Steel Plate Engineering Data—Volume 1 Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage Revised Edition—1992 ‘The material presented in this publication is for general information only and should not be used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability for ‘ny given application. The publication of the material contained herein is not intended as a representation or warranty on the part of American Iron and Steel Institute—or of any other person named herein—that this information is suitable for any general or particular use or of freedom from infringement of any patents. Anyone making use ot this Information assumes all liability arising from such use. Published by AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE In cooperation with and editorial collaboration by STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC. Revised December 1982Acknowledgements publication on carbon steel plate materials and tanks for liquid Storage, the American Iron and Steel Institute retained Mr. LE. Boberg as author. For his skillful handling of the assignment, the Institute gratefully acknowiedges its appreciation. The American tron and Stee! Institute established a Task Force to produce and supply a special section on stainless stee! tanks to this publication, and wishes to acknowledge Its appreciation to this group for a commendable effort. F: the preparation of the original version of this technical ‘The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and valuable contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators ‘Association and representatives from the mamher steel producing ‘companies of American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later revising and updating, the material for publication in this current edition ‘Appreciation is expressed to the American Society for Testing and Materials, the American Petroleum Institute and the American Water Works Association for their constructive suggestions and review of this material Much of the illustrative material in this manual appears through their courtesy. American Iron and Steel Institute It is suggested that inquiries for further information on designs of stee! tanks for liquid storage be directed to: Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc., 3158 Des Plaines Avenue, Des Plaines, IL 60018, AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE. 1101 17th Street N.W., Suite 1300, Washington, D.C. 20036-4700 PRINTED IN USA 1982Introduction the usual design of tanks for liquid storage. For unusual applications, involving materials or liquids not covered within these pages, nor referenced herein, designers should consult more complete treatments of the subject material. For information related to design of bulk storage vessels, refer to SPFA publication "USEFUL INFORMATION ON THE DESIGN OF STEEL BINS AND SILOS” by John R. Buzek. T: purpose of this publication is to provide a design reference for Part | contains general information pertaining to all types of carbon plate steels. This section may seem elementary to the metallurgist or to one who is thoroughly familiar with steel industry terminology, practice and Classification. For others, it snould be helpful to an understanding of what follows. Part I deals with the particular carbon steels applicable to tanks for liquid storage. Part Ill covers the design of carbon steel tanks for liquid storage. Part IV covers materials, design, and fabrication of stainless steel tanks for liquid storage. It has been revised for this publication by the Committee of Stainless Steel Producers of American iron and Stee! Institute. Inquiries for further information on design of steel tanks should be directed to Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc.Contents Part! — Materials—General .. 1 Part Il — Materials—Carbon Steel Tanks for Liquid ‘Storage 7 Part Ill — Carbon Steel Tank Design ..... PartIlV — Stainless Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage . 27Part | Materials—Generdl Designation M ‘ost of the steel specifications referred to in this manual are contained in the BOOK of ASTM Standards, Part 4, which can be obtained from the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Each ASTM specification has a number such as ‘A283, and within each specification there may be one or more grades or qualities. Thus an example of a proper reference would be “ASTM designation ‘A283 grade C." In the interest of simplicity, such a reference will be abbreviated to “A283-C. ‘ASTM standards are issued periodically to report new specifications and changes to existing ones having a suffix indicating the year of issue such as *A283-C-79." Thus a summary such as is provided here may gradually become incomplete, and it is important that the designer of steel plate structures have the latest edition of ASTM standards available for reference. Definitions ‘At least @ nodding acquaintance with the terminology of the steel industry is essential to an understanding of steel specifications. This is especially true because, in common with many other industries, @ number of shop and trade terms have become so thoroughly implanted in the language that they are used instead of more precise and descriptive technical terms. The following discussions may be of assistance. Steelmaking Processes Practically all steel is made by the open hearth furnace process, the electric furnace process or the basic oxygen process. ASTM specifications for the different steels specify which processes are permissible in each case. Steelmaking Practice ‘The steels with which we are concerned are either strand cast, or cast into ingots which may be hot folled 1 convenient size for further proooecing or alternatively ingots may be hot rolled directly into plates, In most steelmaking processes, the principal ‘chemical reaction is the combination of carbon and ‘oxygen to form a gas. If the oxygen available for this reaction is not removed, the gaseous products continue to evolve during solidification in the ingot. Cooling and solidification progress from the outer rim of the ingot to the center, and during the solidification of the rim, the concentration of certain telements increases in the liquid portion of the ingot. The resulting product, known as RIMMED STEEL, has marked differences in characteristics across the section and from top to bottom of the ingot. Control of the amount of gas evolved during solidification is accomplished by the addition of a deoxidizing agent, silicon being the most commonly used. If practically no gas evolved, the result is KILLED STEEL, so called because it lies quietly in the ingot. Killed steel is characterized by more uniform chemical composition and properties than other types. Although Killed steel is @ quality lem, the end result is often not s0 specified by name, but rather by chemical analysis. Other deoxidizing elements are used, but in general, a specified minimum silicon content of 0.10% on heat analysis indicates that a steel is “fully killed.” The term SEMIKILLED designates an intermediate type of steel in which a smaller amount of deoxidizer is added. Gas evolution is sufficiently reduced to prevent rimming action, but not sufficiently reduced to obtain the same degree of uniformity as attained in fully killed steels. This controlled evolution of gas during solidification tends to offset shrinkage, resulting in a higher yield of usable material from the ingot. As a practical matter, therefore, plates originating from ingots are usually furnished as semikilled stee! unless a minimum silicon content of 0.10% on heat analysis is specified Chemical Requirements A discussion of the effects of the many elements added to steels would involve a metallurgical treatise far beyond the scope of this work. However, certain elements are common to all steels, and it may be of help to briefly outline the effects of carbon, manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur on the prapertice af ctaal CARBON is the principal hardening element in steel, and as carbon increases, hardness increases.Tensile strength increases, and ductility, notch toughness and welcability generally decrease with increasing carbon content. MANGANESE contributes to strength and hardness, but to @ lesser degree than carbon. Increasing the menganese content generally decreases ductily and weldability, but to a lesser degree than carson. Because of the more moderate effects of manganese, carbon steels, which attain part of their strangth through the addition of manganese, exhibit greater ductility and improved toughness than steels of similar strength achieved through the use of carbon alone. PHOSPHORUS. Phosphorus can result in noticeably higher yield strength and decreases in ductility, toughness, and weldability. In the steels under discussion here, it is generally kept below a limit of 0.04% on heat analyeie. ‘SULFUR decreases ductility, toughness, and weldability, and is generally kept below a limit of 0.05% on heat analysis. HEAT ANALYSIS is the term applied to the chemical analysis representative of a heat of steel and is the analysis reported to the purchaser. It is Usually determined by analyzing, for such elements {as heve been specified, a test ingot sample obtained from the front or middle part of the heat during the pouring of the steel from the ladle. ODUCT ANALYSIS is a supplementary chemical analysis of the steel in the semifinished or finished product form. It is not, as the term might imply, a duplicate determination to confirm a previous result Carbon Steel Steel is usually considered to be carbon steel when: 1. No minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zitconium, or any other element added to obtain desired alloying effect; 2. When the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, copper 0.60, silicon 0.60; ‘3. When the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40%. “There are some exceptions to these rules in High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steels. Alloy Steel Steel is usually considered to be alloy when either: 4. A definite range or definite minimum quantity is required for any of the elements listed above in (1) under carbon steels, or ’2. The maximum of the range for alloying elements ‘exceeds one or more of the limits listed in (2) under carbon steels. ‘Again, the HSLA steels demonstrate some exceptions to these general rules. High Strength Low Alloy Steels These steels, generally with specified yield point of 50 ksi or higher and containing smal! amounts of alloying elements, are often employed where high strength or light weight is desired. Mechanical Requirements Mechanical testing of steel plates includes tension, hardness, and toughness tests. The test specimens and the tests are described in ASTM specifications ‘A6, A20, A370, and A673, From the tension tests are determined the TENSILE STRENGTH and YIELD POINT or YIELD STRENGTH, both of which are factors in selecting an allowable design stress, and the elongation over either a 2” or 8" gage length. Elongation is a measure of ductility and workability. ‘Toughness ic a measure of ability to resist brittle fracture. Toughness tests are generally not required unless specified, and then usually because of a low service temperature andior a relatively high design stress. Conditions under which impact tests are required or suggested will be discussed in connection with specific structures. ‘A number of tests have been developed to ‘demonstrate toughness, and each has its ardent proponents, The test most generally accepted Currently, however, is the test using the Charpy V Notch specimen, Details of this specimen and method of testing can be found in ASTM-A370, "Mechanical Testing of Stee! Products,” and in A20 and A673. Briefly described, an impact test Is a dynamic test in which a machined, notched specimen is struck and broken by a single blow in a specially designed testing machine. The energy expressed in foot-pounds required to break the specimen is a measure of toughness. Toughness decreases at lower temperatures, Hence, when impact tests are required, they are usually performad near temperatures anticipated in service. Grain Size Grain size is affected by both rolling practice and deoxidizing practice. For example, the use of ‘aluminum as a deoxidizer tends to produce finer ‘grains. Unless included in the ASTM specification, or Unless otherwise specified, steels may be furnished to either coarse grain or fine grain practice at the producer's option. Fine grain steel is considered to have greater toughness than coarse grain steels. Heat-ireated fine grain steels will have greater toughness than as-rolled fine grain steels. The designer is concerned only with the question of under what conditions is it justifiable to pay the extra cost of specifying fine grain practice with or without heat treatment in order to obtain improved toughness. Guidelines will be discussed in later sections. Hest Treatment POST-WELD HEAT TREATMENT consists of heating the steel to a temperature between 1100F and41250F, furnace cooling until the temperature has reduced to about 600F and then cooling in alr. Residual stresses will be reduced by this procedure. NORMALIZING consists of heating the steel to between 1600F and 1700F, holding for a sufficient time to allow transformation, and cooling in air, primarily to effect grain refinement. QUENCHING consists of rapid cooling in a suitable medium from the normalizing temperature. This treatment hardens and strengthens the stee! and is normally followed by tempering. TEMPERING consists of reheating the steel to a relatively low temperature (which varies with the particular steel and the properties desired). This temperature normally lies between 1000F and 1250F. Through the quenching and tempering treatment, many steels can attain excellent toughness, and at the same time high strength and good ductility To illustrate the effect of heat treatment on toughness and strength, refer to Figure 1-1. The numerical values shown apply only to the specific steel described. For other steels, other values would apply, but the trends would be similar. Referring to Figure 1-1, if the designer has selected a Charpy V Notch value of "x" ft-lbs, as desirable under special service conditions, it will be noted that the steel illustrated would not be acceptable at temperatures lower than about +35F in the as-rolled condition. In the normalized condition, the same steel would be acceptable down to about —55F, and if quenched and tempered, 10 about ~ 80F together with an increase in carbon, manganese, or other hardening elements. Note, however, that heat treatment adds to the cost and is indicated only when service conditions indicate the necessity for increased toughness and/or increased strength, Classification of Steel Plates Plate steels are defined or classified in two ways. ‘The first classification, which has already been discussed, is based on differences in chemical composition between CARBON STEELS, ALLOY STEELS and HIGH STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STEELS. The second classification is based primarily on the differences in extent of testing between STRUCTURAL QUALITY STEELS and PRESSURE VESSEL QUALITY STEELS.” It should not be ‘construed that these terms limit the use of a particular steel, Pressure vessel steels are often Used in structures other than pressure vessels. The distinction between structural and pressure vessel qualities is best understood by a comparison of the governing ASTM specifications. "ASTM designation A6, General Requirements for Rolled Steel Plates for Structural Use, covers a group of common requirements and tolerances for the steels listed therein, the chemical composition “Presgure vessel qually sieols wore previously known as FLANGE, “Sie RIRE-SOX guaities, nistoncaly inmerteg worms uswu 10 dete Giferences in the extent of testing, Dut which have no present ‘day signficance Insofar as tne end use ofthe steel is concerned. and special requirements for which are outlined under separate specification numbers such as A36, A283, A514, etc, Similarly, ASTM designation A20, General Requirements for Stee! Plates for Pressure Vessels, covers a group of common requirements and tolerances which apply to a list of about 35 steels, the chemical composition and special requirements for which are outlined under separate ASTM specification numbers. Both A6 and A20 define tolerances for thickness, width, length, and flatness, but for the designer the important difference is in the quality of the finished product as influenced by the difference in the extent ‘of testing. A general comparison of the two qualities follows: 4. Chemical Analysis — The requirements for phosphorus and sulfur are more stringent for pressure vessel quality than for structural quailty Both A6 and A20 require one analysis per heat plus the option of product analysis. Product analysis tolerances for structural steels are given in A6. 2, Testing for mechanical properties. a) In general, all specifications for structural {quality require two tension tests per heat, size bracket and strength gradation. A6 specifies the general location of the specimens. ») In general all specifications for pressure vessel quality require either one or two transverse tension tests, depending on heat treatment, from each plate as rolled,” (and as heat-treated, if any). This affords a check on uniformity within a heat. Specification A20 also specifies the location from which the specimens are to be taken. 3. Repair of surface imperfections and the limitations on repair of surface imperfections are more restrictive in A20 than A6. Welding Inasmuch as practically all plate structures are fabricated by welding, a brief discussion of welding processes follows. ‘Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal by establishing a metallurgical bond between them. There are many different types of welding, but we are concerned only with arc welding. Arc welding is. a fusion process in which the bond between the metals is produced by reducing the surfaces to be joined to a liquid staie and then allowing the liquid to solidity. The heat required to reduce the metal to liquid state is produced by an electric arc. The arc is formed between the work to be welded and a metal wire which is called the electrode. The electrode may be consumable and add metal to the molten pool, or it may be nonconsumable and of a relatively inert metal, in which case no metal is added to the workpiece. Tyla wlea tome he number and sab oF directly from an ingot in relation t location of specimens, not to its conition.In the welding of steel plate structures, we are concerned principally with five variations of arc welding: 1. Shielded metal arc process (SMAW) 2. Gas metal arc process (GMAW) 3, Flux-cored arc process (FCAW) 4, Electrogas or Electrosiag welding 5, Submerged arc process (SAW) Shielded Metal Arc Welding In the early days of arc welding, the consumable electrode consisted of a bare wire. The pool of molten metal was exposed to and adversely affected by the gases in the atmosphere. It became obvious that to produce welds with adequate ductility, the molten metal must be protected or shielded from the atmosphere ‘This led to the developmont of the shielded matal ‘arc process, in which the electrode is coated with materials that produce a gas as the electrode is Consumed which shields the arc trom the ‘atmosphere. The coating also performs other functions, including the possible adding of alloying ‘elements as well as slag-forming materials which float to the top and protect the metal during solidification and cooling. in practice, the process is limited primarily to manual manipulation of the electrode. Not too many years ago, this process was almost universally used for practically all welding. It is still widely used for posttion welding, i.e., welding other than in the down fiat position, For the down flat position some of the later processes described below are much faster and hence less costly. Gas Metal Arc Welding In the gas-shielded arc welding process, the molten pool of metal is protected by an externally supplied Gas, or gas mixture, fed through the electrode holder rather than by decomposition of the electrode coating. The electrode is a continuous filler-metal (consumable) bare wire and the gases used include helium, argon, and carbon dioxide. In some cases, @ tubular electrode is used to facilitate the addition of fluxes or addition of alloys and slag-orming materials. Some methods of this process are called MIG and COz welding. The gas-shielded process lends itself to high rates of deposition and high welding speeds. It can be used manually, semi-automatically, or automatically Flux-Cored-Arc Welding This is an arc-welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an arc between a continuous filer-material (consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained from a flux contained within the electrode. Additional shielding may or may not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or (goo mixture. Electrogas or Electrosiag Welding This process is a method of gas metal-arc welding or flux-cored-arc welding wherein molding shoes confine the molten weld metal for vertical position welding, Submerged Arc Welding ‘Submerged arc welding is essentially an automatic process, although semi-automatic applications have been used. “The arc between a bare electrode and the work is, covered and shielded by a blanket of granular, fusible material deposited on the work ahead of the electrode as it moves relative to the work. Filler metal is obtained either from the electrode or a supplementary welding rod. The fusible shielding material is known as melt or flux. in submerged are welding, thore ie no visible evidence of the arc. The tip of the electrode and the molten weld pool are completely covered by the flux throughout the actual welding operation. High welding speeds are achieved. it will be obvious that the necessity of depositing a granular flux ahead of the electrode lends itself best fo welding on work in the down flat position. Nevertheless, ingenious devices have been developed for keeping flux in place, so that the process has been applied to almost all positions except overhead welding. Weldability It will be observed from the above that all arc welding processes result in rapid heating of the parent metal near the joint to a very high femperature followed by chilling as the relatively large mass of parent plate conducts heat away from the heat-affected zone. This rapid cooling of the weld metal and heat-affected zone causes local shrinkage relative to the parent plate and resultant residual stresses. Depending on the chemical composition of the steel, plate thickness and external conditions, special welding precautions may be indicated. In very cold weather, or in the case of a highly hardenable material, pre-heating a band on either side of the joint slow down the cooling rate. In some cases post-heat or stress relief as described earlier in this ‘section is employed to reduce residual stresses to a level approaching the yield strength of the material at the post heat temperature. ‘With respect to chemical composition, carbon is the single most important element because of its Contribution to hardness, with other elements Contributing to hardness but to lesser degrees. it ls beyond our scope to provide a definitive discussion on when special welding precautions are indicated. In general, the necessity is dictated on the basis of practical experience or test programs.CHARPY V.NOTCH, ENERGY ABSORPTION Figure 1-1 Typical Effect of Heat Treatment on Notch Toughness ‘of a Fine-Grained C-Mn-Si Steel (1 Inch Thickness) ermalioes soo: | 54900 pi ‘avenenee & Temp's. 62.100 pel | 63,000 psi 1 T a eal T T T alae T ‘TEMPERATURE-DEGREES FAMRENHEITPart Il Materials—Carbon Steel Tanks for Liquid StOla9¢ Introduction he intent of this publication Is to provide T information that may be useful in the design of flat-bottom, vertical cylindrical tanks for the storage of liquids at essentially atmospheric pressure. Considerable attention has been directed {o tanks storing oil or water, which constitute most of the tanks built. However, suggestions have been included for storage of liquids meriting special attention, such as acid storage tanks: ‘There are two principal standards in general use: ‘American Petroleum Institute (AP!) Standard 650 ‘covering “Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage,” and the American Water Works Association (AWWA) Standard D100 covering “Steel Tanks for Water Storage."’ The abbreviations API and AWWA will be used for the sake of convenience. ‘Both API and AWWA permit the use of a relatively large number of different steel plate materials. In ‘addition, the basic API Standard 650 and AWWA Standard D100 Appendix C provide refined design rules for tanks designed at higher stresses in which the selection of steel is intimately related to stress level, thickness and service temperature, as well as the type and degree of inspection. As a result, knowledge of available materials and their limitations is equally as important as familiarity with design principles. Useful information concerning plate steel in general has been covered in Part |. It is the purpose Of this section to assist in the selection of the proper Stee! or steels in the construction of tanks for liquid storage, Factors Affecting Selection of Steel Plate ‘As you will learn in more detail in Part Ill of the publication, both the AWWA and the API offer Optional methods of shell design. The AWWA basic ‘and the API Appendix A procedures are based on simplified rules which use the same conservative allowable stress regardless of the plate grade used. The other design methods are Dased on refined procedures that take into account plate grade, Service temperature, thickness and higher standards of inspection. These procedures are represented by the AWWA Appendix C and API basic standards. it will be obvious that inasmuch as the simplified design provisions of both standards allow identical design stresses for any of the permissibie steels, economic considerations will lead to the selection of the least expensive steel that will be satisfactory for the intended service. ‘Steel selection is not so simple and straightforward in the case of tanks built in accordance with either the API or the AWWA refined design provisions. Unstressed portions of such tanks, including bottoms and roofs, will probably be furnished as A36 unless the purchaser specifies otherwise. The selection of material for shell demands further attention. “The refined design provisions of both API and AWWA resulted from a desire to utilize newer and improved steels and modern welding and inspection techniques to build tanks of higher quality. The use of higher stresses demanded attention to other properties of steel, primarily toughness. An Exitaustive discussion of toughness is beyond the scope of this work, but it can be pointed out that as the stress level increases and temperature decreases, toughness becomes more important. ‘At the siress level existing in API and AWWA simplified design criteria tanks, experience has demonstrated that the steels used in combination with the specific welding and inspection rules have been adequate for the service temperatures involved. Upon venturing into the field of higher stress levels, steels having greater toughness have been ‘considered a necessary corollary. Thanks to research in metals, such steels are available. A number of factors enter into making a proper selection. For example, for any given steel, toughness generally decreases as thickness increases. The toughness of carbon steels is improved if part of the hardness and Strength is obtained by a higher manganese content and lower carbon at the same strength level. Fine- rained steels exhibit greater toughness than coarse- grained steels; this can be accomplished in the Seoxidizing prococe, and in heat treatmant “Thus as thickness increases and service temperature decreases, more stringent attentionmust be paid to toughness {rom the standpoint of materials selection and fabrication. The steels permitted by API and AWWA Appendix C tor use at these higher stress levels have statistically demonstrated that they do have adequate toughness for the thickness and temperature ranges ‘shown. The API standard includes an Impact Exemption chart which establishes requirements for impact testing, based on thickness, temperature and type of material. ‘in the final analysis the goal is to design the least expensive but acceptable tank for a given set of conditions. API and AWWA rules permitting higher design stresses afford a fairly wide selection of Steels and stress levels to choose from, but they do present a problem of selection. ‘A definitive treatment of economics is beyond the scope of this work. Basically, tne factors involved are: 1. Cost of material 2. Weight of material as it affects freight and handling 3. Fabrication, erection and welding costs 4, Inspection costs None of these factors is necessarily conclusive in itself. In any given case, the lightest weight or lowest material cost may or may not be the least expensive Overall depending on the relative importance of the factors listed above. The tank fabricator is usually in the best position to judge which steel or combination of steels will permit construction of the most economical, safe tank. itis generally unwise to specify a more expensive steel than can be justified by the application. There are material costs not associated with quality. The cost of plates will vary according to both width and thickness, and from this consideration tank Shell plate approximately 8’ wide will generally be Used, Particular situations may dictate the use of wider or narrower plates for all or part of a tank shel. ‘Although both the API and AWWA Standard permit the ordering of plates for certain parts of the tank on ‘2 weight rather than thickness basis, there is no fonger any economic advantage in doing so. The Future To this point, only those steels specifically permitted by API or AWWA have been discussed. Other steels have been used to a minor extent by those thoroughly familiar with the problems involved. ‘Among these are the materials referred to in Part | as high strength low alloy steels, manufactured either as proprietary, trade named steels, or to ASTM Specifications. Some of these steels offer the ‘additional attraction of improved atmospheric corrosion resistance, thus eliminating the necessity for painting outside surfaces. “ag is the case with all high strength materials, the deoignor and user mist assure themselves that factors other than strength (toughness for example) are properly allowed for in design and construction. For obvious reasons, all construction codes lag behind technical progress. The extensive research facilities of individual steel producers and American Iron and Steel Institute are constantly searching for ways to better serve the needs of our modern economy. But before any construction standard such {5 those of API and AWWA can accept and permit @ ew material, it must have been established that itis Suitable for the structure in which It will be used. Usually, but not always, acceptance by API and ‘AWWA implies prior acceptance by ASTM. Primarily this is because ASTM specifications clearly deiineate the materials to be furnished, whereas any departure from ASTM requires that the standards involved spell ut the requirements in corresponding detail. New ASTM steels may or may not eventually find their ‘way into the construction standards, depending on ‘economics and the proven properties of the materials. Tt should be left to those who have acquired the necessary experience in tank design and ‘construction to pioneer in the use of materials not approved by API or AWWA. The designer, the user, and the fabricator assume added responsibilities in working outside of recognized industry standards. On the other hand, such pioneering by qualified ‘organizations in the past led to the progress represented by the refined procedures of Appendix C of AWWA D100 and API-650. ‘As in the case of steels already approved by API ‘and AWWA, time and experience will eventually lead to recognition of the steel or combination of steels that wil yield the highest quality tank at least cost.Part Ill Carbon Steel Tank DeSiQN esse Introduction art Ill will consider the desian of flat bottom, Poses cabo el nthe storage of liquids at essentially atmospheric pressure and near ambient temperatures. Practically all tanks in the United States within the scope of this part are constructed in accordance with API 850 ‘covering welded steel tanks for oil storage or AWWA D100 covering welded steel tanks for water storage. Tanks of other shapes and subject to gas pressure in addition to liquid head; and tanks subject to extreme low or high temperatures present radically different problems. Consult ASME Section Vill, API 650 APPENDICES F & M, and API 620 for further information. ‘API 650 and AWWA D100 contain detailed minimum requirements covering inspection. Any attempt to summarize the inspection requirements of either standard would be voluminous and dangerously misleading, It will be the purpose of Part Ill to discuss only those portions necessary to understand the various design bases. Anyone eancerned with fabrication, erection, or inspection ‘must obtain copies of the complete standards. ‘There are basic differences between the standards of API and AWWA. API 650 is an industry standard especially designed to fit the needs of the petroleum industry, The oil tank is usually located in isolated areas, or in areas zoned for industry where the probable consequences of mishap are limited to the ‘owner's property. The owner is conscious of safety, environmental concerns and potential losses in his operations, and will adjust the minimum requirements to suit more severe service conditions. "AWWA D100 is a public standard to be used for the storage of water. The water storage tank is. usually located in the midst of a heavily populated area, often on the highest elevation available. The Consequence of mishap could not be tolerated in the public interest The API 650 and AWWA D100 standards have been in existence for many decades anc the experience under them has been excellent. Before anniying them to tanks storing liquids other than water or oil the designer should consider which philosophy best fits his circumstances. In either case the design etandards provide minimum requirements for safe construction and should not be construed as ‘a design manual covering all possible service conditions, General Design Formula for Tank Shells Membrane theory, as it applies to cylindrical tanks of large diameter, is elementary and needs no explanation here. Starting with the basic premise that circumferential load in a cylinder equals the pressure times the radius, then expressing H and D in feet for convenience, the circumferential load at any level in a vertical cylinder containing water weighing 62.4#/cu, ft., can be expressed as: T=2.6 HD (3-1) where T = the circumferential load per inch of shell height H = depth in feet below maximum liquid level D = tank diameter in feet ‘Then the minimum design thickness can be expressed as: t(nenes) = 26.HOG + ¢ 2) where @ = contained liquid specific gravity $ = allowable design stress in psi E = joint factor © = corrosion allowance in inches Obviously the ideal situation would be to vary the thickness uniformly from bottom to top, but since steel plates are rolled to a uniform thickness, any given course of plates is uniform throughout its width. Thus a course designed for the stress at its lower edge will have excess thickness at the top, Which will help carry part of the load in the lower portion of the course above. API takes advantage of this and designs each course of plates for the stress existing one foot above the bottom of the course in question. AWWA designs on the basis of stress. existing at the lower edge of each course. ‘Appiication of other methods of shell design is. permitted and explained in API 650 and AWWA D100.Loads To Be Considered ‘As outlined in the preceding section, the thickness of the shell is determined by the weight of the product stored. However, there are other loads of forces which a tank may have to resist and which are ‘common to both oil and water tanks. Wind — Wind pressure is assumed to be 30 psf on vertical plane surfaces which, when applying shape factors of 0.6 and 0.5 respectively, becomes 18 pst ‘on the projected area of a cylindrical surface, and 15 psf on the projected area of a cone or surface of Gouble curvature as in the case of tank roofs. These oads are considered to be the pressure caused by @ wind velocity of 100 MPH. For higher or lower wind velocity, these loads are increased or decreased in proportion to the square of the velocity ratio, (vit00}2, where V is expected wind velocity expressed in miles per hour. Other standards for wind design may be specified such as ASCE 7-88 (formerly ANSI A58.1-1982), UBC, BOCA or SSBC. ‘Snow — Snow load is assumed to be 25 psf on the horizontal projected area of the roof. Lighter loads are not recommended even in areas where snow does not ocour because of the live loads that must be resisted during construction and in service. Fixed roots on tanks are not usually designed for non- ‘symmetrical loads but if such load conditions are anticipated, these should be considered by the designer. Seismic — Because of their flexibility, flat-bottomed cylindrical steel tanks have had an excellent safety record in earthquakes. Steel has the ability to absorb large amounts of energy without fracture. rior to the Alaskan earthquake of 1964, oil tanks had an almost perfect record of surviving all known western hemisphere earthquakes with essentially no effects other than broken pipe connections. in the ‘Alaskan quake, the horizontal oscillations of the tank contents caused vertical shell stresses of sufficient magnitude to permanently deform the shell in @ peripheral accordion-like buckle near the bottom. But gain the properties of steel were sufficient to accommodate this deformation without fracture of the shell piates.* 'As @ result of this satisfactory experience record, it is generally considered that earthquake is not an important consideration in oil tanks where the height- to-diameter ratio is generally small. “The record of water tanks has been correspondingly good, but in the case of a standpipe where the height-to-diameter ratio is high, the problem is obviously aggravated. "AWWA D100 and API 650 contain recommendations for the seismic design of tanks. Seismic probability maps of the United States can be found in each. If applicable, local conditions should be investigated. UBC and ANS! standards may be Specified Dut afe not as design specific ws AWWA D100 and API 650 for flat bottom, vertical, cylindrical tanks. 10 Negative Pressure (such as partial vacuum) — Most tanks of this nature at some time will be subject to a negative pressure (partial vacuum) by Gesign or otherwise. Approximately one-haif o2. oer Square inch negative pressure is built into the snell stability formulae in AWWA D100 and API 650 AWWA D100 tanks are not usually designed for negative pressure but negative pressure due io the evacuation of water is considered in the venting requirements. Occasionally API 650 tanks are Specified to resist a certain negative pressure, Usually expressed in inches of water column. To meet these requirements the shell and roof must be designed to resist the specified negative oressure. It is left to the discretion of the designer tc design for the negative pressure as part of the specified shell and root loads or in addition to said loads. Part Ill of Volume 2 provides design information ‘or negative pressure on cylinders. Also if the negative pressure Sccurs while the tank is empty, the weight of the bottom plate should be compared against the specified negative pressure, Top and Intermediate Wind Girders Open top tanks require stiffening rings at or near the top of the shell to resist distortion: or buckling due to wind. These stiffening rings are referred to as wind girders. In addition some tank shells of open top and fixed roof tanks require intermediate wind girders to prevent buckling due to wind. API 650 and AWWA, 100 provide differing design requirements for intermediate wind girders anc are explained in the examples of Appendix A. The formula for maximum height of unstiffened shell is based on the MODIFIED MODEL BASIN FORMULA for the critical uniform external pressure on thin-wall tubes free from end loadings. Anchor Bolts The normal proportions of oil tanks are such (diameter greater than height) that anchor bolts are rarely needed. It is quite common, however, for the height of water tanks to be considerably greater than the diameter. There is a limit beyond which there is danger that any empty tank will overturn when subjected to the maximum wind velocity. As a good tule of thumb, if Cn the following formula exceeds (0.66, anchor bolts are required: c= 2M where (33) ow M. = overturning moment due to wind, ft. d= diameter of shell in feet ‘weight of shell and portion of roof supported by shell, Design tension load per bott = 4M - W (3-4) ig per ND eM (4) where M and W are as above and N= number of anchor bolts D = dinmatar of anchor bolt circle, feet ‘The diameter of the anchor bolts shall be determined by an allowable stress of 15000 psi onthe net section at the root of the thread with appropriate stress increase for wind or earthquake loading. Because of proportionately large loss of section by corrosion on small areas, it is recommended that no anchor bolt be less than 1.25” in diameter. Maximum desirable spacing of anchors as suggested by API 650 and AWWA D100 is 10-0. This spacing is a matter of judgment and should remain fiexible to facilitate plate seams, nozzies and other interferences. For example, for a shell plate 10 pi feet long, it would be advantageous to use three anchors per plate and space the anchors at approximately 10.5 feet. ‘Obviously the anchor bolt circle must be larger than the tank diameter, but care should be taken so interference will not occur between the anchor bolts land foundation reinforcing, Volume 2 part Vil provides design rules for anchor bolt chairs. Corrosion Allowance ‘As @ minimum for all tanks, bottom plates should be 1/4" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If corrosion allowance is required for bottom plates, the ‘as-furnished thickness (including corrosion allowance) should be specified. The thickness of annular ring or sketch plates beneath the tank shell may be required to be thicker than the remainder of the bottom plates and any corrosion allowance should be specified as applicable to the calculated thickness or the minimum thickness. ‘API 650 and AWWA D100 specify minimum shell plate thicknesses based on tank diameter for construction purposes. If corrosion allowance is necessary, it should be added in accordance with the respective standard. A required minimum above those stated in the standards may also be specitied, but it should be made clear if this minimum includes the necessary corrosion allowance ‘As a minimum for all tanks, root plates should be 3/16" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If Corrosion allowance is necessary it should be added in accordance with the respective standard. A required minimum greater than 3/16” in thickness may be specified; but it should be made clear if this minimum includes the necessary corrosion allowance. If corrosion allowance is necessary for roof supporting structural members, it should be added in accordance with the respective standard. If a corrosion allowance requirement different from the standards is necessary, it should be made clear what parts of the structure require the additional thickness (flange or web, one side or both sides) and/or the minimum thickness necessary. API Standard 650 General The following information is based on API 650, eighth edition. Anyone dealing with tanks should " obtain a copy of the complete standard. Shell Design ‘API requires that all joints between shell plates shall be butt welded. Lap joints are permitted only in the roof and bottom and in attaching the top angle to the shell ‘API 650 offers optional shell design procedures. The refined design procedures permit higher design stresses in return for a more refined engineering design, more rigorous inspection, and the use of shell piate steels which demonstrate improved toughness. ‘The probability of detrimental notches is higher at discontinuities such as shell penetrations, The basic. requirements pertaining to welding, stress relief, and inspection relative to the design procedures are important. ‘Tank shells designed in acoordance with refined procedures will be thinner than the simplified procedure, and thus will have reduced resistance to buckling under wind load when empty. The shell may or may not need to be stiffened, but must be checked. This is discussed in the section on wind girders. Bottoms Tank bottoms are usually lap welded plates having a minimum nominal thickness of 1/4". After trimming, bottom plates shall extend a minimum of 1 inch beyond the outside edge of the weld attaching the bottom to the shell plates. The attachment weld shall be a continuous filet inside and out as shown in the following table of sizes: Maximum t of Minimum Size of Shel Pate Filet Weis neh Inches ‘ane ‘ane over 216 to 34 ae over 314 to 1-14 56 cover 11/8 to 1-38 ‘ae * Maximum size Filet 1/2" Butt-welded bottoms are permissible, but because of ost, are seldom used except in special services. Butt-welded bottoms are usually welded from the top side only using backing strips attached to the underside, Welding from both sides presents significant construction difficulties in order to perform the work in a safe manner. Top Angle Except for open-top tanks and the special requirements applying to self-supporting roofs, tank shells shall be provided with top angles of not less than the following sizes: Minium k Diameter Size of Top Anal dover 35 to 60 ft inc. oxox ie cover 60 feet Bx 3x38Roots The selection of roof type depends on many factors. In the oil industry, many roots are selected to minimize evaporation losses. Inasmuch as the ordinary oil tank is designed to withstand pressures only slightly above atmospheric, it must be vented against pressure and vacuum. The space above the liquid is filed with an air-vapor mixture. When a nearly empty tank is filled with liquid this air-vapor mixture expands in the heat of the day and the resulting increase in pressure causes venting. During the cool of the night, the remaining air-vapor mixture contracts, more fresh air is drawn in, more vapor evaporates to saturate the air-vapor mixture, and the next day the cycle is repeated. Either the loss of valuable “light ends” to the atmosphere from filing, Or the breathing loss due to the expansian- Contraction cycle, is a very substantial loss and has led to the development of many roof types designed to minimize such losses. ‘The floating roof is probably the most popular of all conservation devices and is included as ‘Appendices to API Standard 650. The principle of the floating root is simple. It floats on the liquid surface; therefore there is no vapor either to be expelled on filling or to expand or contract from day to night. Inasmuch as all such conservation devices are represented by proprietary and often patented designs, they are beyond the scope of this discussion, which will be limited to the fixed roots covered by API Standards. ‘API 650 provides rules for the design of several types of fixed roots. The most common fixed roof is the’ column supported cone roof, except for relatively small diameters where the added cost of a self-supporting foot is more than offset by saving the cost of @ Structural framing. The dividing line cannot be accurately defined because different practices and available equipment may affect the decision in any given case. If economy is the only consideration the purchaser would be well advised to specify the size 6f tank and let the manufacturer decide whether or not to use a self-supporting roof, ‘A self-supporting roof is sometimes desirable for ‘special service conditions such as an internal floating roof, or where cleanliness and ease of cleaning are especially important. ‘All roofs and supporting structures shall be designed to support dead'load plus a live load of not less than 25 pst Roof plates shall have a minimum nominal thickness of 3/16 inch. Structural members shall have a minimum thickness of 0.17 inch. Roof plates shall be attached to the top angle with a continuous fillet weld on the top side only SOrir the continuous fillot wald hetween the root plates and the top angle does not exceed 3/16 inch and the slope of the roof at the top-angle attachment does not exceed 2 inches in 12 412 inches, and when the cross-sectional area of the root-to-shell junction does not exceed A = —0.153W_ 30,800 tan @ where W = total weight of the shell and root framing supported by the shell in pounds @ = angle between the roof and a horizontal plane at the root-to-shell juncture in degrees the joint may be considered to be frangible and, in case of excessive internal pressure, will fal before failure occurs in the tank shell joints or the shel-to-bottom joint. Failure of the root-to- shell joint is usually initiated by buckling of the top angle and followed by tearing of the 3/16 inch continuous weld at the periphery of the roof plates, 2. Where the weld size exceeds 3/16 inch, or where the slope of the roof at the top-angle attachment is greater than 2 inches in 12 inches, or when the cross-sectional area of the root-to-shell junction exceeds the value calculated per equation 3-5, or where fillet welding from both sides is specified, emergency venting devices in accordance with API Standard 2000 shall be provided by the purchaser. The manufacturer shall provide a Suitable tank connection for the device and the drawings should reflect the need for such a device to be supplied by the customer. The top angle may be smaller than previously noted when a frangible joint is specified. Supported Cone Roots — Supported cone roofs are usually lap welded from the top side only with Continuous full fillet welds. Plates shall not be attached to supporting members, and shall be attached to the top angle by a continuous 3/16" filet weld or smaller on the top side if specified by purchaser. ‘The usual slope of supported cone roots is 3/4” in 12". Increased slopes should be used with caution. The columns transmit their loads directly to the supporting soil through bases resting on but not attached to the bottom plates. Some differential settlement can be expected. A relatively flat roof will follow such variations without difficulty. As pitch increases, a cone acquires stiffness, and instead of ‘smoothly following a revised contour, unsightly local buckles may develop. In general, slopes exceeding 4-1/2" in 12" may be undesirable. Rafters in direct contact with the foof plates may be considered to receive adequate lateral support from friction, but this does not apply to truss chord members, rafters deeper than 15", or roof slopes greater than 2" in 12" Rafters are spaced so that, in the outer ring, their centers are not more than 6.28 feet apart at the shell. Spacing on inner rings does not exceed 5.5 feet. All paris of the supporing structure stall be ‘$0 proportioned that the sum of the maximum calculated stresses shall not exceed the allowable (35)stresses as stated in the appropriate section of API 650. Self-Supporting Roofs — Self-supporting cone, dome or umbrella roofs shall conform to the appropriate requirements of AP! 650 unless otherwise specified by the purchaser. Accessories ‘API 650 contains specific designs for approved ‘accessories which include all dimensions, thicknesses, and welding details. For all cases, OSHA requirements must be satisfied. No details are shown, but specifications are included for stairways, walkways and platforms, All such structures are designed to support a moving ‘concentrated load of 1000 Ibs. and the handrail shall be capable of withstanding a load ot 200 Ibs. applied in any direction at any point on the top rail. Normally all pipe connections enter the tank through the lower part of the shell. Historically tank diameters and design stress levels have been such that the elastic movement of the tank shell under load has not been difficult to accommodate. ‘With the trend to larger tanks and higher stresses, the elastic movement of the shell can become an important factor. Steel being an elastic material, the tank shell increases in diameter when subjected to internal pressure. The flat bottom acts as @ diaphragm and Festrains outward movement of the shell. As a result, the shell is greater in diameter several feet above the bottom than at the bottom. ‘Openings near the bottom of the tank shell will tend to rotate with vertical bending of the shell under hydrostatic loading. Shell openings in this area, having attached piping or other external loads, should be reinforced not only for the static conditions but also for any loads imposed on the shell connections by the restraint of the attached piping to the shell rotations. Preferably the external loads should be minimized or the shell connections relocated outside the rotation area. Tanks Other Than for Oil or Water There are many applications for steel tanks other than the storage of oil or water. Since most such applications are industrial in nature for which no industry standard has been developed, it is quite ‘common to use API Standard 650 as a basis for Gesign and construction. This is a logical approach provided that problems peculiar to the contents Stored are taken into account Tanks designed to store liquified gases at or near atmospheric pressure are beyond the scope of this Gocument. However, those interested in such storage are referred to API 620 appendices R and Q. Molacees Tanks — Molasses presents no unusual problems other than the fact that its specific gravity {G about 1.48, and the shell design must, of course, take this into account. It is quite common to require 18 such tanks to be built in accordance with API 650. it must be remembered that the API Appendix A design stress of 21,000 psi at 85% joint factor is predicated on the tank being full of water during test, no that the actual stress in petroleum service 18 Usually considerably less. Because molasses is heavier than water, the full design stress is present in service. Thus if the designer is depending on the long and successtul record of tanks designed in accordance with API 850 Appendix A design, it would be more consistent with the true situation to Use a somewhat lower design stress. ‘On the other hand, on tanks built to the basic design of API 650 this difference between usual petroleum service stress and design stress does not Exist, However, the addition of a corrosion allowance is required when warranted by service conditions. Acid and Caustic Tanks — To attempt a comprehensive discussion of the subject of storing acids and caustic solutions is beyond the scope of this work. While stainless steel or other high alloy materials are often required, some acids and caustic solutions can be stored successfully in carbon steel tanks, and the following discussion will be limited to such application, In the absence of personal experience, information concerning the corrosive properties of many common Solutions can be found in chemistry and chemical engineers’ handbooks or in the publications of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. However, it should be noted that very small differences in content (such as slight impurities) or conditions can influence the corrosive effect of many chemicals, ’As an example, concentrated sulturic acid does not attack carbon steel whereas dilute sulfuric acid is extremely corrosive. Thus concentrated sulfuric acid can often be safely stored in carbon steel tanks provided proper precautions are taken to cope with Gilute acid that may form in the upper portions of the tank when acid fumes and water condensation meet in the vapor space. Thus one fundamental requirement for an acid tank is that the interior of the tank be smooth without crevices or pockets where dilute acid condensation can collect, Self-supporting roots are good practice, If the design of the roof or size of tank requires structural stiffeners, it is desirable that they be placed on the outside. If the roof is lap welded, it Should be welded underneath as well as the top. The Connection of the roof to the shell should eliminate any pocket which might exist at the top of a standard API tank. ‘When using Appendix A design basis of AP! 650, a lower design stress should be considered for the same reasons as given under ‘Molasses Tanks." ‘The tank user should specify the amount of corrosion allowance, it any required, for his particular purpose. In the case of carbon steel tanks storing caustic solutions, Luth the concentration and temperature are important. Carbon steel tanks should not be used if the combination of concentration and temperatureexceeds the following values and may in some cases be unsatisfactory below these limits: 50% and 120F 25% and 150F 5% and 200F It is most important to make sure that the specified design conditions are not exceeded in service. ‘Automatic temperature controls are recommended. in addition to ordinary corrosion, the principal oblem in caustic tanks is one referred to as ‘caustic embrittlement” or “stress corrosion cracking.” In the presence of high local stresses this type of corrosion can rapidly result in cracks and |éaks. Local stress concentrations approaching the yield point can exist at shell penetrations, in the Xicinity of welds and at other details. In caustic Service these are the points where stress corrosion cracking can occur. Thus, in the case of caustic storage tanks, all fitings penetrating the shell or bottom, or any permanent attachments welded to the interior surface thereo!, should be installed in a plate in the shop land the entire assembly thermally stress relieved. Essentially, this leaves only main seam welding to be performed in the field. ‘Self.supporting roofs without structural members immersed in the tank contents are advisable. It is not necessary, however, to eliminate crevices and pockets 25 is recommended for acid tanks. For Caustic tanks, a standard API roof is acceptable. Certain additional precautions in welding should be taken in both acid and caustic tanks. Lap welds in the bottom and the inside bottom-to-shell fillet should be made in at least two passes. Since the bottom-to- shell weld usually consists of a filet inside and out, it is advisable to provide a water stop (complete penetration) at each vertical shell joint so that if a feak does occur in the inside fillet, channeling will be limited to one plate length. ‘All other shell joints should be designed for complete penetration and fusion. The inside passes Should be made first. The later welding of outside passes wil partially heat treat and reduce residual Stresses in the inside weld. If anticipated corrosion indicates 2 bottom plate thickness greater than 3/5", the bottom should be butt welded and the same sequence followed; i.e. weld the inside passes first. Inasmuch as all welds create locally high residual stresses, all brackets, welding lugs, etc. should be kept fo & minimum, be located on the outside, and attached with smali-diameter electrodes to limit the heat input and consequently the effect on the inside surface. When the corrosive attack is considered sufficiently severe to admit the possibility of local penetration, sersict severe enough ta warrant the expense of high alloy or clad steel plates, the tank is sometimes Supported on a structural grillage to permit inspection from the under side. 14 AWWA Standard D100 General ‘The following information is based on the AWWA Standard D100 issued in 1984, Anyone dealing with tanks should obtain a copy of the complete standard. With the exception of shells, roofs and accessories, the comments made in connection with ‘API tanks aiso apply to AWWA tanks and will not be repeated here in detail Bottoms may be either lap or butt welded with a minimum thickness of 1/4 inch. AWWA does not specify top angle sizes, but the rules of API represent good practice. Shell Design AWWA D100 offers two different design bases, the standard or basic design and the alternate design basis as outlined in Appendix C. The alternate design basis permits higher design stresses, in return for a more refined engineering design, more figorous inspection, and the use of shell plate steels with improved toughness. "AWWA D100 Appendix C includes steels of significantly higher strength levels and correspondingly higher design stress levels. This introduces new design problems. For example, for ‘A517 steels, the permissible design stress of 38333, psi will result in reaching the minimum required ominal thickness several courses below the tank top. It would be uneconomical to continue the relatively expensive steel into courses of plates not determined by stress. The obvious answer is to use jess expensive steels in the upper rings. To govern this transition, Appendix C adds the following requirements: nin the interest of economy, upper courses may be of weaker material than used in the lower courses of shell plates, but in no instance shall the calculated ‘stress at the bottom of any course be greater than permitted for the material in that course, A plate fourse may be thicker than the course below it provided the extra thickness is not used in any stress or wind stability calculation.” Compliance with this requirement will probably result in the course or courses immediately below the transition point being somewhat heavier than required by stress, Using a steel of intermediate Strength level as a transition between A517 steel and earbon steel may help the situation. In any event the Use of two or more steels will result in plates of the same thickness made of different steels. Careful attention to plain marking for positive identification becomes very important. Consideration might be given to varying plate widths for different materials of the same thickness to aid in identification in the event markings are lost. Roofs Whereas oil tanks are strictly utilitarian, a pleasing ‘appearance is generally an important consideration in the case of water tanks. Since the roof line has animportant effect on appearance, this striving for beauty has led to a wide variety of roof designs: Otte ‘an a self-supporting roof, such as an ellipsoid, will extend a considerable distance above the ylindrical portion of the shell, and the high water level ‘will extend up into the roof itself. The resultant upward pressure on the roof is resisted by the combination of the roof dead load and the weld joint between the roof and shell. "AWWA requires that for all roof plate surfaces in contact with water, the minimum metal thickness shall be 1/4”. Roof plate surfaces not in contact with water may be 3/16". AS foregs applied to rolled shapes for root framing, the Joing minimum thicknesses shall apply to the mean thickness of the flanges regardless of web thickness. Rot from of plates not subject to hydrostatic pressure tank contents may be weldad from the top side ‘only with either a continuous full fillet or Butt joint weld ‘with 0% joint penetration. Where roof plates are subjected to hydrostatic pressure, the roof may be continuous double lap welded or butt welded. Root supports or stiffeners, if used, shall be in accordance with current specifications of the ‘American Institute of Steel Construction covering struct excet 1 tural steel for buildings, with the following pions: oof plates are considered to provide the necessary lateral support by friction between root plates and rafters to eliminate reduction in the basic allowable compressive stress, except where trusses and open web joists are used for rafters, or rafters having nominal depth greater than 18 in. of rafters having a slope greater than 2 in 12. The root alter and purlin depth may be less than 600,000 times the span length in inches where f, is the maximum bending stress in psi, providing slope of the roof is 3/4 to 12 or greater. The maximum slenderess ratio (L/f) for roof support columns shall be 175. Foo! support columns shall be designed as secondary members Roof trusses, if any, shall be placed above the maximum water level in climates where ice may form. Roof rafters shall preferably be placed above maximum water level, although their lower fends, where connected to the tank shell, may project below the water level. Accessories AWWA does not provide detailed designs of tank fittin 1 2. 198, Dut specifies the following: Fo menholoe shall ha provided in the first ring of the tank shell. Manholes shall be either a 24" diameter or at least 18” x 22” when elliptical manholes are used. ‘The purchaser shall specify pipe connections, 15 5. sizes, and locations, Due to freezing hazard these connections are normally made through the tank bottom and as near to the shell as practical. A concrete valve box may be provided fo permit access to piping. This valve box must be designed as a part of the ringwall ita removable silt stop is required, it shall be at least 4” high. If not required, then the connecting pipe shall extend at least 4” above the tank bottom. ‘The purchaser shall specify the overflow size and type. A stud overflow is recommended in Cold climates. If an overflow to ground is Fequired, it should be brought down the outside fof the tank and discharged onto a splash block or other appropriate drainage structure. Inside Gverflows are nat recommended, They are Gasily damaged by ice, and a failure in the overflow will empty the tank to the level of the break. ‘An outside vertical ladder shall begin 8 feet (or {as specified) above the tank pottom and afford Access to the roof, Need for access to AWWA tanks is infrequent and a conscious effort is made to render access dificult for unauthorized personnel. The contractor shall provide access to the roof hatches and vents. The access must be reached from the outside tank ladder and futfill the AWWA D100 requirements consistent with the root slope or as specified by the purchaser. | roof door or hatch whose least dimensions fare 24" x 15", with a curb 4” high, provided with a hinged door and clasp for locking shall be placed near the outside tank ladder. A second opening of at least 20” in diameter and with a 4” neck must be provided near the Genter of tho tank. Additional openings may be required for ventilation during painting, Safety devices shall be provided on ladders as required by federal or local regulations, or as purchaser so specifies. ‘Adequate venting shall be provided to ‘accommodate the maximum filing and emptying rates. These rates should be specified by the purchaser. Venting for outflow (partial vacuum condition) is based upon the unrestricted vent area and the pressure differential that can safely be allowed between the outside and inside of the tank. This differential is established by quantifying the strength of the root and shell above and beyond other structural Fequirements; for example, the margin of extra ‘strength of the shell against buckling with respect to the design wind load. Venting for inflow (pressure condition) is again based upon the restricted vent area and hp pressure differential that can efaly be allowed before lifting the root plates. For example, if 3/16" roof plates are used, the pressure differential would be 7.65 PSF, 0.053psi, or 1.47 inches water column. If the Biferential is limited to the weight of the roof, the shelliroot juncture does not become involved. The overstress in the shell would be minimal ‘The equation for outflow vent capacity is: Q = 05Ax110x ¥Tx {@) a -)" 66) i where Q. = vent capacity in cubic feet per second ‘A = minimum clear vent open area in square fest T= air temperature in degrees Rankine Pa = atmospheric pressure in psia Pi = pressure in tank during withdrawal in psia The equation for inflow vent capacity is: o- os fesse} -1]}* cn : APPENDIX A Design Example For typical examples of tank design consider two tanks 180 feet in diameter by 40 feet nominal height with flat cone supported roofs. Consider one tank per ‘AWWA D100 and the other tank per AP! 650. See figure 34-1 for tank dimensions. ‘These examples are for illustration only and are not to be used for an actual design or construction. Doeign of similar tanks shauld be accomplished by Competent people experienced in the design of like Structures and the use of applicable standards. For the AWWA tank consider Appendix C, shell design by equation 3-10 (AWWA D100), and zone tne fixed percentage seismic loads. For the API 650 tank consider the standard (non Appendix A), shell design by the variable point method, 1/16 inch corrosion allowance on the shell ‘only, and zone one API 650 seismic loads. Consider design metal temperature (DMT) of 20°F, standard 100 mph wind loads, standard 25 PSF roof, loads, a maximum liquid content height of 39'-6, and a design specific gravity of 1.0 for both tanks. ‘The economics of plate selection with respect to width and grade and structural selection wil differ with location and construction capabilities. Factors to consider are plate width and grade availability in a particular locality and structural rolling schedules, Aso the availablity of plate and structural stock in @ particular locality will sometimes influence the PSlostion af material Further discussion of material ‘selection will be beyond the scope of this paper. ‘The following design example covers the AWWA D100 tank 16 Calculate shell thickness using the basic equation: t= 26h, DG (8) SE ‘All nomenclature in the above and following equations is defined in the AWWA D100 ‘standard. Notice that hp in the above equation is the full liquid height above the design point rather than h-1 as used in AP! 650. ‘The calculation for ring five (top ring) is: ty = 26 x 7.66 x 150 x 1.0 = 0.1547" 79,330 x 1.0 ‘The thicknesses for the remaining rings calculate: hy = 1563’ $= 19,330 psi ts = 0.3152" hy = 23.58’ S = 23,930 psi ta = 0.9942" hy = 31.54’ $= 23,330 psi tz = 0.5273" hy = 39.50’ —S = 23,390 psi_ ty = 0.6603" using A36 steel for rings 4 and 5 and A573. GR70 for rings 1, 2, and 3. Ring 5 will be increased to 0.3125" because of minimum thickness requirements in “AWWA D100. Shell stability is calculated using the basic equation: hy = 10.625 x 108 x t Py (DM) The calculation for ring five (top ring) is: hs = 10.625 x 10° x 0.3125 . 17.54’> 7.96 18 x (150/0.3125)"* For each ring the h calculated is compared to the actual height of shell above the design point. When hh calculates less than the height of shell above, the shell is unstable. This may be corrected by thickening the shell or adding a stiffening ring. For this example we will consider only thickening the shell. (3-9) he = 17.73'> 15.92" he = 21.76"< 23.87" Recalculate the thickness of ring 3 by using a lower strength steel (A36). te = 0.4758" Recalculate: ho = 26.37'> 23.87" ‘The shell is now stable above ring 3; continuing; he = 34.10'> 31.83" hi = 45.67'> 39.79" The entire shell is now stable for a design wind velocity of 100 mph. See table 34-1 for shell thicknesses before and after minimum thickness and wind stability adjustments. For 100 mph wind load, design loads are 18 PSF on projected areas of cylindrical surfaces (shell) and 15 PSF on projected areas of double curved surfaces (roof). Based upon the tank geometry and the design loading, the wind shear is calculated: ‘Shell = 150 x 40.04 x 10 ~ 408,119 Ibe. Roof = 150 x 4.69 x 05x 15= _ 5.273 Total = 113,386 Ibs.The minimum required coefficient of friction against sliding is: Wind Shear 113,386 Tank Weight 734,250 This coefficient is well below established values which range as high as 0.4 to 0.5. ‘The wind moment at the base of the shell is calculated: Shell = 108,113 x 20.02 Roof = 5,273 x 41.60 219.357 Total = 2,383,778 ft-lbs, The ratio, C= 2M/aw, calculates to be 0.076 < 0.666; therefore, no anchors are required to resist overturning due to wind. Roof framing concepts, layout and detail vary among tank designers and suppliers. Rafter spacing is dependent upon roof loading and plate thickness. For reasons of plate strength and construction a maximum rafter spacing of approximately 7.00 feet is desirable. For this example consider nine girders and outer columns, 36 inner rafters and 72 outer rafters (see figure 34-2). The outer columns will be located on a 42'.6" radius. The rafter spacing is 6.54 feet at the shell and 6.92 feet at the girder. Consider 25 PSF snow load and 7.65 PSF (3/16” root plate) dead load. Using an inner support radius of 2.38 ft, which is dependent upon the method of supporting the inner rafters, the maximum design length of the inner rafters is 39.33 ft, as indicated on figure 3A-2. The maximum design moment calculates to be 27,580 ft- Ibs, Using an AISC allowable stress of 0.66 x Fy, @ section modulus of 13.93 in? is required. A W12 x 14 section with a section modulus of 14.9 in? is chosen. See figure 3A-3 for a typical rafter loading. The maximum design length for the outer rafters is 35.33 ft, as indicated on figure 3A-2. The maximum design moment calculates to be 27,890 ftlbs. A section modulus of 14.09 in’ is required and again we will choose a W12 x 14 section. ‘The rafter reactions are placed on the girder at the locations as determined by the roof framing layout. ‘The outer rafter reactions are 3480 Ibs.; the inner rafter reactions are 2840 lbs.; and the girder design length is 29.07 ft. The maximum design moment calculates to be 150,440 ft-lbs. Again using AISC allowable stresses, a section modulus of 75.98 in? is required. AW18 x’ 46 section with a section modulus of 78.80 in? is chosen. See figure 3A-4 for a typical girder loading. For the center column a design load of 74,900 Ibs. is calculated from the accumulated reactions of the inner rafters. Using AISC design procedures an allowable compressive stress is determined based Upon the unsupported column length of 486.5 inches and a calculated slenderness ratio of 131. A 10" diameter schedule 20 pipe will meet the design Criteria. See figure 3A-5 for typical center column detail For the outer columns we have chosen an 8” 0.184 (3-10) 2,164,421 ft-lbs, 7 diameter schedule 20 pipe based upon a design load of 41,400 Ibs., an unsupported column length of 470.6 inches, and a slenderness ratio of 159; using the same design criteria as the center column. See figure 34-6 for a typical outer column detail For zone 1 AWWA seismic loading the entire water and dead load mass will be subject to an acceleration of 0.025. For the seismic shear a simple calculation of 0.025 times the accumulated weight of the water and dead load equals 1,102,800 Ibs. For seismic moment the center of gravity of the dead load is a matter of geometry. The water mass is divided into the impulsive and convective modes with appropriate masses and centers of gravity for each. Using the procedure and nomenclature from AWWA D100: 43,556,600 Ibs. 0.3.x Wr = 13,067,000 ibs. 0165 x Wy = 28,311,800 Ibs. 44.615 tt Xq = 20.935 ft From the above criteria the seismic moment calculates to be 19,946,500 ftbs. The ratio M De (W, + Wi) no anchors are required for seismic overturning. W, in the above ratio is determined by the equatior W, = 7.9 ty (fy HG) @11) W_ is the portion of the contents that may be used to resist overturning for an unanchored tank. The value of W_ is based upon a bottom plate width L that will carry the resisting contents and is calculated by the equation: = went calculates less than 0.785; therefore, L = 0.216 ty (f, HG)!" (6-12) L is limited to 0.035D which limits the value of W, to 1.28 HDG. The following dasign example covers the API 650 tank. Calculate the shell thicknesses by the VARIABLE POINT DESIGN method as explained in AP! 650. A detailed example is in the API 650 Appendix. The thickness calculations for rings 1 and 2 are shown in. figure 3A-7. The thickness for ring 5 is governed by minimum thickness requirements. Table 3A-2 summarizes final required thicknesses based upon ‘static head, specified corrosion allowance, minimum thickness, and material economics. ‘Shell stability is calculated using the equation: H = 600,000 (ony For API 650 design t is the thickness of the top ring and not the average shell thickness as in AWWA design. H = 600,000 x 0.3125 = 17.83 ft < 99,79 ft (150/0.3125)"* It should be noted here that unless otherwise specitieg tne aS-DUIlt Inicknesses are used I the shell stability calculations rather than the corroded thicknesses. (13)Since H calculates less than the shell height, calculate a transposed shell height using the equation: paseo) ‘The transposed shell height is the sum of Wy, for each ring. If H is less than the sum of Wy, the shell is unstable. As in the AWWA design the unstable condition may be corrected by thickening the shell or adding a stiffener ring(s). See figure 34-8 for Wy for each ring and the sum of Wr. H is less than the sum of Wr; therefore, the shell is unstable for 100 mph wind loading. : For this example consider stabilizing the shell by adding a stiffener ring(s). If one-half the sum of Wy is greater than H, then two (or more) stiffener rings are required. w We (era) 1/2 x 25.33 = 12.67 t< 17.83 ft Therefore, only one stiffener ring is required. Place the stiffener ring at the mid-point of the transposed shell height. This location on the actual shell may be found by back calculating through the transposed shell heights. By inspection one can determine that the stiffener ring will be located on ring 4, 12.67 ft from the top of the shell or 27.0 t. from the bottom. The stifener ring required section modulus is calculated by the equation: Z = 0.0001 D2 H Z = 0,001 x (150)? x 12.67 = 26.5 in? ‘The configuration of the stiffener ring may take on many different shapes at the preference of the purchaser or supplier. ‘The shell is now stable for a design wind velocity ‘of 100 mph. The wind loads on the API 650 tank are identical to the AWWA tank: therefore, the resulting wind shear and moment at the bottom of the API 650 tank are the same as the AWWA tank. Shear = 113,986 Ibs. Moment = 2,383,778 ftbs. The ratio, C= 2M/dw, calculates to be 0.094 < 0.666; therefore, no anchors are required to resist overturning due to wind. ‘The roof framing scheme will change significantly from the AWWA design since the maximum rafter spacing at the shell cannot exceed 2 x pi (6.28 ft) and the maximum rafter spacing between inner rafters cannot exceed 5.50 ft. For this example consider twelve girders and outer columns, 48 inner rafters and 84 outer rafters, Consider 25 PSF snow load and 7.65 PSF dead load. Using identical design procedures as the AWWA D100 design and API 650 allowable stresses, we will choose the following roof framing members: G45) Inner rafters = W12 x 14 Outer rafters = W12 x 14 Girders Wi6 x 31 12" dia. sch 20 8" dia. sch 20 Center column Outer columns = 18 For zone one seismic loading the effective mass method of AP! 850 will be used. The design method considers two response modes of the tank and Contents: the impulsive and convective modes. The impulsive response mode is the relatively high frequency amplified response to lateral ground motion of the tank shell and roof together with the portion of the contents that moves in unison with the shell, The convective response mode is the relatively low frequency amplified response of the portion of the contents that moves in the fundamental sloshing mode. The content total, impulsive and convective masses, are identical to'the AWWA design. The dead load mass is slightly different due to the different shell and framing design criteria of AWWA and API 650. The equation for overturning due to seismic loading applied to the bottom of the shell is: IM = Zi (CyWeXe + GyWathy + GWXr + CaW2X) (8-18) For zone one: Z = 0.1875 1 = 10 C= 0.24 Cz = 0.0301 (based upon a natural period of the first sloshing mode of 8.2 sec. and S = 1.5) ‘The moment calculates to be 12,804,400 ftbs. The ratio ____M_____ calculates less than 0.785; D2 (W, + Wi) therefore, no anchors are required for seismic overturning, APPENDIX B — TANK FOUNDATIONS. Soils Investigation ‘The subgrade of a potential tank site must be capable of supporting the weight of the tank and contained fluid. A qualified geotechnical engineer should be retained to conduct the subsurface exploration and to make specitic recommendations concerning: the type of foundation required, anticipated settlements, allowable soll bearing and specific construction requirements. The ultimate soil bearing capacity should be determined using sound principles of geotechnical engineering. The following minimum factors of safety should be applied to the ultimate bearing capacity when determining the allowable soil bearing: 1. A factor of safety of 3.0 for normal operating conditions. 2. A factor of safety of 2.25 during hydrotest. 3, A factor of safety of 2.25 for operating Conditions plus the maximum effect of wind or seismic forces ‘An allowable soil bearing based solely on the above factors of safety may result in excessive total settlements. If required, these factors of safety should be increased in'order to limit the anticipated total settlements to acceptable values. Factors of safety larger than the above minimums are also required by certain codes and stanaaras, sucn as ‘AWWA D100. Factors of Safety lower than the above minimums3/16" ROOF PL LAP WELDED TOP SIDE ONLY 12 ° eo ve RING 5 @ RING 4 =} al RING 3 a al: RING 2 gi + 2Z e RING 1 a SA 150 1/4" BOTTOM PL LAP WELDED TOP SIDE ONLY Figure 3A-1 — Flat Bottom Tank a) CALCULATED SHELL THICKNESSES FROM b)) ADJUSTED FINAL THICKNESSES FOR STATIC STATIC HEAD ONLY (AWWA DESIGN) HEAD AND WIND STABILITY (AWWA DESIGN) | RING # | THICKNESS MATERIAL, RING # | THICKNESS MATERIAL 5 0.1547" 6 s__|__osia5" 36 | 4 0.3152" Ag6 ae 0.3182" A36 Sea ee O.ooden ‘AS73GR70 3 0.4758" 36, 2 |__osa73" ‘AS73GR70 2 0.5273" AS73GR70 1 0.6603" AS73GR70 4 0.6603" ‘AS73GR70 Table 3A-1 — Shell Plate Thicknesses 19i: S 36 RAFTERS 72 RAFTERS R= 2'-4 1/2 Figure 3A-2 — Framing Layout — AWWA NON-UNIFORM LOAD | Rt re | DESIGN LENGTH Figure 3A-3 — Typical Rafter Loading REACTIONS FROM INNER RAFTERS. REACTIONS FROM SOUTER RAFTERS — GIRDER DEAD LOAD Figure 34-4 — Typical Girder Loading 20uuinjog 481ng readAy — 9-ve e1nBI4 | cava woLLO8 auvid 3sva anna guys ava —— | ANGLES ON ——~" OPPOSITE CORNERS 30419 waaay aaNNT a watava 33190 uuinjog saqueg jeoidé — S-ve eunB14 J ( 3uvie woLLOa auvid sve wanna '3N09. NHN703 ae ore aucLes on OPPOSITE CORNERS —— atVARIABLE POINT DESIGN: API 650 8TH ED. PARA.3.6.4. RING NO. 1 DESIGN: D = 150.000 H = 39.500 G = 1.000 S = 26000. CA = 0.0625 Td = 2.6+D-(H—-1)*GIS+CA = 0.5362 + CA = 0.5987 Tid = [1.08 — (0.463*D/H)+SQRT(H-G/S)]+2.6-D-H-G/S +CA = Tid = 0.5469 + CA = 0.6094 HYDROTEST: D = 150.000 H = 99.500 G = 1.000 § = 30000. TT = 2.6*D*(H-1)*G/S = 0.5005 TIT = [1.08 - (0.463+DIH)*SQRT(H-GIS)|-2.6-D*H-GIS = 0.5118 USE: 0.599 IN. A573 70 LH = SQRT(6.0-D-TYH3 = 0.5929 <= 2.0 0K RING NO. 2 DESIGN: D = 150.000 H = 31.542 G = 1.000 S = 28000. CA = 0.0625 ‘Td = 2.6+D*(H-1)*GIS+CA = 0.4254 + CA = 0.4879 TX = 2.6-D+(H-X/12)"G/S w TL K c x2 xt x3 x 1x ie gases fee Onari aeeer eneOr cane cee On o4esd = Gsces | 1a0e «0.1900 $2505 | BAG71 | 20.482 28482 BAIR oa Geos 13013 0.1384 52.969 28506 23.495 29.408 0.4121 TX = 0.4121 + CA = 0.4746 DESIGN: PARA. 3.6.4.5 RATIO = 95.500/SQAT (6*D~0.5362)] = 4.3471 T2 = Tx+(T1 -Tx)*(2.1~4.9471/1.25) = 0.2410 T2D = 0.4121 + CA HYDROTEST: D = 150.000 _H = 31.542 G = 1.000 S = 30000. TT = 2.6-D(H=-1)-G/S_ = 0.3970 TX = 2.6-D+(H-X/12)-G/S Tu Th. Kk c x2 x1. x3 x ™ oa970 05005 «1.2606 ««0.1211 45.846 © 26.202 28.082 B808F hee) Ceeey ogoos eso | ota77. eztar | 20006) ert 7h 3854 Oar, 800s 1.2888 «—«0.1372 «51.924 «27.077 22.723 22.723 ‘9854 1X = 0.9854 HYDROSTATIC: PARA. 3.6.4.5 RATIO. = 95.500/[SQRT(6*D+0.5005) | = 4.4997 T2 = TX+(T1-TX)*(2.1 ~4.4997/1.25) = 0.2128 Tat = 0.3854 MINIMUM DESIGN THICKNESS = 0.4746 USE: 0.475 IN. A573 70 FIGURE 3A-7 — API 650 VARIABLE POINT CALCULATIONS 22.RING # THICKNESS MATERIAL 5 0.3125" 36. 4 0.91257 A36. | 3 0.3750" ‘AS7IGR7O | 2 0.4750" ‘A57SGR70 | l 4 0.5990" ‘AS73GR70_ | TABLE 3A-2 — ADJUSTED FINAL THICKNESSES (API 650 DESIGN) Wtr (ring 5) = 95.50 INCHES Wtr (ring 4) = 95.50 ‘Wrtr (ring 3) 60.54 Wtr (ring 2) = 33.61 Wtr (ring 1) = 18.79 SUM OF Wtr = 303.94 INCHES = 25.33 FEET FIGURE 3A-8 — TRANSPOSED SHELL HEIGHT (API 650 DESIGN) may be considered when actual experience with similar tanks and foundations at a particular site indicates that satisfactory performance can be expected. Tank Grade ‘The tank grade (surface which supports the tank bottom) can be constructed of earth materials provided the subgrade beneath the tank bottom is Capable of supporting the weight of the contained fluid. The tank grade usually consists of a 4” sand cushion placed over properly compacted fill or soil. It is recommended that the finished tank grade be constructed at least 6 inches above the surrounding {ground surface and be crowned from its outer Periphery to its center. A slope of 1 inch to 10 feet is Suggested. The sand should be clean and free of corrosive elements. Care should be taken to exclude lumps of earth or other deleterious materials from coming into contact with the bottom. These materials can cause electrolytic action that will result in pitting of the bottom plate. If the sand cushion is placed on top of crushed rock fill, the rock should be carefully graded from coarse at the bottom to fine at the top. If this is not done, the sand will percolate down through the voids in the coarser rock, ‘An excellent tank grade can also be obtained by oubetituting about 11 inches of asphalt road paving mix for the sand cushion. This material is available from ready mix plants in many sections of the country. It is very important that the paved tank 23 grade be constructed level and to the proper profile, particularly near the shell. Once the asphalt has set Up, it is extremely difficult for the tank builder to correct inaccuracies by taking down the high and filling in the low spots. Drainage is important both from the standpoint of soil stability and bottom corrosion. Good drainage should be provided under the tank itself and in the general area around the tank. Where the terrain does not afford natural drainage, proper ditching around the tank may help to correct the deficiency. Foundations ‘The shell of a flat bottom tank can be supported on a compacted granular berm, concrete ringwall or concrete slab foundation. Local soil conditions, tank loads and the intended use of the tank will determine Which of these foundations is suitable for a particular site, Tanks that require anchor bolts must be supported by ringwall or slab foundations. Granular Berm Foundation — When a qualified geotechnical evaluation concludes that itis unnecessary to construct a ringwall or slab foundation, the shell can be supported by @ granular berm foundation, The berm should be constructed of well graded and properly compacted stone or gravel. The berm should extend a minimum of 3 feet beyond ‘and 2 feet inside the tank shell as shown in Figure ‘3B-1, The berm should be level to wimnin + 1/6 inch in any 10 feet of circumference and to within + 1/2 inch in the total circumference. Adequate drainageaway from the berm must be provided to prevent erosion of the berm under the shell. Alternatively, a welded or bolted stee! grade band can be used to retain the outer portion of the berm. Conerete Ringwall Foundation — When suitable bearing is not available at the surface, but is available at a reasonable depth below the surface, a ringwall foundation should be considered. The depth of the ringwall will depend on local conditions and must be sufficient to place the bottom of the ringwall below anticipated frost penetration and within the specified bearing strata. As @ minimum, the bottom of the ringwall should be located 2 feet below the lowest adjacent finish grade. The width of the ringwall must be sufficient to produce a soil bearing less than the specified allowable soll bearing. As a minimum, the ringwall width should be 1 foot. The inside horizontal projection (inside the tank shell) should be no less than 4 inches. ‘The ringwall must be reinforced to resist the following forces: 1. Direct hoop tension resulting from the lateral ‘earth pressure on the inside face of the ringwall, Unless substantiated by proper ‘geotechnical analysis, the lateral earth pressure should be assumed to be 30% of the vertical pressure due to the contained fluid and the soil weight. Bending moment resulting from the uniform moment load. The uniform moment load is due to the eccentricities of the shell and pressure loads relative to the centroid of the soil bearing stress. The pressure load is due to the fluid pressure on the inside horizontal projection of the ringwall. Bending, torsion and shear resulting from lateral, wind or seismic, loads. A rational analysis, which includes the effect of the foundation stiffness, should be used to determine the soil bearing stress distribution and the above internal design forces. ‘The area of reinforcement provided must be sufficient to resist the above forces and should not be less than the following minimums. These minimums are intended to prevent excessive cracking due to shrinkage and temperature. +. For wall-like ringwalls the area of vertical reinforcement provided should not be less than 0.0015 times the horizontal cross-sectional area of the ringwall. 2, The area of hoop reinforcement provided should rot be less than 0.0025 times the vertical cross- sectional area of the ringwall. ‘The detailed design of the ringwall and requirements for the materials, construction and testing should be in accordance with the American Concrete Institute's Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ANSI/AC! 318). ‘rucvoses shall bo provided in the enncrate ring- wall for flush type cleanouts, drain off sumps and any other appurtenances that require recessing. Refer to ‘API 650 for details of recesses at flush type cleanouts. 24 ‘The top of the ringwall should be smooth and level to within + 1/8 inch in any 30 feet of circumference. No point on the total circumference should vary more than + 1/4 inch from the specified finish elevation. Slab Foundation — When the subgrade beneath the tank bottom cannot adequately support the weight of the contained fluid, a slab foundation is required. ‘The area of the slab must be sufficient to produce @ soil bearing (due to the total weight of the tank, foundation and contained product) less than the ‘allowable soil bearing. The depth to the bottom of the slab will depend on local conditions and must be sufficient to place the bottom of the slab below anticipated frost penetration and within the specified bearing strata. ‘The detailed design of the slab and requirements for the materials, construction and testing should b in accordance with the American Concrete Institute's Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ANSUACI 318). References, Part Ill 4, API Standard 650 Welded Stee! Tanks for Oil Storage, Division of Refining, American Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition, November 1988. 2, AWWA Standard D100-84 Welded Steel Tanks for Water Storage, American Water Works ‘Association, 3, Manual of Stee! Construction, American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Ninth Edition. 4, “Oil Storage Tanks”, The Prince William Sound, Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks, Volume Il, Part A, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1967. “Fluid Mechanics”, Dodge & Thompson.Figure 3B-1 — Example of Foundation with Crushed Stone Ringwall from API 650, Eighth Edition, November 1988 4° MIN. OF COMPACTED CRUSHED STONE, " SCREENINGS, FINE GRAVEL, CLEAN SAND, OR SIMILAR MATERIAL > I | 3” MIN. 2: MIN. | | SLOPE IF, PAVED | SLOPE COARSE STONE OR COARSE GRAVEL ~ It MAX. SIZE THOROUGHLY COMPACTED FILL OF FINE GRAVEL, COARSE SAND, OR OTHER SUITABLE MATERIAL Note: Bottom of excavation should be level. Remove any unsuitable material and replace with suitable fil, thoroughly compacted. Figure 3B-2 — Example of Concrete Ringwall Foundation BOARD (OPTIONAL? \ “ESESY MATERIAL AND FILL, REPLACE WITH SUITABL THOROUGHLY COMPACTED MIN, a REINFORCEMENT AT BOTH FACES FOR RINGWALL WIDTHS EXCEEDING 12 INCHES, CLOSED STIRRUPS MAY BE REQUIRED FOR SHEAR AND/OR TORSIONeee feces Geceeeroeeeasieae (eeePart IV Stainless Steel Tanks for Liquid S08 EEE Introduction tie present ine, he only rues for stainless A 1 rerags tank are ven in Append. Q of API Standard 620(1) which covers low- rossi kk keto hycrocaroon gases particularly liquefied ethane, ethylene, and methane, Barclay 'camporaure of 270F, Rules for he Bo remusion of pressure veseals sig a Solon scl vessels are oven nthe ‘ASME (2) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIll, Division 1 and Division 2, Pressure Vessels. Tn ag socusson fle are preseted fo 2 i een of staness steal tanks a atmospheric pressures. These rules are not intended atmosphere reanka wich ao to be erecea ny 1 cove soc fo raglatons more stinger than specified in the following pages. These rules are recommended only insofar as they do not conflict woe eal equrements FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL There are a total of 62 stainless steel compositions that are recognized as standard by the American Iron and Steel Institute (3), as well as commercially available proprietary compositions. ‘The five stainless steels most generally used as plate material for construction of liquid storage tanks Bre Types 304, 304L, 316, 316L and 410S. The last ig not recognized as standard by American Iron and ‘Steel Institute. The chemical compositions of these types are listed in Table 4-1 and their mechanical properties are listed in Table 4-2. ‘The selection of a particular type of stainless steel for a given corrosive environment often follows extensive study of comparative data, and sometimes: even pilot or service testing. However, a general Understanding of the corrosion resistance capabilities Of the five stainless steels, in terms of their relative resistance to various common media, is shown in Table 4.9, Tho five types fall within two cateaories namely, Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L are in the hromium-nickel group, while Type 4108 is in the straight chromium group. 27 Type 304 Possessing corrosion resistance, strength and fabricability, this is the general purpose stainless steel, long known as "18-8". Aftesting to its wide Usage is the fact that it accounted for 35% of all stainless steels produced in the United States in 41980. Type 304 is extensively specified for food handing and storage, dairy equipment, nuclear fluids, and in general most applications where even ‘small amounts of corrosion product would be intolerable. Type 316 Containing higher nickel than Type 304, and 2.3% molybdenum, Type 316 possesses greatly improved Tesistance to corrosion by pitting. is used under ‘conditions too severe for Type 304, such as mineral acids (phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid), strong organic acids (oxalic, formic, etc.) and halides in various dilutions. Types 304L and 316L Containing 0.03% maximum carbon, these are the low carbon counterparts of Types 304 and $16. The lower the carbon content, the less the chromium carbide that can be formed, Chromium-nickel stainless steels form a grain boundary chromium-carbide precipitate when heated in the 800-1650F temperature range for sulficient time (see Figure 4-1) (6). f the degree of precipitation is severe — Le. the grains are completely surrounded — there may be a loss of corrosion resistance in aggressive media such as hot, oxidizing acids (e.g. strong nitric acid), iron or copper sulfates in hot dilute sulfuric acid, and air-saturated hot sulfuric acid. Such aggressive corrosion conditions do not normally exist in storage tanks. Intergranular corrosion attack used to be @ ‘common occurrence when the stainless steals contained up to 0.12% carbon (as in Type 302, for example). This was enough carbon to remove Considerable chromium trom solullos Yuring welding cycles, causing mild to heavy carbide precipitation in the weld heat-affected zone. Corrosive attack wouldbe evident in this zone, if the environment was severe. This situation resulted in widespread specifying of low carbon (0.03% maximum) stainless steels, but it should be understood that there are relatively few situations where the L grades are actually required for storage vessels. Even these should be carefully investigated to establish such @ need before the additional expense of the L grades is incurred. Types 304 and 316 (0.08% maximum carbon) can, in many cases, be welded free of carbide precipitation. If a small amount does develop, it may be unaffected by the liquid being stored, except possibly as indicated above. it should be noted here that galvanized material or other zinc products welded to stainless steel will cause intergranular cracking In general, the L grades should be used when — and only when — it is ascertained that conditions will be present, which are conducive to intergranular attack on as-welded 0.08% maximum carbon stainless steel (see Figure 4-1). The general corrosion and pitting resistance of the L grades is not better than their higher carbon counterparts in the annealed condition; nor is there any advantage in weldability or fabricability. Type 410S This straight-chromium stainless steel is not subject to the above form of carbide precipitation. It finds Use where moderate corrosion resistance is needed, and slight product contamination is not critical (see Table 4-3). The low carbon (0.08% maximum) results in a tough plate product which avoids formation of the less-tough metallurgical structures possible in high-strength, low-alloy steels. Stress Corrosion Cracking ‘Another phenomenon associated with the chromium nickel stainless steels Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L, Is stress corrosion cracking. By definition, stress corrosion cracking involves the combined action of a tensile stress and a corrosive medium. Aside from some ultra-pure metals, most ‘commercial metals are subject to this phenomenon in certain specific environments. While the initial reaction may be one of great concern, it should be emphasized that throughout industry there are numerous applications of stainless steel in ‘environments where stress corrosion cracking does ot occur or which have been engineered to avoid stress corrosion cracking, ‘Although stress corrosion cracking is not fully understood, there are some general guidelines that can be related to stainless steels: 1. The form of stress corrosion usually found in the AISI 300 stainless steels is related to ‘exposure to hot chioride-containing corrosive media. 2. At temperature much below 160°F, stress corrosion failures are not very likely to occur. 3. At temperatures exceeding 160°F, the time to 28 failure of life of the vessel is very dependent on temperature, concentration of chloride and stress. Increased values in each case will shorten the life of the vessel 4, While Types 304 and 316 are both susceptible to hot chloride stress corrosion cracking, Type 316 under similar service conditions tends to give better life than Type 304. 5, Because of variation in fabrication and service stresses, itis frequently difficult to predict the life of an austenitic stainless steel vessel in hot chloride-containing media STAINLESS STEEL PLATE Manufacture Stainless stee! plate is defined as a flat rolled or forged product, 3/16 inch (4./6 mm) and over in thickness, and 10 inches (254 mm) and over in width {@). It is formed in the same type of equipment as utlized for carbon steel plate, although production allowances must accommodate the much greater hot Strength of stainless steel over carbon and low alloy steels In producing plate, care is taken to attain the good surface condition that is essential to corrosion resistance. The first of several surface cleaning operations occurs at the slab stage, where the 4 to ‘O-inch-thick bloomed slab is ground or scarfed overall to remove not only the scale but some of the underlying base metal as well. The slab is then cut to size, yielding the ordered plate size, reheated and hot rolled. The plate is then annealed, and again cleaned of scale by either a chemical solution or mechanical means, or both. During the hot rolling, high pressure water jets and other mechanical devices are employed to assure that the refractory scale is not rolled into the surface. Light gauge plate (3/18 inch and 1/6 inch thick) can be rolled in coils up to 60 inches wide on continuous mills. This product normally has improved surface, gauge accuracy and offers greater flexibility in length. Forming Press brake flanging or bending, and roll bending are the most widely used cold forming operations performed on stainless steel plate. ‘Type 410S has cold forming characteristics similar to carbon and low alloy steels in the 35,000-50,000 psi yield strenath range. ‘The chromium-nickel stainless steels (Types 304, 304L, 316, 316L), on the other hand, work-harden Quite rapidly with increasing plastic deformation. As the steel increases in strength with increased deformation, the bending forces exerted by the forming equipment rise commensuratoly. ‘The most noticeable effect of work hardening is tho greater degree af springback, compared with carbon steel. Dies for brake bending and rolls for roll bending must overbend the stainless steel to compensate for the springback. In brake bending,bending to a smaller radius can compensate for the greater springback. Cutting Most stainless steel plates are cut by tank fabricators with the plasma arc process. Thin plates can be Sheared. Thicker plates can be cut by saw cutting or abrasive wheel cutting. Gas-oxygen (oxy-gas) is also applicable if used in conjunction with iron powder: Stainless steel cannot be cut by conventional flame cutting, but in some cases may be cut and beveled with the carbon-arc gouge if the cut edges are ‘ground to remove oxides. Welding Gas metal arc and submerged arc welding are high- production methods and are usually used in the downhand position, fully automated. Both give deep penetration and, for high volume welding that can be positioned, are the lowest cost methods for joining plates. A modification of gas metal arc called interrupted (or pulse) arc welding is useful for butt, fillet, and lap welding. ‘Shielded metal arc welding is widely used for all types of stainless steel welding, particularly where automatic welding is impractical. Advantages are low cost equipment and mobility. Disadvantages are slow speeds and high labor cost for skilled operators. An essential requirement for any welding method is clean edges (and near-edge areas) prior to welding Contaminants, whether organic or inorganic, can cause problems when they decompose in the arc heat. The oxide film on stainless stee! surfaces is very refractory and reduces the wetting action between parent and weld metal. The filler metals for welding stainless steels are listed in Table 4-4 When stainless steel is welded to carbon or low alloy steels, Type 309 electrodes are normally used. Cleaning and Passivation These two terms are actually synonymous if the word clean is strictly interpreted to mean “the complete Temoval of all contaminating materials from the Stainless steel surface”. Ifthe surface is clean, it self passivate. Iron particles andlor oil are the contaminants most generally encountered, and to the extent that they are present some surface staining or rusting may Occur. Whether such an occurrence is serious or not Gepends on the requirements of the application which can range from “food quality surfaces” to simply “retention of structural strength”. Prevention of contamination is to be preferred over removal of contaminants. A main source of ‘contamination due to iron particles results from co- mingling plate fabrication operations involving carbon Sted! aid stainless steel. Anothor cource ie the existence of weld scale or weld spatter, which can only be removed by energetic chemical or mechanical means. In extremely demanding will 29 requirements, finishing may include a final polishing to produce the brightest surface possible. Various cleaning practices are summarized in [ASTM A380 (6) and more comprehensively described in ASTM Special Technical Publication 538 (7). FACTORS AFFECTING TANK DESIGN ‘The design rules and details of API Standards 650 (8) and 620 (1) are applicable for stainless steel tanks at atmospheric pressure with certain exceptions. In the following discussion, the design stresses recognize the increased toughness of stainless steeis over carbon steels and the low yield! tensile ratios of Types 304, 304L, 916 and $16L. The increased toughness permits designing to a higher proportion of yield strength, but the lower yield Strength introduces the problem of permanent strain. Sestion Vill of the ASME Code (2) recognizes the strain by stating two allowable design stresses for the austenitic stainless steels. The higher stresses are related to the following footnote to the ASME table of stresses: “Due to the relatively low yield strength of these materials, these higher stress values were established at temperatures where the short time tensile properties govern to permit the use of these alloys where slightly greater deformation is acceptable. These higher stress values exceed 62¥2 percent but do not exceed 90 percent of the yield strength at temperature. Use of these stress values may result in dimensional changes due to permanent strain. These stress values are not recommended for flanges of gasketed joints or ther applications where slight amounts of distortion can cause leakage or malfunction.”” ‘After consideration of the allowable design stresses of the ASME Code and the API Standards, the following stress basis is suggested for stainless steel tanks at atmospheric pressure: ‘a. The design basis for shells where permanent strain < .05% is acceptable is the lesser of: Sy = 8x Fyor 3x Fr see Table 4-5(a) b. The design basis for shells where permanent strain <.1% is acceptable is the lesser of: Sy = 9 x F, oF 3x F where F, = min. yield strength F, = min, tensile strength Sy = design stress c. Because the lower carbon grades (Types 304L, 316L) usually exhibit yield strengths at room temperature greater than the specified minimum value, the allowable stress for 100°F has been based only on the tensile factor d. Where a lower level of permanent strain is desirable such as mentioned above for gasketted joints or other applications where slight amounts of distortion can cause leakage or ‘mechanical malfunction see Table 4-5(c) for values. see Table 4-5(0)fe. The yield values at temperature can be obtained from table AHA2 of ASME Section Vill, Div. 2 ‘The allowable stresses listed in Table 4-5, a, b, and «, result from these bases, with the higher stresses for the austenitic grades taking into account the greater deformation of item b above. Table 4-5(b) Should be the default basis unless directed otherwise for shells and Table 4-5(e) should be used for flanges. ‘The design thickness for each shell course can be calculated by the formula in API Standard 650, modified by the allowable stress and joint efficiency: t = 26) (D) (H-1) (6) 4 ¢ (€) (10008.) where: t= minimum thickness, in inches C = an additional thickness required for corrosion allowance (rarely if ever required) D = nominal diameter of tank, in feet. This shall be the centerline diameter of the shell plates, unless otherwise specified by the purchaser H = height, in feet, from bottom of course under consideration to top of top angle, or to bottom of any overflow which limits tank filling height G = specific gravity of liquid to be stored, but in no case less than 1.0 Sg = maximum allowable stress in ksi. Values tabulated in Table 4-5, a or b E = 1.0 if tank is radiographed in accordance with section 6 = 0.85 if tank is radiographed in accordance with 5.3 = 0.7 if tank is not radiographed. This value shall be given as part of the buyers’ specifications Stainless stee! separation pads (or poison pads) should be considered at points where carbon steel is welded to the stainless steel tank to avoid carbide precipitation. Typical areas for this would be anchor bolts and support brackets. The recommended nominal thickness of shell plates should not be less than the follawigg based fon construction minimums: Nominal Tank Nominal Plate Diameter Thickness ‘Smaller than 50° aie" 50! to 120’ excl, 1a" 120’ to 200" incl. 5/16” Over 200” 3/8" ‘Throughout this design procedure it shall be remembered that Young's Modulus for stainless ste! is less than that of carbon steel. Therefore designs for compression and stability should consider this fact, Normally the tank shell should be designed to esist lire design vind volocity given in the customer's specifications. API Standard 650 provides rules for stiffening tank shells. The background for the API rules was given in a paper, “Stability of API 30 Standard 650 Tank Shells", presented in May, 1963, to the API Division of Refining. For the design of shells under external load (small negative pressures) the designer should refer to ‘ASME Section Vill or Part Ill of “Design of Plate Structures” (11). For the design of structural members, the designer should refer to the Stainless Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design Manual (10) NOTE: Roof designs for stainless stes! tanks may be done in a similar manner as that outlined in part Ii for carbon steel tanks but normally al structural units will need to be fabricated in custom shapes. A lighter {gage, lighter than .17 allowed in API 650 for carbon steel structural units, may be used to accommodate forming. FACTORS AFFECTING FABRICATION & CONSTRUCTION Before proceeding with any fabrication or construction of a stainless steel tank, satisfactory weld procedure qualifications should be performed in accordance with all the essential variables of Section IX, Welding Qualifications, of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, including conditions of postweld heat treatment or the omission of postweld heat treatment. Requirements and restrictions for postweld heat ireatment are described in ASME Section Vill. Materials that would require postweld heat treatment should not be used for storage tanks designed by the rules in this manual All austenitic chromium-nickel alloy steel welds, both butt and fillet, between plates exceeding 3/4 inch nominal thickness, shall be examined for detection of cracks by the liquid penetrant method, hafore the hydrostatic test of the tank. All cracks shall be eliminated. Butt-welded joints in Type 410S welded with electrodes that produce an austenitic chromium nickel weld deposit shall be radiographed when the thinner plate at the welded joint exceeds 1¥2 inches. Referring to Part AM of ASME Sect Vill Div 2 it will be noted that both values of thermal conductivity (TC) and thermal diffusivity (TD) (given in Btulhr tt °F and ft2/hr respectively) are considerably lower (about 2 to 1) for stainless compared to carbon steel, which indicates that heat (from welding) is not conducted away or diffused as rapidly with stainless steels and therefore distortion is likely unless design steps are taken to assure that nozzle location (with respect to vertical and horizontal seams) should be thought out. ‘Aico the tolerances given in API 650 for banding and peaking may not be achievable for stainless steel shells. For the design of stainless steel tanks at refrigerated temperatures, the designer is referred to Apnendix Q “Low-Pressure Storage Tanks for Liquefied Hydrocarbon Gases" of API Standard 620. This subject is beyond the intended scope of this discussion,sapere FIGURE 4-1 Time required for formation of carbide precipitation in stainless steels with various carbon contents. Carbide precipitation forms in the areas to the right of the various carbon-content curves. Within time-periods applicable to welding, chromium-nickel stainless steels with 0.05% carbon would be quite free from grain boundary precipitation. (5) 31 ergaTABLE 4-1 — STAINLESS STEELS COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID STORAGE TANKS (4) “asTw | UNS | Carbon | Manganese | Phosphorus | Sulfur | Silicon | | other 304 04 Y 0.04: (0.030 | 1.00 78.00- | 800- | [swn[ “ome | 20° : 1B | 8 [woven 304L |($30403)/ 0.03 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 | 18.00- 6.00- | seas | 800 |y oman a1 |so1s00| 008 | 200 ae | een (cane |) tea |<] 000 leer | 18B> | BBB- [nateenam fee ee wa leswa] oxo | amo | soe | cos | 100 | spq0- | min | Sit, 410S (s41008)| 0.08 1.00 0.040, 0.030 1.00 11.50- 0.60 | ea |e unified Numbering Syetem, originated by ASTM and SAE, developed to provide a single orderty system for designaing ‘commercial metals and alloys. TABLE 4-2 — MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID STORAGE TANKS (4) crale Gerais] Weld Strength, Elongation® Hardness, asta | UNS ‘an nn vn 7 vera | ue Ls ure [tat wn | Pecamt__| ott moe Pe | co os ® m8 ee ao “ 1388 ae | ate | 788 | oe © a7 8 eee ae |e Pe aos | eton | co | 8 no | = Elongation in 2 inches (50.8 min) » Brinoll © Rockwell 32TABLE 4-3 — RELATIVE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID STORAGE TANKS astm | UNS | Mild Atmospheric | Atmospheric | Salt ‘Chemical Aspe | No. | and Preah Water | Industral” Marine | Water | Mild | Oxidizing [Reducing 304 (S30400) x x - Ses araeHae - 1 - 304L, (30403) x x x seca x | - 316 ($31600) | x | x - i aaa - x aie | (631609) x jax x ee x x 4108 | ($¢1008) x . . ex 2 7 Note: X's indicate environments to which the various stainless steels ‘may be considered resistant. TABLE 4-4 — TYPICAL FILLER METALS FOR WELDING STAINLESS STEELS ‘Base Metal Electrodes (AWS) ‘Type 304 908-15 or 16; ER308; E906T-2 Type S04L E908L-15 or 16; ERGOBL; E308T-2 Type 316 916-15 or 16; ER916; ES16T-2 Type 316. ESIGL-15 or 16; ERS16L; ES16T-2 ‘Type 4108" E410"-15; R410"; E410T*-2 “Type 410 electrodes must be specified to 0.08% maximum carbon in all cases. **it is permissible (and often desirable) to weld Type 410S with austenitic (chromium-nickel) electrodes. 33TABLE 4-5 — ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL = Minimum] Winimum For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding | MARL [Taonme [poner [amore [sore | soorr [errr oe | mo reo | os | ms | 16 | we | v4 sous | 250 roo | aoe ae | ol ea age oan es sous | 250 no | so | we | v2 | se | ur | uo se | 900 wo | 22s | as | wes | wx | w50 | 160 owe | m0 so | 2s | ms | x0 | so | wo | 188 ‘316L* 25.0 70.0 21.0 | 169 15.1 13.8 12.7, 12.0 sw | 250 Peg ee oro ee aes aos | 900 oo | wo | wo | eo | to | wo | t0 Note: a, b, & ¢ explained on page 32.TABLE 4-5(a) — ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL Limiting % Strain = 0.05% ve | rime [Mee For Maal Temperatures Not Exceeding KSI KSI voor | 200% | 300% | 40°F | S00%F | 60°F 308 30 % 228 2 18 166 155 148 304t 2 70 a 7 153 4 3 124 316 30 % 225 208 wee | 174 159 6 316. 2% 7 2 169 184 138 127 ry 4108 30 60 18 we | 18 | ee TABLE 4-5(b) — ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL Limiting % Strain = 0.1% Hea | sta For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding al” [goo | 200er | gooF | 400' | S00" | 600"F os oo 8 eo) ee ns | ie | eee | ed eos 2 | 7 no | we | w2 | we | m7 | 140 316 30 | 75 22.5 225 21.0 19.3 17.9 16.8 ret 25 70 ao | wo | mo | ws | ua | ts TABLE 4-5(c) — ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR FLANGES OR GASKETTED JOINTS OF STAINLESS STEEL Limiting % Strain = 0.01% per 62.5% Fy Yield Strength limit ee | oe Poe For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding KSI 100°F 200°F | 300°F 400°F 500°F 600°F 304 30 | 75 20.0 16.7 ] 15.0 13.9 12.9 8 a6 % 8 wo | 7 | wo | we | we | ns see | ~ ee er «os | 0 2 |» |» | we | « | 35References, Part IV 1. API Standard 620 — Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low- Pressure Storage Tanks; Division of Refining, ‘American Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition, June 1990, 2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1980. 3, “Steel Products Manual — Stainless and Heat Resisting Steels”, December 1974, American tron and Stee! Institute. 4, ASTM Designation A240-80b (ANS G81.4) — Standard Specification for Heat-Resisting Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip for Fusion-Welded Unfired Pressure Vessels. 5. Svetsaren English eultion 1-2; 1969, p. 5. 6. ASTM Designation A380-78 (ANS G81.16) Standard Recommended Practice for Cleaning and Descaling Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment and Systems. 7. ASTM S.T.P. 538 "Cleaning Stainless Stee!” includes ASTM A380 and 22 papers presented at a symposium. 8. API Standard 650 — Welded Stee! Tanks for Oil Storage; Division of Refining, American Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition, November 1988. 9. ASTM Designation A370-77 (ANS G60.1) — Standard Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products. 10. “Stainless Stee! Cold-Formed Structural Design Manual — 1974 Edition’, American Iron and Steel Institute. 11. "Design of Plate Structures”, Vol. 2, AISVSPFA, 1991 42, Steel Products Manual — Plates; Rolled Floor Plates: Carbon, High Strength Low Alloy, and Alloy Steel, January 1978. Other Information on Corrosion “Corrosion Resistance of the Austenitic Chromium- Nickel Stainless Steels in Chemical Environments", The International Nickel Co., April 1970, 16 pages. “Selection of Stainless Steels", American Society for Metals, 1968, 82 pages. “Corrosion Engineering”, G. Fontana and N.D. ‘Greene, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1967. “The Possibility of Service Failure of Stainless Steels by Stress Corrosion Cracking”, J.€, Truman and H.W. Kirkby, Metallurgia, August 1965. TABLE 4-6 FACTORS FOR LIMITING PERMANENT STRAIN IN HIGH-ALLOY STEELS' Limiting Permanent Strain, % Factors ee 0.10 0.90 0.09 0.89 0.08 0.88 0.07 0.86 0.08 0.83 0.05 0.80 0.04 0.7 0.03 0.73 0.02 0.69 0.01 0.63 NOTE: (1) Table 46 lists muttiplying factors which, when applied to the yield strength values shown on Table AHA-2, will give a value that will result in ower levels of permanent strain. If this value is jess than the design stress intensity value listed in Table AHA-t, the lower value shall be used.Steel Plate Engineering Data—Volume 2 Useful Information on the Design of Plate Structures Revised Edition— 1992 Published by AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE With cooperation and editorial collaboration STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC. Revised December 1992Acknowledgements the American Iron and Steel Institute initially retained Mr. |.E. Boberg and later obtained the services of Mr. Frederick S. Merritt. For their skititut handling of the assignment, the Inctitute gratefully acknowledges its appreciation. Fe the preparation of the original version of this technical publication, ‘The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and valuable contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators Association and representatives from the member steel producing companies of ‘American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later revising and Updating, the material for this publication. Appreciation is expressed to the American Institute of Stee! Construction, American Petroleum Institute, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Business Communications, Inc., Chicago Bridge and Iron Company, Pitt-Des Moines, Inc., U.S. Army Mobility Equipment Command, and the American Water Works Association for their constructive suggestions and review of this material. Much of the flustrative and documentary material in this manual appears through their courtesy. ‘American Iron and Steel Institute the material presented in this publication has been prepared in accordance with recognizes engunseing principles and i or general inormaton oly. This information oul not Be used crane eecurng competent edvce wih rapect tots eultabity for any given application. The re the material contained herein not intended a6 representation or waranty onthe imerican Iron and Ste! Inetitute—or of any other person named herein—tat this ny general ey particular se of of freedom from intingament of any roarreeettente, Anyone making use ofthis Information assures al laity arising fom auch ure AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE 4101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 1300 Washington, D.C. 20036-4700 December 1992Introduction the design of flat-bottom, cylindrical tanks for storage of liquids at essentially atmospheric pressure. Steel plates, however, are used in a wide varioty of other structures, such as pipe. penstocks, pressure vessels, ‘stacks, elevated tanks, and bulk storage tanks. These structures present special problems in design and detail, the answers to which are not readily available without searching a number of sources. Volume 2 gives useful information to aid in design of such structures. Vers 1 of this series, “'Steol Tanks for Liquid Storage,” deals with Scope Volume 2, “Useful Information on the Design of Plate Structures,” does not cover in depth the design of any particular structure. For example, design of stacks involves problems of vibration that are beyond the scope of this volume. Similarly, design of pressure vessels requires a detailed knowledge of ASME, state and, sometimes, city codes. Designers should work with the applicable code. Any attempt to summarize pressure-vessel codes could be misleading and even dangerous, because of constant revision and updating by the various regulatory bodies. There are, however, many facets of plate design that are generally applicable to many types of structures. Information on these is not now conveniently collected in one source. Drawing on many sources, this volume offers such information and discusses some of the more commonly encountered problems. Included is an outline of membrane theory, data for weld design, commonly used details, plus data and matlwiiatical tables useful in design of stool plate structures. The intent is to include information principally pertinent to plate structures. For convenience of users of this volume, some data readily available elsewhere, particularly in mathematical tables, has been incorporated. Volume 3, “Welded Steel Pipe,” and Volume 4, “Penstocks and Tunnel Liners,” of this series treat these applications in detail and are available from Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc.Contents Part | — Flat Plates .. seed Part il — Large Diameter Plate Tubular Columns ...........7 Part ill — External Pressure on Cylinders ol Part IV — Membrane Theory ...... 17 Part V — Self-Supported Stacks ... ny 27 Part VI — Supports for Horizontal Tanks and Pipe Lines .:: 35 Part Vil — Anchor Bolt Chairs .........++- aeAg Part Vill — Design of Fillet Welds . .. Part IX. — Inspection and Testing of Welded Vessels . PartX — Appendices ......... eeSo eestructural forms, such as plale girders, bull-up columns, or component parts of trusses. Such uses are well covered in standard texts or handbooks and are not discussed in this volume. Instead, Part | will cover applications in steel tanks. F lat plates are used in many conventional Bending Stresses and Deflections Used as a membrane, as in the shell of a tank, a steal plate is a very efficient member. In contrast, a fiat plate in bending normal to its plane is inefficient. Circumstances, nevertheless, sometimes dictate the use of a flat-walled tank because of space limitations, or the storage of a corrosive liquid may dictate use of a grilage-supported bottom to facilitate inspection. In such cases, a stiffened flat surface Is indicated. (On the next page, formulas are given for calculating the maximum bending stresses and maximum center deflections of certain flat plates. ‘These formulas have been derived from various ‘sources, the most important being based on an ‘analytical derivation from elastic theory. However, those relating to three classes of elliptical plates and to certain others with a central applied load are less rigid in their derivation though sufficiently reliable for the use of the designer. It must be remembered that all formulas apply to materials such as steel, for which Poisson’s ratio is 0.90. The inherent limitations of these formulas must be kept in mind. It is assumed that tensions in the plane of the plate appropriate to membrane action are ‘small or negligible compared with the stresses due to ending. In general, the deflection must be small ‘compared with the plate thickness if this is to be true. For greater deflections, other more complicated formulas must be used in whose derivation both membrane and bending action are considered. The formulas given may yield reliable working stresses yet be absolutely unreliable in calculating the load at failure and the corresponding deflection, particularly in the case of materials which elongate materially Dvlure allure, or which accume a dished form under load through initial stressing beyond the elastic limit, In general it must not be expected that these formulas will yield stresses accurate to better than 5%. ‘The mode of support and manner of loading specified must be compliad with if the stresses are to be realized. No commercial edge fastening will correspond exactiy with the theoretical conditions. ‘The exact restraint of the edge, where bending is of prime importance, will depend on the rigidity of the Support, the flexibility of any gaskets used, the position of the bolting circle and the spacing of the bolts therein, as well as the tightness with which the joint is bolted up. When membrane action is of importance, the degree of bolting up and the ability of the reinforced opening to resist slight deformations. under radial tensions will largely determine the exact stress in the plate and the corresponding deformation, The bending moment at the edge is of less importance than at points where plate resistance depends primarily on bending. In view of these remarks, the conditions “Fixed” and “Supported” serve a8 guides to the possible range of stress and deflection. Notation a = length, in., of somiminor axis of supperting ellipse for elliptical plates ‘A. = length, in., of semi-major axis of supporting cllipse for elliptical plates b= length, in., of short side of rectangular plate at supports B = length, in., of long side of rectangular plate or side of square at supports By = factor for stress in uniformly loaded, fixed- edge, rectangular plates (Tables 1A and 1B) Be = factor for stress in uniformly loaded, simply supported, rectangular plate (see Tables 1A and 18) E = modulus of elasticity, psi 1 = maximum fiber stress in bending, psi Fy = specified minimum yield strength, psi H. = uniform load, ft, of water L, = stiffener spacing, in. eA or b/B uniform load or pressure, psi concentrated load, Ib.= radius, in., of central loaded area = inside knuckle radius, in., for flat, unstayed, circular plates R= radius, in., to support for circular plates $ = spacing, in., of adjacent staybolts at corners of square plates t= plate thickness, in. senter deflection, in., of plate relative to supports © = factor for stress in circular flanged plate (see Table 1A) 1 = factor for deflection of uniformly loaded, fixed-edge, rectangular plates (see Tables 1A and 1B) 2 = factor for deflection of uniformly loaded, simply supported rectangular plates (see Tables 1A and 18) 2 = factor for deflection of fixed-edge, rectangular plates subjected to central concentrated load (see Tables 1A and 18) One of the most commonly encountered conditions is a uniformly loaded flat plate ‘supported on uniformly spaced parallel stiffeners, In the absence of any code or specification requirement, assume an allowable bending stress ‘equal to 3/4 of the specified minimum yield stress value in the plate for determination of stiffener spacing L,, in. The plate stress can be obtained from the formula in Table 1A for the case of a rectangle b x B, where B = ®and b is taken as L,. Thus, for the fixed condition (continuous over the ‘supports), the maximum permissible spacing of stiffeners becomes: L, = | 94.9002) ay Pp For convenience in connection with tank bottoms, the load can be expressed in feet of water, rather than psi, in which case: a [=saer)* H Figure 1-1 gives graphically stiffener spacing determined from Eqs. 1-1 and 1-2 for an allowable ending stress of 27,000 psi (ie. Fy = 96,000 psi). Ii deflection exceeds 12, the plate will tend to act as a membrane in tension and exert a lateral pull on the outside support that must be taken Into account. An alternative solution, therefore, is to assume that yielding does occur at the support and the plate acts as a catenary between Supports. At intermediate supports, the tension in the plate will ha balanced: but at the outside Support, restraint must be provided to resist that tension. This is not always easily accomplished. When the span is such that the profile of the plate approaches a catenary between supports, fhe support spacing is given approximately by the following formula: L, = f/ 24f|* (1-3) ple Because of the approximate nature of the solution, a conservative value for fis indicated. ‘Assuming f = 10,000t and E = 29,000,000 psi for mild carbon steel, the equation becomes: L, = 9004 = 2,076 + (4) P # Figure 1-2 gives graphical solutions for Eqs. 1-3 and 1-4. For the catenary approach, it is essential that a lateral force of 10,000t be resisted at the peripheral support. Since this is not always Bracticable, application of the catenary approach {s limited. Similarly, it should not be used where pressure is reversible or where deflection is objectionable. in the above discussion, only plate stresses have been considered, and it is assumed that any welded plate joints will develop the full strength of the plate including appropriate joint efficiencies. ‘Aiso, the stiffener system should be in accordance with accepted structural design principles. Protection against brittle failure of a structure should be considered at the time of design. Since environmental extremes, design detall, material ‘selection, fabrication methods and inspection adequacy are all interrelated in protecting a structure from such failure, these factors should be evaluated :CONTINUOUS BEAM a & 8 b é ‘we ro pte ow ane one Sine orig H Seat nt sn, & = ja Head, H (Feet of Water) =~ RN ww asas 3 5 oO T 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 ‘Support Spacing, Ls (in) Figure 1-1. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate Acting as Continuous Beam. CATENARY ACTION 50 45 Lu | 40 NX t= 36° 35 t [—t = 716" nore: : ASSN OE 20 t= 56" rf —~ 15 ar ~~ ee 10 Head, H (Feet of Water) 10 15 20 26 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 ‘Support Spacing, Ls (in) Figure 1-2. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate with Catenary Action. 3Table 1-1A, Flat Plate Formulas Poisson's Ratio = 0.30 gare Juana] S28, xm Fie Sues 7 a Fine J man. noe itr ' Supported ras ote eas Bl ESrcen| Fes crete sit vod ‘enue Se * Troe ae | eee Center Stress Fixed PRE seal itr Hcnion susponed a = 5 Aporonimate fea FisneOmdne Pe Bawa See 0.0125 30 For F,> 34 ksi UR, Range oe A, S0.0085372 Formula @-4) 0.0085872 <0R, < 0.0125 13.86+1771.2 UR, es) UR, 2 0.0125 38 FS =2 Cc = VERE Co) when KL/r> C’c (28) cil when KL/r < C'c 29) Ky = 1 when KLir< 25 AIsc ‘Some of the formulas in the AISC Specifications are Presented in terms of D,/t. Those formulas, when Shown bolow, have beet converted to UR terms, 80 they are not in the exact same form as those in the speciation, Members subjected to both axial compression and bending stresses should be proportioned to satisfy the combined stress requirements of the AISC specification. The combined stress formulas are not presented here so must be obtained from the AISC specification. The AISC specification contains no recommendations for allowable stresses when /R, < F,//6500. For Fy /6500 < /R, Co (2-12) For URo = F, /1650 Fi, = 0.66 F, (2.13) the value obtained from formula 2-11 when KUr

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