearity
Sampling errors Variability in geologic materials
Dual Observers
Checking against previous readings
Use of correct calibration
Recalibration
Use of constant reading procedures
Sufficient number of samples in
representative locations

Observational error Variation between observers Training

Use of automatic data acquisition systems

(Adapted after Dunicliff, 1983)

 Measurement Error
Type of Error Causes Remedies

Conformance Error Inappropriate installation details Select appropriate instrument

Instrument design limitations Modify installation procedure
Improve instrument design
Environmental Error Weather Record environmental changes and apply
Temperature corrections
Vibration Make correct choice of instrument materials
Corrosion
Random error Noise Correct choice of instrument
Friction Temporary elimination of noise
Environmental effects Multiple readings
Statistical analysis
Murphy s Law If something can go wrong it will None any attempt to remedy the situation
will only make things worse!
(Adapted after Dunicliff, 1983)
Modes of operation
Mechanical
Steel rod or tape
Examples: convergence meters and extensometers
Optical
Include electro-optical (EDM) and laser systems
Used is conventional surveying methods
Examples: Prism monitoring; Cavity Monitoring Systems (CMS)
Hydraulic and pneumatic
Pressure acts on one side
Electrical
Electrical resistance
Self-inductance
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs)
Measurement of Stress Change

Intact rock response to stress

changes
 Measurement of Deformation
Observational techniques
Visual
Photographic
Survey techniques
Instrumentation techniques
Movement indicators
Strain meters
Joint meters
Extensometers: Fixed and portable borehole
Inclinometers: Fixed and portable borehole
 Measurement of Deformation

TV borehole camera to measure rockmass damage

Measurement of Deformation

Observational
Techniques
Quantitative
Surveying : Geodetic,
terrestrial, GPS,
photogrammetric

Qualitative
Visual observations
and photography
Measurement of Deformation

Observational Methods: Survey techniques

Classical Method New Method

 Monumentation and Targets
Monutmentation & targets
All monitoring targets
should be firmly fixed to the
surface.
Ensures that any observed Prism or Target
movement is due to the
movement of the deforming
surface.
Targets used can be either
Berm

for: 12mm Diameter Steel Pin or Star Iron Picket

1 Direction only
2 Prisms used for line and
distance
 Instrumental and observation errors
Horizontal Refraction
Horizontal angles are affected
by refraction
Can become appreciable where
Line of sight grazes the side AR E A H AVIN G

of a body OR A H IGH ATM OS P H E R IC

L IN E OF S IGH T D U S T CON TE N T

In dusty environment such +

TH E OD OL ITE
as a production pit. TAR GE T

In general when observing

horizontal angles:
i. Avoid grazing lines.
ii. Avoid sighting through dusty
areas of the pit
Instrumental and observation errors
Vertical Refraction
Light rays passing through the
atmosphere tend to bend
towards the earth.
Has the effect of making an
observed object appearing higher
than it really is.
The vertical shift due to vertical
refraction will depend on:
1. The length of the line.
2. Prevalent atmospheric
conditions.
3. The angle of sight to the vertical.
Instrumental and observation errors

Effects of vertical refraction on observation over a three day period

Instrumental and observation errors
EDM Error: Scale Correction = most important of the non-
instrumental errors
Due to varying atmospheric conditions (known as the first velocity
correction)
Function of pressure, wet & dry temp of the atmosphere through which the EDM
wave is passing
Most common method of correction:
1. Apply an observed temp & pressure to a formula for a specific instrument.
2. Enter the temp & pressure directly entered into the EDM
Measurement of Deformation
 Measurement of Deformation

Instrumentation techniques
1 Marks are placed on either side
of the crack and measurements
between these points using a
tape are taken at regular intervals
accuracy 0.5mm
2 Micrometer - device is capable of
accurately measuring very small
movements
The ends of the instrument are
fixed to either side of the crack
and the extension of the
instrument is measured using a
micrometer
 Measurement of Deformation
Instrumentation techniques:
Tiltmeter
The use of Tiltmeters provide
another means of measuring
movement in cases where the
area of instability is expected to
contain a rotational component.
A common type of Tiltmeter is one
where servo-accelerometer is
used to measure the rotational
movement.
This movement can then be either
manually or automatically logged.
Measurement of Deformation
 Measurement of Deformation
Instrumentation techniques:
Wire Extensometer.
1 One end of the wire is securely
anchored to the stable ground
2 The other end is anchored to the
unstable ground.
3 These devices can be connected to
drum recorders or data logging
devices to record movement over
time.
4 The wire Extensometer is also
easily connected to an alarm
system that can be activated by
excessive movement of the wire
Measurement of Deformation
Tape Extensometer
Monitor changes between
opposing walls or between floors
and backs
Consists of a pair of anchors, a
steel tape, and a portable
measuring instrument.
Instrument contains a dial caliper
& adjustment collar for controlling
tape tension.
Operation
Anchors fixed to opposing walls.
Tape between anchors,
tensioned & tape & calliper
readings noted
Dial reading added to tape
reading.
Measurement of Deformation
Measurement of Deformation

Fixed borehole extensometers

are a non-removable method of
monitoring displacement below
the surface.
It consist of one or more anchors
grouted into position in a
borehole.
Anchors are connected to a
reference head via a strain
element contained in a protective
tube
As the ground moves the change
in resistance is calibrated to
indicate the change in distance.
 Measurement of Deformation
Extensometers should
ideally be in the same
direction as the
movement
Example: assessing
overbreak in an
underground stope
Borehole normal to H/W
Anchors located at multiple
depths to assess extent of
HW movement.
 Measurement of Deformation
Slope Stability Radar (SSR)
Features/Advantages
High deformation precision ( 0.2 mm)
Broad coverage (~1000s pixels/scan)
Continuous op(~ 1s min/scan,
24hrs/day)
30-800m range
Custom software with alarm settings
Remote Operation via radio link and
internet
Rapid Deployment
Operates in many weather conditions
(inc dust)
Disadvantages
Water and changing humidity cause
problems
Measurement of Deformation

Radar Scan Lines

Measurement of Deformation

Slip Area

02:04 9th October 2003

Displacement (mm)
23:22 8th October 2003

20:47 8th October 2003

18:13 8th October 2003

 Measurement of Deformation

Prism location Small slip

Small slip
 Measurement of Deformation
SMALL WEDGE FAILURE

Moving Prism
LARGE WEDGE FAILURE

Stable Prisms SMALL CIRCULAR FAILURE

LARGE CIRCULAR FAILURE

Measurement of deformation

300T brittle rock fall during rain event.

Alarm at 5mm provided 9 hours of warning

300t brittle rockfall

Measurement of Deformation
Inclinometer
Measures the change in
inclination of the bore hole
casing.
Then determine the relative
deflection between any 2 points
Torpedo is passed through the
entire length of a near vertical
access tube
When at rest, servo-
accelerometers sense the
inclination of the access tube in
two planes at right angles to
each other.
Inclination units: angular or
horizontal displacement
(deviation).
Measurement of Deformation
In-place inclinometer
For automatic data collection
Uses conventional inclinometer
tubing (plastic or aluminium)
with string of sensor modules
Sensor module: 2 servo-
accelerometers sensitive in 2
orthogonal planes.
Gravitational force induces
rotation of a mass attached to
a coil suspended in a magnetic
field.
Induced current creates equal
& opposite force.
Current, proportional to the
sine of the tilt angle, provides
the output of the sensor
 Measurement of Deformation

Instrumentation & reinforcement elements Cable bolt strain

cells to monitor reinforcement performance

(Interfels, 1997 Product Catalogue) (Hutchinson, 1992)

Measurement of dynamic deformation

Geophones and accelerometers to measure blast

vibrations and microseismic activities

(Instantel, Blastmate Series III)

 Measurement of pressure
Water & pit wall failure :
1. Reducing the effects of friction
between surfaces
2. Pressure pushing out from the face.
Water is present due to:
Height of the water table or
Build up of rainwater in cracks and
discontinuities.
Common way of obtaining water
depth is via open well
piezometer
Instrument is lowered slowly down
the bore hole.
Light on the reel is illuminated
when probe touches water.
Closure Meter
Time dependent
mechanisms
 Time dependent mechanisms

Four time dependent

strain effects:
elastic and/or plastic
creep
transient creep
steady state creep
accelerated strain prior to
failure
Time dependent mechanisms

Elastic creep and part of

the transient creep curve
may be recoverable if the
load is removed.
Transient and steady state
creep are the dominant
geological deformation
processes (folding, etc).
 Time dependent mechanisms
Summary of horizontal
displacements (before collapse)
vs. pit depth for a range of pit
slopes [2].
Shows type of movement and
whether it was stabilised [2].
Two broad zones related to
depth [2].
Operationally, four stages [2]:
elastic movement
creep movement
cracking and dislocation
collapse
 Time dependent mechanisms
Elastic movements [2]:
Associated with stress and rock mass modulus
Reaction of rock mass to excavation unloading
Highly variable; e.g.. a few mm in hard rock 300m high slope to 1
to 2 m in soft rocks.
Not usually a concern for a mining operation

Creep movements [2]:

relatively slow time and stress dependent movements

Need to differentiate between cracking and dislocation

and collapse since slope may remain serviceable [2].
 Time dependent mechanisms

Approximate scales of
movement [2]:
Elastic movements: mm in
shallow pits or hard rock;
mm to m in deep and/or
soft rock.
Creep movements: 10s to
100s of mm.
Cracking & dislocation:
0.2m to several m.
Collapse: > 0.5m. After Sullivan, 1993
 Movement characteristics

Regressive system [3]:

Common
Typical of simple control
mechanisms
Points 1, 2 and 3 show
a decelerating trend.
Usually related to an
external event (rainfall,
blasting etc)
 Movement characteristics

Progressive system [3]:

Shear stress greater than
shear strength.
Positive exponential
displacement.
Timeframes may be quite
short (days rather than
months).

After Zavodni, 2000

 Movement characteristics

Transitional system [3]:

Commence as regressive
failures then move into
progressive failures
through a transitional
period.

After Zavodni, 2000

 Movement characteristics

Stick-slip [2]:
Sudden movements
followed by periods of Total
displacement
little or no movement.
Usually movement caused
by rainfall, blasting etc.

Time

787878
 Movement rate

Rate of movement is a good

measure of behaviour.
In general [2]:
>10-3 cm/s (1m/day) normally
occur prior to collapse.
Failure mechanisms that
require the largest energy
expenditure for movement
may be able to sustain larger
displacements (eg. rock
mass)
Simple mechanisms (eg.
plane) less so.
Cable bolted slopes slower.
After Sullivan, 1993
 When will it fail?

Prediction of time to
failure:
Key question
Chuquicamata case:
failure accurately
predicted 36 days ahead
of time.

After Sullivan, 1993

When will it fail?

Zavodni and Broadbents

method:
Plot displacement rate
(log scale) vs time (linear
scale)
Could predict collapse
date for transitional
failures.
Figure (based on Liberty
failure) shows data for a
After Zavodni, 2000 large wedge on two faults.
When will it fail?

Based on a number of
transitional failures:
Vmp / Vo = K where:
Vmp = velocity at
midpoint in
progressive stage
Vo = velocity at onset
of failure stage.
K = constant (average
6.70, sd about 2, min
After Zavodni, 2000
= 3.7 max = 10.4)
 When will it fail?

Zavodni and Broadbents method (cont.):

The semi-log straight line equation is V = CeSt where:
V = velocity in ft/day
S = slope of line (days-1)
C = constant
t = time in days
e = base of the natural logarithm
 When will it fail?

Zavodni and Broadbents method (cont.):

Assuming t = 0 at the onset of collapse, then V = VoeSt for
the progressive failure stage.
The velocity at the point of collapse can therefore be
estimated from Vcol = K2Vo
This equation when used in conjunction with a semi-log plot
can be used to estimate the number of days until, collapse
once the onset of failure has been identified.
 When will it fail?

These techniques have shown mixed success because:

need many monitoring stations
complex geology and/or complex mechanism means non-
uniform movements and movement rates
practicalities of locating monitoring points at the right place and
at the right time
once substantial movement has occurred, access may be
dangerous

Prediction is a tricky business.

 When will it fail?

In medium to large scale

wall failures, once
unusual movements
have been observed,
then [2]:
almost 50% collapse
within 3 months;
thereafter 75% collapse
within 1.5 to 2 years.

There are many

exceptions, though!
 Final comments (Zavodni, 2000)

Regressive and progressive slope movements are only

expected after a period of initial response.
The period of initial response and strain hardening may take
several days to several years during which movements
proceed at decreasing rates.
Regressive and progressive slope failure in large slopes
range from a few days to 700 days.
 Final comments (Zavodni, 2000)

The following comments apply to large-scale (over

100,000t) slope movements:
V of the order of 0.1mm/day indicative of initial response or on-
going failure without acceleration to collapse. May be up to
4mm/day in poor quality rock masses.
Onset of failure can occur between 4 and 45 days prior to total
collapse.
Appears to be no universally-applicable critical velocity or total
displacement criteria..
Final comments (Zavodni, 2000)

If V < 1.7cm/day then it is unlikely collapse will occur within

24 hours.
If V < 1.5cm/day then it is unlikely collapse will occur within
48 hours.
If V > 5cm/day the failure is usually in the progressive
stage and collapse could occur within 48 days.
Clear the area when V > 10cm/day for a progressive
failure with a progressive velocity.
For a regressive (Type I) pattern, if V stabilises at below
15cm/day then it may be possible to continue mining with
close monitoring.
 Final comments (Zavodni, 2000)

For a regressive (Type I) pattern, if V exceeds15cm/day then

it may be necessary to clear the area, unless a predictable
displacement history is known.
Based on a convention plot with time increasing to the right,
typical values of S for the curves in Zavodni and Broadbents
method are as follows:
Regressive stage: S = -0.100 to 0.013
Progressive stage: S = 0.054 to 1.171
Monitored total displacements in the progressive stage before
collapse can be a small as 8cm.
Final comments (Zavodni, 2000)

At the other extreme, displacement as large as 9m have

been measured while the slope remains in the regressive
stage.
In some soft rock environments, collapse can develop
after strains of 1% to 2%.
Possible responses to slope failure

(Savely, 1993 in Zavodni, 2000)

Leave the area alone.
Continue mining (controlled rate) if velocity is low enough, predictable
and mechanism understood.
Unload unstable area by restripping (not always applicable).
Step out the wall design.
Do a partial cleanup.
Mine out the unstable area.
Support the unstable area.
Dewater the unstable area.
Revise blasting procedures.
 Conclusion

Why, What, Where and When of monitoring

Planning monitoring: MUST have question to be answered
7 steps in planning process

Instrument selection/category (measuring what?):

Deformation (most frequent)
Stress Change
Load and strain in structural members
Groundwater pressure

Be aware of error and uncertainty

Support system tutorial
The diagram below shows cable bolts in the roof/back of a drive. One of the cable
bolts is instrumented with six extensometer points along it. The cable bolts are fully
grouted. The graph shows the extensometer data collected over four weeks.

1) What is the approximate yield strength of the instrumented cable bolt in kilonewtons?
2) What is the capacity (in tonnes) of the cable bolt reinforcement pattern per metre along
the drive if a factor of safety of 2 relative to yield strength is used?
3) How many cubic metres of rock does the capacity of the cable bolt pattern correspond to
(retain the factor of safety of 2 and assume a rock density of 2700 kg/m3)
Q1) What is the approximate yield strength of the
instrumented
cable bolt in kilonewtons?
26000 kg * 9.8 m/s2 = 254800 N = 255 kN
26t
Same value (Yielding!)
Q2) What is the capacity (in tonnes) of the cable bolt
reinforcement
pattern per metre along the drive if a factor of safety of 2
relative to yield strength is used?
Factor of Safety =Support Strength
Load

What we want to know!

Load = 39 t 26 t *3 = 78t
Q3) How many cubic metres of rock does the capacity of the
cable
bolt pattern correspond to?
(retain the factor of safety of 2 and assume a rock density of 2700
kg/m3)
Now you know maximum load = 39 t
Also you know rock density = 2.7 t/m3

Just want to know How many cubic metres of rock

in this condition

39 t / 2.7 t/m3 = 14 m3
When did most movement occur?

Between 18/01/13 and 25/01/13

What distance from the roof/back of the
drive did the movement occur?

Between 3m and 5m
Assuming the rocks are horizontally
bedded strata, comment on the suitability
of the ground support. Comment on the
possible use of 3m long bolts alone
without the 9m long cables, at this
location.

3m to 5m thick Dead Load

Tunnel Monitoring
Tunnel Monitoring