2

Table of Contents
Introduction..3 5

Chapter 1. Proverbs in the English language....6 - 16

1.1 . Phraseology: Phraseological units and their types.4 11
1.2 . Proverbs as phraseological units. 12 - 16

Chapter 2. Structural and semantic peculiarities of

proverbs17 - 34
2.1. Structure of the English proverbs.17 29
2.1.1 The Syntactic Structure of the English Proverbs....18 - 29
2.2. Semantic characteristics of the English proverbs.....30 34

Conclusion...35 36

List of references37 38

Summary39
 3

INTRODUCTION
In folklore among all the variety and richness of its poetical significance
and form it is difficult to find more interesting and researchable genre than
proverbs. It was the subject of deep study of scientists in most different
ideological branches. Most of the scientists agree that the proverbs are folklore
speech where not only the person's point of view but also general people's
outlook is expressed. Proverbs play an important role in any language. They give
emotionality and expressiveness to the speech. They have certain pure linguistic
features that must always be taken into account in order to distinguish them from
ordinary sentences.
Proverbs are brief statements showing uncondensed form of the
accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional
practical symbols for abstract ideas. They are usually didactic and image bearing.
Many of them become very polished and there is no extra word in proverbs.
Summarizing above mentioned information the following definition can be given
to a proverb: it is a short, meaningful statement with the rhythmic organization
that people have been creating for centuries in their social and historical life.
The actuality of the study of the proverbs in English is that their usage in
speech is of great importance. The correct application of the proverbs is also
important. While translating any other work of art we should pay close attention
to this point. Without having any idea about the structural and semantic
peculiarities of the proverbs we will not be able to grasp its meaning and
therefore apply it in our everyday life.
The proverbs in their actual use are the object of this paper. The subject
of the paper is the peculiarity of their semantic and syntactic structure.
The tasks and aims of the course paper:
- to define proverbs and investigate their belonging to the
phraseology;
 4

- to point out the structural characteristics of the English

proverbs and classify them according to the type of the syntactic
structure;
- to view the connection between the components of the proverb
and its meaning;
- to illustrate the peculiarities of the semantics of proverbs by
forming semantic groups.
The practical value of this paper lies in the fact that it will serve as a good
manual for those who want to master modern English language. The practical
result and all the given examples can be used in practical lessons, writing
compositions in colloquial and written speech.
We consider also that the topicality of the paper consists in the use of actual
materials on proverbs use and classification, which were mostly published in the
Internet. Quite a large number of scholars made a groundbreaking research in the
field of the English proverbs. In the course paper we used the works by V.A.
Koonin, V.V. Vinogradov, I.V. Arnold, N.N. Amosova, H.B. Antrushina. O.O.
Selivanova, A.I. Hensorsky, M.M. Pugachiv made an attempt to investigate the
problem of proverbs being phraseological units. Richard Nordquist in his work
Proverb used a number of definitions of proverb to better illustrate its meaning. A
great work was done by Dundes, Kimmerle and Milner. They tried to profoundly
analyze the structure of the proverbs. In addition, the systematization of the
semantic sphere of the proverbs can be found in the work by Professor V.N. Telia.
The results of these works and some other were included into the current
investigation.
The methods used in our paper are the methods of comparative analysis, the
method of semantico-syntactic analysis, contextual analysis, and the use of
dictionary definitions.
The paper consists of: introduction, two chapters, conclusion and the list of
references. The introduction presents brief description of the paper, its object,
subject, actuality, practical significance and fields of amplification.
 5

Chapter 1 gives a general overview of the English proverbs, the

classification of phraseological units and their definitions. Focus is made on the
belonging of proverbs to phraseology.
Chapter 2 deals with the structural and semantic peculiarities of the English
proverbs. It demonstrates the semantic groups and syntactic classification of the
proverbs.
Conclusion presents the results of the research received in the process of
working on the paper. List of references covers nearly 30 sources of theoretical
materials.
 6

CHAPTER I. PROVERBS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1.1 PHRASEOLOGY: PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS AND THEIR
TYPES
By phraseology we mean the branch of linguistics dealing with stable word-
combinations characterized by certain transference of meaning.
A. Koonin says that phraseology is the science of phraseological units, i.e. of
stable combinations of words with complicated semantics. Phraseological units
are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech. They exist in the
language as ready-made units. Just like words phraseological units express a single
notion. [9]
There is a certain divergence of opinion as to the essential features of
phraseological units as distinguished from other word-groups and the nature of
phrases that can be properly termed phraseological units. The terms set-
expressions, set-phrases, phrases, idioms, word-equivalents, fixed word-
groups, collocations denote more or less the same linguistic phenomenon [1, p.
87], but are sometimes treated differently by linguists.
The term set expression implies that the basic criterion of differentiation
is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups.
The term word-equivalent stresses not only semantic but also functional
inseparability of certain word-groups, their aptness to function in speech as single
words.
The term idioms generally implies that the essential feature of the
linguistic units under consideration is idiomaticity or lack of motivation. Uriel
Weinreich expresses his view that an idiom is a complex phrase, the meaning of
which cannot be derived from the meanings of its elements. He developed a more
truthful supposition, claiming that an idiom is a subset of a phraseological unit.
[23, p.31 - 34] Ray Jackendoff and Charles Fillmore offered a fairly broad
definition of the idiom, which, in Fillmores words, reads as follows: an
idiomatic expression or construction is something a language user could fail to
know while knowing everything else in the language [15, p.501 538].
 7

Unlike components of free word-groups which may vary according to the

needs of communication, member-words of phraseological units are always
reproduced as single unchangeable collocations. E.g., in a red flower (a free
phrase) the adjective red may be substituted by another adjective denoting colour,
and the word-group will retain the meaning: the flower of a certain colour.
In the phraseological unit red tape (excessive bureaucracy or adherence to
official rules and formalities [27, p. 1221]) no such substitution is possible, as a
change of the adjective would cause a complete change in the meaning of the
group: it would then mean tape of a certain colour. It follows that the
phraseological unit red tape is semantically non-motivated, i.e. its meaning cannot
be deduced from the meaning of its components, and that it exists as a ready-made
linguistic unit which does not allow any change of its lexical components and its
grammatical structure.
Grammatical structure of phraseological units is to a certain degree also
stable:
red tape a phraseological unit;
red tapes a free word-group;
Still the basic criterion is comparative lack of motivation, or idiomaticity of
the phraseological units. Semantic motivation is based on the coexistence of direct
and figurative meaning.
Many scientists devoted their works to investigation of phraseology. They
gave their definitions to the science and elaborated the classification of
phraseological units.
Taking into consideration mainly the degree of idiomaticity phraseological
units may be classified into three big groups. This classification was first suggested
by Academician V.V. Vinogradov. These groups are:
phraseological fusions,
phraseological unities,
phraseological collocations, or habitual collocations. [4]
 8

Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups. The

meaning of the components has no connection at least synchronically with the
meaning of the whole group. Idiomaticity is combined with complete stability of
the lexical components and the grammatical structure of the fusion.
Phraseological unities are partially demotivated word-groups as their
meaning can usually be understood through the metaphoric meaning of the whole
phraseological unit.
Phraseological unities are usually marked by a comparatively high degree of
stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure. Phraseological
unities can have homonymous free phrases, used in direct meanings.
to skate on thin ice to skate on thin ice (to risk);
to play the first role in the theatre to play the first role (to dominate).
There must be not less than two notional words in metaphorical meanings.
Phraseological collocations are word-groups with a partially changed
meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, that is the meaning of the unit
can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents. In phraseological
collocations variability of components is strictly limited. They differ from
phraseological unities by the fact that one of the components in them is used in its
direct meaning, the other in indirect meaning, and the meaning of the whole
group dominates over the meaning of its components. As figurativeness is
expressed only in one component of the phrase it is hardly felt. [4]
to break a promise, a rule, news, silence;
to meet demands, requirement, necessity;
to set free; to set at liberty;
to make money, journey;
The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words, but also by
phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in
the process of speech. They are compiled in special dictionaries. The same as
words, phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as
one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units idioms. We
 9

can mention such dictionaries as: L. Smith Words and Idioms, V. H. Collins A
Book of English Idioms etc. In these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in
their semantics (idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. V.H.
Collins writes in his Book of English Idioms: "In standard spoken and written
English today idiom is an established and essential element that, used with care,
ornaments enriches the language. [26]
Phraseological units represent what can probably be described as the most
picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the languages vocabulary [1, p. 86]
A.V. Koonin [9] classified phraseological units according to the way they
are formed. He suggested the classification system of phraseological units based on
the combined structural-semantic principle. He also considered the stability of
phraseological units.
According to him, phraseological units are subdivided into the following
four classes depending on their function in communication determined by their
structural-semantic characteristics.
1. Nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups,
including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases
of the type wear and tear, well and good.
The first class also includes word-groups with a predicative structure, such
as as the crow flies, and predictive phrases of the type see how the land lies,
ships that pass in the night.
2. Nominative-communicative phraseological units include word-groups of
the type to break the ice the ice is broken, that is, verbal word-groups
which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the
Passive Voice.
3. Phraseological units which are neither nominative nor communicative
include interjectional word-groups (e.g. pretty kettle of fish, not for all the
tea in China).
 10

4. Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and

sayings (e.g. he who lives by the sword dies by the sword, honesty is the
best policy, let the dead bury their dead). [9]
Dubrovska I.B. in her work Biblical and Christian metaphor in the German
language: nominative aspect analyzed the biblical and Christian metaphorical
units according to their structure and found out that 72,1% of the total number of
metaphorical language signs belong to phraseological BCMU (Biblical and
Christian metaphorical units). She considers phraseological BCM as a special
subclass of language metaphor having non-autonomous character of metaphorical
nomination. Biblical phraseological units are, in her words, not only the emotive
colouring of language, but also means of nomination. [7]
Professor A.I. Smirnitsky offered a classification system in which he tried to
combine the structural and the semantic principles. [11] He points out the
following structural types:
a) attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone
round ones neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can
be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units sometimes the first
component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other cases the second component is
idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red
tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm and many others.
b) verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines, to speak
BBC, to sweep under the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb,
the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall in love. In
some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.g. not to know
the ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn ones boats,
to vote with ones feet, to take to the cleaners etc.
Very close to such units are word-groups of the type to have a glance, to
have a smoke. These units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special
syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.
 11

c) phraseological repetitions, such as: now or never, part and parcel,

country and western etc. Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs,
back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g. cakes and ale,
as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions.
These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre.
They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly),
bread and butter (perfectly). [11]
Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification
was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:
a) noun phraseological units denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g.
bullet train, latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets;
b) verb phraseological units denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to
break the log-jam, to get on somebodys coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out,
to make headlines;
c) adjective phraseological units denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose,
dull as lead;
d) adverb phraseological units, such as: with a bump, in the soup, like a
dream, like a dog with two tails;
e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of;
f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. Catch me!, Well, I never! etc.[3]
In I.V. Arnolds classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs,
sayings and quotations, e.g. The sky is the limit, What makes him tick, I am easy.
Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. Too many cooks spoil the broth, while
sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical, e.g. Where there is a will there is a way.
To sum up, the phenomenon of phraseological units is complicated. The
classifications of the reaserchers still have common features. However, the place of
proverbs, sayings and familiar quotations with respect to set-expressions is a
controversial issue. In the next chapter we will try to present different opinions
concerning this problem.
 12

1.2. PROVERBS AS A PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

The nominative structure of phraseological units is diverse and complicated.
To phraseology belong word-combinations, sentences and even microtexts. That is
why some phraseologists suggest that a line should be drawn between idioms and
proverbs and sayings. Other scientists think that proverbs and sayings should be
removed from phraseology and taken to folklore. Ukrainian researcher O. O.
Selivanova assumes that such final differentiation is not justified, since
proverbs and idioms incorporate features of reproducing, stability, cultural
marking, as well as high level of cumulativeness and translatability [10, p. 645].
The question about belonging of proverbs and sayings to phraseological
stock of languages under investigation was examined in the studies of scientists of
previous century, but also did not come to unanimous solution. Supporters of the
so called broad understanding of phraseology stress that proverbs and sayings
should be regarded as peculiar communicative type of phraseological units. A.V.
Koonin pointed out that proverbs should be studied in folklore as well as in
phraseology, but from different points of view. In phraseology they are learned as
the units of phraseological stock of language, which are endowed by particular
semantic, stylistic and structural peculiarities [8, p.17]. Under proverbs we
usually understand short aphoristic sayings of intstructive meaning in
rhythmically organized form. [9, p. 176]
V.V. Vinogradov [4] think proverbs must be studied together with
phraseological unities. Others like A.I. Smirnitsky [11] and N.N. Amosova [2,
p.123-144] think that unless they regularly form parts of other sentences it is
wrong to include them into the system of language because they are independent
units of communication. N. N. Amosova even thinks that there is no more reason
to consider them as part of phraseology. This standpoint is hardly acceptable
especially if we do not agree with the narrow limits of phraseology offered by this
author.
In the preface to he Concise Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs its editor J. A.
Simpson indicated that there is an opinion that proverbs and sayings go out of
 13

fashion, or are simplified to clichs. However, it should be mentioned that

although the role of proverbs and sayings in English literature has changed, their
popularity is still unchangeable. [28]
Learning proverbs as the source of phraseological derivation is of great
importance to phraseology. It is also necessary to mark out those features that
differentiate proverbs and sayings from the other phraseological units: 1) taking
into consideration the syntactic structure, the proverbs are accurately structured
sentences; for example: Boys will be men [29, p.27]; 2) they express judgement,
generalized thought, morality, unlike other phraseological units that usually
denote some concept or thing: A man at sixteen will prove a child at sixty [29,
p.27]; 3) The structure of proverbs and sayings is based on contrast: Young saint,
old devil [29, p.27]; 4) proverbs and sayings are word-combinations, in which the
meaning of every word doesnt change when we do not use it in this combination,
but the combination itself is stable due to frequent use and rhythmic form:
Children and chicken must always be picking [29, p.28].
A. I. Hensorsky indicates that from other word-combinations they differ: a)
semantically on the completeness of self-sufficient limited thought in them; b)
structurally on frequent two-syllable structure of the construction and quite
stable order of its components. [5, p.175]
Through proverbs and sayings opens natural ability of the folk creator of its
language to profound, detailed and objective reflection of the phenomena, which
are inherent in human society and nature. M.M. Pugachov defines proverbs as
brief, concise, and sometimes rhymed expressions, which in aphoristic form
transmit the results of the observation by man their life, practical activities and
natural phenomena. [25, p. 6]
In my opinion, the proverbs should exist not only in folklore but also in
phraseology. As to the argument that in many proverbs the meaning of component
parts does not show any specific changes when compared to the meaning of the
same words in free combinations, it must be pointed out that in this respect they do
not differ from many set-expressions, especially from those which are emotionally
 14

neutral. Another reason why proverbs must be taken into consideration together
with set-expressions is that they often form the basis of set-expressions. For
example; the last straw breaks the camel's back: the last straw; a drowning man
will clutch at a straw: to clutch at a straw; it is useless to lock the stable door when
the steed is stolen: to lock the stable door. Both set-expressions and proverbs are
sometimes split and changed for humorous purposes, as in the following quotation
where the proverb all is not gold that glitters combine with an allusion to the set-
expression golden age: it will be an age not perhaps of gold, but at least of glitter.
The problem of defining proverbs appears to be as old as man's interest in
them. People who consciously used them or began to collect them in antiquity
obviously needed to differentiate proverbs from other gnomic devices such as
apothegms, maxims, aphorisms, quotations, etc. Jan Fredrik Kindstrand [18]
reviewed some of these early definition attempts in his fascinating paper on The
Greek Concept of Proverbs.
Richard Nordquist [21] in his work Proverb considers a proverb to be a
short, pithy statement of a general truth, one that condenses common experience
into memorable form. [21] He used the definitions suggested by Miguel de
Cervantes, Paul Hernadi, Stefan Kanfer, Sydney J. Harris. As defined by
Cervantes, proverb is "a short sentence based on long experience." "[Proverbs are]
brief, memorable, and intuitively convincing formulations of socially sanctioned
advice." (Paul Hernadi, "The Tropical Landscape of Proverbia." Style, Spring
1999) "The aphorism is a personal observation inflated into a universal truth, a
private posing as a general. A proverb is anonymous human history compressed to
the size of a seed." (Stefan Kanfer, "Proverbs or Aphorisms?" Time, July 11, 1983)
"A proverb is a statement we enthusiastically embrace when we are unwilling to
examine the particulars in a general situation." (Sydney J. Harris)
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2006) a proverb is a well-
known phrase or sentence that gives advice or says something that is generally
true[27].
 15

Proverb is a brief saying that presents a truth or some bit of useful wisdom.
It is usually based on common sense or practical experience. The effect of a
proverb is to make the wisdom it tells seem to be self-evident. The same proverb
often occurs among several different peoples. True proverbs are sayings that have
been passed from generation to generation primarily by word of mouth. They may
also have been put into written form. The Book of Proverbs in the Hebrew Bible,
or old Testament, is the most notable collection of such sayings. They include:
Hope deferred month the heartsick.
A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches.
A soft answer turneth away.
Pride goeth before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall. [13]
Proverbs often find their way into literature. Many of the lower-class
characters in the Canterbury tales by Geoffrey Chaucer refer to proverbs. Miguel
de Cervantes' novel Don Quixote contains many proverbs. Cervantes collected the
proverbs from the Spanish pea sands. The term itself was introduced by Soviet
linguists to denote a specific group of phrases and is generally accepted in our
country.
The Book of Proverbs in the Hebrew Bible is also known as the Proverbs of
Solomon because according to tradition King Solomon wrote it. However,
scholars believe that the book's assortment of moral and religious sayings, poems
and warnings come from various periods of the history.
The Book of Proverbs has earned universal interest because it contains material
valuable to all people who hope to live a life of wisdom, honesty, responsibility.
Many of the book's sayings have become part of everyday speech.
Proverbs were always the most vivacious and at the same time the most stable
part of the national languages, suitable competing with the sayings and aphorisms
of outstanding thinkers. Picturesqueness of national thinking was more vividly
expressed as well as their features of national character in the proverbs and
sayings. The proverbs and sayings are the paper of folklore which is short but
deep in the meaning. They express the outlook of the amount of people by their
 16

social and ideal functions. Proverbs and sayings include some certain features of
historical development and the culture of people.
Many scholars tried to do research to show the differences between proverbs
and sayings in order to point out their border of limit. As Dr. Panos Karagiorgos
writes, proverb is a condensed but memorable saying embodying some
important fact of experience that is taken as true by many people. Saying is a
word or phrase that particular people use in particular situations. [16]
However, the borderline between proverbs and sayings is not clearly
discernible. One of the outstanding Russian scholars the author of "Dictionary of
vivid Russian language" and "The proverbs of Russian nation" V.I. Dahl wrote:
saying is the bud and proverb is the fruit [6]. A pure proverb has a
metaphorical meaning. It says one thing and it means another. There has been
much discussion, and disagreement, among modern paroemiographers on the
subject, but Aristotle had already clarified the point by stating laconically: 'Some
of the proverbs are also sayings.'
So from this point of view we can see that proverbs express the full finite
meaning and saying is a phrase which expresses the fugitive meaning. The
sayings are considered to be the part of the proverbs. We can also add that
proverbs and sayings are separate genres which are different from each other. The
meaning and explanation of these terms show that semantically their meanings
are various and this fact confirms our above given ideas.
 17

CHAPTER 2. STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC PECULIARITIES OF

PROVERBS
2.1. STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH PROVERBS
This part of the course paper is dedicated to structure of English proverbs, which
are considered paradigmatically. General characteristics of proverbs syntax and the
most widely used proverbial constructions are cleared out here.
Like all sentences proverbs possess a certain syntactic structure and belong to a
certain communicative type.
The structure of English proverbs was profoundly analyzed in the work of Alan
Dundes On the Structure of the Proverb. He cites the work of Kimmerle (1947) and
Milner (1969) in particular in his discussion On the Structure of the Proverb.
According to him, Kimmerle's analysis was more of surface structure than deep
structure to employ the Chomsky metaphor [14, p.104, 1987]. As he rightly points
out, it is highly questionable whether parts of speech per se can significantly illumine
the structure of proverbs [14, p.104, 1987]. He also criticizes Milner's definition of
proverbs as traditional sayings consisting of quadripartite structure [14, p.105,
1987]. A quadripartite analysis assigns four quarters (minor segments) to a proverb
and they are grouped into two halves (major segments) which match and balance each
other. The opening half is called the head while the word or words in each quarter are
then assigned a plus or minus value as in:
+ - + -
soon ripe soon rotten
The second half is labelled the tail. According to Dundes [14, p.107, 1987]
one cannot define any structural element in total isolation from the whole syntagmatic
sequence or the whole paradigm which is what Milner's quadripartite analysis does.
Hence, it is rejected with the discussion of the proverb England has mild winters but
hard summers . In this proverb, the structural significance of winters cannot
be understood without taking summers into account. But clearly winters and
summers are in opposition just as mild and hard. Milner, however, assigns plus
 18

or minus values to each of the quarters as though the other three quarters were not
present [14, p.107, 1987].
After rejecting Kimmerle (1947) and Milner (1969), he proposes his own
structural definition of a proverb as:
a traditional propositional statement consisting of at least one
descriptive element, a descriptive element consisting of a topic and comment
[14, p.115, 1987].
He arrives at this definition from Westermarck [24, p.5-6] by replacing his
subject and predicate with topic and comment.
The problem with this definition is that it is too broad, and so equally suffers
from the defect of the extension. Any sentence that is not a proverb can have a topic
and a comment. For example, both topics and comments are present as members of
contrastive pairs in a traditional statement, such as, A good man helps but a bad man
harms or Good people are humble but bad people are arrogant (A good man / Good
people, A bad man / bad people; helps / humble, harms / arrogant). This is not a
proverb whereas Man proposes but God disposes (Man/God; proposes/disposes) is a
proverb. So also A proverb is a short sentence of wisdom [19, p.109-143] can be
contested by saying that shortness is a relative term but it can be fixed to contain a
certain number of words and so can be taken as an essential textual characteristic of
proverbs but not a short sentence of wisdom because all short sentences (of
wisdom) need not be proverbs. For example, Honesty is the best policy is a proverb
while Dishonesty is the worst policy is not. Therefore, we need a mixed uncommon
characteristic of a proverb. It is a common linguistic characteristic found in the
prototype - categorial instantiation property of proverbs.
2.1.1 The Syntactic Structure of the English Proverbs
A sentence occurs in two clause patterns: 1. simple; and 2. complex (which
includes both coordination and subordination) yielding four major syntactic classes: 1.
Statements (declaratives); 2. Questions (interrogatives); 3. Commands (directives);
4.Exclamations (exclamatory). Again, each major syntactic class is further divided into
different classes and types. In a similar way are also the clauses patterns. In addition,
 19

each dependent clause performs various functions such as subject, object, complement,
or adverbial in the superordinate clause [22, p. 315].
A complete analysis of the structure of proverbs involving not only the simple
and complex sentence clause patterns but also such aspects as phrasal coordination,
apposition, phrase structure, etc. will be worthwhile to contrastively describe the
structure of proverbial and normal languages.
In the major class of statements, in the clause pattern of complex sentence, in
the (sub-) class of nominal clause, in the that-clause type, the that clause performs
five functions:
as the subject (e.g. That she is still alive (S) is a consolation.),
direct object (e.g. {I told him / I knew} that he was wrong (D.O.).),
subject complement (e.g. The assumption is that things will improve (S.C.).),
appositive (e.g. Your assumption, that things will improve, is unfounded.), and
adjectival complement (e.g. Im sure that things will improve (Adj.C).
in normal language [22, p. 316 17]. Whereas in proverbs, only three functions
are enumerated in the English examples. In spite of that, it does not mean the absence
of the remaining two functions in proverbs; it only means that so far they have not
been made use of, or not recorded, or not identified. That it is so is because of the
open-ended nature of the form of proverbs. For example, the syntactic structure of a
proverb is historically not found to be absolute as we see in different variations of the
same proverb starting from the Biblical Time
Do unto others as you would have them do unto you:
Do as you would be done by;
Do it to him before he does it to you;
Do others before they do you;
Do unto others as others do unto you;
Do unto others as though you were the others;
Do unto others before they do to you;
Dont do to others what you would not have done to you;
What you do not like done to yourself do not do to others.
 20

It appears that almost all the major structures up to the clause type are made use
of in the formation of proverbs. Owing to the constraints of space, only a few
representative samples are provided.
Simple Sentence Proverbs
According to Quirk and Greenbaum [22, p.166 67], simple sentences are
divided into seven clause types, based on the presence of the normally obligatory
elements in a clause:
1. SVA; 2. SVC ; 3. SVO; 4. SVOA; 5. SVOC; 6. SVOO; and 7. SV
[where S is subject; V verb; O object; A adverbial; and C complement].
In proverbs also, all these are used even though the frequency of their
occurrence may vary. For example, statements and commands are numerous while
questions are very few and exclamations rare as can be noticed from a reading of the
two proverbial dictionaries ADAP (A Dictionary of American Proverbs by Mieder)
and ODEP (The Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs by Wilson) in the major
syntactic classes for simple sentence clause types. Possibly, even among the seven
clause types, some may be more, some may be less. For example, the incidence of
SVOO and SVOC type clauses is less while that of others is more. [14]
A few examples for simple sentence proverbs are given below.
a. Declaratives
SVA [e.g. Mary is in the house.]
A womans place is in the house; The absent are always in the wrong.
SVC [e.g. Mary is (kind / a nurse).]
Love is blind; No one is infallible; Ignorance is bliss.
SVO [e.g. somebody caught the ball.]
Familiarity breeds contempt; A stitch in time saves nine.
SVOA [e.g. I put the plate on the table.]
You cant put a round peg in a square hole; Dogs dont kill the sheep at
home;
SVOC [e.g. we have proved him (wrong / a fool).]
Six feet under make all men equal; The pot calls the kettle black;
 21

SVOO [e.g. she gives me expensive presents.]

Every man thinks his own geese swans; You cant teach an old horse new
tricks.
SV [e.g. The child laughed.]
Money talks; Time flies; A barking dog never bites.
b. Interrogatives
Proverbs do not initiate an exchange in their basic form. A question is basically
a request for an answer be it an yes/no question or Wh - question or Alternative
question but proverbs are not requests for answers and hence they do not belong to
the major class of interrogatives. They are not even exclamatory questions in the
strictest sense but they are proper rhetorical questions implying positive or negative
assertion [22, p.191 200]. A few examples of interrogative proverbs are given below.
Rhetorical Questions
Who will bell the cat? ; What is a pound of butter among a kennel of
hounds?
Question / Answer Proverbs
There are some proverbs in English which have both a question and an answer
joined together as a set, i.e., the rhetorical question is provided with the positive or
negative assertion plus a comment as the answer which will not be in rhetorical
question type proverbs.
Is a woman ever satisfied? No, if she were she wouldnt be a woman; Avarice
and happiness never saw each other; How, then, should they be acquainted?
In a rare combination of a question with an answer to indicate refusal is listed as
a proverb in ODEP:
a) Which way to London? A poke full of plums.
In another instance, an elicitation is given with an answer as part of the proverb:
b) What are little boys made of? Frogs and snails and puppy dogs tails thats
what little boys are made of.
c. Imperatives
Commands are classified as:
 22

Commands with / without a Subject

You must cut your coat according to the cloth; Every man should cultivate
his own garden;
Commands with Let
Let every cat cover up his own stink; Let one hat cover one face.
Negative Commands
Dont cast your pearls before swine;
Persuasive Imperatives
Persuasive imperatives are created by the addition of do before the main
verb in English and they are rare in English proverbs.
d. Exclamations
Exclamations in English proverbs are not common. However, ODEP gives a few
examples of exclamations in simple and complex sentences.
God bless the duke of Argyle! Farewell, Gentle Geoffrey!
Normally, proverbs in other syntactic classes can be converted into an
exclamation depending upon the context. For example, a declarative proverb
A stitch in time saves nine! into: A stitch in time saves nine! to express the
emotional realization of the value of a stitch in time. Proverbs with what or how
introducing the initial phrase are rare.
Complex Sentence Proverbs
In Quirk and Greenbaum (1989), unlike earlier classifications, a complex
sentence which contains more than one clause consists of both coordinate and
subordinate clauses. It can be finite, non-finite and verbless. In addition, it can have
nominal, adverbial, comparative, and comment clauses. Moreover, each of these
four clauses has its own sub-varieties. What is more, each sub-variety performs
different functions such as subject, object, etc. in a sentence.
Based on the above-mentioned classification, a clausal analysis of English
proverbs is done in order to know their syntactic structure at the complex sentence
level.
a. Coordination in Proverbs
 23

In proverbial clausal coordination, the three (important) coordinators and, or,

and but are represented both syndetically (with coordinators present), and
asyndetically (without coordinators). Quasi coordination is expressed by as well as,
as much as, rather than, and more than.
Syndetic Coordination by And, Or, and But
Give a beggar a horse and hell ride it to death; Look before or youll find
yourself behind; Eagles fly alone, but sheep flock together.
Asyndetic Coordination
You scratch my back; Ill scratch yours. [(and) Ill] Sink, swim or die. [ (or)
swim] Beauty lasts only a day; ugly holds its own. [(but) ugly]
Quasi Coordination by
As Well As, As Much As, Rather Than, and More than
Might as well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb;
You learn as much ripping as sewing;
There are few who would rather be hated than laughed at;
Keep no more cats than will catch mice;
In addition to clausal coordination, and and or also function as phrasal
coordinators in general while but is used to link adjective phrases and adverb phrases
only in simple and complex sentences [22, p. 267].
Phrasal Coordination in Complex Sentences
Sticks and stones may break my bones, but names will never hurt me;
If you cant go over or under, go through;
Whistling girls or crowing hens are neither fit for God nor men.
b. Subordination in Proverbs
Subordination is a non-symmetrical relation, holding between two clauses in
such a way that one is a constituent or part of the other [22, p.309]. In English
proverbs, subordination occurs frequently and even with complexity of subordinate
clauses (SC) within main and subordinate clauses.
 24

If you cant beat them (1SC), join them; When you open a door (1SC) you do
not know how many rooms lie beyond (2SC); If you do(1SC) what you should not
(2SC), you must hear what you would not (3SC).
A few examples are given below for each main type of a subordinate clause.
b.1. Nominal Clause
UGE (A University Grammar of English by Quirk&Greenbaum, 1989) mentions
six types of nominal clauses. All these are used in the formation of English proverbs.
A few examples are given below for each type of a clause.
That Clause
The only sure thing about luck is that it will change. [- subject complement] ;
It is not good that the man should be alone. [- adjectival complement];
If you fear that people will know, dont do it. [- direct object]
Interrogative Clause
It all depends on whose ox is gored;
Tell me who your friends are and I will tell you who you are;
You cant tell what a man can do.
Nominal Relative Clauses
Whoever steals the neighbours shirt usually dies without his own;
Home is where the heart is;
To-infinitive Nominal Clauses
It is hard to carry a full cup;
The easiest way to lose ground in an argument is to throw mud.
Nominal ing Clauses
God never helps those who are caught helping themselves.
Bare Infinitive and Verbless Clauses
Bare infinitive and verbless clauses are rare in proverbs. However, on common
structure in which the to of the infinitive is optionally omitted is in the comparative
constructions with better. For example;
Better cut the shoe than pinch the foot.
 25

Such constructions are the elliptical forms of [It is better to than to .] type.
b. Adverbial Clause
According to UGE [22, p.322 330], adverbial clauses can be divided into
twelve important types. They are illustrated below with proverbial examples.
Clauses of Time (with Subordinators after, before, until, till, when,
etc.)
It is too late to close the well after the goat has fallen in;
Clauses of Place (where, wherever)
Fools rush in where angels fear to tread;
Clauses of condition and concession
a. Condition
a. If you want to dance, you must pay the fiddler;
b. Concession
Though most be players, some must be spectators;
Clauses of Reason or Cause
An ass thinks himself a scholar because he is loaded with books.
Clauses of Circumstance
Clauses of circumstance with the special circumstantial compound conjunction
seeing (that) are rare in proverbs. However, because, since, and as are observed as
clauses of circumstance in proverbs in addition to clauses of reason or cause.
Since we cannot get what we like, let us like what we can get.
Clauses of Purpose
One must first scale the mountain in order to view the plain;
Clauses of Result
The leopard is absent, so they play with the cubs;
Clauses of Manner and Comparison
Short tailed dog wag his tail same as a long un;
Clauses of Proportion and Preference
The bigger the tree, the harder she falls;
 26

Non finite and Verbless Clauses (Implied Subject)

Truth is simple, requiring neither study nor art;
C. Comparative Sentences
In comparative clauses, the comparative element can be any of the main
elements of clause structure (apart from the verb) [22]. It can occur as the subject,
subject complement, direct object, indirect object (very rarely), and an adjunct. A few
examples are given below.
Equational (asas) and Differentiating (lessthan ;
more.than)
Sequences of Correlation
(It is) better (to have) a dry morsel with quietness than (to have) a house full of
sacrifice with strife;
Enough and Too
A rainbow is big enough for everyone to look at; You are never too wise to
learn;
So . (that) and such.(that)
There is no pain so great that time will not soften;
E. Comment Clauses
Comment clauses may be disjuncts or conjuncts such as : 1. as you probably
know ; 2. I believe (main clauses) ; 3. as you know (adverbial clause) ; 4. Whats more
(relative clause) ; 5. to be honest (to infinitive clause) ; 6. speaking as a layman (-ing
clause) ; 7. stated bluntly (-ed clause), etc. [22, p.335 36] The very nature of
comment clauses such as these which give informality or warmth are not a feature of
proverbs. As such, their occurrence is very rare. For example,
The cat may look at a king, they say, but would rather look at a mouse any day.
However, clauses that introduce direct speech may be considered comment clauses
[22, p.337]. Therefore, Wellerisms can be analysed in terms of comment clauses
wellerisms are direct speech of notations.
Wellerisms
Every man to his taste, said the farmer when he kissed the cow .
 27

Proverbs with Parenthetic Matter

There are certain proverbs which contain two units separated by dashes,
commas, or semicolons one main unit and another aside or comment.
There are always two sides to every argument his and the wrong side.
F. Other Syntactic Classes (Complex Sentence)
Among complex sentences also, we get questions, imperatives, and expressions
in proverbs. Imperatives are very common while rhetorical questions are a few and
expressive the least in American English.
Rhetorical Questions
Whats the good of a fair apple if it has a worm in its heart?
Imperatives (Complex Sentences)
When you see a mules fixing to throw you, you jes git off.
Exclamations (Complex Sentence)
Walk, drab, walk!
Proverbs with the exclamatory structure introduced by wh - words such as:
What a tangled web we weave when we first practice to deceive.

G. Other Types of Adjective Clauses

Quirk and Greenbaum [22, p. 378 83; 119 20] analyse relative, verbless, and
contingent adjective clauses.
Relative Clause
Relative clauses are very highly productive, especially, after pronouns occurring
at the beginning of a proverb. The relative pronoun in a relative clause agrees with the
head on the basis of a two-term gender system, personal and non-personal. In such
cases, the pronoun who/which is used.
However, in many cases in (American) English, a general pronoun that which
is independent of the personal or non-personal character of the antecedent and also of
the function of the pronoun in relative clause [22, p. 300] is used. A few examples are
given below to illustrate its use in proverbs.
He who scatters thorns should not go bare-footed.
 28

Case is used to indicate the status of the relative pronoun in its clause. The
relative pronoun can indicate whether it is the subject of the relative clause or the
object or the prepositional complement:
He who laughs last just got the joke. [who as the subject of the relative
clause]
Verbless Adjective Clause
An adjective clause, according to Quirk and Greenbaum [22, p. 119], can
function as a verbless clause as in the following examples :
(By then) nervous, the man opened the letter.
Contingent Adjective Clause
A contingent adjective clause expresses the circumstance or condition under
which what is said in the superordinate clause applies. For example,
(When) enthusiastic, they make good students.
Such clauses are present in proverbs but they are not easily encountered.
Friendship, like persimmons, is good only when ripe.
The former offers an interesting example of how syntactic structuration is
variable and fluid. For example, in The time to pick berries is when theyre ripe,
when theyre ripe is a full subordinate clause which is a little more expanded in
another proverb.
In practice proverbs are represented by all possible types of sentences, with the
obvious exception of nominative sentence consisting of one word.
 29

2.2. SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENGLISH

PROVERBS
Proverbs were always the most vivacious and at the same time the most
stable part of the national languages, suitable competing with the sayings and
aphorisms of outstanding thinkers. In the proverbs and sayings picturesqueness of
national thinking was more vividly expressed as well as their features of national
character.
The semantic sphere of proverbs is very wide and cannot limit them. In
order to systematize them Professor V.N. Teliya [12, p.103-131] suggested the
following principal macrocomponents (formed by semantic ultimate constituents)
in the semantic structure of phraseological units:
1. Denotational (descriptive) macrocomponent contains the information
about the objective reality, it is the procedure connected with categorization, i.e.
the classification of phenomena of the reality, based on the typical idea about what
is denoted by a phraseological unit (about denotatum).
2. Evaluational macrocomponent contains the information about the value
of what is denoted by a phraseological unit, i.e. what value the speaker sees in this
or that object / phenomenon of reality the denotatum. The rational evaluation
may be:
a) positive: a home from home a place or situation where one
feels completely happy and at ease;
b) negative: the lions den a place of great danger;
c) neutral: in the flesh in bodily form.
3. Motivational macrocomponent correlates with the notion of the inner
form of phraseological unit. The notion motivation of a phraseological unit can
be defined as the aptness of the literal reading of a unit to be associated with the
denotational and evaluational aspects of meaning. For example, the literal reading
of the phraseological unit to have broad shoulders is physical strength of a person.
The idea is indicative of a persons strength becomes the base for transference and
forms the meaning of being able to bear the full weight of ones responsibilities.
 30

4. Emotive macrocomponent is the contents of subjective modality

expressing feeling-relation to what is denoted by a phraseological unit within the
range of approval / disapproval, for example, a leading light in something a
person who is important in a particular group (spoken with approval), to lead a
cat and dog life used to describe a husband and wife who quarrel furiously with
each other most of the time (spoken with disapproval).
5. Stylistic macrocomponent points to the communicative register in which
a phraseological unit is used and to the social-role relationships between the
participants of communication:
a) formal: sick at heart very sad;
b) informal: be sick to death to be angry and bored because
something unpleasant has been happening for too long;
c) neutral: pass by on the other side to ignore a person who
needs help.
6. Grammatical macrocomponent contains the information about all
possible morphological and syntactic changes of a phraseological unit, for
instance, to be in deep water = to be in deep waters; to take away smbs breath =
to take smbs breath away; Achilless heel = the heel of Achilles.
7. Gender macrocomponent may be expressed explicitly, i.e. determined
by the structure and / or semantics of a phraseological unit, and in that case it
points out to the class of objects denoted by the phraseological unit: men, women,
people (both men and women). For instance, compare the phraseological units
every Tom, Dick and Harry meaning every or any man and every Tom, Dick and
Sheila which denotes every or any man and woman.
Gender macrocomponent may be expressed implicitly and then it denotes
the initial (or historical) reference of a phraseological unit, for example, to wash
ones dirty linen in public discuss or argue about ones personal affairs in
public. The implicit presence of the gender macrocomponent in this
phraseological unit is conditioned by the idea about traditional womens work (cf.
with Ukrainian: ). The implicit gender macrocomponent
 31

is defined within the range of three conceptual spheres: masculine, feminine,

intergender. Compare, for instance, the implicitly expressed intergender
macrocomponent in to feel like royalty meaning to feel like a member of the
Royal Family, to feel majestic and its counterparts, i.e. phraseological units with
explicitly expressed gender macrocomponent, to feel like a queen and to feel like a
king.
Because proverbs are usually spoken and not written, they relate to everyday
wisdom people want to convey in speech. As a result, they relate matters or everyday
interest, such as the weather: March comes in like a lion and goes out like a lamb, folk
medicine or observations about health: An apple a day keeps the doctor away and
Early to bed, early to rise, religion: Man proposes, God disposes, family: Spare the
rod and spoil the child, the law: A man's house is his castle, and superstitions: Marry
in March, repent always.
Proverbs are usually illustrated with homely imagery using household objects,
farm animals, pets, and events of daily life. Many proverbs are based on customs that
are obsolete. For example, in English, the proverb If the cap fits, wear it refers to the
medieval fool's cap used in parts of Europe. Quite frequently, a proverb's origin is
unknown. The same proverb can be found in the same language in several forms. For
example, in English, the proverb Money is the root of all evil is also used as The love
of money is the root of all evil.
The proverbs describe the every branch of people's life. The fact is that
proverbs and sayings are similar in meaning in spite of their diversity in form and
language.
While investigating on the given course paper theme we have analyzed
proverbs on the semantic point of view. We have come across on the following
noticeable themes, such as Friendship, Motherland, Time, Knowledge, Beauty,
Health, Work, and a lot other different subjects. We have classified some example
on the given topics:
Friendship
1. A friend in need is a friend indeed.
 32

2. A friend's frown is better than a foe's smile.

3. Among friends all things are common.
4. Even reckoning makes long friends.
5. Who keeps company with the wolf, will learn to howl.
Motherland
1. East or West home is best.
2. Every bird likes its own nest.
3. There is no place like home.
4. Never cast dirt into that fountain if which you have sometimes drunk.
5. Don't cut the bough you are standing on.
Time
1. Time and tide wait for no man.
2. Time cures all things.
3. Time flies.
4. Time is money.
5. Time is wonders
Knowledge
1. To know everything is to know nothing.
2. Soon learnt soon forgotten.
3. Live and learn.
4. It's never too late to learn.
5. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
Beauty
1. All that glitters is not gold.
2. Appearances are deceptive.
3. Handsome is as handsome does.
4. There is no rose without a thorn.

Health
1. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
 33

2. A sound mind in a sound body.

3. Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.
4. Good health is above wealth.
5. Health is not valued till sickness comes.

Work
1. A bad workman always blames his tools.
2. A good beginning is half the worn.
3 A good beginning makes a good ending.
4. An attempt is not torture.
5. All is well that ends well.
6. As a man sows so let him reap.
7. Chickens are counted in autumn.
8. Man proposes bad disposes.
9. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.
The meaning of the proverbs can by fully or partly figurative. A. Koonin
differentiates between one- and two-component proverbs [Koonin, p.177-178].
Proverbs with metaphorical sense of one component: brevity is the soul of
wit (Hamlet), calamity is a man's true touchstone - ;
familiarity breeds contempt , ; like begets
like ; like cures like -
.
In proverbs like begets like and like cures like the word like stands in the
beginning and in the end, forming a frame. Such repetition seldom occurs in
proverbs.
Necessity is the mother of invention -
"; procrastination is the thief of time
.
Proverbs with two metaphorical components: faults are thick where love is
thin , ; speech is silver, but
 34

silence is golden , - ; that which was bitter to

endure may be sweet to remember - ".
Along with two distant but relative to each other metaphorical components is
possible the presence in the proverbs of metaphorical word-combination: life is not
a bed of roses .
There is quite a large number of proverbs with comparative meaning in
modern English: blood is thicker than water ; a miss is as good as a
mile ; words cut (or hurt) more than swords
, ; - .
Proverbs are characterized by having a single meaning. This is probably due
to a high degree of generality of their meaning and immobility in the text [9,
p.178]
Proverbs contain deep sense and national wisdom, which have roots far in
the past. They reflect peoples way of thinking and perception of the world. The
proverbs are the paper of folklore which is short but deep in the meaning. They
express the outlook of the amount of people by their social and ideal functions.
Proverbs and sayings include certain features of historical development and the
culture of people.
 35

CONCLUSION
The paper makes up the part of the research devoted to the special stratum of
the English proverbs. Focus is made on the role and advantages of using proverbs,
peculiarities of their meaning and structural complexity.
The investigation of the proverbs and its effective use in everyday life has
become a popular and requisite material recently. A classification of proverbs
according to their syntactical structure and semantic characteristics are presented.
Taking into consideration the analysis of the research investigated, we may
present the following results:
- the opinions of different scholars on the subject of proverbs as
phraseolgical units were presented;
- the definition of proverbs as was introduced;
- the structural characteristics of the English proverbs and their
classification according to the type of the syntactic structure were examined;
- the components of the semantic sphere of the proverbs were
described;
- the peculiarities of structure of the proverbs and their semantic character
were illustrated by multiple examples.
Because proverbs are the speakers and writer's most important tools, the use
of proverbs must be an important and ongoing part of classroom learning. The
constant use and presence of proverbs in a student's vocabulary will have a direct
influence upon the descriptiveness, accuracy, and quality of his or her speaking
and writing.
After conducting different researches I came to the conclusion that we are
not likely to use the English proverbs properly without knowing their exact
meaning and the sphere of application. To understand a proverb really well, one
must consider it in terms of the images it employs. A profound work in the field of
semantic structure of the proverbs was done by V.N. Teliya and A.V. Koonin. The
former suggests the principal macrocomponents (formed by semantic ultimate
 36

constituents) in the semantic structure of phraseological units, while the latter

differentiates between one- and two-component proverbs.
The investigation by Alan Dundes shows that a sentence occurs in two clause
patterns: 1. simple; and 2. complex yielding four major syntactic classes: 1.
Statements (declaratives); 2. Questions (interrogatives); 3. Commands (directives);
4.Exclamations (exclamatory). Again, each major syntactic class is further divided
into different classes and types. In a similar way are also the clauses patterns. In
addition, each dependent clause performs various functions such as subject, object,
complement, or adverbial in the superordinate clause.
This investigation proved that conformity of the structure and meaning is
clearly manifested. Like all sentences, proverbs possess a certain syntactic
structure and belong to a certain communicative type. According to it, proverbs are
more or less homogenous.
 37

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 39

SUMMARY

,
.

.
,
, .

, .
.
.

.
, . ,

.

,
.