77-32, 719 SKELLIE, Walter James, 1899- THE RELIGIOUS PSYCHOLOGY OF AL-GHAZZALi: ‘A TRANSLATION OF HIS BOOK OF THE IHYA’ oN THE EXPLANATION OF THE MONDERS OF SHE HEART WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES. The Hartford Seminary Foundation, Ph.D., 1938 Religion, history University Microfilms International , sn rvor. Michigan 48106 © = 1977 WALTER JAMES SKELLIE ALL RIGHTS RESERVED‘THE RELIGIOUS PSYCHOLOGY OF AL-GHAZZALT A Translation of His Book of the IEYA? on THE EXPLANATION OF THE WONDERS OF THE KEART with Introduction and Notes Submitted 2 the Faculty of the KENNEDY SCHOOL OF MISSIONS HARTFORD SSMINARY FOUNDATION In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOFRY Walter James Skellie April 1938vim. alter Jemes Skellie wes born in Argyle, New York, on Dec. 20, 1899, the son of Archibald cow and Elizabeth Fersha Skellie. He attended country school, end gradueted from argyle High School in 1916, is college was westminster Collegs, Nev ‘Filmington, Pa., where he graduated vith honor in 1921. on tered Pittsburgh Theological Seminary thet fell and received the degree of Th. 3. with honor in 1924 and was awarded the Jamieson Scholarship for thet yaar, In the Church in which he had been reared he wes ordained to the ministry of the Gospel for foreign wissionary rrice by the Argyle Presbytery of ths United Presbyterien Church in ley 1924. jo has served the Sgyptian uission under the Board of Foreign Missions of that Church from October 1924 until the present tine. From 1924 until 1926 he was located in Cairo for language study, and then he was sent to Alexandria to assist in the work of that city and district. His first furlough in America was spent at the Kennedy School of Wiseions in Hartford, where he received the Hed. degrea in Islamics in 1930. Returning to igypt in September 1930 ne wes located in Luxor for evangelistic work in thet district, with supervision of some schools in the district. This service has been rendered in close cooperation with the Sgyptian Zvangelicel Church.In 1931 he registered with the Kennedy School of Missions for advanced study, end has been working on this book of al-Ghazzli's end releted subjects since thet time. Re spent the school yeer 1937 - 38 in res: nce in Hertford for the completion of this work.TABLE OF CONTENTS. Table of Contents. . . . . 1 es ee page fe Intreduction, 2 6. 6 ew Ae A Biographical Sketch of Al-Ghazz€1i. . . 444, Be A Sketch of al-chazz@li's Psychology C. Texts Used in Translation. ... . . . itd, D. A Summary of the Translation. . . . . liv, Translation. . . . Introductions 6 6 1 eee ee ae le Chapter I. The Weaning of rt', ‘Spirit! *Soul' and 'Intelligenc oe 5S Chapter II, The armies of the Heart. . . 13. Chapter ITI, The Similitudes of the Heart vith its Internal armies. . . 19. Chapter IV, The Special Froperties of the art of Man. 2 2 2 ee ew 25. Chapter V, ‘The Cualities and Similitudes of the Heart. 6 ee ee ee 366 Chapter VI. ‘The Heart as Related to the Special Sciences. « » s + + 46. Chapter VII. ‘The Heart as Related to the Divisions of the Sciences. . + « 61. Chapter VIII. ‘The Difference between the Wy of the iff and thet of the Specu- lative Philosophers... . + + 70. Chapter IX, A Tangible Example of the Differ= ence in Rank of the Two Positions . . 78+ike Chapter X, The Validity of the Zxperiential Knowledge of the uystic. . . . . . 906 Chapter XI, Satan's Domination over the Heart through Evil Promptings. . » . . 102+ Chapter XII, The Wys by which satan Enters the Heart. 2 6. ee ee ee 12he Chaptor XIII. That for which lan is Held Aecountable, and that for vhich He is Forgiven. 2 se ee ee e+ 1600 Chapter XIV. Are Evil Promptings Entirely Cut Off by Devotional Exercises? . . . 170. Chapter XY, The Rapidity of the Heart's changes 178. oC BERRA Ore DE Piet ore tole or) ee eee eat 2295adi, INTRODUCTION, A, A Blographical Sketch of Al-chazréli. AbG Faimid Wubammd bin uubammd ‘bin Mukasmed bin Apmnd al-Ghassili el-Jist was born in fis, Persia in the year 450 A.H. (1058-9 A,D,) and died in SOS/1111. Bis biography has ‘been thoroughly studied and sympathetically written by competent fy) and an understanding of his life is indispensible a) These biographical sources are: D, B, lacdonald, The Life of AlcGhazzG1i, Journal of the American Oriental society, xx, 1899, PP. 71-132, and his article in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 41, Pp. 146 ff; S. M, Zwomer, A Moslk Seeker after God, Revell, New York, 1920; W. R. W. Gardner, Al-chazdlf, in The Islam Series, of the Christian Literature Society for India, Uadras, 1919. To ‘these should be added two articles by Macdonald in Ieis, May 1926, PD. 9-15, and Way 1937, pp. 9-10, which mke another needed clari- fication of the misapprehension of some Western medieval scholars regarding al-Gharzéli's purpose in his mgapid al-falasifah; also @ modern Muslim appreciation by S. U. Rahman, Al-Ghaszalf, in Islamic Culture, July 1927, pp, 406 ff, For readers of Arabic mention should be mde of the following recent works: gbd pamid al-Ghazeadli by wubamad Rigs, Cairo 1343/1924; al-akhlag (ind 7ive for eny adequate understanding of his principles of religious psyrhology as found in this book from his great work, ibys ‘alin fin, Only e brief summery of the principal his life can be given here, Al-Gharzili's father died when his: son-who wis. to achieve such fame was tut a smll boy. Before his death the father gave his two sons into the charge of a sift friend who faithfully cared for them and began their training, Al-Ghazza12 studied in a madraseh in fis, and later in Jurjén and Nishapor, In this last place his teacher was a famous and devout part, abé: L-tatG1f ‘abd al-imlik al-Juwaini, better known as Indu: al-faremin, Al-Ghas: remained: with him as his pupil and probably also hin acaistant until the death of the Imim, He was a faithful student and acquired a broad knowledge of many branches of learning, By Qlcchagsilt, by Zaki Mubsrek, Cairo 1343/1924; pafwat ihya? al- Ghazr@l%, by Mabmid ‘Alt qirifah, Cairo 1353/1935. For a list of the writings of al-Ghazs@li see Ency. of Islam, op.cit.; Brockle- mann, i, pp. 421 ff. & euppe/abe 144 ff.5 also the books mentioned above by Zvener and Muhammed Rida, A List of thirty-eight of his best known and most easily obtaimble writingsis given in the appendix of Gardner's Al-Ghazali, pp. 105 ff.ve his diligent application and constant stady he probably did a lasting injury to his health at this period of his life. after the death of the Inim al-faremin, al-Ghezziif vont to the court of the great visier, Nigam al-wulk, where he von fame and praise for his learning. fe was later appointed to teach in the great school at Baghdad, and there he lectured to some three hundred students, and gave legal opinions of great importance. He preached to large and appreciative crowds in the Bosque, and he prospered in material things. Brt although he was outwardly succossful, bo had pe Peace of heart. He was experiencing a deep and lasting change in his life, In all his study and learning he had not found reality, and he was now plunged into the depths of skepticiem, He sought the answer to the doubts of his soul in scholastic theology, in the teaching of the Ta‘ limites who said that one must follow an infallible living teacher, and in the study of philosophy, but the result was not satisfying. He turned to the study of sifien, and then realized that whet he needed was not so much religious instruction as religious experience. He saw that his own life was so full of sham and covetousness that if he continued thus he could not possibly find rest or reality, His mutel stato so affected his physical condition that it was impossible for him to continue teaching. So in the year 488 he suddenly forsook position, wealth,and fame and withdrew from the world. ‘The brilliant teacher who had gloried in worldly success and royel favor now turned his back upon 4t all and became & wandering dervish ascetic. He had been given divine grace te renounce a21 for an experiential knowledge of Allah, He lived in retirement in Damacus, visited Jerusalem and Hebron, mide the pilgrimge to Mecca and Wedina. Finally, drawn by the ties of family affection and recognising the propriety of such relationships, he returned to Baghdid. ‘This period of re- ‘tirement and wandering wis filled with ths preetice of devotiom) exercises, and the study and writing of tooks. karly in this period he wrote bis mei piece, ihyé? ‘uldn al-din, and he taught it in Damascus and Baghdad. It is quite peesible that he revised this work at a later period in his life. Al-GhaseGli‘'s return to pablic life cam in 499 when he wes appointed to teach in the school at Rishapur; but only for a short time did he remain there. He desired the life of retirement and meditation on spiritual things, end so removed to his native city of Jas where he established « gfiff school and khangéh. There ho spent hie time in study and meditation until his end came quietly in the year 505/111. From his own day up to the present time al-Gharsali has held a secure position of leadership in Islam. with him the religious philosophy and experience of Islan reached its senith,vil. and the syst of ethics which he produced has become the final authority for orthodox Islam, His was warming and revitalizing influence upon Islam in his own day, and it bas contimed to be such ina potent wy for eight and a quarter centuries, ‘The vitality of bis experience, the breadth of his leerning, the high Plane on which he lived his own transformed life, and the depth of hie desire to serve Ailah and his fellowmen in complete and self- denying devotion mde him the mn whose influence is considered by many to have been second to none among the leaders of Islam, save thet of Muhamed himself, a Al-Sayyid al-wurtada al-zabidi, in his commentary on the Thyis called ith@f el-sfideh al-wuttagtn, bas a lengthy treatise on the life end influence of al-GhassGlt. In it he shows how mny Muslim writers have used al-Gharsa]i's books and ideas as a basis for their own thinking and writing, ‘The fact that new books on al-Chazsalf are still being written by modern Wuslim writers and by Western orientalis 4s conclusive evidence of his high place in the world of welim thought. Jabran rhalfl Jabrin, well-known 29 a writer both in English and arabic, wrote of al-Gharsalf in bis book al-badé?if wal taravif, Cairo 1923, pp. 116-118, as follows: "Al-Gharsélf holds « very high place in the minds of Western orfentalis and scholars. They place him along withwiht, Ton Sima and Ibn Rushd in the first rank of oriental philo- sophers. The spiritually minded among them consider him te represent the noblest and highest thought which has appeared in Islam. Strange to say, I saw on the walls of a church in Florence, Italy, built in the fifteenth century, a picture of al-Gharzili among the pictures of other philosophers, eseints, and theologians whom the leaders of the Church i> the middle ages considered as the pillcrs end columns in ‘the temple of Absolute spirit. "But stranger than this ie the fact that the people of ‘the West know more about al-Ghazzali than do the people of the East. ‘They translate his works and investigate his teachings and search out carefully bis philosophic contentions and aystic aims, But we, who still speak and write Arabic, seldom mention al-Ghareli or discuss biz, Ye ere still wasied with the shells, as though shells were all thet come out from the sen of life to the shores of days and nights." Another quotation will be given frou a book used in Egyptian secondary and teacher training schools in the study of the history of Arabic literature. It is al-wastt fi 1 *édab el- farabi wa tértkhibi , by Shaikh Abmsd el-Zekandari and Sheikh Mugfafa ‘aAnnant, Cairo 1925, as follows: "There ic a real soul bond between al-Ghazzalf and St.ixe Augustine, They are two similar appearances of one principle, in spite of the sectarian and social differenc existing between their times and exviroments, this principle is an instinctive inclination within the soul which leeds its Poasessor on step by step from things seen soi their exterml appearances to the things of reason, philosophy, and divinity, “Al-Ghazsé1% seperated himself from thyworld and from the luzury and high position which he had in it, and Lived the lonely solitary life of a mystic, penetrating deeply into ‘the search for those fine threads which join the utmost limits of acience to the beginnings of religion; and searching dili- gently for that hidden vessel in which men's perceptions and ‘experiences are mingled with their feelings and dreams, “Augustine had done this five centuries before him. Who~ ever reads bis book ‘Confessions’ will find that he took the earth and everything derived therefrom as e ledder on which to mount up to the secret thought of the Supreme Being. “However I have found al-Ghazs&if to be nearer to the real ence of things and their secrete than St. Augustine was, Perhaps the reason for thie lies in the difference be~ ‘tween the Arab and Greek sciontific theories which preceded his time to which the former fell heir, and the theology “< which occupied the fsthers of the Church in the second andx ‘third comturisa A.D,, which the latter inherited. By in- herdtance I mean the thing which is passed on with the age from one mind to another, just as certain physical attain- ments are cénetaxt in the exteronl appearance of peoples from age to age. “I found in el-Ghaszilf that which makes him a golden Link joining the mystics of India who had preceded him with the eeekers for the divine who followed him, For in the attaiments of Buddhist thought there 4s something akin to al-Gharséli; and likewise in what Spinoza and William Blake have written modern tines there is sonething of his feelings. "Al-Gharzali is considered as a supporter of the Ash‘ard sect enlled the people of the Sunnah, and as one of the great~ est of shaft‘fimems, He is reckoned as the best of those who spoke on asceticiom, being unlike to the sift sects which went beyond the ordinary experience of the human reason. His ‘book, ihya’ ‘ulfin al-din, is one of the finest books on ac- coticiom, ethics, -. and exposition of the wisdom of the quran and the shart‘ah. Bis writings on these subjects are most eloquent, and his etyle of writing is aimed at ty scholars in this field and by other reformers evén up to the present tine,* As a writer al-Ghazralf was not original in the use of‘the mterial which he incorporated in his many books. ‘This was only natural in the light of his experience of study and search for truth from so many different sourc Ho was influenced by all the systems which be studied,and appropriated for his own teaching what he deemed to be the truth wherever he found it. He followed the teaching of the proverb he quoted, (p. 151), “Bat the vegetable wherever it comes from, and do not ask vhere the garden is.* He took such from his dy of the philosophy of al-Férabi and Ibn Sina, especially the latter. He constantly quotes from the git eal-quitib of Abd JElib al-Makkt and alerisalah gicgushsiriyyehs and he shows the influence of al-parith al-mubasitt, AG Msfd al-pisfind, al-shinit, and others whose works he studied. Tn summing up an article on al-Ghazsilf's debvt to al- ») ibi, Dr. Wnrgaret smith writes, “These emmples ... . show clearly al-Ghazzali's indebtedness to his great predecessor, vot for the min trend of his ascetical, devotional, and mysties! teaching and for mny of the ideus and 11lustrations of which he mkes use in his rule for the religious life." . . “The foundations of that great system of orthodox Islamic mysticism which el-Gharsilf mde it his tusiness to bring to completion, had already been well and truly leid,* xGlf, Field, London 1909, p. 41. a) b) The Forerunner of sl-Ghasil, JRAS, 1936, pp. 65-78.But al-GhassGli did more than merely cite quotations from these sources; he wove thom into a harmonious system based upon his own experience of gaining and realizing reality. His hole morel philosophy wes a synthesis, and a practics] expression of the golden mean, He took the rigid framework of the scholastic theologian and clothed it with the warm personal foith of the mystics To the knowledge of the philosopher which is gained through the processes of study, reasoning, and deduction he added. the inner knowledge of the sift vho with the light of cor tainty, and experiences dirdct revelations and unveilings of the Divine Reality, He was careful, however, to avoid the extreme Yagaries of pGfiem and especially its tendencies to antinomianien and pantheism, fe united the best results of philosophic specu- lation with orthodox Islam, and, while denying the usterialiam of the philosophers, he nevertheless used their mothods to develop bie own thought, end to refute them where they differed with the teachings of orthodox Islam Al-GhaszG1i was well acquainted with the technical language of all of these different groups and used it to express his own idoas, but he often quoted it quite loosely, Similar to this was his imcourate use of tradition for which he bas been eriticized ty both his friends and his foes. He quoted traditions carelessly and often inezactly, But even more serious was hisxiii. uncritical selection of traditions, muy of wich were very poorly attested or even quite unfounded, according to the best authorities, Perhaps the explanation of this strange inezct- peas in such e learved mn lies in the fact that al-chazzalf, with all his learning, was less = theologian, a philosophor, a traditionist, or even a sift mystic, then he was a preacher and teacher whose great end and aim was to move men's lives and to tarn their hearts to seck allah. Im his spiritual enthusiasm to gain this end he was often careless in the formlation of the statements and quotations which he used es « means of attaining it, Al-Ghas2G1% pot great emphasis upon man's need for spiritual leaders, and his Thy’ gives the ethical teachings of a Kindly pastor who cares for his flock. He was considerate and humane in his dealings with men in general, and, although reviled by others, he was slow to condemn those who disagreed with hia. Even when he did condemn the philocophers his chief concern wee to point out the errors of their system of thought and teaching, rather than to denounce them persomlly.xive B. A Sketch of Al-Ghazzali's Psychology. Introduction. Ts taking up a somewhat systemtic study of the pey- chology of al-Ghaszili it will be observed that many of his ideas follow closely those of the philosophers whose heretical doctrines he opposed so strongly. But, no mtter how much my be said about his borrewings from the Greeks and their successors, we must take care not to consider him as a mere eclectic philosopher who took what he chose from hie predecessors, for he was first of all a Muslim teacher and preacher. He weighed all of the teachings of ‘the philosophers in the balance of the Islamic faith, and incor- porated into his system only those principles which measured up to that standard. In so far as he did follow the philosophers he adapted and modified their teachings so ae to make them conform to the orthodox Wuslim religion, ‘The psychology cf al-Ghareai was Platonic in many of Lie ideas, but it included much of the Aristotelian development in ite analysis, Neoplatonic thought which had so strongly influenced al-Firabi and Ibn sina was inevitably present in the thinking of al-Gharralf also, and it colored many of his philosophical and psychological concepts. The fact that al-hazzéli uses the term ‘heart’ -xv. instead of soul in the title of this book is an indication of the primal position this word had in the vocabulary of iuslim religious teachers, end also in that of the philosophers, ‘The term was used in Islam for the seat of intellectual and emotioml life even as it had already been used by Judaism and Christianity. Among the Greeke and Romans the heart took the place ir the liver as the a soul, intellect, and emotion, 4ristotle gave the >) heart the place of honor as the seat of the noblest emotions. seat of 1if Although al-Gharzili uses the term ‘secrets’ of the heart as a synonym for its ‘wonders’, it apparently does not con- note any special mystical signification, elthough it has such a e) meaning in $Gfi usage. ‘The heart is the seat of secrets. Al-GhazzGli limits the discussion of the subject largely to the field of practical religious philosophy (¢ilm el-m¢dmlah), His eim is ethical, and, although he does at times inevitably deal with questions of metaphysics, it is nevertheless with ethics thet he is primnrily concerned. He would not go as far as zeno and 4) / reduce all virtues to practical wisdom (Ppo ¥7d1S), yet thet was a) Hastings, Ency. of Religion and ethics, vi. p. 557. b) Brett, A History of Psychology, i. p. 106; Ross, Aristotle, pe 143, m1. ¢) Dict. of Tech, Terms, p.. 653. 4) Usverweg, A History of Philosophy, i. p. 200.for him the important way of achieving his desired end, - the good a) life He agreed with Aristotle that understanding included both wisdom (sopra) and practical sense (ppovqers 8) but what he stressed was thqlatter, which they both held to be "practical ability, under rational direction, in the choice of things good tnd avoidance of things whieh are evil for ann.” This practical end was kept ever in view by al-Ghaszalf as the logical outcome of man's tmowledge and experience. 1, ‘The Nature of the soul, In order to understand clearly al-Gharzali's concept of the nature of the heart, or soul, it is necessary to discuss féur terms which are applied to it. They are: ‘heart’ (galb)y ‘spirit’ (rh); ‘woul’ (nafi j end ‘4ntelligence’ (¢ngl). Zach of tl terms bas two meanings, but the second meaning of each term is the same as the second meaning of each of the other three terms. ‘The term ‘heart' means the heert of flesh in the body of 2 man or animal, whether living or dead; but it also means that subtile tenuous substance, spiritual in nature, which is the knowing a) wure, Aristotle, p. 129. b) Brett, op. cit. 4. pe 144, c) Ueberweg, op. cit. i. pe 176.xvii, and perceiving nce of man. There is sone connection between the physical heart and this spiritual theart', but practical wisdom and prophetic precedent do not demand nor warrant the ex: plamation of this relationship, ‘Spirit’ means that refined mterial substance which 1s Produced by the blood in the left cavity of the heart and which rises up to the brain and pe: 8 to all parts of the body through Perception, This resembles Aristotle's theory of the TreSpe ae a “sentient organism of a subtle nature spread through the vody and acting as the universal medium of sensation, 2 ‘Spirit’ also mens the above mentioned subtile spiritual substance which is the second meaning of ‘heart’. The third term is ‘soul’ (nafs), This my mean the *) life-giving soul whose sent is in the heart. surjént defines mife ae “that refined muporous substance (jawhar) which bears the Powers of life, sense perception, and voluntary motion", and says that al-fekim (Ibn Sina) called it the anim spirit « elzhayewéniyyeh), Al-Ghazsi1i and othe> sift writers commonly 8) Ithdf, vid. p. 203; note 20, p. 192, d) Brett, i. p. 119. ¢) Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1. p. 679 b.xviii, bring the word nafs, which is the ordinary Arabic equivelent for the ypuyny of Greek philosophy, down to the appetitive soul (€cOuple ) 45 which are united man's blanovorthy qualities, ‘This is the pura of Pauline theology and the nephesh of Hebrew. It is not clear fron this book of the Thy’, nor from his méGrij al-quds ft mdarij m‘rifat el-nafs, or el-risflah alcladunniyyah, or kimiya? al-setédah, whether or not al-chazzal? held that the ‘soul' in this sense was mterial or imeterial in ite nature. Some hints of a mterial soul are found, for exemple in kimiya’ al- satan” vere he speaks of the nafs as the vehicle (marked) of the heart, a term usually applied to the bodys and again in el-risflah al-tadunntyyan ere he says that gifts call ‘the anim] spirit (gl-rih el-heyawini) e nafs. the clearest hint is perhaps that in ofsin e-em vnere he speaks of the two Meaningsbf the soul as the animil soul (el-nafe el-bayawaniyyeh) and the human soul (al-nefs al-ineniyyeh). It is clear that there wes in Islam the concept of a mterial a) But al-cherzili does not stress the nature of this appetitive soul as regerde its a) Gairo 1343, pp. 8) 10, b) Cairo 1343, p. 27. ¢) Cairo 1342, pp. 18, 20. 4) Vacdomald, The Development of the of spirit in Jurjant; Dict. of Tech. Terms, pp. 1390 ff.ix. materiality or immateriality, but rather es regards its charset: istic of uniting the blemeworthy qualities of mn, These blame- worthy qualities are the animal powers in mn which are opposed to his rational preety Tt is thus, like Plato's irrational soul, made up of anger (ghadab, Quuss) and appetence (shahweh, em Bun fay, ‘The second meaning of mafs is that subtile spiritual substance which is the real essence of mn. ‘The fourth term is ‘intelligence’ or ‘r jon" (fagh). Tais rord is commonly used to translate the Greek VOUS . ‘Aah is applied to man's knowledge of the true mture of things, and also to hie pover to perceive and know, This letter meaning is that same subtile spiritual substance of which Aristotle said, "Reason, nore than anything else, is ers It 4s this second meaning, common to all four terms, of which al-chazrélf writes in the volume before us. Thus his con- sept of ‘heart', or ‘soul’, may be defined as that subtile tenuous substance, spiritual in nature, which is the perceiving and knowing essence of mn, and in reality is mn, Its seat is the physical heart. It is immterial end immortal. It is created directly by a) mGrij al quds, Cairo 1346/1927, p. 11. >) Micomachean Ethice, 1177 b 26-78 a 7, in Mure, Aristotle, pel65.Allah, capable of knowing Him, and is morally responsible to Him. Al-GhazzG1f, following Ibn Sima and other Areb philo- sopkers, conceived of the human soul as being between the lower realm of the animal and the higher realm of the divine, end es partaking of the characteristics of each of these ea the elaboration of their doctrine of the soul they combined the id of Plato and Aristotle, and joined to them additional ideas from Neoplatonic sources. Perhaps the most systemtic statement of the resulting doctrine of the soul is that given by Ibn sim which my be summarized in the following scheme which is adapted >) from Rastings, Zncyclopeedia of Religion and Ethics, ii. pp.274 f, (Vegetative soul ( Soul = tea Soul (Ruman (Rational) Sou) Bach one of these divisions is furth:r subdivided as follows: (Powers of nutrition ¢ Vegetative Soul ---- ( " "growth ¢ ¢ " "reproduction a) Brett, ii. p. 48g Plotimus, Enneads, IIT, ii, 8. b) Cf. Brett, ii. pp. 54 ff.; Islamic Culture, April 1935, pp. 341 ff,(attractive powor ( (concupiscence) (Appetitive _. (power ( (repulsivs power Motive (| Graseipility faculties ( (and passion) ( (Bfficient ( { power in motor nerves ( and muscles Animel soul-( ( ( (sight { (hearing ( ( (Perceptive.___( (aculties —( { ‘common sense [formative faculty (internal (cogitative * (estinative * (memory {active Intelligence (practical reason) Human or ¢ Rational --- ( (material intellect or Soul f {potentiality of knowledge (Speculative Intelligence (intellect of possession (| (theoretical reason) (| recognizes axiomtic perceives __( —_ knowledge Ade uy "77" (perfected intellect ("lays hold on (| Antelligibles ‘This system was adopted in large part by al-chaszilf, and it formed the framework of his intellectual philosophy. In analyzing the above scheme as developed by al-Ghassaltxxii, in this book we find ideas corresponding closely to the Platonic thought of the rational and irrational eer p rational soul, according to Plato was created by God and placed in the heed, bat the irrational part was the creation of the demiourgoi. Ite nobler part is anger, or the spirited, irascible nature ( Bupes), and has its seat in the heart or thorax; while the base part which is appetence, cr the concupiscible nature (emiBupia), hes its seat in the abdominal cavity, For al-Ghazz@lf, of cours Allah is the Creator of-all that man is and does, and he follows Aristotle in holding thet the heart is the seat of the rational soul. fut, in spite of th differences, the Platonic division is an importent zart of the thinking of et-otmasitt. patore ‘rational soul' is el-Ghazzali's ‘soul or theart' or ‘intellect’, depending on the illustrations he uses, ‘The irrational soul of Plato includes the powers of appetence and anger which, for him and for el-ChazzGli too, must be held in check by the rational soul or intellect. when the in- tellect dominates these lower powers justice is established for ‘both soul and body, but when the lower powers dominate the intellect it becomes their slave, ‘The excellence or virtue of the rational a) Brett, i. p, 68; Timous 448, 692,70 B DE. Cf. Aristotle, De Anima, yi; III,ixg Plotinus, Enneads, IV, viii, S-8 b) Cf, note 23, p.193.xxiii, soul is wisdom, thet of anger is courage, and that of appetence a) is temperance. Even more clearly do we see the Aristotelian analysis in al-Gharzili‘s psychology with its vegetative, animal, and humo b) Aristotle tried to explain accurately the phenomem of e) peychic life, approaching it from the side of metaphysics. All ‘souls known things are included in an ascending scale from pure matter to pure form, The body alone is mtter, end the soul alone is form. The sphere of psychology is the relationship of the two (To & Yelov ), soul and body must be defined in relation to each other, the soul is the true essence of that which we call body, and is man in reality, It is the first actualizetion (entelechy) of the tody, and represents a possibility of psychic activity. ‘The second entelechy is the actual realization of this possibility. ‘This is illustrated in the eye which has the power to even when that power ie inactive, as in sleep; and the eye which is actually s ing. Al-Ghazzdli holds quite a similer position, and gives the same illustration of powers potential and a) Brett, 4. pe 97. b) De Anim, II, is III, ix; wre, Aristotle, pp. 95 ff. Sf. Plotinus, Saonsads, III, iv, 2, Note 56, p. 197- ¢) Brett, 4. pp. 100 ff.xxiv. actual, Man's power of reaction is three-fold: He absorbs nourisbuent and reproducs 8 does the plant. He has nse pore ceptions, powers of discrimimtion, and voluntary movement like the animal. He differs from them both in possessing rational Power, and is capable of that higher knowledge which includes the knowledge of Allah. By virtue of this quality of experiential knowledge min occupies @ place between the animls and the angels. “There ere in him the desires of the beast united with a reason that’ ie goattie. «py neglecting the retiom soul he can sink toward the level of the animl,and by cultivating it he can strive toward the level of the angels. 2. The Soul's Knowledge and the Means by which it is acquired, According to the Neoplatonic idea of mn, "Krowledge is >) always an activity of the soul." ‘through this activity man gain a firm and lasting grasp of reality. Al-Ghazza1% held that man's peculiar glory is the aptitude which he has for that highest of all kinds of knowledge, the kuowledge of Allah, In this knowledge is man's joy and happiness. The seat of this knowledge is the a) Brett, 4. p. 137. ‘b) Brett, 4. p. 305.heart, which: was created to know Him just as the eye was created to see objective forms. The physical members are used by the heart to attain the end of knowledge even as the craftsman uses his tool to accomplish his purposes. wan's potential capacity for knowledge is practically unlimited, that is, ve by infinity itself. Although kmowledge my to a cortein degree be the result of man's activity, yet it requires « cause outside of man himself to bestow true wisdom. Plato found this outside cause in the world of Ideas. Aristotle id that intelligence ( VoUS) comes into a) man “from without es something divine and immortal". Intelligence is not a mere function of the matural body. ‘Knowledge med to the Arab to be an eternal and abiding reality, . . . which fora ») time reproduced itself in the individuel,” Man is potentially capable of knowledge because of the °) principle that like can know like. The old Greek idea of mn as a) 4s accepted ty al-chazzili, vho @ aicroco: id, (pe 81), "sees were it not that He has placod an image of the whole world within a) Usberweg, i. p. 168, Cf. Brett, i. pp. 153 f, b) Brett, 44. p. Sl. c) Plato, Time: 37 B Gg Introd. p. 10 (Loeb Classical Library). 4) Soe note 127, p. 207.xxvi. your very being you rould heve no knowledge of that which is apart from yourself." He further develops this idea in ktmiya? a) "Know that mn is an epitomy (mukhtasarah) of the vorld in which there is a trace of every form in the world, For the bones are like the mountains, his fleeh as the dust, his hair es the plants, his her as heaven, his senses as the planets, seserseThe power in the stomich is like the cook, that in the liver like the taker, that in the intestines like the fuller, and that which makes milk white end blood red ie like the dyer," In man there are many worlds represented, all of which serve him tire- lessly although he does not know of then nor give thanks to Him who bestowed them upon him. Al-Gharzili also uses the Pletonic idea of man being ») the copy of the archetype, He connects this with the yuelim ¢) doctrine of the Preserved Tablet (al-lewh al-mhfas), the Archetype of the world was written on the Tablet. ‘The real nature of things is mde known to man by disclosure to him of what is there: written through the reflection of the: truths in the mirror of the heart. a) Gairo 1343, p. 19, b) Timeus, 37 0 8; translation, p. 79. Cf. Plotinus, eds, TIT, viii, 10; vy 4, 45 VI» vid, 15. ©) See note 111, p. 205.xxvii. a) ‘This introduces us to the example of the mirror which is a favorite of al-chazzéli's, ian‘s heart, es e mirror, is potentially capable of having reflected in it the real a: nce of all things, end thus of coming to know them, In this knowledge there are three factors: (1) The intellect, or heart, in which exists the image of the specific matures of things, is like the mirror. (2) The intelligible, cr specific nature of the known thing, is like the object reflected in the mirror. (3) The in- telligence, or the representation of the known thing in the heart, is like the representation of the image in the mirror, ‘The reflection of knowledge in the heart my be prevented ‘vy one or more of five causes: (1) The heart of a youth is ina crude unformed condition and is incapable of knowledge, just as a crude unpolished piece of metal is incapable of reflecting objects. (2) Disobedient acts tarnish and corrode the mirror of the heart so that the reflection of reality therein is dimmed 2r destroyed. (3) van my not know Allah because his heart is not turned towards fim, even as the mirror doss not reflect the desired object unless it is turned towards: it. (4) The heart my be veiled to true know- ledge ty blindly accepting dogmtic teaching without understanding or thought. (5) The heart my not even know in which direction to a) Cf, Plotimus, Znneweviit. turn in order to have reality reflected in it. Wan can polish end turnish the mirror of his heart by means of acts of obedience so that it vill reflect the image of true reality. He thue gains knowledge by mking it possitle for the image of the archetype to be reflected in his heart. ‘The sum-total of mn‘s knowledge is thus rooted in his knowledge of himself, He knows only himself in the proper sense, and knows other things only through hirself. This is true also of man's highest attainment of knowledge, the knowledge of Allah; for the quality of the Divine peing is reflected in the humn soul. "He who knows himself knows his Lord" is the true statement of tradition. Every heart is thus a microcosm and a mirror, and being thus constituted is capable of knowing self and the divine ‘The heart of min bas two kinds of knowledge: intellectual and religious?” utellectual knowledge my be the intuitive know ledge of axioms, or acquired knowledge which is the result of study. Acquired knowledge my deal with the things of this vorld, such ss medicins, geometry, astronomy, and the various professions and trades; or it may be concerned with the things of the world to come, such as the doctrines of religion, Speculative theologians stress a) Gf. development of microcosm and mcrocosm in Windelband, A History of Philosophy, trans. by Tufts, New York, 1907, pp. 366 ff. b) cf, tabl on pe Ist.xxix. this sort of acquired knowledge ae being most important. Religious knowledge is the knovledge of Allah, His attributes, and His acts. It is accepted on authority by the common people as dogue ina blind and unreasoning fashion which has in it nothing of direct inspiration, To people of deep re- ligious experience, horever, this knowledge is given directly. Saints and mystics receive it through general inspiration (i1him), while it is received by prophets directly from the angel through prophetic inspiration (wahy). Both intellectual and religious txowiedge are needed and neither one is sufficient without the other. ‘his is true in spite of the fact that each tends to exclude the other except in the case of unusual men who are both learned and saintly. Intel- lectual knowledge may be compared to food, and religious know- ledge to medicine. Both are needed for the preservation of health. Even as there are two kinds of knowledge which enter the aeart, so also the heart has two doors by which this knowledge pemeetctat nen eee to the knowledge of material things which is sense perception, The inner door is thet of divine ingpiration and ayetical revelation. i again the principle obtains that like knows like, for the senses belong to this present 4) Dict. of Tech. Terms, p. 371; asin, Algezel, pp. 79 f. b) Gf. Plotinus, Enneads, V, i, 125 ITI, vidi, 9world for which they were created, while the heart belongs also to the invisible world of the spirit (el-mlakit). The external senses of sight, hearing, smell, teste, and touch act through the bodily members: the eye, ear, no tongue, and fingers, Sense perceptions reach the individual by means of these external senses, but they are perceived and under- stood only by means of the five inner sens which ere (1) common sense or sensus comm (hiss mushtarak), (2) retemtive imgination, (khayal, takhayyul), (3) reflection (tafakkur), (4) recollection (tadhakkur), and ($) memory (pif), ‘These ere internal powers end their seats are internal, Fore al-Ghazzé2i follows loosely Ibn Sima's developnent of Aristotle's views on these inner oe ‘The common sense is thet power which receiv the impressions which come through the different external senses and unites them into a harmonious and unified whole, Retentive imegination is thet power which takes from the common sense the physical tion and transforms it into a psychic pes sion, This power is located in the front part of the brain. Reflection is the pondering, cogitative faculty of the heart. Recollection is the power to recall the mental ‘mges of a) Cf. Aviconma's offering to the Prince, Yan Dyck, Verona 1906, pp. 65 ff, and other references in notes 37 & 38, pe 195.past sensations which have been forgotten for a tine. mory is ‘the storehouse for the meanings of sensible objects formerly per- ceived. Its seat is in the tack pert of the brain. ‘This list of the internal senses differs from some other classifications of them by al-chazzali, Five other lists will be Presented in tabular form, In this book el-chazzéli deals vith practical and ethical ends, and perhaps did not feel thet it was necessary to be scientifically accurate in his statement. xt will be noted that the classifications given in the first four of the books as tabulated below are definite ettenpts to present the sub- Ject systemetically. It would be of added interest if we could know for certain the chronological order of the: ooks. It ape Pears to be quite safe to put the moisid and tahafut first. uizGn el-‘amil is pleced third because it seens logically nearer to the firet two than does mé¢arij al-quds ff mdi [m‘rifet alcoafs,(aiso known es méérij ea-sinsin)) The analyses given in the pizén and ma‘Grij are particularly worthy of note s being systemetic and deteiled in forn, end as coming from the later period of al-GhazzGli's life, ‘he list from kimiy? el-se‘&deh is given as an interesting parallel to that in this book of the 8) Brockelmnn, supplement, i, p. 751.he 2. 3. 5. magisid Common sense hiss mshtarek Retentive imagination; Conservetion sutagewrirah; Ghnk anterior ventricle Istimetion webmiyye’ posterior ventricle Compositive animl & human imegination mutakhsyyilah mufakkireh middle ventricle Memory chékirah posterior ventricle tabafut common sense; imegination piss mushterek; Khayeliyveh retentive imagination pefizeh ‘Estimation wehmtyyeh posterior ventricle compositive enimal 2 human imagination mutathayyilah mufakkireh middle ventricle memory dhdikireh posterior ventricle xxii. mizén conmon sense; imeginetion hiss _mushterek; Khayaliyyeh enterior ventricle of brein retentive imegination néfizen anterior ventricle Estimation wahmiyyeh end of middle ventricle compositive animal & huran imeginetion mutakhayyilah mufekkirah aiddle ventricle memory ahékireh posterior ventricleLe 2 3. 4 5. me Kiniyd? Common sense; imagination phantesia; tablet hiss mushtarek; khayél Hess muphtare®: shaved, bintisya; lawh front of anterior ventricle tentive imginetion estimation am teck of anterior ventricle Estimation reflection wahni yyeh tefekkur whole of brein, but especially teck of middle ventricle Compositive imagina- recollection tion, anim ¢ humn tal mutakhay- tadhakkur mufekkirah front of middle ventricle Yenory zemory Rifizeh; dhékireh ify posterior ventricle xxii, ihy?, iii. 1. cormon sense pis: nushterak retentive imeginetion kheyél; tekheyyul anterior ventricle reflection tefekkur recollection tedhakkur > memory hifz posterior ventricle