COURSE: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

AND THE MANAGEMENT OF LEARNING.

CODE: 555

TO :

IN THE PARTIAL FULLFILMENT OF MA TEFL

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

ASSIGNMENT NO#1

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE MANAGEMENT OF LEARNING

CODE: 555
Q.1: Piagets theory of cognitive development and its four stages.
 Piaget says that that a childs development takes place when there is
balance between assimilation and accommodation. By assimilation he means a way in
which a person is able to fit new experiences into his existing cognitive framework.
Accommodation he means the ability of that person to modify the information which was
previously held within his cognitive framework in the light of new information which
he has received. And the balance between them is maintained through the process Piaget
called equilibration. He divided his theory into four mental stages, each related to age.
1. The Sensory Motor Stage. (From birth to approximately 2 years.)
2. The Preoperational Stage (Approximately 2 to 4 years.)
3. The Concrete Operation Stage (Approximately 7 to 11 years.)
4. Formal Operation Stage. ( From 12 years to onward)
1. The Sensory Motor Stage ( From birth to approximately 2 years.)
During this development there occurs a huge difference everyday and a child
begins to understand fast the world around him and the objects surrounding
him. He senses everything and forms perceptions about the things. This leads
him towards having a concept of the permanence of the objects. For example
through the voice of his mother he comes to realize that she exists and that he
is able to see her and that he knows that weeping brings food for him.
Similarly a dog understands to catch the thing when his master throws a ball
in the air.
2. The Preoperational Stage. (Approximately 2- 6 years.)
In this stage a child is able to understand symbols like that the alphabets of
language and he can picture the things in his mind which are not present
immediately. He is able to solve problems about the things which he can see
with his own eyes and which are his universe. He is likely to understand
somebody elses point of views. However he faces problems in sorting our
similar things or classifying them as he may classify them in two different
categories. For example a sample of the alphabets of English and Urdu is
given and he will classify them according to sounds and shapes.
3. The Concrete Operations Stage (Approximately 7 11 years.)
At this stage a child is able to understand that appearances are sometimes
deceptive and that he must take things form the face value. Though now he is
beginning to understand more logically but his concepts are still to some
extent limited. He can understand logically only those things which are a part
of his world. For example at this stage children can understand why blue and
black colour produces dark and why some things are larger while others are
smaller. Piaget observed that at this stage a child comes out of his egocentric
shell and he understands the spirit of cooperation and competition.
5. Formal Operations Stage. (Approximately 12 to onwards.)
At this level the children can think about the abstraction of the things and
visualize their logical solutions internally. Now they no longer work with
only those things which they can see. These they can think scientifically, build
their hypotheses based on an understanding of causality, and test their
hypotheses. How ever Piaget says that during much adolescence age the
balance is not achieved between accommodation and assimilation. Their self
 absorption and idealism are still evident and it gradually withers away with
the passage of time.
THE APPLICAION TO ACTUAL
EDUCATIONAL PROCESS.
1. These theories can be used as test of intellectual levels. If a teacher is
teaching to level where a boundary of Piagetian stage occurs and he comes to
know how to tackle their tasks requiring intellectual capabilities.
2. Applying this theory a teacher can bear in mind the cognitive level of the
students. He can better understand at which level he should apply what
material.
3. A teacher can be able to know that what is clear to the adult is not always
clear to a child.
4. By the application of this theory a teacher is able to understand how to
introduced the students with new concept and what stage and how to prepare
them and when they are prepared.

Q.1 COMMENTS ON THE STATEMENTS.

A. A student has multidimensional personality and entity and what we
as a teacher thinks of him do not matter in every learning situation. According to the
approach of the behaviorists a response from the student to the stimulus is a conclusive
evidence but it does not always hold good in every situation and sometimes a student
learns inwardly and does not respond at all that is the view of the mentalists. So as a
student what we learn at school involves many inner workings and total should what is
taught should not be expected.
B. In the traditional education theory the teacher is expected to view
students as equal to animals in the sense that they would respond to the stimulus. But in
the theory of Carl Rogers and Piaget the student is a multidimensional character and he
should be treated on scientific basis. And the role of the teacher is not just to give
stimulus but to propose and facilitate the learning. A teacher should not be expected to
create threatening situation and environment for students where they feel strangulated but
to create a situation in which a student feels at home and facilitated. So the role of the
teacher is changed from merely a teacher to engager and facilitator. And teacher should
try to think his students as a group of individuals.
C. Carl Rogers in his theory maintains that a child or toddler learns
best when he himself discovers what he is able to do in the given circumstances. He cites
the example of the child who discovers that the radiator of the car is hot because he has
discovered through feeling by his fingers. While the child who is not involved in such
type of an experience is a poor learner. Because he in not involved in the experience. The
difference, says Rogers, is personal involvement in learning. He observed students learn
more rapidly when teach us self directed, self initiated which involves the whole person
of the learner feeling as well intellect- is the most lasting and pervasive.
He says creativity and self reliance are all enhanced by self evaluation; evaluation by
others is of secondary importance.
Q.3 Learning must involve both intellect and emotions, if it is to be meaningful.
This theory has been presented by Carl Rogers and called Humanism. He and his
coterie believe that real learning cannot take place unless both the intellect and the
emotions of the learner are involved. They believe that it is the inner motivation that
works. And that human beings are not always controlled by their environment; rather they
determine their own behaviour.
Rogers in his book Freedom to Learner explain his humanism as meaningless learning
has no personal meaning for the individual; involving only mind, it has no relevance for
the whole learner. He goes on explaining that significant learning, by contrast involves
direct experience thought and feeling ; it is self initiated and involves the whole person. It
is pervasive; it makes a real difference in the behaviour and attitude, sometimes even the
personality of the learners.
Rogers in this regard sets forth three principles of learning.
1. Human beings have a natural desire to learn , a natural curiosity about
the world and an eagerness to explore and assimilate new experience.
2. Learning is significant and faster when the subject is relevant to the
learner; witness the care driving by an adolescent.
3. Learning is enhanced by the reduction of external threats. Humiliation,
ridicule , devaluation, scorn and contempt- these are the threats to the
person himself, to the perception, he has of himself and as such interfere
strongly with learning. When threats to the self are minimized the
individual makes use of opportunities to learn in order to enhance himself.
Rogers contrasts two learning procedures.
1. Meaningless learning.
2. Significant learning.
The difference between them, he says, is personal involvement. For example in
meaningless learning the learner does not take interest while in the subject he
understands well he takes much interest. So it is concluded that participation
learning is more effective than passive learning. Students learn more when
learning is self initiated and self directed which involves the whole person of
learner- feeling as well as intellect- is the most lasting and pervasive.
Independence , creativity and self reliance are all enhanced by self evaluation;
evaluation by others is of secondary importance.This theory was actually a
criticism on the rigid orthodox theorists like John Holt and Jonathan Kozol.
Humanists say, it requires a redefinition of the role of the teacher. It is more
concerned with the overall grow of the student, growth in both cognitive and
affective areas. Thus teacher is not only and instructor but also a facilitator one.In
this theory if is important for the teacher to recognize the unique characteristics,
the total humanity, of each child. Once the student is seen as a thinking, feeling
human being, it is easier to understand that learning depends on both the intellect
and emotions. A teacher therefore can encourage active participation in the
learning process, can keep external threats to minimum, can take advantage of the
natural curiosity to learn. Rogers has also suggested the teacher to be a facilitator
and be cognizant of students interest.
Q.4 The role of facts, concepts and principles in building up cognitive framework.
Let first of all define all of them. As we know, a cognitive framework is
constructed of three types of building material.
1. facts.
2. concepts.
 3. principles.
Facts can be likened to the basic materials for building a framework. Concepts are the
systems of the framework and principles find an analogy in the way in which all the
systems in the framework work together in harmony.
Learning facts, concepts and principles is like learning outlines of a chapter. Various
cognitive strategies are applied: retention, attention, acquisition, transformation
performance and feedback. And the learning of concepts makes possible to acquire
instruction. Concepts are of two types.
1. Concrete concepts
2. Abstract concepts.
Concrete concepts can be seen while abstract concepts are shapeless and sometimes
called defined concepts. In Winscons model there are four levels of concept attainment.
1. The concrete level.
2. The identity level.
3. The classificatory level.
4. The formal level.
And there are four steps for the teacher to teach concepts.
1. State your objective.
2. Necessary prerequisite knowledge.
3. Present definitions and examples.
4. Provide material for response and take feedback.
The learning of principles is based on learning of concepts, because a principle is ,
by no definition a statement of relationship between concepts. A principle states a
relationship between classes of events which enable us to;
1. predict consequences.
2. explain events.
3. infer causes.
4. control situation.
5. solve problems.
Understanding concepts is prerequisite to understanding the principle describing
the relationship between concepts. Principle makes transfer of learning possible.
Once a student understands a principle, he or she can apply that principle in new
situations and can use that understanding to solve the problems. And the same
technique is followed in teaching concepts and principles.
Q.5 Expository teaching.
It takes place when teacher presents material in fully organize fashion to the
students. In terms of teaching concepts and principles, this means presenting the
concepts, or the principles and presenting many specific examples, until the student can
generalize and apply the concepts and principles in new situations. It has been difined in
the works of David Ausubel.

ADVANTAGES OF EXPOSITORY TEACHING.

1 It is designed to transmit a great amount of information to a
large audience in relatively a shot span of time.
 2 Students need not to take up the pains of discovery and
exploration upon themselves.
3 It is not a lazy teachers way out , but require a creative and
energetic teacher; thus making it a requirement for the
administration to search out the best mentor.
4 A large number of students can be accommodated.
5 It takes rather a short time.
6 It demands hard work from the teacher.
7 Large part of the subject matter is covered.

DISADVANTAGES OF EXPOSITORY TEACHING.

1. It makes students passive and they pay less attention.
2. Students are not encouraged to discover and explore.
3. It does not teach the subject matter in depth.
4. If the participation is not active , learning remains less
meaningful.
WHAT IS DISCOVERY LEARNING?
In this method, instead of telling the students the concepts and principles the
teacher expects them to leave by providing numerous examples. The teacher structure the
learning environment so that students explore a variety of examples and derive concepts
and principles for themselves.
The basic issues between Expository teaching and Discovery teaching are:
1. In the class room.
2. In curriculum development.
3. In psychology.
Differences between Expository teaching and Discovery teaching are as under.
1. Expository teaching is designed to transmit a great amount of information to a
large number of audiences in relatively short span of time. It is highly
efficient. While Discovery teaching is designed to help students learn a
strategy of investigation, less subject matter may be covered in greater depth.
2. While the Expository teaching method has been criticized for making the
students passive and lazy during the session, the Discovery method has been
criticized for assuming that students can- and that they should rediscover the
wheel.
3. In Expository teaching a teacher should be creative and competent. It is not
the work of the teacher who is lazy. While in Discovery teaching the students
are rather only guided and taught to rediscover the wheel themselves.
4. Expository teaching favours unprepared mind, while Discovery teaching is
applied for prepared minds.
5. Expository teaching, them can provide useful framework for the subject
matter content. While the Discovery method learning can be useful with in
that framework for teaching principles and problem solving technique.

Q.6 a) What is problem and problem solving?

A problem exists when there is new situation, requiring the application of
previously learned principles combined in a new way.
 And Gagne defines problem solving as;
It may be viewed as a process by
which the learner discovers a combination of previously learned rules that he
can apply to achieve a solution for a novel problem situation. Problem solving
is not simply a matter of application of previously learned rules, however. It is
also a process that yields new learning.
Learning to solve problems permanently enlarges the capabilities of the
individual because problem solving strategies once learned can be applied to
other, similar situation. It is not enough, therefore teach facts, concepts and
principles; problem solving techniques should taught at school. However these
strategies should be applied in the school.
1. If the teacher gives the students a wide variety of problems and the
students become habitual of the sensing the problems and applying the
rules solving the problems. In this way their ability of solving the
problems will improve greatly and they can apply it to the new
situations as well.
2. A teacher should introduce his students with the situations that require
solution even in the subjects where it seems impossible to set
problems. And he should formulate a variety of solutions and ask his
students to pick out the right solution and make the students aware that
problems may have a variety of solutions.
3. Cooperation and encouragement are a way to get the solutions.
Teacher should ask the students to formulate a group and let them
conclude the solution and analyze them. Brain storming session should
also be formed to give the students the hints of the possible solutions.
Their comments should be received and encouraged them to give
further ideas.
4. Discouragements inhibit the ideas. Dont discourage any idea by any
student. There may be an unconventional creative mind who can jump
over the other right solutions that teacher may not have in his mind.
5. Adapt individual use of judging and encouraging the students. A
teacher should advise his students to delay the problem, because in this
way they may find a better solution.
6. A teacher must teach his students to face the real life problems and
sort out the right solutions because they contain a lot of distracting
material and irrelevant information. This strategy will help them in
solving problems that are similar to the real life problems.
As a teacher I have applied these strategies in my own class in the college where
currently I am teaching. I found out that the purpose of these problem solving strategies is
to make the students aware that they are creative and not merely puppets to play a drama
before a director. I came across these strategies during may stay in the university and
doing my diploma work. I , now apply all the sessions that are groups, brainstorming
work, individual scrutiny and identity level.
b) THREE ACTIVITIES FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF
CREATIVITY.
 1. First of all while teaching story writing in the class of first year a teacher
must tell the students how to write a story and how to apply grammar
specifically tenses and how to use dialogues in expending the story. Then he
should give the students outlines to create their own story and encourage
every individual to write. The next session is to suggest moral and write a
story of their own.
2. While teaching to the graduate class short story, a teacher must ask them to
observe the elements that are common in their culture and in the short story
and construct their own story according to their culture keeping in mind the
story in study.
3. In the same class a teacher must ask his students to present their own ideas
about the writer and how he should write in the proper way to suit our culture.
Then ask the student their own point of views about the story.

Q.7 a) A child below the age of 11 is often not good at formulating and
testing hypotheses. (true)
b) Intelligence is a crucial factor in the ability to solve the
problems. (true)
c) Real life problems can be very useful for the class room
teaching. (true)
d) Cognitive psychology is a more difficult subject to grasp than
behaviourism. (true)
e) A cognitive framework is constructed on three types of building
material; facts, concepts and principles.(true)
f) Discovery learning is an aid to developing insight. (true)
g) Creative people do not have strongly developed intuitive sense. In
order to solve a problem one has to choose and implement
one solution. (false)
h) Cognitive psychologists believe that learning process in humans
and animals is basically the same. (false)
i) Intermittent reinforcement may be fixed or variable. (true)
j) Simulation is essential for motivation. (true)

THE END