1 Policy and Practice: A Resume

Before Independence
The tribal areas were the last to come under the British rule, due to their
inaccessibility. To avoid trouble from violent tribals, the British Government adopted a
policy of pacification through indirect rule with respect to tribal areas and treated them
differently from the rest of the country. In accordance with the policy, the Scheduled
Districts Act of 1874 (Act XIV of 1874) was enacted to keep large tracts of tribal areas
outside the jurisdiction of normal administration. For these areas, the executives were
endowed with wide powers. The administrative policy was based on the principles of
non-interference into the affairs of the tribals and isolation. All the provinces of the
British India were provided with autonomy to rule the tribal areas under their control,
following broad guidelines formulated for this purpose. As per the policy, Agency Rules
have been formulated in the year 1924 by the Government of Madras Province (G.O. No.
1116-Revenue, dated 23-07-1924) suppressing all the existing rules. The Agency Rules
provided for the Revenue and Judicial administrations of the area. In the new system of
administration, local chiefs of the tribal areas acquired linkages with the higher levels as
their positions were recognized for administrative purposes.

The Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas Act, which came into existence in
1935, resulted in the non-applicability of any legislation of the Provincial Governments
to tribal areas except on the direction of Central Government. The Act also enabled
Governors to pass special regulations for tribal areas with prior consent of the governor-
general. In accordance with the provisions of the Schedule Districts Act of 1874, Ganjam
and Vizagapattam Act was promulgated in 1939. The Act (Act No. XXIV of 1939)
provided for administrative justice in both civil and criminal matters in the tribal areas of
Ganjam and Vizagapattam Agencies in Madras Presidency. Rights of collection and
superintendence of Revenue of every description within the tracts of the country specified
under the Act has been conferred on the Agent to Governor (The District Collector)

The Committee on Partially Excluded Areas which examined the conditions of tribals
observed that the advent of British has left all the aborigines at the mercy of local chiefs
and Muttadars. According to the committee, earlier the rulers were checked for the fear of
violent uprisings of the aborigines, which was removed as the mighty British
Government stood behind these chiefs. Ghurye (1963) pointed out that in view of the fact
that the tribals are often sullen and on occasions violent, the main purpose of the British
policy was to secure peace and not necessarily to help people to advance on the road to
progress either by integration with Plains Hindus or otherwise (Ghurye, 1963: 79). The
outcome of British administrative policy can be broadly summarized quoting from
Sharma (1977) who writes “The administration in tribal areas during pre-independence
days was not formalized. The decision-making level, both in British Indian and Indian
States, was near enough the common man. The system could respond to the needs of each
specific situation. Development, as a function of the administration had yet to emerge.
Therefore, the socio-economic life of the community was largely left untouched.
Maintenance of order and protection from unwanted elements where necessary, were the
main objectives of administration”(Sharma. 1977:518).
 The British policy of isolating the tribals led to the misery of the tribals as it freely
left them to the exploitation of Zamindars, moneylenders and local chiefs. The policy of
conservation of forests resulted in curbing age-old practices of tribals like shifting
cultivation, hunting and others. The intrusion of forest contractors not only led to the
greater exploitation of forests, but also the tribals. The entry of merchants and
moneylenders further affected the tribals who were already facing many odds such as
vagaries of nature, denudation of hills and loss of soil fertility. Under these conditions the
policy of non-interference of the British with regard to Tribal areas helped only to
perpetuate the socio-cultural gulf between the tribals and non-tribals, besides exposing
them to the nefarious practices of merchants and moneylenders.

Even during the British rule, the miserable plight of the tribals and the exploitation to
which they were subjected was recognized by the Government, as a consequence of
which certain regulations have been made. Important of them is the Agency Tracts
Interest and Land Transfer Act of 1917 of the Madras Presidency. This Act provides that
the rate of interest on any debt of liability against a member of Scheduled Tribe shall be
below 24% per annum. It also ruled out charging any compound interest or any other
collateral advantage against a member of Scheduled Tribe. This act made transfer of
immovable property in tribal areas to non-tribals as null and void and the authorities were
empowered to eject non-tribals in possession of such property. Another important act is
the Andhra Agency Debt Bondage Abolition Regulation of 1940 of Madras Presidency.
Under Regulation Ill of the Act, the system of debt bondage in Tribal areas was abolished
and violators were made liable to punishment.

After independence

Founders of the Indian Constitution were deeply conscious of the miserable

conditions of the tribals who were segregated from the national main stream. Also during
this period social scientists focused their attention towards the conditions of the tribals
and began to discuss how best to deal with them. One school of thought led by Elwin
argued to protect the aborigines by completely isolating them from rest of India. Elwin
later shifted his stance. A second school of thought led by Ghurye opined total
assimilation of the tribals into national mainstream as essential. A third school believed
that tribals should be integrated into the Indian society but not necessarily assimilated
which means that it aims to preserve their identity. Ghurye (1963) made an elaborate
discussion on the three solutions suggested for the tribal problem; viz., (i) no change and
revivalism; (ii) isolationism and preservation; and (iii) assimilation (1963: 133-173).
Dube (1968) and Vidyarthi (1968) discussed various approaches from anthropological
point of view. The Government of India came to the stand that the tribal population
cannot be left to lag behind and isolated. Nor the natural resources in tribal areas can be
neglected. Integration of tribes into the national main stream was considered to be the
solution. The policy is to bring the tribals into the main stream in a phased manner. This
policy also cautioned that, the tribals should not be allowed to get exploited in this
process. Late Jawaharlal Nehru spelled out the policy as follows.
“We cannot allow matters to drift in the tribal areas or just not take interest in them... At
the same time we should avoid over-administering the areas and in particular, sending too
many outsiders into the territory. It is between the two extreme positions we have to
function.” Other points made by Mr Nehru are (i) We should avoid imposing anything on
tribals; (ii) Tribals rights in land and forest should be respected; (iii) we should try to
train and build a team of their own people; (iv) We would not overwhelm them with a
multiplicity of schemes; and (v) We should judge results not by statistics but by the
quality of human character evolved. The Government of India appointed a Sub-
committee in 1947 with Sri Thakkar Bapa as its Chairman to study the position of
Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas of the erstwhile British Government. The
committee made several recommendations. One of the important recommendations was
that the State should bear the responsibility of the tribal people. It laid emphasis on the
protection of tribal lands and prevention of exploitation by money-lenders. It also
suggested certain statutory safe-guards for the protection of tribals.

Constitutional safe-guards for tribals

As noted earlier, with India attaining Independence, the British policy of isolation and
non-interference was replaced by a policy of integration through development. In perusal
of this policy several provisions were made in the Indian Constitution. The most
important provision of the Constitution is article 244 which provides for administration of
Scheduled Areas in accordance with the Schedule V to the Constitution and the
administration of Tribal Areas (Assam State) under Schedule VI. Articles 5, 16, 46, 244,
275, 330, 332, 334, 335, 339 and 342 of Indian Constitution provided specific
provisions for the advancement of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. There are
reservations in educational institutions, services, political bodies: special relaxations in
age, qualifications etc. Further, the provisions allowed for the necessary funds for Tribal
Development Programmes. Many special provisions were made in Schedule V to the
Constitution in the interests of the Tribal areas. Clause 6 of the Schedule V empowered
the President of India to declare any area where there is predominant concentration of
tribal people as Scheduled area. The Constitution of Scheduled areas has two clear
objectives. One to assist the tribals in enjoying their existing rights unhindered or
unobstructed by others. Two, to develop the areas and promote economic, educational,
and social progress among them. In this scheme, protection of their rights and interests
come first. The Fifth Schedule also gave wide powers to state Governors empowering
them even to modify the existing enactments and made regulations for the welfare of the
Scheduled Tribes. Article 338 of the Constitution provides for instituting a Commissioner
for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The object of appointing the Commissioner
is to report on the administration of tribal areas in general, and in particular about the
provision of educational and medical facilities, and communications in such regions. The
Commissioner’s report is to be placed before the Parliament. The first list of Scheduled
Tribes was notified in 1950 by the President of India. It was amended in the Parliament in
1956 on the recommendations of the Backward Classes Commission. Under the
provisions of Article 339 of the Constitution the Government of India has setup the
Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission, and the report submitted by the
Commission in 1960-61, further specified the policies to be followed towards Scheduled
Tribes. The report suggested the following criteria for declaring any area as a Scheduled
Area:

(i) Preponderance of tribals in the population.

(ii) Compact areas with reasonable size.

(iii) Marked disparity in the living standards of the people.

The Commission suggested that the tribal should be assured that his rights in the land are
safe, and that Government and society are there to protect him. Further the Commission
pointed out that the tribal should be made confident that no one will tamper with his way
of life or his beliefs and customs. The report also suggested that, the tribal should be
made to realize that change is indispensable without which no development is possible,
and the development is intended to secure for him, and his family, greater opportunities
of life along with the rest in the country, of which he is an inseparable part.

Protective legislations and other measures

Consequent to the National Policy on Tribals which envisaged for protection and
integration of tribals, several protective legislations were passed in different States for the
elimination of exploitation of tribals. In Andhra Pradesh the following legislations were
passed to prevent land alienation, usurious money-lending and bonded labor:
(i) Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Areas Land Transfer Regulation of 1959 (Regulation I
of 1959). This Act was amended in 1970.
(ii) The Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Tribes Debt Relief Regulation, 1970.
(iii) Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Areas Money-lenders Regulation (Regulation I of
1960).
(iv) The Andhra Pradesh Agency Debt Bondage Abolition Regulation 1940
(Regulation III of 1940).

The Aiyappan Committee, which toured the Agency Areas of Madras Presidency in 1948
emphasizing on the need for the protection of tribals, suggested that co-operatives might
be established to eliminate exploitation of Shahukars. The Malayappan Committee
appointed by the Madras Government in 1950 laid special emphasis on the immediate
need for relieving the tribals from the clutches of the money-lenders. As an ameliorative
measure the committee suggested for starting a network of multi-purpose co-operatives.
The report of the Committee on Special and Multi-purpose Blocks (1960) suggested for
the protection of the tribals through enacting of legislations for curbing money-lending,
scaling down of past debts, automatic discharge from agreements in the matters of
bonded labor, and adequate alternative sources of credit (1960 : 132). While legislations
were made to prevent land alienation and money-lending, co-operatives were planned
through the Tribal Development Blocks as alternate sources of credit. Considering the
inadequacies of the individual co-operatives due to lack of sufficient financial base and
operational efficiency the State Government of Andhra Pradesh established a State level
co-operative body, the Girijan Co-operative Corporation to combine co-operative credit
and marketing in the interests of the tribals.
The forest policy and tribal development

The British were the first to impose restrictions on the free utilization of the forests by the
tribals by promulgating Forests Act, 1894. They kept local rulers in-charge of these
forests. After Independence the National Forest Policy of 1952 envisaged for the
protection, scientific growth and judicious use of forests. In view of the significance of
forest wealth for the national interests it became inevitable to put restrictions on the users,
especially the tribals. The National Forest Policy placed adequate stress on Tribal
Communities living on the periphery of forests. Various committees made suggestions on
the Forest Policy, in the interests of the tribals. The Renuka Ray Committee
recommended for carving out village forests to be kept under the management of tribal
village councils for the domestic use of tribals. It is also recommended that steps should
be taken to introduce a system of guided management, whereby the tribals or their
representative bodies will be progressively associated in the management and
exploitation of forests (1959: 138). The Report of the Committee on Special and Multi-
Purpose Tribal Blocks in a similar vein laid down that “Forest should be managed
essentially in the interests of the tribals who inhabit the area, subject to the minimum
safety precautions with regard to soil erosion and the national interests which of course
must take priority”. The report also suggested that some share of the profits earned from
the forest should be given to the tribals to convince them that their interests were linked
with those of the forest. The report suggested that there should be a Forest Extension
Officer in Tribal Blocks to act as liaison between Tribals and Forest Department (1960:
62-66). The Report of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission suggested
that the programmes of work through forests should include employment to tribals at all
stages of forest activities from protection to exploitation. It is suggested that middlemen
should be eliminated to develop a partnership approach between tribals and Forest
Department. Other important suggestions include establishment of forests cooperatives
and forest based industries, to provide employment opportunities to tribals (1961: 140-14
1). Based on the recommendations of the committees and the recognition of tribal needs,
the forest policy allowed for various concessions to tribals with regard to cattle grazing,
firewood collection and collection of timber for domestic purposes and crafts, fishing and
hunting (Roy Burman, 1968). Persons belonging to Schedule Tribes are made eligible for
removal of timber, bamboos and forest produce for domestic and commercial purposes.
Even in the protected forests tribals are permitted for animal grazing; and to take
bamboos for house construction, fencing and roofing, leaves for green manure, and
firewood for cooking. Persuasive measures were prescribed in the National Forest Policy
of 1952 to wean tribals from shifting cultivation. Preference is to be given for tribals in
employment in the forest department. Forest-based industries and co-operatives were also
prescribed for.

Planning strategies and Institutions

The policy objectives of protection and integration of the tribal population into the
main stream of the nation necessitated the implementation of developmental programmes
through institutions specially created for the purpose. While implementing the policy,
modifications were made in the development institutions taking into account the early
experiences, recommendations of various committees and experts.

From the beginnings a concerted effort for the tribal development through institutions
established for this purpose has been made. However, we observe considerable shift in
the approach followed by these institutions, and this shift was necessitated due to the
experiences with the previous planning strategies and functioning of institutions. Three
major trends can be discerned in the approach followed by developmental institutions due
to shifts in the planning strategy. The Multipurpose Project Blocks which were the first in
the organized institutional efforts adhered to planning strategy which can be termed as
‘Top-down approach’. The Multi-purpose Project Blocks were sponsored by the Central
Government, which provided the necessary finances, guidelines, and framework of
administration. The allocation of funds to different sectors is also clearly specified by the
Government. All the schemes were formulated at the Center and the project authority
used to function as per directives received from Central Government. In course of time,
centralized planning was found to be not suitable for local needs and priorities.
Further, an attempt to involve people in their own development programmes was made
through democratic decentralization. Panchayat Sarnithis consisting of elected
representatives of the people were formed to supervise the Tribal Development Blocks.
The staff of the development projects which were established for executing these plans
aimed to follow a specific approach which can be called as ‘Target group approach’.
Under this approach the population covered by the plan were classified into different
groups such as land-less poor, shifting cultivators, agriculturists, etc. and specific
programmes were devised to suit the needs and conditions of each group. Another
dimension of Regional Development Planning is the ‘Growth Center approach’ wherein
uniform spatial development is attempted by locating socio-economic services at selected
centers.

Despite the shifts in the planning strategies described so far, the administrative
structure of the Block which came into existence with the Multi-purpose Project Blocks,
remained as the basic frame of the development administration. This pattern of Block
administration owes its origin to the Community Development Programme of the
Government of India taken up for the development of Rural Areas of the country. The
administrative structure of the Block came into existence as a result of the cumulative
experience of early experiments and the specific objectives of community development
programme.
Experience from rural development administration

The experiences gained in the early experimental projects such as the extension
programmes at Sriniketan, Martandam, Gurgaon and Sevagram provided the basis of the
Rural Development Administration. These experimental projects applied a coordinated
approach, with the management of the Project being entrusted to one coordinating person,
under whom worked a team of generalists and specialists. Valuable experience was
provided for evolving later programmes by the Firka Development Scheme of Madras
State in 1946, and the community scheme at Etawah in 1948. The Etawah Project
provided the concept of Multi-purpose Extension Agent called as ‘Village Level Worker’
supervised by a team of Technical Experts at the Project level. This pattern of a
team of Technical Experts working under a generalist with a Multi-purpose village level
worker was adopted by the National Extension Service Projects and Community
Development Blocks later.
Community development programme
The Community Development (C.D) Programme was inaugurated in the year
1952 with the following objectives: 1. To provide substantial increase in the country’s
agricultural production and to improve the system of communications, rural health,
hygiene and rural education. 2. To initiate and direct a process of integrated culture aimed
at transforming the social and economic life of the villagers.
The C.D. Projects were comprehensive in scope and offered a coordinated
programme for multi-sided rural development. To look after these projects a separate
C.D. Project’s Administration was created at the Planning Commission. Later, in 1953
under a similar administrative set-up The National Extension Service Blocks (N.E.S.
Blocks) were opened. These N.E.S. Blocks were less intensive in scope due to the
reduced financial outlay, but the multi-sided approach continued.

Below the District, Block was formulated as the unit of development administration. The
important principles involved in the administration of Block are: (1) there should be close
co-operation in all departments concerned with developments; (2) at every stage the
official agency should work in close co-operation with best non-official leadership and
(3) at the point of contact with the villagers there should be a trained multi-purpose
worker who would act as a common agent to all development departments. Based on
these principles the l3lock executive team consisted of a number of subject-matter
specialists (Extension Officers) under a Block Development Officer who is a generalist.
The specialists are under the control of their own department heads at district level and
are coordinated by the Block Development Officer at Block level. At village level the
village level worker (later came to be termed as Village Development Officer) is grass-
root level functionary in-charge of the programmes of development.

Recommendations of experts

The team for the study of Community Projects and National Extension Service (1957)
opined that schemes in all their detail should be worked out in consultation with the tribal
people, who should feel that not only their advice is sought but also acted upon in all
matters. In the case of tribal areas a thorough preliminary survey is important. It is also
necessary that the recruited personnel should acquire a knowledge of the local dialect,
customs and ways of life of the people among whom they work (1957:53). A similar
suggestion was given in the Plan document for Second Five Year Plan (1956) that
“Details of the development programmes should be formulated, in consultation with the
members of advisory councils, opinions of tribal leaders, and institutions engaged in the
study of tribal problems. The tribal people should feel that these programmes are in a real
sense a response to their own urge for better standards of living and the development of
their culture. If the programmes are implemented with popular support they will give the
tribal people in all parts of the country a sense of partnership and integration with the
nation as a whole” (1956 : 589-590). The Report of the Study Team on Social Welfare
and Welfare of Backward Classes (1959) prescribed that the overall order of priority in
the welfare and development of Scheduled Tribes should be as follows: (1) Economic
Development and Communications, and (2) Education and Public Health. It is suggested
that “A careful integrated programmes of development of tribal economy based on
agriculture, forestry, handicrafts and village industries should be organized. The exact
degree of emphasis upon each of them should be determined by a systematic survey of
the needs and possibilities in each area” (1959:131).

Multi-purpose project blocks:

The starting of 43 Multi-purpose Project Blocks (M.P.P. Blocks) in the year 1954
(Second Five Year Plan) is the most significant step taken towards development of tribal
areas. Earlier during the First Five Year Plan, activities taken up for tribal development
can be broadly grouped under the heads of economic development, communications,
education, public health and housing. The specific activities in Andhra Pradesh include
establishment of schools, mid day meals centers, allowances for clothes, books,
scholarship etc. Four Multipurpose Blocks were started in Andhra Pradesh during the
Second Plan Period. Starting of Multi-purpose Blocks marked the beginning of a
systematic effort for the all-round development of tribal areas. The main objective M.P.P.
Blocks is to create a progressive outlook in the tribal economy and achieve higher levels
of material and cultural development. The administrative structure of these Blocks is
patterned after the C.D. Blocks but additional allotments were made to these Blocks by
Tribal Welfare Departments. Certain other modifications made in the N.E.S. set-up to
undertake multi- sided development of compact tribal areas distinguish these Blocks from
other C.D. Blocks. These modifications are: (1) the area covered by the Block is reduced
to concentrate on a limited area, (2) financial contributions from the people are stopped
and labor contribution was encouraged, (3) the benefits given to the tribals are
encouraged, and (4) specially trained personnel were deployed for these areas.

Changes in the multi-purpose project blocks

Further changes were brought in the functioning of Multipurpose Blocks as a

result of opinion of two important Reports which made several recommendations for the
future of Tribal Development Programmes. An evaluation report submitted by the
Committee headed by Verrier Elwin on Special and Multi Purpose Blocks (1960) led to
the opening of Tribal Development Blocks from Third Plan Period onwards. The
Committee opined that the Multi-purpose Projects have created much awareness, though
they suffered the usual disadvantages of Pilot Projects. The Report made several
recommendations regarding structure and functioning of Blocks. Important of them were:
(1) to adopt a more flexible approach towards schematic allocations, (2) Reduction in the
outlay of expenditure and (3) introduction of Panchayat Raj bodies to supervise the
functioning of the Blocks. Based on the recommendations the Multi-Purpose Projects
were converted into Tribal Development Blocks after the end of project period. In
addition to those Multi-purpose Projects converted into Tribal Development Blocks,
more Tribal Development blocks were also established to cover many tribal areas. Report
submitted by the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission (1960-61) also
influenced the working of Blocks. The report suggested a scheme of integrated
development coordinating the activities in the fields of Agriculture, Forests,
Animal Husbandry, cottage and Small Industries (1960-61:193). The guiding principle
put forward by the Commission for economic development of tribals is that of work,
credit and market and not charity, subsidy and waste.

Tribal development blocks:

The Tribal Development Blocks retained the administrative structure of the Multi-
Purpose Project Blocks. These Blocks continued the multi-sided approach with major
thrust on maximization of production in agriculture and non-agricultural sectors and to
enhance the employment potential. Though the emphasis is on agriculture, the multi-
sided approach of the Block structure covering the fields of agriculture, animal
husbandry, co-operation, education and rural industries continued. In addition to the four
existing Multi-purpose Project Blocks which were converted into Tribal Development
Blocks, twenty Tribal Development Blocks were established in Andhra Pradesh during
the Third Five-year Plan Period. The introduction of Panchayat Raj bodies formed
another significant step in the developmental history of tribal areas.

Panchayat raj institutions

The anxiety to evoke the participation of the people in

their own welfare programmes was reflected in the /first Plan document which envisaged
the need for establishing bodies with civic and economic activities as their functions. In
the National Extension Service and Community Development Blocks, participation of the
people was through nominations. The Second Plan document observed that this was not
adequate and referred to the necessity of spreading up democratic institutions (1956:
120). The Balwantroy Mehta study team felt that there should be administrative
decentralization for the effective implementation of development programmes and the
decentralized administrative system should be under the control of elected
representatives. It was argued that “community development can be real only when the
community understands its problems, realizes its responsibilities, exercises the necessary
functions through chosen representatives and maintains intelligence vigilance on local
administration” (1957:23). The chief objectives of introducing Panchayat Raj institutions
are: (1) transfer of power to people’s institutions, (2) to develop initiative of the people,
(3) increased participation of people in development programmes and (4) development of
village leadership. Panchayat Raj institutions are expected to bring a total change in the
socio-economic conditions of’ the rural areas and are meant to relieve the people from the
clutches of feudalistic leaders.

Performance of tribal development blocks

The Tribal Development Blocks which came into existence formed the major
channel of tribal welfare programmes from 1962 onwards. Though the Tribal
Development Blocks have brought about some change, their impact was said to have
fallen short of expectations. In Andhra Pradesh the Tribal Cultural Research and Training
Institute at Hyderabad conducted a detailed study on Tribal Development Blocks. The
study focused on the various anomalies of the administrative pattern of Tribal
Development Blocks and the implementation of programmes. The report recommended
that “while formulating future programmes in Tribal Development Blocks care should be
taken to reckon with the regional imbalances and the disparities between one tribal group
and the other so that any area or group may not be lagging behind” (1968 : 10). The Shilu
Ao Committee (1969) which has evaluated the impact of Tribal Development
Programmes pointed out various snags in the functioning of Tribal Development Blocks.
They are:

(1) A large number of standardized schemes in vogue among advanced communities have
been applied to tribal areas. (2) The employment aspect of development has not been
attended to. (3) Settlement of land disputes at pre-extension stage was not taken up. (4) In
productive schemes like agriculture, irrigation and animal husbandry, 20% of the
investment was on constructions. (5) Sixty to seventy percent of the funds were spent on
“brick and mortar” schemes. (6) In many cases cooperatives have been started with-out
much education or propagation among the tribals and followed cumbersome procedures.
(7) The benefits had mostly accrued to the more advanced among the tribals. The report
indicated that the fragmentary approach towards development planning formed an
important limitation on Tribal Development blocks. Due to their comparatively low
economic base and the small size, the blocks could not take up long-term programmes.
Other observations made regarding the working of Tribal Development Blocks were: (1)
The results and efforts of the Tribal Development Blocks in most cases are exclusive
efforts of the tribal sector and general sector programmes failed to reward tribal areas. (2)
The benefits of development did not percolate beyond the upper crust of the tribal
communities in most of the tribal areas (Roy Burman, 1975: 54). Further, it is observed
that programmes were being formulated for individual sectors at different levels in an un-
coordinated manner without taking into consideration local priorities and capabilities of
the existing institutions. This was said to have resulted in preferring exogenous priorities.
Another important consequence is the imbalance of regional, and group development,
which is due to lack of uniformity in the distribution of economic benefits and other
services besides differences in ownership of resources and receptivity towards
innovations. Realizing this lopsided development, the National Planning Commission
envisaged a new strategy of Planning for tribal areas in the Fifth Five Year Plan.

The strategy of fifth plan

The new strategy prescribed that the plans must take into account the needs of the local
areas. The socio-economic activities are distributed over the physical space to ensure a
balanced development of the region and all the groups. All the Tribal Development
Blocks were brought under the control of project officer. The I.T.D.P. formed the unit of
planning, fund disbursing and supervisory body, and the existing Block organizations
implementing the programmes of the sub-plan. Thus, even after the inception of I.T.D.P.,
the actual implementation is vested with the staff of the Tribal Development Blocks.
Areas of Tribal concentration have been identified in eight districts of the state viz.,
Srikakulam, Vijayanagaram, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Warangal,
Khammam and Adilabad. T.D.As were established in these 8 districts of tribal
concentration. Of these , the one in Srikakulam district happened to be an already
existing pilot project converted in to a I.T.D.A. These I.T.D.As have been registered as
societies with a governing body consisting of District Collector as Chairman, Project
Officer as Treasurer, all heads of departments and M.Ps and M.L.As as members.

Programmes have been formulated separately for a) Areas of tribal concentration,

b) Small pockets of tribal concentration, c) Primitive tribal groups and d) Dispersed tribal
population. 41 small pockets of tribal concentration outside sub-plan were developed for
implementing Modified Area Development Approach. The criterion adopted is that out of
the population of 10000 in a pocket at least 50% should belong to Scheduled Tribes. This
criterion has been relaxed in some cases. 8 tribal groups of Andhra Pradesh living at pre-
agricultural stage of economy have been recognized by Government of India. They are
Chenchu, Konda Reddy, Kolam, Porja, Konda Savara, Gadaba, Khond and Thoti. Among
these a special project was taken up for Chenchus. No specific allocations were there for
dispersed population and they were taken care of through I.R.D.P and other programmes.

VI, VII, and VIII the five year plans

Family oriented schemes received attention during VIth Plan when compared to earlier
period. The VIth plan attached primary importance to poverty amelioration amongst
scheduled tribes with a view to raise substantial number of tribal families above the
poverty line. This was taken up along with the physical and financial efforts on providing
infrastructure, elimination of exploitation and spread of education. More than fourfold
increase in investment took place during VI Plan. Institutional finance to tribal sector
increased to 808 crores when compared to 150 crores during the preceding plan.
Monitoring and evaluation was undertaken by different agencies to review the
functioning of 1.T.D.Ps and the sub- plan approach. Several protective legislations were
put in the ninth schedule of the Constitution. During VI Plan period Government of India
has recognized 17 clusters in Andhra Pradesh. Clusters are identified pockets of tribal
concentration containing 50% or more tribal population, with in a local population of
5,000.

The strategy of VI plan continued during VII Five Year Plan, but for one change
in extending beneficiary oriented programmes to dispersed tribal groups. Special
developmental programmes for vulnerable groups living in plain areas viz., Yanadi were
taken up. To consolidate the gains of earlier plans, guidelines and instructions were
issued to state governments laying down principles. Programmes of providing economic
assistance to raise productivity levels of tribals and to take them above the poverty line
were implemented during the plan.

The working group for the VIII Five Year Plan felt the need for greater emphasis
on the education and development of vulnerable groups. Greater participation of tribal
women was envisaged, especially in areas relating to conservation of forests, preservation
of ecology, land development and preservation of tribal culture. Among vulnerable
groups, special measures have advocated for the rehabilitation of displaced persons.

2 Structural and organizational factors in tribal

development
The development scenario in tribal areas:
After decades of special efforts for tribal development, large gap exists
between the available potential of natural resources like land, water and forests, and their
utilization and productivity. The resources base available for tribals is slowly shrinking
with the periodical tightening of forest legislation and alienation of tribal lands.
Agriculture and minor forest produce of the tribals are not fetching them remunerative
prices, when compared to non-tribals areas, the tribals areas lag behind with regard to
various indicators like literacy, irrigatrted area, electrification, road length, infant
mortality etc.1 unrest and extremist activity characterize tribal areas which can be
consider as both cause and effect of inadequacies of the development programmes.

Several studies by anthropologists and socialists have highlighted the social and
cultural barriers existing among scheduled tribes coming in the way of successful
implementation of development schemes. 2 often the tradition bound, conservative tribal
has been blamed for his own backwardness. Better communication techniques through
extension approach have been envisaged for motivating the tribals. It is also important to
go in to the role played by the development administration which has been entrusted with
the responsibility of delivering the development inputs, Based on the author’s filed
studies in the scheduled areas of Andhra Pradesh, an attempt is made hero to examine the
role of development personal in the development process focusing on the structural and
organization factors affecting their functioning.

Structural and organization factors

Successful implementation of development programmes in tribal areas depends

on the efficiency of personnel. The grounding of delivery system cannot be an end by
itself, as the administration entrusted with the responsibility must be able to deliver the
development inputs in reaching the goals of tribal development inputs in a desirable
manner. One of the most important is the adaptability of the development administration
to the local needs and conditions. The translation of various development policies into
actions takes places in a particular administrative environment that has been created by
the personnel system. The debate has been whether the same personnel system can
deliver the goods in tribal areas and non-tribal areas 3. The personnel connected with the
implementation of development programmes play a crucial role in the success of
development programmes. The functioning of the tribal developmental personnel depend
on the congruence between 1. Structurally given demands (expectations and
responsibilities), 2. the functionaries conception of his duties and obligations and, 3. the
actual performance under different circumstances. There will be demands from the
organizational structure which are diverse and multiple. These are external to the
personnel and have their origin in the policies, traditions of the personnel and have their
origin in the policies, traditions of the development agencies. The demands of the
organizational structures act as dominant force in shaping the approach of the individual.
The works assigned, rules governing the authority-subordinate relationships, individuals
place in the organization, pressures from the authorities have a role in shaping the
perception of the personnel. The means available, the technical facilities and ecological
conditions further influence the performance of the individuals. Lack of roads and other
facilities results in employees staying away from headquarters they were allotted to. Hard
working conditions, meager incentives, and uncooperative attitude of tribals form the
perceived grievances of personnel. Unable to undertake proper selection of beneficiaries
and the necessary follow up action, the personnel in charge of developmental schemes
concentrate on achieving their targets only.

The demands coming from the social structure also affect the functioning of
development personnel. The composition of the personnel system, the social background
of the persons influence its functioning. If a group unsympathetic to the people is at the
helm of affairs, it may act as conservative force, 3. The expectation is that it should act as
catalytic force. The socio-economic background and personality traits of the non-tribal
employees make them feel superior to tribals resulting in unsympathetic attitude towards
tribals. The values that are internalized by them are authoritarianism and superiority. For
local tribals, they are outsiders and aliens. This is against the requirement of a human
touch and down-to-earth approach that is required in tribal areas. It is the quality of
interaction between personnel and the tribal beneficiaries that is crucial in the course of
development process. Due to the inhospitable conditions and alien agency environment,
the personnel living in villages look for the company of their own people. Sometimes, the
indifference of the tribals towards them adds to this. The development worker from the
beginning is imagined by the tribals as part of the ‘other group’ of officials, petty
contractors, money lenders; and acquires the initial handicap of distrust. For the tribals,
the personnel are outsiders and are called as udyogasthulu (employees) and in the hilly
areas are identified with plainsvollu or diguvollu (meaning people from the plains). At
micro-level they establish links with non-tribal traders and money lenders. This
alignment between those who are supposed to uplift the tribals and the exploiters
becomes detrimental to the interests of the tribals. Hidden opposition can be expected
from the non-tribals for the development and welfare of the tribals. The influences from
social structure basically come from the social background of the individual, group
influences, basic values, life goals, individual conception of the occupational role, and
internalized behavior pattern. The other influences from social structure include pressures
from political leaders. The alignments between local tribal elite and employees results in
the cornering of development benefits by a few and encourages misuse. For the
bureaucracy the elite come handy for promoting their schemes in good time and speed
and to fulfill the targets. The circle gets complete when the leaders join hands with non-
tribal traders, money lenders and land grabbers. Without the connivance of the tribal
leaders at village level, it is not possible for non- tribal to continue their activities in
trading, usurious money lending and owning benami land5. Frequent transfers and
availability of large number of vacant positions are a feature of tribal areas which affects
the regular availability of services. Sending incorrigible, unwanted, inefficient, and
corrupt kind of officials to tribal areas under punishment postings, affects the successful
implementation of development programmes in tribal areas. The consequences of such
postings are sabotage of programmes, escalation in the cost of inputs, poor quality of
inputs, kickbacks, and scandals, manipulation of land records for the benefit of non-
tribals, establishment of close links with political 1eaders improper functioning of
institutions6. On the other hand, sensitive and sincere officials are under attack from
vested interests and are transferred out of these areas. One of the important features of
personnel system in the tribal areas is that the employees of the lower levels stay for
longer periods in a given area which enables them to work hand in glove with the local
leaders. While the lower level staff are entrenched in the local area, establishing
connections with the tribal elite, higher officials hardly stay for sufficient time to
understand what had been done earlier and the outcome, especially who had actually
benefited and to what extent. There is insufficient time to recapitulate from the earlier
experiences from the area. This situation results in the same individuals, families, and
villages taking advantage repeatedly7. A number of higher level staff who stay for a short
duration come on deputation. It has been observed that temporary and too frequent
changes of deputations is resulting in less experienced hands. The rapport between
deputationists and regular employees is low and the latter have a common grievance
against the deputationists as their promotional opportunities are hampered. The
deputationists are under parent department which do not allow the receiving department
to take action against them. The deputationists spend large amount of money without
having to account for it8. Employees prefer regulating kind of administrative positions
rather than posts in welfare activities. Development oriented departments like tribal
welfare department need cooperation from and coordination with regulating departments
like forest and revenue departments. There are contradictions and disengagement
between them8. Development and welfare need different kind of approach and
understanding, and personnel from departments not having similar approach may not
perform these functions well when they come on deputation.

Clarity and consensus among all those involved is essential in an organizational situation.
Differences exist between the goals set for the agency and the department and the
conception of those vested with the responsibility of reaching them about their
attainability. Lack of coherence between goals of the agency, and the degree of consensus
about their attainability leaves the individual with greater choice in action. Ultimately
under the influence of all these, the individual forms a dominant role conception which
varies from the requirements and goals of the agency. Consequently what the department
or agency requires may not be the same as what the individual does. Given the range of
choice, the person may strive to meet the minimal requirements of the organization with
low degree of involvement. He may engage in a subversive role whenever possible. Such
individuals covertly may control the organization after gaining sufficient power. Faced
with the conflicting pressures from answerability to the authorities and responsibilities to
the people, good number of personnel choose a safe alternative in functioning from the
point of view of the authorities. They concentrate on reaching the targets fixed. In this
backdrop, development favors the places having communication links like transport
facilities. In tribal areas maximum number of development programmes are concentrated
in the road-point villages.10 The reason given for favoring road point villages is, they are
easily accessible facilitating close supervision. The underlying consideration is that the
visiting officials and dignitaries have little or no time to visit interior and inaccessible
villages. The preference for road-side villages is for their convenience and convincing
them about the good work being done. On a number of occasions this sort of preference
has resulted in taking up the same developed village for all new schemes. Majority of the
schemes and services are located around the head quarters of I.T.D.A and Mandals, and
beneficiaries from such places are preferred. Interior and less accessible villages lag
behind because of preference to road-point development, and discrimination against them
in allocation of developmental benefits.

A grassroots level illustration: The V.D.O

The functioning of village level functionaries illustrates the discussion carried out
so far. The V.D.O is the grassroots level functionary in charge of the development. He
has an important role to play in the socio-economic transformation of tribal areas. From
the days of the Multi-purpose Projects. The strategy of tribal development underwent
several changes with corresponding changes in the development of administrative
structure. But, the Block Organizational Frame which came into existence with the C.D.
projects and N.E.S Blocks continued to be the basic unit of programme implementation.
The V.D.O. (earlier known as V.L.W) continues to be the vital link between development
administration and tribals. The V.D.O is supposed to act as communication agent
providing technical knowledge, guidance and encouragement to villagers, at the same
time providing feedback to the officials. The present day V.D.O had to adapt a different
style of functioning. There is little time for extension work and follow up. Extension
takes a back seat as considerable amount of time is spent on paper work, meeting,
accompanying higher officials and visitors. Last minute and late allotment of funds
forcing the development agencies to spend money in short time, leaves little scope for
proper planning and selection of beneficiaries. This results in V.D.O acting mostly as a
disbursement agent. For promoting various schemes in a short time, V.D.O seeks the
assistance of tribal elite who act as mediators between ordinary tribals and development
agencies. In this process, naturally the elite, their relatives and followers corner most of
the benefits.
Conclusion
The progress achieved in tribal areas with regard to all round development falls
short of expectations and is not commensurate with the efforts made in the last five
decades. The age old conservatism of the tradition bound tribals partly explains the
reluctance on the part of tribals for actively participating in the development programmes
forms the other dimension. But the role played by the development administration under
the influence of various structural and organizational factors deserves special attention in
understanding the tribal development falling below expectations.

3 Participatory Planning and Development

Introduction
The vocabulary of development in which new terms are continuously coined has
its own meanings and usage. The jargon of development is said to be less technical and
more emotional and it appeals to the psyche of the funding agencies and public
(Robertson, 1983: 107-109). At various junctures in the course of history of development,
different words have been used to indicate new strategies, initiatives and approaches.
Prefixes like comprehensive, integrated, multi-purpose, and intensive had a checkered
place in the terminology of development in India. These words do not carry a meaning in
the absolute sense but are understood as per the intentions and objectives of development
planners. Terms like sustainable development, participatory approach, empowerment, and
capacity building are currently fashionable. Participatory approach aims to involve
people in all stages of development i.e. Planning, execution and monitoring. This
approach differs from the earlier ones which conceived peoples role as recipients of
developmental benefits and innovations.
The earlier approaches
For a long period, the basic objective of planned development in backward areas
has been to accelerate modernization. Development meant imparting better methods in
agriculture, animal husbandry, health and other sectors. From this perspective tradition
represented a stagnating and retarding entity. Conflict between tradition and modernity
was considered as inevitable. Following this view local parties were undermined in favor
of innovations originating from outside. Local knowledge became atrophised. Many local
practices and the terms associated with them disappeared and replaced by external
practices, alien concepts and terms which are projected as modern. With programmes and
schemes being formulated elsewhere, felt needs of the local populations were neglected.
The implementation of programmes was marked by an unequal and uneasy relation
between development functionaries and the people. The former having little faith in the
capabilities of the latter, and the latter not clear about the intentions of the former and
resenting interference. Development agencies relied on extension methods for
popularizing innovations and extracting compliance of the people. The situation was
characterized by ‘we give you this-you participate’ kind of scenario. People remained by
and large as recipients and beneficiaries.
After decades of development two conspicuous disturbing facts emerged. They
are: destruction of natural resources, and failure to remove poverty. In the name of
development which benefited industrialists, urban dwellers and large farmers, poorer
sections like scheduled tribes were deprived of their resources and are displaced from
their ecosystem in many instances. It has been realized that peoples control on
development process is conducive for a sustainable management of natural resources.

Emphasis on participation In the past

Various documents and reports published in the first two decades after
independence profoundly reflected the emphasis on participation of tribals in their
developmental programmes. Focus was upon preservation of tribal culture, learning from
the tribals, working through or making use of tribal institutions, instilling among tribals a
sense of confidence and self-respect. Consent, initiative, acceptance, involvement, felt
needs of tribals were stressed upon. The First Five Year Plan document advised to not to
bring about change except at the initiative of the tribal people themselves and their
willing consent (1951:632). With a slight variation the Second Five Plan document
envisaged that details of the development programmes should be formulated in
consultation with members of advisory councils, tribal leaders, opinion of economic and
research Institutions engaged in the study of tribal people. It also mentioned that tribal
people have to be assisted largely through their own institutions (1956: 589, 590).
Balwant Roy Mehta report suggested that schemes in all their detail should be worked out
in consultation with tribal people who should feel that not only their advice is sought, but
also acted upon in all matters (1957: 53). Though all these recommendations stressed up
on peoples participation, it is the external agency at the helm of affairs which is vested
with the task of bringing about change by formulating schemes and programmes.

The experience from cooperatives and Panchayatraj bodies

The idea of Participatory development is not entirely new in India. In the first two
decades of development, Panchaytraj institutions and Community Development Projects
had the emphasis on peoples participation and democratic decentralization. Recently
Panchayats have been strengthened giving them more powers with regard to planning and
implementation of development programmes, resource control and utilization. The
provisions of the new Panchayat Act (Part IX of the constitution) which gave more
powers to local bodies are recently extended to Scheduled areas under the Provisions of
Panchayats Act (Extension to Scheduled Areas) of 1996. While making provisions for
giving more powers to the panchayats, this special step became necessary for
safeguarding the provisions of Vth schedule and VIth schedules of the Indian
Constitution specially meant for tribal areas. The fifth and sixth schedules have
provisions for management of affairs in accordance with customary laws, social and
religious practices, and traditional management practices of scheduled tribes. Provision is
there for approval of development schemes and plans by Gramasabhas which are
supposed to identify the beneficiaries with in their jurisdiction. The Gramasabha is to be
consulted about in matters related to resources, resettling, and rehabilitation. Controlling
money lending, granting rights over mineral extraction, planning and management of
water sources also form the domain of Gramasabha. Participation was built in to the
credit societies and other types of cooperatives that came into existence in the tribal areas
along with Tribal Development Blocks. Cooperatives were established as a result of the
recommendations of several experts who stressed the need to protect the tribals from the
exploitation of traders and money lenders. Though good number of cooperatives came in
to existence, after some initial activity, many of them remained either defunct or dormant
for various reasons. The credit cooperatives lacked sufficient financial base and
operational efficiency. Many of them became non-viable as they could not maintain
permanent staff due to paucity of funds. Majority of them closed down as debts were not
cleared, and became defunct as elections were not held. Repayments of loans taken from
cooperatives and other credit agencies is observed to be poor. On the whole, the
cooperatives which aroused many expectations could not reduce the importance of
traders and money lenders. Forest Labor cooperatives which could have made some
contribution also did not achieve any progress. The traditional leadership took charge of
cooperatives and panchayatraj bodies and cornered the benefits available through them.
Participation of common people by and large is confined to voting in the elections only.

Participatory approach in Andhra Pradesh

In the recent decades, Participatory Approach is emerging as the major strategy in the
planning and implementation of rural and tribal development programmes. To achieve
sustainable development, empowerment of people through participatory planning and
management is being prescribed. Stress is being laid on peoples capabilities, knowledge,
skills and elimination of external vested interests (Chambers, 1994). The relevance of
empowerment has been emphasized as there is a threat of diversion of land and other
natural resources into commercial ventures under the pressure from market forces. Under
the influence of international funding agencies, participation is being built into various
schemes. Significant change is taking place in the status of tribals from that of recipients
of development to that of partners. The boost given to participatory development in
Andhra Pradesh is mainly due to the projects that are being implemented. Under
international funding, Andhra Pradesh Tribal Development Project (1991-98) funded by
International fund For Agricultural Development and Government of Netherlands is
implemented in sixteen water sheds of four ITDAs of coastal districts. Andhra Pradesh
Participatory Tribal Development Project (1994-2000) is under implementation in
another four districts apart from covering the Chenchu, a primitive tribe. In these projects
the focus is on integrated community development approach (instead of earlier individual
approach), and inculcating self reliance (to overcome the dependency syndrome). These
projects encompass entitlements, nutrition/ food security, and eco-security. Economic
development is linked to natural resource development. Participatory micro-level
planning, execution. And monitoring formed the highlights of the project. Involving
women, and building community assets formed other important ingredients (Tribal Sub
Plan, 1997:32-39). Andhra Pradesh Tribal Development projects launched schemes for
providing food security through minor irrigation, soil conservation for enhancing soil
productivity, irrigation management, improving income levels, improving livestock,
community awareness, infrastructure for better medical facilities etc. The projects have
been formulated as per the premises of participatory approach viz., i. Development
process is sustainable if the functionaries act as catalysts and facilitate peoples’
participation, ii. The tribals have tremendous knowledge about the topography, resources
etc. much better than outsiders.

Participation and awareness

While Planning makes an issue of public participation, bureaucracy insists on public

compliance. The limitation of participatory approach is that it ignores the political
context in which bureaucrats function. It assumes a neutral development functionary.
Lack of trust between villagers and development functionaries because of the gap
existing between them is a common problem in traditional societies. In tribal areas the
relationship is characterized by inequality. Apprehension of becoming redundant lurks in
the minds of officials who feel that too much of public participation is incompatible with
government functioning. As a result effective control is not given to the people. The
coming together of development bureaucracy and community is fraught with
contradictions. The administration which is known for its authoritarian approach
suddenly finds it difficult to allow the tribals a free hand and opportunity in decision
making process.
 The participation and involvement of tribals in all the developmental affairs
essential for the successful functioning of participatory groups. Unlike the traditional
modes of collective action evolved from within over generations, the new institutions are
introduced from outside with Government assistance and supervision. They have not
developed as a result of initiatives and felt needs of the tribals. Lack of sufficient time
and preparation make the Government officials to initiate these bodies without attempting
to enlighten the tribals fully about the objectives. In such cases the tribals who become
members due to the persuasion of officials do not completely associate or identify
themselves with these bodies. In general, there is not much awareness among the tribals
about the significance and functioning of these participatory bodies and the effort that
was made is inadequate to educate the tribals in this regard. At village level it is observed
that members enrolled into these, have little idea of the real purpose and philosophy of
joining these bodies. They are under the impression that by becoming members they will
become eligible for getting loans and other development benefits. From the beginning, in
tribal development programmes, people are recruited by offering them various incentives.
Under these circumstances to make participation a reality is the biggest problem. For
villagers it is another new government programme. The village level bodies have little
say in the policy matters which are decided by officials and conveyed to the local elite.
The empowerment allows only those who are articulate enough to express their needs.

Watershed development scheme

Watershed Development is an integrated approach covering land, soil, ground after,

surface water, forestry, agriculture, and pastoral development. Water sled development
was taken up through community participation. Activities taken up include Soil and water
conservation, mixed horticulture plantations, and minor irrigation. Community
participation was invoked through Village Tribal Development Associations (VTDA).
The village development plans were generated after participatory exercise which started
with resource mapping, noting down seasonality of activities and listing out amenities
available to the villages. This scheme has at ITDA level a Task force officer ( Project
agricultural officer) and at Micro watershed level an agricultural officer/ consultant as in
charge. Village liaison worker (VLW), a local tribal youth acts as link between
community and VTDA, assists VTDA in planning, convenes meetings, maintains
registers and helps the watershed coordinator. Village Development Worker (VDW) is
the Key person in delivering human resource development, Providing guidance to
villagers in agriculture, health, nutrition, horticulture, irrigation, thrift, grain bank, Mahila
Sangham etc. Water shed development committee at ITDA level consists of all VTDA
presidents secretaries, and VLWs. In tribal villages single meeting for PRA exercise is
inadequate and inputs come mainly from officials in such meetings. According to a study
on A.P Tribal Development Project only in 68% of the cases motivational meetings could
be conducted before the starting of the scheme. In other cases either meetings were
partially conducted/ conducted in a different village (Sastry and Sastry, 1993: 14). Partial
meetings and meeting conducted elsewhere by gathering of people from different villages
allow for little useful interaction. These meetings functioned mostly as a one way
medium for transmitting directives, cajoling people to implement decisions taken
elsewhere. Officials announced to the villagers about the arrival of the new scheme. The
villagers are asked to speak out about their requirements. Villagers wanted credit,
horticulture, irrigation, commercial crops and pucca houses. Development priorities
introduced by state machinery over decades can be seen in their requirements mentioned
by people. It is observed that projects formulated as prioritized by tribals are uniform in
their programme content. What has been termed as people centered development emerges
into professional dominated development. The meetings conducted to empower the
tribals to identify their resources and express freely their priorities turns out to be an
exercise to choose items relevant for their needs from among the lists suggested to them.
The maps and tables which figured in the village development plans prepared are without
any concrete application. The employees who went to tribal villages to collect resource
maps, seasonal cycles etc mention that they are not in a position to make use of them.
The village plans provide little idea about how peoples knowledge has been utilized in
planning. Reversal of learning i.e. learning from people as envisaged in the participatory
approach is yet to gain momentum. Collection of data from people alone does not make a
plan perfect. Planning has always been a political process and implementation is not
divorced from it. Even in participatory village committees the usual village politics
pervade. Interests of local people differed according to land ownership and occupation
resulting in conflicts over priorities. Village leaders not wanting to loose their grip try to
control functionaries and VTDA bodies. The cornering of developmental benefits by a
few due to alignments between tribal leaders and personnel continues. As elections were
not held in statutory tribal panchayats, the leaders selected for the participatory bodies are
functioning like Panchayat leaders of the earlier years. The village level committees are
empowered to have control over their funds but they are depending upon the
development functionaries for managing accounts etc. due to lack of knowledge about
procedures. It has been observed that the VLWs selected from among the tribals are
functioning and feeling like employees and not as facilitators from within. In horticultural
schemes, the problems are selecting varieties not suitable, providing substandard saplings
and varieties not required by people continues. In villages the survival rate of the trees
planted is
found to be poor. The officials blamed the villagers for not taking proper care of the trees.
The trees planted in degraded soils died as they were not given water. There is less
interest in soil conservation works like bounding and terracing, and minor irrigation
where community participation has been envisaged. Works which are supposed to be
taken up by the villagers are being carried by employing Benarni contractors and outside
workers. It has been mentioned that up to 62 to 67 percent works are being carried out in
some of the ITDAs by employing outside workers and contractors (Sastry and Sastry,
1993: 29). Villagers are found to be more interested in individual benefits and loans but
not in works like soil conservation useful to the community. The thrift societies meant for
empowering women are being equated with Mahila Mandals of earlier days and
DWACRA groups of the more recent times. At many places women are joining thrift
societies in order to get the matching grant given by the government. With the thrift
society being free to decide about their interest rates and repayment schedules, there are
instances where women in charge of these societies are functioning like traditional money
lenders charging high rates of interest. Money taken as loan is mostly being used for
consumption needs.
Joint forest management

For more than a century restrictions and prohibitions on tribals with regards to their
access to forests are ever increasing. Traditional customary rights and privileges of the
tribals were systematically deprived in the name of national and public interest. The 1988
forest policy envisaged the participation of people in the protection and regeneration of
forest. Faith is reposed on the tribals who were earlier projected and treated as predators
on forest, for protecting and managing the forests under Joint Forest Management. The
experience of JFM coming from West Bengal proved that: 1. the process of forest
degradation can be reversed; 2. People can be effective care takers of forest resources, 3.
Broad based participation of people can bring in harmonious relation between state and
people (Malhotra and Poffenberger, 1989). This experience made Government to extend
JFM for implementation in the entire country. In June 1990 Govt of India gave
instructions to various states to set up joint forest management committees to be the
interface between forest department and local people. Under J.F.M, plantations are being
taken up keeping in mind the economic interests of tribals to be managed with the
participation of tribals. Growing of forest of high commercial value around tribal villages
is envisaged. For the first time the tribals became a party to selection of species for
plantations as for the prescriptions of the JFM programme. Assessing JFM needs to be
done in terms of peoples participation, autonomy, utilization of peoples knowledge and
experience with out being captured by vested interests. Dolly Arora (1994) was skeptical
about the out come of JFM. In various states the powers of the village level JFM
committees are said to be limited. No specific rules have been framed for the functioning
of the committees. In the absence of formal agreement between the people and the state,
the people remained at the mercy of the officials. Gender bias was pointed in the
recruitment of members into the committees. Saxena (1993) questions the replicability of
the west Bengal model elsewhere and doubts whether there can be a change in the
attitude of the bureaucrats towards people. In Andhra Pradesh, Vana Samrakshana
Samithis (VSS) have been formed under A. P. Forest Project for the protection of forest
by tribals who now became entitled to not only minor forest produce but also a share in
the sale proceeds of major forest produce. The G.O issued by the Government of Andhra
Pradesh (GOMS NO 224 EF S&T (for 11) dt 11-11-93) lays down that ITDAs of the
tribal welfare department are to be associated with JFM. It mentions that forest
department officials should act as nodal agency. The two departments having different
goals and approaches have been made to come
together and coordinate under this scheme.

JFM is meant more for the protection and development of degraded forest than for
empowering tribals. Participation is only on the fringe as jointly managed forest is
restricted to be within 500 meters from the village boundary. The guidelines speak of
micro planning for forest regeneration. Though villagers priorities are considered, the
forest department officials have the final say in species selection. They are the technical
experts in deciding the species suitability. Availability is controlled by them as the
nurseries are in the hands of Forest department. As per the guidelines, VSSs will have
usufructuary right provided they discharge their duties and responsibilities. This is
keeping them at the mercy of officials as they do not have any legal right in the jointly
managed forest. The tribals are worried whether the forest department will allow them to
use the forest after the scheme is over. Another apprehension is that if the regeneration is
good, the forest will be taken over by the department to he declared as reserve. In many
villages, the survival rate of the saplings planted under the JFM is found to be poor and
the officials blame the tribals for not taking good care of the trees. Many of the problems
mentioned earlier with regard to village level participatory committees are applicable to
VSS also because of the overlap between them.

Sum up
What is significant is that while privatization and liberalization have become the
magic words for progress at the national level, collectivities like user groups, village level
associations, and democratic bodies are being enlisted for empowerment through
participatory management at micro-level. The scheduled tribes are affected to the
maximum extent due to deprivation of their access to natural resources i.e. land and
forests through land alienation and forest regulations. At various places they have been
displaced from their habitats for locating projects and industries. The people who are
most affected because of development and deprivation are now being enlisted to
participate in development aimed at protection of natural resources and environment.
Socio-economic conditions in tribal villages are not homogeneous that enthusiasm for
participatory development is not uniform. In many tribal villages the internal dynamics is
quite complex. In this context experience of peoples participation in Programmes like
Shramdan of Community Development Projects still seems to be relevant. Creating
conducive atmosphere for having participatory planning in tribal areas is one of the
problems. The exercise of planning requires a degree of optimism and confidence to
manipulate resources, people, and activities. The tribals are traditionally oriented towards
short term goals and immediate needs. They need to be reoriented in this regard. The
emphasis on participatory approach is only for poor, marginal groups and ecologically
vulnerable populations. For example JFM is implemented only in degraded forests and
not in reserve forests. As participatory management has great advantages, the question
arises that why it can not be applied in areas such as industries and reserve forests and
make tribals as partners in them. Dependency on government for every minute need has
been fostered by various agencies implementing varieties of schemes in the tribal areas.
Empowerment through participatory development should lead to self reliance. Through
participatory development, elimination of capital intensive external inputs seems to a step
in right direction to overcome the dependency syndrome in the tribal communities.
Through participatory bodies, the communities are now learning to express their needs
and perceptions freely which is a desirable step. Another welcome change is that the
officials are now being asked to listen to people, giving respect to their voices and views.
Like any other innovative scheme, participatory development is affected by the existing
practices and attitudes coming down from the past. It needs a sincere and persistent effort
to make participatory development a success.