~e2

and are also unique. For example if there exists another operator T with the same
~e2
properties as P , ie T u = u, T v = 0, then for any vector w u + v + u v we
have
(P T )w = (u + 0 + 0) (u + 0 + 0) = 0 , ~x

2
(as (P (u v))i = Pij (u v)j = (ui uj /u ) jkl uk vl = 0) and hence T = P .
~e1

~e1

2.4 Active and Passive Transformations ~e3, ~e3

rotating a vector in a fixed basis is called an active transformation, x y with

yi = Rij xj in {ei } basis.
rotating the basis keeping the vector fixed is called a passive transformation,
{ei } {e } or xi xi = lij xj . Hence:
Active rotation of x through angle is the same as passive rotation of basis vectors
Let us set Rij = lij then numerically yi = xi , and consider (for simplicity): by an equal and opposite amount.
1. Rotation of vector about z-axis:
~e2 2.4.1 Introduction to Lie Algebras
Recalling, as discussed previously, rotation of a vector in a fixed basis is y = Rx
~y where

~x Rij (, n) = ij cos + (1 cos )ni nj ijk nk sin .
~e1

For an infinitesimal rotation 0 we thus have (upon expanding or using the

previous geometrical argument)
~e3

Rij (, n) = ij ijk nk + O(2)

= ij ink (Tk )ij + . . . ,
Rij (, e3 ) = ij cos + (1 cos )i3 j3 ijk k3 sin
with
cos sin 0
= sin cos 0 , (Tk )ij = iijk .
0 0 1
So
(as ni = i3 ). This is an active transformation through angle .
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
2. Rotation of basis about z-axis:
T1 = i 0 0 1 , T2 = i 0 0 0 , T3 = i 1 0 0 .
ei = lij ej Rij ej , 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
or The Ti are called the generators of infinitesimal rotations about basis vectors ei (the
e1 = cos e1 sin e2 i is conventional so Ti are Hermitian, Ti TiT = Ti ).
e2 = sin e1 + cos e2
So infinitesimal rotation through angle about n is
e3 = e3 .
This is a passive transformation through angle : R(, n) = 1 i n T .

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 def
If [A, B] = AB BA is the commutator, then commutation relations for the
{Ti } are given by

[Ti , Tj ] = iijk Tk .

(Proof: use product of epsilons several times! See example sheet.)

cf rotations in Quantum Mechanics. Chapter 3
The commutation relations between the generators are called the Lie Algebra
of the group; ijk are called the structure constants.
Cartesian Tensors
For finite transformations use the relation
 x N
ex = lim 1+ ,
N N 3.1 Definition and Transformation Properties
N
(which may be proved by writing (1+x/N) = exp(N ln(1+x/N)) = exp(N(x/N + For any vectors a and b we have
O(1/N 2))) = exp(x)(1 + O(1/N))).
If we extend this result to matrices, by setting = /N, where is finite, then ai = lij aj
 N bi = lij bj ,

R(, n) = lim 1i nT ,
N N where L = (lij ) is the rotation matix from frame S to frame S , with LLT = I = LT L,
det L = +1. Note that we are using the passive picture again.
ie we may consider a finite rotation as being built from many infinitesimal rotations.
This then gives1 We can re-define a vector a as an entity having 3-components with respect to (wrt)

any frame of reference with the property that if ai are the components wrt S and ai
R(, n) = exp in T . are the components wrt S then ai = lij aj .

To prove the equivalence of this result with the original result for a finite transfor- Consider now the 9 quantities, ai bj :
mation is not completely trivial see example sheet.
def
(ai bj ) = ai bj = li a lj b
Rotations in 3 dimensional Euclidean Space form a Lie Group SO(3) where S for
= (li lj ) (a b ) .
Special, det R = +1 and O for Orthogonal, RRT = 1.
(, are dummy indices.) So these 9 quantities obey a particular transformation
law under the change of frame of reference S S . This motivates our definition of
a tensor.

3.1.1 Definition of a tensor

We thus define a tensor of rank 2, T , as an entity having 9 components wrt any
1
frame of reference with the property that if Tij are the components wrt S and Tij
By definition,
are the components wrt S then
1 1 1
eA = 1 + A + A2 + A3 + . . . .
1! 2! 3! Tij = li lj T ,

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