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hermal injury represents one of the most percent) who suffer accidental, nonwork-related
severe, complex forms of traumatic injury. flame injuries (43 percent) at home (73 percent).
Large burns require prolonged patient hos- Children younger than 5 years account for almost
pitalizations, lead to enormous costs of care, and one-fifth of burn admissions, most commonly
impose significant physical and psychological bur- caused by scald injuries.4 In the United States, the
dens on recovering victims and their families. number of fire-related deaths has decreased by
20.6 percent from 3380 deaths in 20025 to 2855
cases in 2012,4 with the highest death rates occur-
EPIDEMIOLOGY
ring in blacks and Native Americans (Table 1).
The World Health Organization estimates that Currently, the total body surface area burn that
over 265,000 deaths result annually from fire-related represents 50 percent survival is approximately 70
burns,1 with over 95 percent occurring in low- and percent.4
middle-income countries.2 Survival after burn injury Importantly, delivery of care to these patients
with or without inhalation injury is a function of the involves burn quality improvement programs in
size of the second- and third-degree burn injury
(total body surface area burned)3 (Fig.1). Disclosure: Dr. Tredget is a principal investigator
In North America, over 30,000 burn patients for Scar X Therapeutics, British Canadian BioSci-
are admitted each year to specialized burn care ences Corp., and Klox Therapeutics. The remaining
facilities.3 Most burn victims are male patients (68 authors have no financial interest to declare in rela-
tion to the content of this article.
From the Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery,
Department of Surgery, University of Toronto; and the Di-
visions of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery and Critical Related Video content is available for this
Care, Department of Surgery, University of Alberta. article. The videos can be found under the
Received for publication October 28, 2015; accepted April Related Videos section of the full-text article,
11, 2016. or, for Ovid users, using the URL citations pub-
Copyright 2016 by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons lished in the article.
DOI: 10.1097/PRS.0000000000002908
120e www.PRSJournal.com
Copyright 2016 American Society of Plastic Surgeons. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Volume 139, Number 1 Recent Advances in Burn Care
Fig. 1. Survival after burn injury as a function of age and total body surface area burned for patients without inhalation injury
(left) and with inhalation injury (right). Numerically, survival can be calculated using the following formula: p = eu/1 + eu, where
u = 4.99 4.26 102 (TBSA) 1.30 (I) 8.65 106 (A)3 2.12 104 (TBSA) (A), where p is the probability of survival, e is the
base of the natural logarithm, I is 1 with inhalation injury and 0 if no inhalation injury is present, TBSA is the total body surface
area burned, and A is the age of the patient. (See American Burn Association. National Burn Repository Annual Report 2014.
Available at: http://www.ameriburn.org/2014NBRAnnualReport.pdf. Accessed December 20, 2014.)
Table 1. Burn Mortality Rates by Race in the United rehabilitation, and disaster management.7 There
States, 1999 to 2013 are currently 67 American Burn Association
Age-Adjusted* Death Rate per
verified burn centers in the United States, three
Race 100,000 in Canada, and one in Australia.8
White 1.03
Black 2.39
American Indian 1.62 BURN SEVERITY ASSESSMENT
Asian 0.45 The severity of burn injury guides the initial
Other 0.65
All Races 1.17 resuscitation strategy and decision to transfer the
*Age-adjusted to standard year 2000. Data obtained from Centers patient to a specialized burn center (Table2). Man-
for Disease Control and Prevention Fatal Injury Reports (U.S. Fire ual methods such as the rule of nines, the patients
Administration. Fire statistics. Available at: http://webappa.cdc.gov/ palm method, or the Lund-Browder chart tend to
sasweb/ncipc/mortrate10_us.html. Accessed December 20, 2014).
overestimate total body surface area burned,912
verified burn centers6 developed jointly by the even among experienced clinicians.13 This leads to
American College of Surgeons and the Ameri- excessive fluid resuscitation volumes,14 especially for
can Burn Association that have established stan- obese patients.15,16 As a result, digital assessment pro-
dards of burn care delivery, infection control, grams are becoming more prevalent in practice.1720
Table 2. American Burn Association Burn Center Referral Criteria*
1. Partial-thickness burns greater than 10% total body surface area in patients <10 yr or >50 yr
2. Partial-thickness burns greater than 20% total body surface area in all patients
3. Burns that involve the face, hands, feet, genitalia, perineum, or major joints
4. Third-degree burns in any age group
5. Electrical burns, including lightning injury
6. Chemical burns
7. Inhalation injury
8. Burn injury in patients with preexisting medical disorders that could complicate management, prolong recovery, or affect
mortality
9. Any patient with burns and concomitant trauma (such as fractures) in which the burn injury poses the greatest risk of
morbidity or mortality
10. Burned children in hospitals without qualified personnel or equipment for the care of children
11. Burn injury in patients who will require special social, emotional, or rehabilitative intervention
*At the time of writing of this article, 71 burn centers have been verified by the American Burn Association (http://www.ameriburn.org/verifi-
cation_verifiedcenters.php), including 67 centers in the United States, three centers in Canada, and one in Australia. Criteria from the Ameri-
can College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma. Guidelines for Trauma Centers Caring for Burn Patients. Chicago: American College of Surgeons;
2014. Available at: http://www.ameriburn.org/ACS%20Resources%20Burn%20Chapter%2014.pdf. Accessed August 8, 2016.
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Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery January 2017
In pediatric burns, the possibility of child useful tools and include the laser Doppler imag-
abuse should be considered when a history of the ing system, which evaluates microvascular dermal
injury is inconsistent with physical examination perfusion (Figs.2 and 3).29,30 Laser Doppler imag-
findings such as uniform burn depth with sharp ing is performed between 48 hours and 5 days
borders; symmetrical isolated lower limb and but- after burn and has an accuracy ranging from 90
tock injury; skin fold sparing; absence of splash to 97 percent, compared with 52.5 to 71.4 percent
marks; associated unrelated injuries; and a pas- with clinical evaluation.3135 Laser Doppler imag-
sive, introverted, fearful child.21,22 Therefore, all ing has a positive predictive value for burns that
pediatric burns are also screened by local dedi- will not heal within 14 to 21 days of 85.1 to 98
cated child abuse teams. percent3638 and is accurate and noninvasive; how-
ever, sedation is often required for burns in young
children, where it likely has its greatest applicabil-
BURN DEPTH ASSESSMENT
ity.36 Commercial videos illustrating laser Doppler
Timely, accurate burn depth assessment is imaging application are available online.39,40
critical to management strategy. Surgical interven- Other modalities to distinguish burn depth at
tion is indicated for burn wounds not expected early time points have been investigated, including
to reepithelialize within 14 to 21 days,23 because thermography,41 ultrasonography,42 nuclear mag-
deep dermal wounds heal from unique activated netic resonance,43 near infrared spectroscopy, and
fibroblasts in the reticular regions of the dermis confocal microscopy44; to date, however, they have
and are prone to severe hypertrophic scarring.24 gained only modest application in clinical prac-
Clinical evaluation can differentiate very tice. These various approaches require expensive
superficial burns, which may be managed conser- equipment, standardized training, and controlled
vatively, from full-thickness burns, which require environmental conditions during assessment.
early eschar excision and skin grafting to facilitate
wound healing, decrease the risk of hypertrophic
scarring, prevent infection, and reduce mortal- DECISION TO TREAT
ity25,26 (Table 3). The major challenge in burn Numerous models have been developed to
depth assessment is in partial-thickness wounds predict mortality in major burn patients.45,46 The
where clinical evaluation by experienced clini- revised Baux score is the sum of age, total body
cians is often inaccurate, in part because of the surface area, and inhalation injury (+17), and has
evolving inflammation that progresses in deep a point-of-futility score of 160 and 50 percent pre-
dermal wounds in the zone of stasis.27,28 Thus, new dicted mortality score of 1104749; however, these
instruments to evaluate burn depth are becoming values do not reflect advances in clinical care since
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Volume 139, Number 1 Recent Advances in Burn Care
Fig. 3. A diagrammatic illustration of the Moor scanning laser Doppler device depicting the components of the equipment and the
principle of laser beam deflection by blood flowing in the viable tissues in the skin.
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Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery January 2017
Table 5. Markers of Fluid Resuscitation half of the total calculated volume is administered
Index of Response Normal (Target) Range
in the first 8 hours and the other half in the next
16 hours. Patients with inhalation injury, delayed
Vital signs
HR, beats/min <140 resuscitation, high-voltage electrical injuries, and
BP, mmHg >90/60 extensive deep burns will require higher volumes
Sao2, % >90 than predicted.57 Children should also receive a
Urine output, ml/kg/hr
Adults 0.51.0 (or 3050ml/hr) weight-appropriate maintenance fluid infusion
Children 1.0 of 5% dextrose in half-normal saline to support
Base deficit, mM their limited glycogen stores58 (Table4). A useful,
Normal 3 to 0
Target >6* self-directed review course of existing knowledge
Serum lactate, mM and guidelines for burn assessment, fluid manage-
Normal 0.52.2 ment, rule of nines, and guidelines for treatment
Target 4
Central venous pressure, mmHg or transfer to a regional burn unit is available
Normal 26 online through the American Burn Association
Target 812 Advanced Burn Life Support Now course.59
Mean arterial pressure, mmHg 65
Bladder pressure, mmHg The fluid infusion rate should be rigorously
Normal 05 monitored and titrated according to hourly urine
IAH >12 output, base deficit, serum lactate, central venous
ACS >20
Intrathoracic blood volume pressure, and bladder pressure (Table5).60,61 It is
index, ml/m2 >800 very important to avoid overresuscitation; there-
Cardiac index, liters/min/m2 >3.5 fore, the least amount of fluid should be infused
HR, heart rate; BP, blood pressure; Sao2, oxygen saturation; IAH, to maintain urine output at 30 to 50ml/hour in
intraabdominal hypertension; ACS, abdominal compartment
syndrome. adults, or 0.5 to 1.0ml/kg/hour in children weigh-
*Cartotto R, Choi J, Gomez M, Cooper A. A prospective study on the ing less than 30 kg.58 In general, invasive hemo-
implications of a base deficit during fluid resuscitation. J Burn Care
Rehabil. 2003;24:7584.
dynamic monitoring with Swan-Ganz catheters is
Casserly B, Phillips GS, Schorr C, et al. Lactate measurements in not recommended, as this leads to excessive fluid
sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion: Results from the Surviving Sep- administration without improved outcomes.62
sis Campaign database. Crit Care Med. 2015;43:567573.
Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign:
International guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic
shock, 2012. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39:165228. FLUID CREEP AND COMPARTMENT
Malbrain ML, Cheatham ML, Kirkpatrick A, et al. Results from the HYPERTENSION
International Conference of Experts on Intra-abdominal Hyperten-
sion and Abdominal Compartment Syndrome: I. Definitions. Inten- Fluid creep refers to the phenomenon of increas-
sive Care Med. 2006;32:17221732. ingly larger volumes of fluid being administered to
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Volume 139, Number 1 Recent Advances in Burn Care
burn patients than predicted by the Parkland for- supplementation with 0.3 to 0.5ml/kg/percent total
mula,6365 with infusion rates averaging as high as body surface area burned of plasma during the sec-
8.0 ml/kg/percent total body surface area in the ond 24-hour period to reexpand intravascular vol-
first 24 hours after injury.66 Fluid creep can lead to ume; however, colloids were later excluded because
abdominal, orbital, and extremity fascial compart- of concerns about persistent capillary permeability
ment syndromes; acute respiratory distress syn- leading to pulmonary edema.77 Contemporary strat-
drome; multiorgan failure; nosocomial infection; egies may include albumin during early resuscita-
and increased mortality.67 It is associated with exces- tion as a volume expander78 or, more commonly, as
sive and continuous opioid use (opioid creep),68 a rescue fluid following the initial 12 to 24 hours57,79,80
larger severe burns,57 persistent capillary perme- when capillary integrity is thought to be restored58 to
ability, obese patients assessed on actual rather than assist in the fluid-overloaded, failed resuscitation.
ideal or adjusted body weight,57 and a desire to play Hypertonic saline may also be beneficial in
it safe by exceeding the target urine output rate. limiting fluid volumes,81 but careful monitoring is
Burn providers must recognize signs of a failed needed, as hypernatremia is associated with acute
resuscitation, including serial low urine output val- renal failure.58 Most recently, computerized fluid
ues despite increasing fluid infusion rates, repeated resuscitation software has shown promising results
episodes of hypotension or need for vasopressors, in precise standardized fluid titration.82
worsening base deficit, or fluid infusion in excess of
200 to 250ml/kg in the first 24 hours.67,69 VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM
Modern burn care monitors abdominal, ocu- PROPHYLAXIS
lar,70,71 and extremity fascial compartments for
Although this was not appreciated in the
hypertension (Table6). Abdominal compartment
past, burn patients are in a hypercoagulable state
syndrome is defined as sustained intraabdomi-
and should be prophylactically anticoagulated to
nal pressure exceeding 20 mmHg with new-onset reduce the risk of venous thromboembolism,83
organ failure,72 such as oliguria or decreased pul- including adults and adolescents. Compared to
monary compliance.69 Intraabdominal hyperten- unfractionated heparin, enoxaparin has a lower
sion (intraabdominal pressure >12 mmHg), can be incidence of venous thromboembolism and hep-
managed with escharotomy, percutaneous drain- arin-induced thrombocytopenia84 but requires a
age, nasogastric tube decompression, or sedation,73 higher initial dosing, good renal function, and
but abdominal compartment syndrome requires routine monitoring of antifactor Xa because of
emergent decompression laparotomy. However, altered pharmacokinetics in burn patients.85
this procedure is associated with mortality rates of
44 to 100 percent73; thus, prevention of abdominal
compartment syndrome by avoiding excessive fluid TOPICAL BURN WOUND MANAGEMENT
and narcotic or sedative administration is critical. A plethora of burn dressing materials are avail-
The role of colloid solutions such as plasma and able (Table7).60 Silver sulfadiazine is the most com-
albumin, to limit fluid requirements is unclear.7476 mon topical antimicrobial but is associated with
Historically, Baxter recommended colloid resistant nosocomial pathogens such as Pseudomonas
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Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery January 2017
species86 and poorer healing outcomes than newer common sources of bloodstream infections, which
silver dressings.87 Some newer silver dressings such typically occur within 5 to 7 days of injury.91,92 The
as Acticoat (Smith & Nephew, Montreal, Quebec, most common pathogens in the first 7 days after
Canada) contain unique nanocrystalline silver with burn are Staphylococcal species; thereafter, bactere-
sustained release, leading to enhanced antibacte- mia is more commonly with Gram-negative organ-
rial effects and reducing the frequency of dressing isms.9294 Bloodstream infections are associated with
changes, infection risk, and patient discomfort. significantly higher mortality, hospital length of stay,
They can be effective against methicillin-resistant and number of ventilator days, and 10 times higher
Staphylococcus aureus, have relatively low mamma- cost.93 Nosocomial Pseudomonas infection is particu-
lian cell toxicity, reduce pain and pruritus, and may larly aggressive, increasing length of stay, number of
accelerate healing and thus decrease costs.86,88,89 ventilator days, blood transfusions, surgical proce-
The role of negative-pressure wound therapy in dures, and mortality from 8 to 33 percent95 (Fig.4).
partial-thickness burns is unclear.90 Preventative measures against infection are
critical for survival of the burn patient and include
early excision of burn eschar to improve local per-
SEPSIS fusion and prevent microbial colonization, pru-
Infection leading to sepsis and multiorgan fail- dent use of invasive devices, appropriate choice
ure is a major cause of burn mortality. Pneumonia, of antimicrobial burn dressings, elimination of
central venous lines, and burn wounds are the most potential water-borne sources of bacteria during
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Volume 139, Number 1 Recent Advances in Burn Care
Fig. 4. A 37-year-old man with an industrial scald burn injury to the left thigh and abdomen that became infected with hospital-
acquired Pseudomonas aeruginosa, leading to Ecthyma gangrenosum and tissue necrosis from embolized organisms. Pseudomonas
aeruginosa is illustrated by a scanning electron micrograph depicting the flagellum for motility, polar pili, and additional virulence
factors dangerous for burn patients. (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier: Tredget EE, Shankowsky HA, Rennie R, et al. Pseudo-
monas infections in the thermally injured patient. Burns 2004;30:326.)
wound care96 (Fig. 5), and diligent compliance In edentulous patients, a maxillary fixation screw
with infection control practices. To avoid selection may be used to anchor the endotracheal tube.103,104
of resistant pathogens, prophylactic systemic anti- Dbridement is performed using tangential
biotics should not be administered.97 For patients excision to sequentially remove devitalized tis-
with documented infection, antibiotics should be sue until there is punctate bleeding from a viable
culture-directed. Dosing should be adjusted accord- wound bed; unfortunately, this results in significant
ingly to account for the altered metabolism of burn blood loss, estimated at 190 to 270 ml/percent
patients,98100 as 60 percent of patients never achieve total body surface area excised.105 Modern hemo-
free antibiotic concentrations above the minimum static strategies include subcutaneous epinephrine
inhibitory concentration, much less the recom- infiltration, limb tourniquets, electrocautery, fibrin
mended goal of four times the minimum inhibitory sealant, and topical epinephrine or thrombin.106
concentration.101 To reduce the work involved in manual tumes-
cence, roller pumps may be used to rapidly insuf-
SURGICAL BURN MANAGEMENT flate donor sites and burn wounds by means of
After resuscitation, early dbridement should multiple large-bore cannulas107 (Fig. 7). The use
be planned for burn wounds that are expected to of cardiac bypass roller pump systems with coun-
exceed 14 to 21 days for spontaneous healing to tercurrent heating devices in large burn excisions
prevent infection, prolonged hospitalization, and has the additional benefit of improved control of
hypertrophic scarring.25,26 To stabilize endotracheal body temperature by insufflation of warmed epi-
tubes and avoid complications on injured facial nephrine-containing crystalloid solutions, which
skin, interdental Ivy wire fixation is used (Fig.6).102 greatly facilitates the amount of burn eschar that
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Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery January 2017
Fig. 5. Pulsed field gel electrophoresis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from four burn
patients tracked to contaminated sinks of defective design in the burn unit (above, left) that
were subsequently replaced by newly designed sinks (above, right) that have splash pan-
els, polished stainless steel surfaces, deep contoured bowls with U-traps situated at least
6 inches below the bottom of the sink (below, left), and an ultraviolet irradiation cell that
treats the effluent and creates the blue/green color in the drain (below, right). (Reprinted
with permission from Elsevier: Tredget EE, Shankowsky HA, Rennie R, et al. Pseudomonas
infections in the thermally injured patient. Burns 2004;30:326.)
may be removed. Up to 50 percent total body sur- inflatable blanket technologies, such as the Bair
face area can be safely excised and resurfaced in hugger (3M, St. Paul, Minn), although caution is
one operation, with significantly less blood loss and necessary.122125 Novel closed-loop thermoregulat-
hypothermia.108 ing strategies include thermal water mattresses126,127
Blood-conserving protocols using a combination and intravascular warming catheters.128130
of these techniques during burn surgery are impor-
tant to avoid immunosuppressive effects and infec-
tious complications.105,109112 Ongoing multicenter
BURN WOUND CLOSURE: SKIN
randomized studies will elucidate the threshold level SUBSTITUTES
of hemoglobin for blood transfusion in burn patients, After excision of devitalized tissue, defini-
similar to the restrictive transfusion strategy found tive wound coverage with split-thickness sheet
efficacious in other intensive care patients.113116 skin grafts is preferred, particularly for hand
Intraoperative hypothermia (<36.0C) sig- and facial burns, smaller injuries, and children.
nificantly increases blood loss,117,118 wound infec- For larger injuries, skin grafts are meshed with
tion,119,120 and acute lung injury121 during surgery. expansion ratios of 1:1.5 to 1:3 to permit greater
Strategies to maintain normothermia include surface area coverage and drainage of wound
increasing the ambient room temperature, infus- fluid. In burns exceeding 60 percent total body
ing warmed fluids, and using forced-warm-air surface area where donor sites are very limited,
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Volume 139, Number 1 Recent Advances in Burn Care
Fig. 6. Equipment used in the burn operating room; 24-gauge arch bar wiring instruments are
used to create an Ivy wire loop to firmly secure endotracheal tubes for patients with facial burns,
prone positioning, and severe inhalation injury (left). A roller pump and countercurrent heating
device are used to prewarm the epinephrine and saline (1:400,000) for insufflation into the skin
graft donor sites and burn wounds before surgery (right).
Fig. 7. The leg of a burn patient used as a skin graft donor site after harvesting a skin graft. The reduction in blood
loss is visible when comparing the upper calf insufflated with epinephrine solution to the noninsufflated lower calf
(left). In a study of 10 pairs of burn patients case-matched for age, size of burn, and inhalation injury, the use of
rapid insufflation with the roller pump technique yielded a significant reduction of blood loss, packed red blood
cells transfused, and drop in core body temperature during burn surgery compared with pressurized insufflation
using pneumatic tourniquets as described previously (right).
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Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery January 2017
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Volume 139, Number 1 Recent Advances in Burn Care
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Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery January 2017
Fig. 9. (Left) Keloid scarring in an African patient after minor injury as a child, multiple unsuc-
cessful attempts at excision, and local scar modification treatment. (Right) Appearance following
excision of the keloid and resurfacing with a left anterolateral thigh free flap, postoperative radio-
therapy, and one defatting procedure.
sheeting, steroid injections, and surgical exci- approach to difficult scar challenges, further
sion.158161 An experimental treatment for hyper- objective controlled trials are required.
trophic scarring is interferon-2b, an antifibrotic An important complication of massive burn
T-helper cell 1 cytokine that significantly improves injury is heterotopic ossification, the formation
scar remodeling and normalizes TGF-.162164 of mature lamellar bone in extraskeletal tissue.
Other approaches include topical imiquimod, With an incidence of 0.2 to 4 percent, heterotopic
calcium channel blockers, tacrolimus, 5-fluoro- ossification occurs most commonly at the elbow
uracil, and bleomycin, but newer experimental of burns exceeding 20 percent total body surface
approaches such as interleukin-10, microinhibi- area, and it is associated with skin breakdown,
tory RNA to TGF-, and peptide inhibitors of soft-tissue deformity, nerve palsy, chronic pain,
CXCR4 offer potential future therapies.155,165 and limitation of joint excursion.168 Risk factors
Pulsed-dye laser and fractional carbon dioxide include prolonged immobilization, burn wound
laser have shown promise as an adjunct to estab- infection, delayed wound closure, and repeated
lished treatments for burn scar treatment. Pulsed forceful passive mobilization. Postoperative radio-
dye laser therapy selectively targets hemoglobin therapy has been shown to be slightly more effec-
in the 585-nm wavelength, making it effective in tive than nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in
hypervascular immature burn scars to reduce ery- preventing heterotopic ossification169; however,
thema. Using pulsed-dye and fractional carbon surgical excision is the procedure of choice for
dioxide lasers, Hultman et al. demonstrated sig- restoration of range of motion.170,171 For both
nificant improvements in before-and-after burn hypertrophic scarring and heterotopic ossifica-
scar scale scores and patient-reported outcomes.166 tion, radiation-induced Marjolin ulcer can occur,
limiting radiotherapy treatment to severe prob-
Ablative lasers such as the neodymium:yttrium-
lems and patients older than 16 years.172
aluminum-garnet laser have been effective in con-
tact mode, where 102 scar patients treated every
3 to 4 weeks for 1 year demonstrated significant BURN RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY
improvements overall. Unfortunately, scar recur- Reconstructive surgery to improve the aes-
rence developed in the upper chest, arm, and thetic and functional outcomes of burn patients
back areas, particularly if residual erythema and with severe contractures, disfiguring scars, or
induration persisted following therapy.167 Thus, exposed vital structures is ideally reserved until
although laser treatment of postburn hypertrophic scar maturation.155 Prevention of burn scarring
scar is offering a new, potentially transformative involves the understanding that, beyond a critical
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Volume 139, Number 1 Recent Advances in Burn Care
depth, activated deep dermal fibroblasts of spe- innovative strategy to ensure a robust blood sup-
cific lineage with fibrogenic potential will lead ply from large patent proximal vessels182184 to dif-
to hypertrophic scarring. Therefore, accurate ficult regions such as in high cranial vault and distal
determination of burn depth with serial exami- extremity injuries. As with all free flaps, vascular
nation aided by objective instruments31 will avoid thrombosis is a threat to flap viability requiring care-
unnecessary surgery. Despite the creation of a ful monitoring, particular in the first 72 hours.185
new wound and possible scar at the donor site,
skin graft resurfacing is indicated for deep dermal CONCLUSIONS
burns to avoid hypertrophic scarring, particularly
Modern advancements in burn care have
in critical cosmetic regions such as the face.173
greatly increased the survival of major burn
Burn reconstruction may be accomplished with
patients. Plastic surgeons are well-positioned to
contracture release; scar excision and resurfacing;
improve the functional reintegration of these
local transposition, rotation, and advancement
patients into society using novel approaches to
flaps; tissue expansion; or distant axial flaps.174
burn care.
Plastic surgeons offer significant reconstruction
advantages for burn patients through the use of Edward E. Tredget, M.D., M.Sc.
microsurgery. Acutely, free flaps may be used for 2D2.28 WMC, 8440-112 Street
University of Alberta
limb salvage or defect coverage, permitting pres- Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2B7, Canada
ervation of exposed vital structures such as nerves, etredget@ualberta.ca
tendons, vessels, or bone, often in high-voltage
electrical burns, to avoid limb amputation.175
Microvascular free flaps may also be used in sec- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ondary burn reconstruction for joint contractures This work was supported by the Firefighters Burn
and hypertrophic scars when injured or deficient Trust Fund of the University of Alberta Hospital, the
regional tissue precludes local flaps, skin grafts, or Canadian Institutes for Health Research, and the
tissue expansion (Fig.9). Success rates for free flap Alberta Heritage Trust Fund for Medical Research.
transfer in burn reconstruction range from 78176 to
96 percent.175 Excessive free flap bulk is averted by PATIENT CONSENT
the use of thinner fasciocutaneous flaps such as the
anterolateral thigh177 or parascapular178 flaps in the The patient provided written consent for the use of
his images.
head and neck region179 and thin fascial flaps such
as the temporoparietal fascial or serratus fascial
flaps in the dorsum of the hand,175,180,181 which offer REFERENCES
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Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery January 2017
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