Alain J.

Brizard
Saint Michael's College

Lagrangian Mechanics

1 Principle of Least Action

The conguration of a mechanical system evolving in an n-dimensional space, with co-
ordinates x = (x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn), may be described in terms of generalized coordinates q =
(q1 ; q2; :::; q k ) in a k-dimensional conguration space, with k < n.
The Principle of Least Action (also known as Hamilton's principle) is expressed in terms
of a function L(q; q;
_ t) known as the Lagrangian, which appears in the action integral
Z tf
A[q] = _ t) dt;
L(q; q; (1)
ti

where the action integral is a functional of the vector function q(t), which provides a path
from the initial point q i = q(ti) to the nal point qf = q(tf ). The variational principle
Z tf " !#
d @L d @L
j
0 = A[q] = A[q + q] = q dt;
d ti @ qj dt @ q_j
=0

where the variation q is assumed to vanish at the integration boundaries (q i = 0 = qf ),

yields the Euler-Lagrange equation for the generalized coordinate qj (j = 1; :::; k)
!
d @L @L
= ; (2)
dt @ q_ j @ qj
The Lagrangian also satises the second Euler equation
!
d @L @L
L q_j = ; (3)
dt @ q_ j @t

and thus for time-independent Lagrangian systems (@L=@t = 0) we nd that L q_ j @L=@ q_ j

is a conserved quantity whose interpretation will be discussed shortly.
The form of the Lagrangian function L(r; r_ ; t) is dictated by our requirement that
Newton's Second Law m r = rU(r; t) describing the motion of a particle of mass m in a
nonuniform (possibly time-dependent) potential U(r; t) be written in the Euler-Lagrange
form (2). One easily obtains the form
m 2
L(r; r_ ; t) = j_rj U (r; t); (4)
2

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which is simply the kinetic energy of the particle minus its potential energy. For a time-
independent Lagrangian (@L=@t = 0), we also nd that the energy function

@L m 2
r_ L = j_rj + U (r) = E;
@ r_ 2
is a constant of the motion. Hence, for a simple mechanical system, the Lagrangian function
is obtained by computing the kinetic energy of the system and its potential energy and then
construct Eq. (4).

2 Examples
The construction of a Lagrangian function for a system of N particles proceeds in three
steps as follows.
Step I. Dene k generalized coordinates fq1 (t); :::; q k(t)g that represent the instanta-
neous conguration of the system of N particles.
Step II. Construct the position vector ra (q; t) and its associated velocity

Xk
@r a @ra
va (q; q;
_ t) = + q_j
@t j=1 @q j

for each particle (a = 1; :::; N).

Step III. Construct the kinetic energy
1 X
_ t) =
K(q; q; _ t)j 2
ma jv a (q; q;
2 a

and the potential energy U (q; t) for the system and combine them to obtain the Lagrangian

L(q; q; _ t) U(q; t);

_ t) = K (q; q;

from which the Euler-Lagrange equations (2) are derived.

2.1 Example I: Pendulum

Consider a pendulum composed of an object of mass m and a massless string of constant

length ` in a constant gravitational eld with acceleration g.

2
 Although the motion of the pendulum is two-dimensional, a single generalized coordi-
nate is needed to describe the conguration of the pendulum: the angle measured from
the negative y-axis (see Figure above). Here, the position of the object is given as

x() = ` sin and y() = ` cos ;

with associated velocity components

x(;
_ ) _ = ` _ cos and y(;
_ ) _ = ` _ sin :

Hence, the kinetic energy of the pendulum is

m 2 _2
K = ` ;
2
and choosing the zero potential energy point when = 0 (see Figure above), the gravita-
tional potential energy is
U = mg` (1 cos ):
The Lagrangian L = K U is, therefore, written as

_ = m `2_ 2 mg` (1 cos );

L(; )
2
and the Euler-Lagrange equation for is
!
@L d @L
= m`2 _ ! = m`2
_
@ dt _
@
@L
= mg` sin
@
or g
+ sin = 0
`

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2.2 Example II: Bead on a Rotating Hoop

Consider a bead of mass m sliding freely on a hoop of radius R rotating with angular
velocity !0 in a constant gravitational eld with acceleration g.

Here, since the bead of the rotating hoop moves on the surface of a sphere of radius R,
we use the generalized coordinates given by the two angles (measured from the negative
z-axis) and ' (measured from the positive x-axis), where '_ = !0 . The position of the bead
is given as

x(; t) = R sin cos('0 + !0t);

y(; t) = R sin sin(' 0 + !0t);
z(; t) = R cos ;
where '(t) = '0 + !0 t and its associated velocity components are

x(;
_ ; _ t) = R _ cos cos ' !0 sin sin ' ;

y(;
_ ; _ t) = R _ cos sin ' + !0 sin cos ' ;

z(;
_ ; _ t) = R _ sin ;

so that the kinetic energy of the bead is

2
_ = m jvj 2 = m R _ 2 + ! 2 sin2 :
K(; ) 0
2 2
The gravitational potential energy is
U() = mgR (1 cos );
where we chose the zero potential energy point at = 0 (see Figure above). The Lagrangian
L = K U is, therefore, written as
2
_ = m R _ 2 + !2 sin2 mgR (1 cos );
L(; ) 0
2

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and the Euler-Lagrange equation for is
!
@L 2 _ d @L
= mR ! = mR2
@ _ dt _
@
@L
= mgR sin
@
+ mR2 !02 cos sin
or
g 2
+ sin !0 cos = 0
R

2.3 Example III: Rotating Pendulum

Consider a pendulum of mass m and length b attached to the edge of a disk of radius a
rotating at angular velocity ! in a constant gravitational eld with acceleration g.

Placing the origin at the center of the disk, the coordinates of the pendulum mass are
x = a sin !t + b cos
y = a cos !t + b sin
so that the velocity components are
x_ = a! cos !t b _ sin
y_ = a! sin !t + b _ cos
and the squared velocity is
v2 = a2!2 + b2 _2 + 2 ab ! _ sin( !t):
Setting the zero potential energy at x = 0, the gravitational potential energy is
U = mg x = mga sin !t mgb cos :

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The Lagrangian L = K U is, therefore, written as
h i
_ t) = m a 2!2 + b2_ 2 + 2 ab ! _ sin( !t)
L(; ;
2
mga sin !t + mgb cos ; (5)

and the Euler-Lagrange equation for is

@L
= mb2 _ + m ab ! sin( !t) !
@ _ !
d @L
= mb2 + m ab ! (_ !) cos( !t)
dt @ _

and
@L
= m ab ! _ cos( !t) mg b sin
@
or g a
+ sin !2 cos( !t) = 0
b b
We recover the standard equation of motion for the pendulum when a or ! vanish.
Note that the terms [(m=2) a 2!2] and [ mga sin !t] in the Lagrangian (5) play no role
in determining the dynamics of the system. In fact, as can easily be shown, a Lagrangian L
is always dened up to an exact time derivative, i.e., the Lagrangians L and L0 = L+ df=dt,
where f (q; t) is an arbitrary function, lead to the same Euler-Lagrange equations. In the
present case,
f (t) = [(m=2) a2! 2] t + (mga=!) cos !t
and thus this term can be omitted from the Lagrangian (5) without changing the equations
of motion.

2.4 Example IV: Compound Atwood Machine

Consider a compound Atwood machine composed three masses (labeled m1 , m2, and m3 )
attached by two massless ropes through two massless pulleys in a constant gravitational
eld with acceleration g. The two generalized coordinates for this system (see Figure) are
the distance x of mass m1 from the top of the rst pulley and the distance y of mass m2
from the top of the second pulley; here, the lengths `a and `b are constants.

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 The coordinates and velocities of the three masses m1 , m2, and m3 are

x1 = x ! v1 = x;
_
x2 = `a x + y ! v2 = y_ x;
_
x3 = `a x + `b y ! v3 = x_ y;
_

respectively, so that the total kinetic energy is

m1 2 m2 m3
K = x_ + _ 2 +
(y_ x) _ 2:
(x_ + y)
2 2 2
Placing the zero potential energy at the top of the rst pulley, the total gravitational
potential energy, on the other hand, can be written as

U = g x (m1 m2 m3 ) g y (m2 m3) ;

where constant terms were omitted. The Lagrangian L = K U is, therefore, written as
m1 2 m2 m3
L(x; x;
_ y; y)
_ = x_ + _ 2 +
( x_ y) _ 2
(x_ + y)
2 2 2
+ g x (m1 m2 m3 ) + g y (m2 m3) :

The Euler-Lagrange equation for x is

@L
= (m1 + m2 + m3 ) x_ + (m3 m2) y_ !
@ x_ !
d @L
= (m1 + m2 + m3) x + (m3 m2 ) y
dt @ x_
@L
= g (m1 m2 m3 )
@x

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while the Euler-Lagrange equation for y is
@L
= (m3 m2) x_ + (m2 + m3) y_ !
@ y_
!
d @L
= (m3 m2 ) x + (m2 + m3 ) y
dt @ y_
@L
= g (m2 m3)
@y
or

(m1 + m2 + m3 ) x + (m3 m2) y = g (m1 m2 m3 )

(m3 m2) x + (m2 + m3) y = g (m2 m3)

3 Symmetries and Conservation Laws

The Noether theorem states that for each symmetry of the Lagrangian there corresponds
a conservation law (and vice versa). When the Lagrangian L is invariant under a time
translation, a space translation, or a spatial rotation, the conservation law involves energy,
linear momentum, or angular momentum, respectively.
When the Lagrangian is invariant under time translations, t ! t + t, the Noether
theorem states that energy is conserved, dE=dt = 0, where

dq @L
E = L
dt @ q_
denes the energy invariant. When the Lagrangian is invariant under spatial translations
or rotations, ! + , the Noether theorem states that the component

@L @q @L
p = =
@ _ @ @ q_

of the canonical momentum p = @L=@ q_ is conserved, dp =dt = 0. Note that if is a

linear spatial coordinate, p denotes a component of the linear momentum while if is an
angular spatial coordinate, p = L denotes a component of the angular momentum (with
denoting the axis of symmetry about which is measured).