CPCI Design Manual - 4th Ed, Canadian Precast & Concrete Institue

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 METHODS AND MATERIALS
CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 3 DESIGN OF ELEMENTS
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
CHAPTER 5 ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE
CHAPTER 6 RELATED CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER 7 PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPACITY
CHAPTER 8 GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION
INDEX
Copyright 2007
by
Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
www.cpci.ca
All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not
be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the
Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute.
First Edition 1982

Second Edition 1987
Third Edition 1996
Fourth Edition 2007
ISBN 978-0-9691816-8-2
Printed in Canada
DESIGN MANUAL
4th Edition
Precast and Prestressed Concrete
Canadian Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute
100 196 Bronson Avenue
Ottawa, ON, K1R 6H4
Tel: (613) 232-2619

Fax: (613) 232-5139
Email: info@cpci.ca
Web: www.cpci.ca
STRUCTURAL / ARCHITECTURAL
FOREWARD
The Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete The focus of CPCIs current activities includes
Institute (CPCI) is a non-profit corporation the design and construction community in
founded in 1961 for the purpose of advancing Canada in the areas of specifications, codes and
the design, manufacture and use of architectural standards, liaison with technical schools and
and structural precast and prestressed concrete universities, awards programs, seminars, trade
throughout Canada. shows and conventions of owner/user groups.
CPCI represents a fast growing segment of the CPCI continues a liaison with the federal
Canadian construction industry. The first government on behalf of the industry in two
prestressed concrete structure in Canada was a principal areas. The Institute assists CPCI
precast, prestressed concrete bridge erected in members in marketing their products and
1952 in North Vancouver. Since then, precast services to government. Secondly, an important
prestressed concrete has been used in buildings dialogue has been established to provide the
and all types of engineered structures. Structural government with information about the industry.
and architectural, reinforced, pretensioned and
CPCI participates with the Cement Association
post-tensioned, precast concrete has been
of Canada (CAC) and allied concrete industry
successfully and economically utilized in an ever
members to promote concrete as a safe, fire
expanding variety of applications.
resistant, sustainable construction material.
CPCI developed into a unique trade and
The Active Membership in the Institute
professional association, with a representative
represents over 75% of the industry's capacity in
mix of companies and individuals. CPCI
Canada. CPCI continually disseminates
members include producers (Active Members),
information on design, production practices, field
suppliers (Associate and Supporting Members),
techniques and environmental issues, via
engineers and architects (Professional
national and regional chapter programs and
Members), plus Affiliate and Student Members.
technical publications, all directed towards
From the beginning, CPCI established a close advancing the state of the art for Canadian
working arrangement with the Precast/Pre- owners and designers.
stressed Concrete Institute (PCI). CPCI
Architects, engineers, owners, developers and
continues to enjoy a mutually beneficial
contractors are invited to contact CPCI for
relationship with PCI sharing state of the art
additional information on the design and
information about the industry, its products and
construction of precast and prestressed concrete
services, that results in combined knowledge,
and on membership in CPCI.
developments and experience.
Please visit: www.cpci.ca
i
PREFACE
In 1964, the Canadian Precast/Prestressed The Canadian Government's decision in the mid
Concrete Institute (CPCI) published the first 70's to adopt Sl metric units and the adoption of
design manual in North America on precast, limit-states design codes reduced the relevance
prestressed concrete. This was a major of PCI publications in Canada. CPCI undertook
undertaking for a fledgling industry. This what was to become the single largest
handbook consisted of 4 parts: Part 1 contained undertaking in its history; the publishing in 1978
the CSA Standard CSA-A135-1962 and a of the First Edition of the CPCI Metric Design
commentary, Part 2 contained design theory and Manual. This publication, four years in the
practice, Part 3 dealt extensively with connection making, was based on the PCI Design
design and Part 4 contained sections on Handbook and the PCI Structural Design of
specifications and plant standards. The Architectural Precast Concrete Handbook. The
handbook was well received with orders manual was written entirely in Sl units with
received from around the world. extensive references to Canadian design codes.
During the 1970's, the standard design In 1984, CPCI published a Second Edition of the
references for precast, prestressed concrete in CPCI Metric Design Manual. This decision was
North America were published by the based upon extensive revisions to CSA
Prestressed/Prestressed Concrete Institute Standard A23.3.
(PCI) in Chicago. The first edition of the PCI
The Third Edition of the CPCI Design Manual
Design Handbook was published in 1971,
introduced significant changes in the state of the
followed by the second edition in 1978 and a
art for precast, prestressed concrete, plus
series of new editions including a
important changes in A23.3 that recognized the
comprehensive updated sixth edition published
benefits of quality control in certified precast
in 2004.
concrete plants.
See page iv for important updates contained in
this Fourth Edition.
DISCLAIMER
Substantial effort has been made to ensure that must recognize that no manual or code can
the Fourth Edition of the CPCI Design Manual is substitute for experience and engineering
accurate. However, the Canadian judgment. This publication is intended for use by
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI) professional personnel competent to evaluate
cannot accept responsibility for any errors or the significance and limitations of its contents
oversights in the use of material or in the and able to accept responsibility for the
preparation of engineering plans. The designer application of the material it contains.
ii
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
CPCI DESIGN MANUAL 4

Editor in Chief David Rogowsky, UMA Engineering, Edmonton, AB
CHAPTER 1 METHODS AND MATERIALS

Editor John Fowler, CPCI, Ottawa, ON
CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

Editor Wayne Kassian, Kassian Dyck & Associates, Calgary, AB
CHAPTER 3 DESIGN OF ELEMENTS

Editor Medhat Ghabrial, HGS Consultants, Windsor, ON
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS

Editor Don Simms, Pre-Con Inc., Belleville, ON
CHAPTER 5 ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE

Editor Malcolm Hachborn RES Precast, Innisfil, ON
CHAPTER 6 RELATED CONSIDERATIONS

Editor John Fowler, CPCI, Ottawa, ON
CHAPTER 7 PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPACITY

Editor Bill LeBlanc, Con-Force Structures, Calgary, AB
CHAPTER 8 GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION

Editor Shahid Shaikh, Coreslab Structures, Dundas, ON
iii
FOURTH EDITION - IMPORTANT UPDATES
CHAPTER 1 METHODS AND MATERIALS CHAPTER 5 ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST
The chapter on methods and materials has been CONCRETE
updated to reflect current applications of precast The design of architectural precast concrete has
prestressed concrete. New applications such as ultra been extensively updated to reflect current industry
high performance concretes are presented. Previous practices.
applications have become more sophisticated and
have kept pace with modern architectural trends. CHAPTER 6 RELATED CONSIDERATIONS
In addition to updating the technical content
CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF throughout the chapter, extensive revisions to the
STRUCTURES vibration and fire resistance sections have been
The chapter on the design of structures has been included. A new section on sustainable design has
modified to reflect changes in the National Building been added.
Code of Canada. The changes in NBCC 2005 have
had a major impact on the design examples in this CHAPTER 7 PRODUCT INFORMATION AND
chapter, including the introduction of principal and CAPACITY
companion load factors and major changes in seismic This chapter has undergone revisions to have the
design. load capacity tables conform to A23.3. More
information is provided on 3660 mm wide double tee
CHAPTER 3 DESIGN OF ELEMENTS sections. Tables for hollow box section beams have
The chapter on element design has required been added. The span and depth ranges for I-girders
revisions due to changes in A23.3 and NBCC 2005. have been increased.
The concrete resistance factor for precast concrete
produced in a precast plant certified in accordance CHAPTER 8 GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION
with A23.4 has increased from 0.65 to 0.70. The New information has been added on the design of
method for design of elements for shear and torsion beams with overhangs and torsion diagrams,
has been modified to suit the new requirements of reactions and rotations. Development lengths for bars
A23.3. in tension and heavier confined reinforcing bars are
given. Plastic modulus and shape factors are
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS provides for common steel shapes.
Alternate design methods for corbels and dapped
ended beams, other than strut and tie, have been
included. The chapter now includes design methods
and tables for the design of headed studs.
Connection details have been selected to reflect
current practice.
iv
CPCI CERTIFICATION
How Precast Certification is a Requirement of the Manufacturers are required to:
National Building Code Establish and maintain the highest standard of
integrity, skill and practice in the design and
CSA A23.3 Design of concrete structures:
fabrication of their products and systems;
CSA A23.3-04 Clause 16.1.3 For elements Undertake the performance of only those
produced in manufacturing plants certified in services and produce only those products for
accordance with Clause 16.2, the concrete material which they are qualified;
resistance factor, c, specified in Clause 8.4.2 may be Be in compliance with current governing codes
taken as 0.70. and regulations; and
A23.3 allows an increased material resistance factor, Supply products only from a manufacturer that is
certified under the CPCI Certification Program.
c = 0.70 for precast concrete members that are
certified in accordance with A23.4 in recognition of Audits are performed to:
the quality control and accurate placement of forms Determine the conformity or nonconformity of the
and reinforcement. The material resistance factor, c manufacturers quality system and finished
= 0.65 applies to cast-in-place and non-certified products with the specified requirements;
precast concrete members. Determine the effectiveness of the implemented
CSA A23.3-04 - Clause 16.2.1 All precast concrete quality system in meeting specified quality
elements covered by this standard shall be objectives;
manufactured and erected in accordance with CSA Provide the manufacturer with an opportunity to
A23.4. improve their quality system; and
Confirm that the manufacturer meets the
CSA A23.4 Precast concrete Materials and regulatory requirements.
construction:
CSA A23.4-05 - Clause 4.2.1 Precast concrete Program Requirements
elements produced and erected in accordance with The manufacturing of precast concrete must be in
this standard shall be produced by certified accordance with the requirements of the latest
manufacturers, with certification demonstrating the editions of CSA Standard A23.4 and the PCI Quality
capability of a manufacturer to fabricate precast Control Manuals MNL-116 and 117 (US equivalent),
concrete elements to the requirements of this with the more stringent requirements being the
Standard. governing criteria.
CSA Standard
CPCI Precast Concrete Certification Program for
CSA A23.4 - Precast Concrete Materials and
Architectural and Structural Precast Concrete
Construction, including Appendices A and B
Products and Systems
Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
The CPCI Certification Program qualifies precast
CPCI Quality Audit Manual
concrete manufacturers who fabricate architectural
and structural precast concrete and meet CPCI CPCI Design Manual
certification requirements. Architectural Precast Concrete - Colour and
Texture Selection Guide
Manufacturers are evaluated on their quality system, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (US)
documentation, production and erection procedures, Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
management, engineering, personnel, equipment, Production of Precast and Prestressed Concrete
finished products and assemblies. Independent Products MNL-116
professional engineers conduct audits twice annually. Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
Certification confirms a manufacturer's capability to Production of Architectural Precast Concrete
produce quality products and systems. Products MNL-117
PCI Design Handbook
The CPCI Certification Program assures project PCI Architectural Precast Concrete Manual
specifiers and owners of a manufacturers
comprehensive in-house quality assurance program
and acceptable production methods.
v
CANADIAN CODES AND STANDARDS
National Building Code of Canada 2005 Materials and Construction
Major changes to NBCC 2005 include an objective CSA A23.1-04/A23.2-04, Concrete materials and
based format, revised companion load factors and methods of concrete construction / Methods of test
major revisions to seismic forces that may govern and standard practices for concrete, Canadian
designs in locations formerly governed by wind. Standards Association
Provincial building codes are largely based on NBCC The A23.1 standard governs cast-in-place
2005. construction and is the basis for much of the material
Design in A23.4. Major changes are the addition of C-1 and
CSA A23.3-04, Design of concrete structures, C-XL concretes and new performance requirements
Canadian Standards Association for different classes of concrete in Table 2.
This standard governs the design of buildings and CSA 23.4-05, Precast concrete materials and
most other concrete structures (except bridges). The construction, Canadian Standards Association
major change affecting precast design is a change to The content of A23.4 has been updated to conform to
the design for shear and the elimination of the A23.1-04. A thorough review and updating of all
simplified method currently used by most engineers sections has been completed. A251 has been
and the introduction of new seismic provisions. withdrawn.
CSA S413-07, Design of parking structures, CSA A3000-Series-03, Cementitious materials
Canadian Standards Association compendium, Canadian Standards Association
CSA S6-06, Canadian highway bridge design code, This national standard contains the testing,
Canadian Standards Association inspection, chemical, physical and uniformity
requirements of various cements, blended cements
CSA S806-02, Design and Construction of Building
and supplementary cementing materials such as fly
Components with Fibre-Reinforced Polymers,
ash, blast-furnace slag and silica fume.
Canadian Standards Association
This standard was developed to provide material CSA A370-04, Connectors for Masonry, Canadian
selection and design criteria for concrete members Standards Association
reinforced with non-metallic reinforcement. The ISIS Welding
Canada Research Network, headquartered at the CSA W186-M1990 (R2002), Welding of reinforcing
University of Manitoba, is developing new bars in reinforced concrete construction, Canadian
applications for FRP materials in concrete. Standards Association
CSA S16-01, Limit states design of steel structures, CSA W47.1-03, Certification of companies for fusion
Canadian Standards Association welding of steel, Canadian Standards Association
This standard is used to design steel connections and These standards are referenced in A23.4 and govern
other structural steel supports used in precast welding materials and practices in precast plants.
concrete construction.
CSA A371-04, Masonry Construction for Buildings,
Canadian Standards Association
vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the people responsible for Venkatesh Kodur, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
developing the First, Second and Third Editions of the Saeed Mirza, McGill University, Montreal, QC
CPCI design manuals. Readers should refer to these O. Burkan Isgor, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON
editions for the names of the more than 100 Karl Truderung, Lafarge Precast Division, Winnipeg, MB
Ifan Lim, Lafarge Precast Division, Winnipeg, MB
contributors. They laid the foundation for the Fourth
Zhu Liu, Btons Prfabriqu du Lac, Alma, QC
Edition. Stephan Martel, Groupe Tremca Prfabriqu Inc., Iberville, QC
A wide range of consultants, university professors CPCI acknowledges the outstanding contributions of
and industry professionals gave generously of their David Rogowsky, editor-in-chief, and T. Ivan
time to prepare material and review draft copies and Campbell, Queens University, for their careful and
final proofs of this Fourth Edition Design Manual. thoughtful review of the entire contents of the CPCI
CPCI members express their sincere appreciation for Design Manual prior to publication.
the effort contributed by the following persons: CPCI acknowledges David Marshall, BlackMint
Perry Adebar, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC Software (www.BlackMint.com) for his application of
Grant Ormberg, Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, AB the CONCISE Beam software to check the Chapter 3
Robert Loov, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB examples.
Paul Breeze, CH2M Hill, Calgary, AB
Richard McGrath, Cement Association of Canada, Ottawa, ON CPCI gratefully acknowledges the generosity of the
William Brown, Morrison Hershfield Inc., Ottawa, ON Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) for
David Scott, Morrison Hershfield Inc., Ottawa, ON permission to use sections of their PCI Design
Dave Allen, Consultant, Ottawa, ON Handbook, Sixth Edition, as a basis for this manual.
Donald Morse, Consultant, Calgary, AB
Bruce Taylor, RES Precast, Innisfil, ON CPCI members thank the Cement Association of
Rasvan Petanca, Con-Force Structures, Calgary, AB Canada (CAC) for their financial contribution and
Darlene Deare, Pre-Con Inc., Brampton, ON permission to use material from their Concrete
Geoff Sarazin, Kassian Dyck &Associates, Calgary, AB Design Handbook.
Ken Kapusniak, HGS Consultants, Windsor, ON
Eric Leme, Kassian Dyck & Associates, Calgary, AB CPCI is indebted to the National Research Council of
Rick Dozzi, Harris P/T, Stoney Creek, ON Canada for permission to reproduce certain tables
Richard Golec, Pre-Con Inc., Brampton, ON and figures from the National Building Code of
Eugene Shelestynsky, Procon Engineering Inspections Inc., Canada, 2005 and the supplement to the National
Inglewood, ON Building Code of Canada, 2005.
Peter Kluchert, Kluchert & Assoc., Toronto, ON
Mike Lau, Manitoba Highways and Transportation, The Canadian Standards Association is ack-
Winnipeg, MB nowledged for their permission to reproduce material
Don Zakariasen, Lafarge Precast Division, Calgary, AB from CSA Standards A23.1 and A23.4.
Doug Harman, Coreslab Structures, Dundas, ON
Jason Kroeker, University of Waterloo, ON The CPCI Design Manual, Fourth Edition page layout
Tibor Kokai, Halcrow Yolles, Toronto, ON Peter Cicuto, and drafting was done by Christopher J. Perry and
Global Precast, Maple, ON Quentin C. Plock.
Ghani Razakpur, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON
Gary Fillmore, Strescon Ltd., Saint John, NB
vii
CHAPTER 1
METHODS AND MATERIALS
1.1 PRECAST CONCRETE METHODS ........................................................................... 1-2
1.1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 1-2
1.1.2 Total Precast Concrete Structures ..................................................................... 1-2
1.1.3 Product Manufacturing ....................................................................................... 1-7
1.1.4 Warehouses and Industrial Buildings ................................................................. 1-8
1.1.5 Schools, Universities, Colleges .......................................................................... 1-9
1.1.6 Shopping Centres............................................................................................. 1-10
1.1.7 Residential Buildings ........................................................................................ 1-11
1.1.8 Parking Structures ............................................................................................ 1-12
1.1.9 Office Buildings................................................................................................. 1-14
1.1.10 Public Buildings ................................................................................................ 1-15
1.1.11 Stadiums and Arenas ....................................................................................... 1-16
1.1.12 Storage and Treatment Tanks.......................................................................... 1-17
1.1.13 Bridges.............................................................................................................. 1-18
1.1.14 Special Structures ............................................................................................ 1-19
1.1.15 Architectural Wall Panels.................................................................................. 1-20
1.1.16 Veneer Faced Wall Panels ............................................................................... 1-21
1.1.17 Modular Sandwich Wall Panels........................................................................ 1-22
1.1.18 Ultra High Performance Concrete .................................................................... 1-23
1.2 PRECAST CONCRETE MATERIALS........................................................................... 1-24
1.2.1 Concrete .......................................................................................................... 1-24
1.2.2 Grout, Mortar, and Drypack ...........................................................................1-28
1.2.3 Reinforcement .................................................................................................. 1-29
1.2.4 Protection of Connections ................................................................................ 1-32
1.2.5 Ultra High Performance Concrete .................................................................... 1-34
1.3 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE ................................................................................. 1-37
1.3.1 Post-Tensioning Materials ................................................................................ 1-37
1.3.2 Segmental Construction ................................................................................... 1-38
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 1-40
CPCI Design Manual 4 11

1.1 PRECAST CONCRETE METHODS 2. Sizes and shapes of members are often limited
by production, hauling and erection consider-
1.1.1 Introduction ations.
3. Concrete is a heavy material. This is an
Plant-cast precast concrete is more durable than site-
advantage for stability under wind loads, thermal
cast concrete because it can be cast with lower
changes, acoustical vibration and fire resistance.
water-to-cementing materials ratios and with greater
The high dead-to-live load ratio provides a
accuracy under controlled conditions. This natural
greater safety factor against gravity overloads.
durability is enhanced by the use of admixtures
making the concrete matrix less permeable and more 4. Maximum economy is achieved with maximum
resistant to steel corrosion. The past decade has repetition. Standard shapes or repetition of
seen the development of more efficient structural similar sections (master molds) should be used
sections and more complex architectural shapes. The whenever possible.
strict demands of owners and architects for quality
5. Successful use is largely dependent on an
finishes have led to the development of new surface
effective structural layout and carefully detailed
textures and surface treatments.
connections.
Precast concrete manufactured by CPCI members in
6. The effects of restraint due to volume changes
certified plants ensures the production of high quality
caused by creep, shrinkage and temperature
architectural and structural members and systems.
changes must be considered in every structure.
Precasting facilitates the production of a wide variety
of shapes and sizes. The use of prestressing 7. Architectural precast panels can be used as
substantially extends the span capability of the cladding as well as for load bearing members.
structural members, and enables architects and Panels can be used to resist loads in both the
engineers to achieve highly innovative and vertical and lateral directions.
competitive building products and systems for a
8. Prestressing improves the economy and per-
variety of buildings and structures.
formance of precast members.
Important benefits of precast and prestressed
concrete include: 1.1.2 Total Precast Concrete Structures
1. Construction speed The use of precast concrete often extends beyond an

architectural enclosure to include structural elements
2. Plant-fabrication quality control
and stair systems. Integration of the structure,
3. Fire resistance and durability building envelope and vertical circulation is often
referred to as a Total Precast System. Precast
4. Prestressing: greater span-to-depth ratios, more
buildings can be framed in different configurations
controllable performance, less material usage
depending on overall geometry, floor spans, interior
5. Architectural precast concrete: wide variety of and exterior layout and cladding arrangements.
highly attractive surfaces, shapes, finishes and Engineering total precast concrete structures also
colors requires the analysis of the manufacturing, handling,
transportation and erection of the precast system in
6. Thermal and acoustical control
addition to the analysis and design for the relevant
7. All weather construction loads.
8. Plant prefabrication allows inspection and quality Total precast building designs can be optimized by
control prior to installation of precast in a following these general principles:
finished structure 1. Maximize repetition
The following general principles are offered to
2. Use modular dimensions for plan layouts and
achieve the most economical and effective use of
member dimensions
precast concrete:
3. Use simple spans when possible
1. Precast concrete is basically a "simple-span"
material. However, continuity can be effectively 4. Standardize the size and locations of openings
achieved with properly detailed connections. in precast members
5. Use standard, locally available member sizes
12 CPCI Design Manual 4

Fig 1.1.1 Multi-storey beam-column construction
Beam-column framing is suitable for both low and high-rise buildings. Multi-storey columns with simple-span beams are the preferred method.
6. Minimize the number of different member types 4. Gravity and lateral load resisting systems
and sizes
5. Mechanisms for the control of volume changes
7. Consider the size and weight of products to
avoid costs associated with producing, shipping Framing dimensions
and erecting oversize and/or overweight pieces Bay sizes should be a multiple of the widths of the
8. Use prestressing reinforcement in precast double tee or hollow core floor and roof slabs.
members for long spans and to minimize Double tee and hollow core floor and roof slabs
member depth should be used at spans close to their maximum
capacity to reduce the number of slabs to be
9. Use precast exterior wall panels as load bearing installed. Planning modules are useful to ensure
members and/or shear walls whenever possible client needs are met at minimum cost. Economies will
10. Maximize form use on architectural products be realized when a buildings wall/floor area ratio is
kept to a minimum. Notches and setbacks can be
11. Contact your local CPCI member as early as
framed on upper floors with additional framing
possible during the design development stages
supports.
of a project for assistance in answering the
above questions Optimum framing dimensions will result when the
total number of precast components is minimized.
The load tables in Chapter 7 can be used for
The maximum shipping size and weight, and the
preliminary design.
plant and erection crane capacity must be considered
Preliminary analysis when establishing maximum component sizes.
Considerations in developing a preliminary layout are: Span-to-depth ratios
1. Framing dimensions During preliminary analysis, it is helpful to determine
beam and slab depths, and the space required for
2. Span-to-depth ratios other construction elements, including suspended
3. Connection concepts ceilings and mechanical duct work, to establish the

Fig 1.1.2 Single-storey load bearing wall construction
This system provides economy by eliminating the need for a perimeter structural frame. The wall panels can be selected from a variety of
standard sections, flat panels or specially formed architectural precast shapes. Long-span double tee or hollow core slabs can be used for the
roof.
floor-to-floor dimensions of a building. See Chapter 2 combined. Bearing wall construction and beam-
for typical span-to-depth ratios of precast, pre- column framing have been successfully used for low,
stressed concrete members. medium and high rise buildings. Lateral forces can be
resisted by interior shear walls, exterior shear walls,
Gravity and lateral load resisting systems moment frames, or a combination of these.
The building system should be selected during Diaphragm action will dictate placement of lateral
preliminary analysis. Gravity and lateral load resisting force resisting elements. Refer to Chapter 2 for lateral
systems may function separately or may be force resisting system analysis and design.

Fig 1.1.3 Interior shear wall framing system
Lateral loads are transmitted by floor and roof diaphragms to a structural core built using precast shear walls.
Fig 1.1.4 Exterior shear wall framing system
The exterior shear wall system permits greater design flexibility because it eliminates the need for a structural core. The exterior shear wall
system may be more economical because gravity loads and lateral forces are resisted by the same panels.

Fig 1.1.5 Single-storey beam-column construction
The standard precast beam and column sections shown in Chapter 7 can be used for single-storey structures. The type of beam used
depends on span length, superimposed loads, depth of ceiling construction and desired architectural expression.
Fig 1.1.6 Multi-storey bearing wall construction
Precast bearing walls can be cast in one-storey or multi-storey configurations. Some walls can be started at the second floor level with the first
floor framing consisting of beams and columns to obtain more open space on the first level.

1.1.3 Product Manufacturing
Long-stroke hydraulic jacks are used to

pretension individual prestressing
strands.
A steel form is used to manufacture precast prestressed

panels end to end.
Similar long-line forms are used to manufacture pretensioned beams,
hollow core and double tee slabs.
Heavily reinforced Bulb-Tee bridge girder

Strands in the bottom flange are pretensioned. Strand is post-
tensioned in three ducts after girder installation to provide
continuous prestressing. The shear steel is prefabricated to
allow for casting on a daily cycle.
Most precast architectural panels are manufactured
using wood molds.
Molds are coated with resin that is often reinforced with fibreglass
cloth. A well designed and maintained wood mold can be used to
cast 20 to 40 similar panels.
Tunnel liner
manufacturing
Precast tunnel liners
are manufactured and
cured in accurate steel
or concrete molds.
Liners are segments of
a complete tunnel ring
Precast prestressed pile installed behind a
manufacturing tunnel-boring machine.
These square piles are
prestressed on long-line beds
with four corner strands.
Transverse reinforcement is a
spiral wire tie closely spaced at
the ends where the stresses
are higher. Piles are made in
standard lengths and stock-
piled at the plant until required
at the jobsite.

1.1.4 Warehouse and Industrial Buildings
STORA Paper Mill, Port Hawksbury, NS

High strength precast concrete resists the effects of
fire, damp conditions and a variety of chemical
substances. The clean, smooth surfaces obtainable
with factory produced precast concrete are ideal for
Fiera Foods manufacturing plant, Toronto, ON
food processing, wet operations or computer
The ability of precast, prestressed concrete to span component manufacturing where cleanliness is
long distances (hollow core 9 m to 15 m, double tees required.
20 m to 30 m, single tees 25 m to 40 m, girder
sections 50 m and up) and carry heavy loads with
minimum span/depth rations is particularly useful in
the construction of warehouses and industrial
buildings. Longer spans can be obtained using
custom solutions (segmental construction).
Precast floor and roof framing can be designed to

accommodate a variety of mechanical systems and
support hanging loads and bridge cranes for heavy
industrial uses.
Foothills Industrial Park, Calgary, AB
Solid precast concrete panels or insulated

sandwich panels can be readily used for load
bearing or non-load bearing walls. Roof and floor
elements can bear directly in pockets or on
haunches provided on the inside faces of wall
panels or directly on the top of the wall panels.
Roof slabs can be cantilevered beyond the walls to
form a decorative or protective overhang.
Attractive, durable exterior walls can be formed or
machine cast using standard shapes that are
efficiently prestressed in long line production
facilities. Custom shapes are produced in
architectural molds with smooth, textured,
sandblasted, acid etched or exposed aggregate
surfaces. Insulation can be incorporated in
sandwich wall panels to provide the required RSI-
Cargill Meat Processing Plant, High River, AB values.

1.1.5 Schools, Universities, Colleges
Education Building, University of Regina, Regina, SK
Precast, prestressed concrete is a favoured material for

school, college and university building structures,
providing design flexibility and reduced construction
time.
Durable, pleasing exterior finishes using architectural
precast panels provide years of maintenance free use.
SITE Building, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON
The superior finishes achievable in a precast plant

have enabled many designers to expose the structure
in many types of buildings.
This portable classroom,

constructed using 12 precast
panels, was assembled in one
day.
In addition to classroom and office

facilities, student residences,
auditoriums, gymnasiums and
aqua tic f aciliti es have bee n
constructed using precast framing
and walls, together with long span
precast concrete floor and roof
members.
Olympic Speed Skating Oval, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB

1.1.6 Shopping Centres
CTC Sheppard, Toronto, ON
Precast, prestressed concrete components can be

quickly fabricated and erected to provide early
occupancy of retail stores and shopping centres.
The long spans possible using precast,

prestressed floor and roof slabs provide column
free retail areas. Precast concrete construction
minimizes floor vibrations and provides built-in fire
resistance.
Co-op Mall, Airdrie, AB
The use of architectural precast

concrete provides a quality appearance
and offers years of maintenance free
operation. Warehouse retailers use
prestressed sandwich panels for fast
all-weather construction, economy, low
maintenance and a superior corporate
image.
Cineplex Theatre

1.1.7 Residential Buildings
Villas of Normandy Condominiums, LaSalle, ON

Only by using a precast solution could this six storey, 47 unit
residential condominium building's structure be completely installed
and turned over to the client in less than six weeks. The structure
used precast, prestressed concrete hollow core slabs, balcony slabs,
precast load bearing walls, stairs and landings.
Hollow core bearing supports can be precast concrete,

masonry, steel or cast-in-place construction.
Construction rates of 1 floor per week and better are
often achieved. Precast walls and frames speed the
erection process. Architectural precast insulated
exterior wall panels provide a durable, attractive,
energy efficient building envelope. Ancillary recreation,
parking and convention facilities are commonly
constructed using precast concrete framing with long
span roof and floor members.
Hollow core slabs combined with precast walls are the
standard components used in this type of construction.
The most common floor and roof elements employed
Precast and prestressed concrete enjoys broad are 203 mm deep hollow core units. These slabs can
acceptance by builders of low and mid-rise apartment span up to 10 m or more without intermediate
buildings, hotels, motels, and nursing homes, where supports. Longer spans can be achieved by using 254
the repetitive use of standard components mm or 305 mm deep hollow core units.
manufactured in a precast factory can be fully utilized.
Owners and developers recognize the superior fire Hollow core slabs usually span between load bearing
resistance and sound control features. shear walls or from the central corridor to an exterior
Concrete and masonry are not a nutrient source, and wall for hotels, motels and apartments. Slabs can be
therefore, will not support the growth of mold and cantilevered to form exterior balconies. Slab soffits
mildew that need food, moisture, oxygen and suitable form a finished ceiling in the rooms below.
temperature to survive.
The non-combustibility of precast concrete

construction inherently provides the required
fire ratings for fire containment within living
units. This ensures the safety of adjacent
units, that can reduce fire insurance rates.
Precast concrete significantly reduces the risk
of fire during construction. Precast concrete
housing offers a safe, soundproof, high quality
environment.
Willow Park Retirement Home

1.1.8 Parking Structures
Chapman Parkade, Kelowna, BC

The City of Kelowna chose precast concrete for a fast-tracked
parking garage. Double tee parking garage floor slabs were
cast using Self Consolidating Concrete (SCC) to speed the
casting production, with the added benefits of low permeability
concrete and highest quality surface finish. Erection of the five
storey 480 car parking structure was completed in 6 weeks.
Loads and forces

Allowances must be made in the design to
accommodate volume changes resulting from creep, Chapman Parkade, Kelowna, BC
shrinkage and extreme temperature differences. Express ramp framing.
Lateral design loads due to wind, earthquake or earth
pressures (in the case of in-ground or partially buried
structures) can be resisted in a precast concrete Speed of construction, versatility of design, attractive
structure by transferring loads through the floor exterior finishes, durability and economy make precast
diaphragm to either shear walls or to beam and column prestressed concrete parking garages a popular choice
moment frames. The joints in precast construction with commercial, municipal and institutional clients.
increase flexibility to accommodate movements. Long spans and open walls improve user safety.

Durability
High strength factory produced precast reinforced and
pretensioned concrete components have been found to
be highly resistant to chloride ion attack. Wire mesh
reinforcement should be incorporated in the topping
when a cast-in-place composite topping is used over
precast floor members. Good results have been
achieved by providing a high strength concrete topping
having a water-to-cementitious materials ratio of 0.40
or less. Wet cured, air entrained concrete will produce
the best results.
CSA Standard S413 specifies requirements for low-

Canada Post Headquarters Garage, Ottawa, ON permeability concrete, acceptable protection systems
Lattice bearing walls support double tee slabs on both sides and concrete cover to reinforcement and prestressing
of the wall. These walls reduce shipping weight and create a tendons.
more open and safe environment.
Saw cut joints should not be used. A series of control
joints should be tooled into the topping above all joints
in the precast members below. Later this joint is
prepared by grinding and filled with a traffic grade
sealant.
Eccentrically loaded beams and spandrel panels must The application of a penetrating sealer to the concrete
be designed for torsion effects. Connections should be surfaces may be a good investment to help inhibit
designed to prevent beam rotation and absorb bumper water and chloride ion penetration. A regular
loads without undue restraint against volume change. maintenance program is essential to maximize the life
Uplift loads on shear walls can be minimized by of a parking structure.
loading the walls with beams or floor members.
Bay sizes
Bay sizes should be as large as possible and modular
with the width of the standard precast concrete floor
elements selected. For clear span parking, the bay size
selected need not be a multiple of the width of parking
stalls. Stall width can also be changed after
construction.
Drainage
Providing slope in a structure to achieve positive
drainage is essential for rapid removal of salt laden
water. The drainage pattern selected should repeat for
all floors to allow for repetition in the manufacturing of
the precast elements. Locate isolation (expansion)
joints at high points to minimize possible leakage.
Slope floors away from columns, walls and spandrels
where standing water and leakage can corrode
connections.
Metro Park Garage, Halifax, NS

The lower two floors were clad with earth colored pigmented
precast concrete panels to blend in with the older brick and
stone in downtown Halifax. The column free interior of this
parking garage provides parking for 575 cars in 15,500 sq. m
of floor area. A two level commercial, leased, space of 800
sq. m, offers a beautiful view of Halifax Harbour.

1.1.9 Office Buildings
High quality architectural load bearing

exterior walls, precast concrete framing and
mass produced structural precast floor and
roof members provide open, attractive, fire
resistant and economical office buildings.
High-rise office building
This eight storey tower is built entirely using structural and
architectural load bearing precast concrete components. Total precast concrete structures can
Total precast concrete construction is very suitable for achieve significant time savings. The
office buildings. The quality finishes result in tenant superstructure is manufactured while the on-
satisfaction. Shortened schedules provide early site foundations are being built. Potential
occupancy and reduced financing costs. delays are reduced with the complete
building system supplied under one contract.
Erection of large precast concrete
components can proceed during adverse
weather conditions to quickly enclose the
structure. Architectural precast panels
provide a finished exterior.
Prestressed floors provide an immediate
working platform allowing other trades an
early start to install the mechanical, electrical
and interior finishing work. Long span double
tee or hollow core floors reduce interior
framing, providing large column free areas.
Architectural finishes can be used in the
interior of an office building for columns,
atrium framing, entrance and elevator shaft
walls. Interior or exterior shear wall systems
Load bearing architectural spandrel panels can support and rigid frame beam-column systems can
double tee floor and roof slabs. be used to resist lateral forces.

1.1.10 Public Buildings
Calgary Remand Centre, Calgary, AB

The secure perimeter of this 17,190 sq.m, 350 cell prison building was constructed using load bearing precast
concrete insulated sandwich wall panels as the exterior building envelope.
Designers strive to create public buildings that are open, functional and inviting. Precast concrete construction is
ideal for airports, theatres, museums, galleries, libraries, convention centres, bus and train stations.
Precast concrete construction permits the plastic nature of concrete to be realized in unique ways. A controlled
factory environment facilitates achievement of the highest quality.
The use of precast and/or prestressed

concrete will contribute in a number of
ways:
Exposing precast concrete in the

interior of public buildings can
produce dramatic facades.
Rugged exterior and interior

surface treatments look good and
are long lasting.
Integral insulation in exterior walls

will conserve energy and lower
operating costs.
Burlington Water Treatment Plant Expansion, Burlington, ON

The double tee roof was designed to support 5 monorail systems in different
locations attached to the underside the roof double tees. The design and layout
minimized differential cambers and accommodated the heavy equipment loads.

1.1.11 Stadiums and Arenas
Seahawks Stadium,
Seattle, WA
Most of the bleachers were
prestressed triple riser units. The
vertical riser height increases
progressively as you go up the
stadium to allow for clear site lines.
Only minor damage occurred to the
precast components when a major
earthquake struck the Seattle area
during construction. The precast
components were manufactured in
Canada.
Large stadiums and arenas are impressive structures.

These projects are often built on tight schedules to
accommodate important sporting events. Precast
concrete is the overwhelming choice, providing fast
construction and a long service life for these projects.
The technique of post-tensioning precast segments

together has allowed complex cantilever arm and ring
beam construction to support the roofs of these
structures. Post-tensioning is commonly employed to
reinforce precast concrete cantilevered raker beams
that carry seating elements past columns to provide
unobstructed viewing of the playing surface.
Molson Centre, Montreal, QC
Stadium risers can be quickly erected on sloping raker
beams. Single, double or triple risers can be provided in
accordance with manufacturers preferences and design
criteria.
Long-spans and the ability to eliminate costly on-site

formwork make precast prestressed concrete the
best choice for stadium construction. Precast
seating units can be standardized to take advantage
of repeated form utilization. Mass produced seating
units are manufactured in a variety of configurations
and spans to provide for quick installation. Consult
CPCI members for available riser sections.
Pedestrian ramps, concession areas, washrooms,

and dressing rooms can all be framed and
constructed using precast concrete elements.
Many arenas are built using hollow core bleachers.

1.1.12 Storage and Treatment Tanks
Tanks are prestressed both
vertically and horizontally allowing
the design to be crack-free. Joint
closures can be accomplished
on-site with field-placed concrete
after the panels are installed. This
method of sealing the tank joints
allows a tank to perform in a
monolithic manner (acting as a
single unit). Horizontal in-field
post-tensioning introduces com-
pression forces that resist the
pressure from the stored material.
Effluent Treatment Tanks, Prince Rupert, BC
Precast construction offers fast, economical and

efficient storage solutions for materials from potable
water to hazardous waste. Sizes can range from
400,000 to 120 million litres. Seismic design features
can be easily and economically accommodated.
Precast concrete tank systems are adaptable to a wide
range of site and environmental conditions.
High performance precast concrete is superior for
corrosion, impact and fire resistance, lowering
maintenance costs and increasing longevity.
Precast concrete accelerates construction schedules.
Fabrication in precast plants under quality controlled
conditions will result in reduced on-site construction
and labour.
Problems with remote sites and access are easily
overcome with precast prestressed concrete tank
construction.
Precast tank wall with built-in launder trough.

1.1.13 Bridges
Maximum girder length, height and
weight are determined by available
equipment and transportation
regulations.
64 m long, 2800 mm deep girders
weighing over 130 t have been
successfully transported by road in
Alberta.
Bridge construction gave the precast, prestressed

concrete industry its start in North America. Precast is
now the dominant structural material for short and
medium-span bridges. Precast, prestressed concrete
bridge construction offers speed of construction in all
weather conditions, reduced traffic disruption, assured
quality, inherent durability, low maintenance and
economy.
Highway bridges are designed and constructed in
accordance with CSA Standard S6 Canadian Highway
Bridge Design Code (CHBDC). Railway bridges are
designed and constructed in accordance with AREMA
specifications. Oldman River Bridge, Taber, AB
Twenty eight 2800 mm deep NU girders formed the
superstructure for this 301 m long 5 span bridge - 3 main
spans of 62 m and 2 end spans of 57.5 m. The composite
deck roadway is supported by 4 lines of girders spaced at
2500 mm c/c. Spliced girders were erected on temporary
scaffolding and post-tensioned together after the joints were
completed.
Highway Overpass, Edmonton, AB
Precast deck panels can save considerable time and cost by

The use of voided slab and box girder sections are eliminating formwork and reducing the field placement of
economical for short spans and shallow depths, up to reinforcing steel and concrete.
40 m.
Partial depth panels become composite with field-
I-girders are the most common product used for short placed concrete. Full depth precast deck panels, used
to medium-spans. Spans of 20 to 60 m are common for both new and retrofit construction, can be
using l-girders, bulb tees or NU girders. Spliced girders connected to the support beams to achieve composite
can accommodate spans up to 100 m. [35] action. [38]
Spans over 100 m can be achieved using full width Other bridge components such as precast footings,
precast box segments that are post-tensioned together piers, abutments, wing walls, diaphragms, pile caps,
in the field. Cable stayed bridges can span over 300 m traffic barriers and retaining walls are used to speed
using precast and prestressed concrete decks. construction and enhance durability.

1.1.14 Special Structures
Canadian Plaza Improvements

Toll Booth Canopy Stage 1
Fort Erie, ON
The curved canopy was constructed using 15
tapered segmental precast canopy units,
erected on 14 permanent columns and
temporary scaffolding. Segments were post-
tensioned together. Units were 11.5 m long
and tapered from 3.024 m wide at the front to
2.794 m at the rear. Exposed faces were
precast using a board pattern form liner.
Interior units weighed 34 t. End units weighed
40 t.
A high degree of design flexibility makes prestressed concrete ideal

for a wide variety of special structures.
Precast properties, such as corrosion resistance (piling), durability

(railway ties), sound attenuation (sound walls), fire resistance (pipe
racks), tight tolerances (tunnel liners), architectural finishes (chimney
stacks), strength (silos) and fast installation and economy, have all
been used to good advantage.
Where repetition and standardization exist, precast components can

provide economical and quality solutions. Plant manufactured
products can eliminate expensive and risky field procedures. Pipe Racks
Custom precast concrete framing is often
Innovative applications rely on the skill and imagination of creative used to prevent collapse in a fire.
designers.
Syncrude Arch Conveyor Crossing,

Fort McMurray, AB.
Custom steel forms were used to manufacture twenty
2.4 m wide x 14 m long x 4.6 m high, 68 t, precast
arch segments. The arch sections were positioned
together and covered by 1.5 m of earth at the crown
to allow haul trucks to cross over the conveyor.

1.1.15 Architectural Wall Panels
such visual expressions as strength and massiveness

or grace and openness.
Aesthetic appearance can be achieved by varying

Architectural precast cladding combines the maximum aggregates and matrix colour. Combining colour with
freedom of architectural expression with the economies texture accents the natural beauty of aggregates.
of mass production of repetitive precast elements.
Understanding how architectural precast concrete can Panel geometry (shape details) has a major influence
be used as an integral part of a building envelope will on fabrication economy and engineering requirements,
enable designers to make appropriate design choices. with overall size and configuration being the most
It is important to consider the overall requirements of important elements.
the building envelope during design and construction.
Architectural precast concrete systems can vary from

conventional cladding systems to composite sandwich
assemblies that function as the entire environmental
separator.
Architectural precast concrete can be cast in almost

any colour, form, or texture to meet aesthetic and
practical requirements. Sculptured effects can provide
Melchoir Office Building, Barrie, ON

Panels Incorporate reflective mica and green-coloured
gravel aggregates.
Insulated architectural wall panels contribute

substantially to the overall thermal efficiency of a
building. Precast cladding may simply enclose a
structure, or be designed to support gravity loads and
Vancouver Public Library contribute to the resistance of lateral loads.

1.1.16 Veneer Faced Wall Panels
Historic Toronto City Hall

and Civic Square
(completed 1965)
The curving towers feature arch-
itectural precast panels faced with
To supplement the variety of colours and textures Italian marble. These panels acted as
available with conventional precast finishes, additional stay-in-place exterior formwork for the
aesthetic expression can be achieved by casting other cast-in-place reinforced concrete
materials, such as veneers on the face of precast frame.
concrete panels. Natural stone, such as polished and Complex brick faced panels have been precast in
thermal-finished granite, limestone, marble, and clay plants to produce results virtually impossible to achieve
products such as brick, tile and terra-cotta, are using field-set masonry.
frequently used as veneer materials.
Worker installs brick
inserts in a plastic
form liner.
Dovetail slots on the
back help to anchor the
brick tiles into the
precast panels.
Bankers Hall, Calgary, AB

Granite-faced precast concrete window panels were
used on both high rise towers, built 12 years apart. Sparrow Hospital Parking Garage, Lansing, MI

1.1.17 Modular Sandwich Wall Panels
Airdrie Co-op, Calgary, AB
Precast concrete sandwich wall panels are available across Canada in

varying lengths, thicknesses and exterior finishes. Panels are mass-
produced in standard widths on long-line casting beds.
With attractive sculptured exterior surfaces and smooth interior faces,

these panels provide strong, durable, energy efficient, economical and fire
resistant wall systems.
Insulated wall panels consist of two

concrete wythes with a continuous
layer of rigid insulation sandwiched
between them. The type and
thickness of insulation contained in
sandwich panels can vary to meet
the specified RSI requirements.
Insulation is installed under
controlled factory conditions and is
well protected by the concrete.
Panels can be erected at rates of up
to 120 lineal meters per day on
concrete or steel frame buildings.
Panels can be used for both load
bearing and non-load bearing
applications.
Leons Retail Store, Edmonton, AB

1.1.18 Ultra High Performance Concrete
The advanced properties of Ultra High Performance

Concrete (UHPC) enable designers to create thin
sections and long spans that are light, graceful and
innovative in geometry and form. UHPC provides
improved durability and impermeability against
corrosion, abrasion and impact.
UHPC materials with their high ultimate compressive
and flexural-tensile strengths offer additional
opportunities when prestressed. UHPC can be
designed to carry shear loads without auxiliary shear
reinforcement. Very thin sections are possible for a
wide variety of innovative and efficient cross sections. Shawnessy LRT Transit Station Canopies, Calgary,
Current structural precast shapes used for AB, 2003
Twenty-four unique, thin-shelled canopies, 5.1 m x 6.0 m and just 20
prestressed beams in buildings and bridges were mm thick, are supported on single columns to protect commuters
developed for concretes with much lower strength from the elements. [70]
properties. UHPC provides the opportunity to create
new prestressed beam shapes and to reduce beam
structural depth and dead loads.
UHPC suits applications requiring:
High compressive and tensile strength
Durability - long service life
Complex structural and architectural shapes
Footbridge Cross Section
Footbridge, Sherbrooke,
QC, 1997
This pedestrian bridge, built in
1997, is the first industrial use
of UHPC. Ten factory precast
match-cast segments, 3.3 m
wide, 3.0 m deep, 6.0 m long,
were delivered and post-
tensioned together at the site
to form the 60 m main bridge
span. [67]

1.2 PRECAST CONCRETE MATERIALS density structural concrete can also be used for
precast products. Appropriate mix designs should be
This section of the manual provides a brief review of
obtained from local CPCI members. Aggregates
the materials used in precast and prestressed
commonly selected for exposed concrete facings are
concrete. Refer to Chapter 8 for design information
limestone, quartz, granite or marble. These offer a
on concrete and concrete reinforcing materials.
wide variety of colour and texture. Lower cost sand
1.2.1 Concrete and gravel aggregates can also be used to produce
architectural concrete. Special attention should be
Types of hydraulic cement*: A23.1 classifies the paid to sand and gravel aggregates to ensure they do
types of hydraulic cement as: not rust or stain when exposed to the environment.
Type GU: General use hydraulic cement, for use in Concrete strength: The 28-day design strength of
general concrete construction when the special concrete used in precast and prestressed products is
properties of the other types are not required. usually in the 35 MPa to 50 MPa range. The transfer
strength (when the prestress force is transferred to
Type HE: High-early-strength hydraulic cement, for
the concrete) is usually about 25 MPa and can be
use when high-early-strength is required.
more or less as required by the design. However, a
Type MS: Moderate sulphate-resistant hydraulic practical limit is the strength that can be attained in
cement, for use in general concrete construction about 16 hours to allow for the removal of a product
exposed to moderate sulphate action. from the forms on a daily basis.
Type HS: High sulphate-resistant hydraulic cement, Curing: During production, architectural precast
for use when high sulphate resistance is required. concrete panels generally do not receive accelerated
heat curing as do precast, prestressed concrete
Type MH: Moderate heat of hydration hydraulic
structural members. Architectural precast panels are
cement, for use in general concrete construction
removed from forms at an age of about 16 hours after
when moderate heat of hydration is required.
the concrete has reached a strength adequate to
Type LH: Low heat of hydration hydraulic cement, withstand stripping and handling.
for use when low heat of hydration is required. Self-consolidating concrete (SCC):
Types of supplementary cementing materials*: Self-consolidating concrete is an advanced approach
A23.1 classifies the types of supplementary to the production of highly flowable, self-leveling
cementing materials as: concrete that can be placed with minimal or no
Natural pozzolan is Type N. vibration and without segregation. SCC requires a
high performance superplasticizer to achieve and
Fly ash is Type F: low calcium content (< 8), Type Cl: maintain the desired workability. SCC can be made
intermediate calcium content or Type CH: high with standard available raw materials. However, to
calcium content (> 20). achieve the unique rheological properties of SCC,
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is Type S. special attention must be paid to the mix design
process. [21]
Silica fume is Type SF.
High Performance Concrete (HPC):
A3001 allows blending of up to three individual
supplementary cementing materials to produce a High Performance Concrete offers more than just
blended supplementary cementing material. For high strength. HPC is predominately specified for its
additional information, see A3001, Clause 5. durability. A23.1 requires high performance structural
*Material is reproduced with the permission of Canadian Standards concretes exposure class A-1, C-1, or exposure
Association from the CSA Standard A23.1-04/A23.2-04, Concrete Materials
and Methods of Concrete Construction/Methods of Test and Standard
class C-XL for higher protection.
Practices for Concrete that are copyrighted by Canadian Standards
Association, 178 Rexdale Blvd., Toronto, Ontario, M9W 1R3. While use of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC):
this material has been authorized, CSA shall not be responsible for the
manner in which the information is presented, nor for any interpretations Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) covers
thereof. For more information on CSA or to purchase standards, please visit
www.shopcsa.ca or call 1-800-463-6727. concretes with compressive strengths from 120 MPa
to 200 MPa with flexural strengths of up to 40 MPa.
Aggregates: Aggregates for structural precast
products are usually the same as those used for Note: Practices that apply to the manufacturing and
other high-quality concrete in the local area. Where testing of regular concrete may not be applicable to
lightweight aggregates are available, semi-low UHPC.

Concrete exposure classes* gases and liquids, with or without freeze-thaw
A23.1 defines the following exposure classes: exposure. Examples: reinforced walls in
exterior manure tanks, silos and feed bunkers,
C-XL Structurally reinforced concrete exposed to exterior slabs.
chlorides or other severe environments with or
without freezing and thawing conditions, with A-3 Structurally reinforced concrete exposed to
higher durability performance expectations moderate to severe manure and/or silage
than the C-1, A-1 or S-1 classes. gases and liquids, with or without freeze-thaw
exposure in a continuously submerged
C-1 Structurally reinforced concrete exposed to condition. Concrete continuously submerged in
chlorides with or without freezing and thawing municipal or industrial effluents. Examples:
conditions. Examples: bridge decks, parking interior gutter walls, beams, slabs and
decks and ramps, portions of marine columns, sewage pipes that are continuously
structures located within the tidal and splash full (e.g., force mains), submerged portions of
zones, concrete exposed to seawater spray, sewage treatment structures.
and salt water pools.
A-4 Non-structurally-reinforced concrete exposed
C-2 Non-structurally reinforced (i.e., plain) concrete to moderate manure and/or silage gases and
exposed to chlorides and freezing and liquids, without freeze-thaw exposure.
thawing. Examples: garage floors, porches, Examples: interior slabs on grade.
steps, pavements, sidewalks, curbs, and
gutters. S-1 Concrete subjected to very severe sulphate
exposure (A23.1 Tables 2 and 3).
C-3 Continuously submerged concrete exposed to
chlorides but not to freezing and thawing. S-2 Concrete subjected to severe sulphate
Examples: underwater portions of marine exposure (A23.1 Tables 2 and 3).
structures. S-3 Concrete subjected to moderate sulphate
C-4 Non-structurally reinforced concrete exposed exposure (A23.1 Tables 2 and 3).
to chlorides but not to freezing and thawing. Table 2 of A23.1 gives the requirements for C, F, N,
Examples: underground parking slabs on R, S, and A classes of exposure.
grade.
Low-permeability concrete*
F-1 Concrete exposed to freezing and thawing in a
saturated condition but not to chlorides. Low-permeability concrete is obtained by using
Examples: pool decks, patios, tennis courts, exposure class C-1 concrete, or for added protection,
freshwater pools, and freshwater control exposure class C-XL concrete.
structures. Class of exposure C-1 C-XL
F-2 Concrete in an unsaturated condition exposed Maximum water-to-
0.40 0.37
to freezing and thawing but not to chlorides. cementing materials ratio
Examples: exterior walls and columns. Minimum specified
N Concrete not exposed to chlorides or to compressive strength 35 at 28 d 50 within 56 d
(MPa) and age (d) at test
freezing and thawing. Examples: footings and
interior slabs, walls and columns. Air content category:
A-1 Structurally reinforced concrete exposed to (a) concrete exposed to

1 1
freezing and thawing
severe manure and/or silage gases, with or
without freeze-thaw exposure. Concrete (b) concrete not exposed
2 2
exposed to the vapour above municipal to freezing and thawing
sewage or industrial effluent, where hydrogen Chloride ion penetrability
< 1500 < 1000
sulphide gas may be generated. Examples: test requirements and
coulombs coulombs
reinforced beams, slabs and columns over age at test in accordance
within 56 d within 56 d
with ASTM 1202
manure pits and silos, canals, pig slats, access
holes, enclosed chambers, and pipes that are
partially filled with effluents.
A-2 Structurally reinforced concrete exposed to
moderate to severe manure and/or silage

Requirements for the air content categories* Because of the need for early strength gain, HE
Range in air content for concretes with cement is often used by precasters so that molds can
indicated nominal maximum sizes of be reused daily. Structural precast concrete and
coarse aggregate, % much architectural concrete is made with gray
Air content cement that meets A3001. HE and GU white
10mm 14-20 mm 28-40 mm
category hydraulic cements are frequently used in architectural
1 6-9 5-8 4-7 products and are usually assumed to have the same
characteristics (other than colour) as gray cement.
2 5-8 4-7 3-6
Pigments are also available to colour concrete, and,
Note: See A23.1 Clause 4.3.3.2 for determining the air content at the recommended dosages, have little or no effect
in hardened concrete.
on strength. Cement type and colour should be
The curing procedures specified in A23.1 are not chosen with the help of local producers who may
required to be followed if alternate curing procedures have experience with the proposed mix.
specific to a particular plant are used, and provided
these procedures are shown to produce a finished Concrete mixes with strengths up to 50 MPa or more
concrete that meets or exceeds all of the are available in most areas. CPCI member precast
performance requirements for C-1 or C-XL concrete. manufacturers may be contacted for concrete design
information.
*Material is reproduced with the permission of Canadian Standards
Association from the CSA Standard A23.1-04/A23.2-04, Concrete Materials Initial curing of precast concrete takes place in the
and Methods of Concrete Construction/Methods of Test and Standard
Practices for Concrete that are copyrighted by Canadian Standards form, usually by covering to prevent loss of moisture
Association, 178 Rexdale Blvd., Toronto, Ontario, M9W 1R3. While use of and, in many instances (particularly for structural
this material has been authorized, CSA shall not be responsible for the
manner in which the information is presented, nor for any interpretations products), with the application of radiant heat or live
thereof. For more information on CSA or to purchase standards, please visit steam. Additional curing is rarely necessary to attain
www.shopcsa.ca or call 1-800-463-6727.
the specified strength. [23]
Compressive strength
Concrete subjected to freezing and thawing should
The compressive strength of concrete made with
be air-entrained. For some precast concrete mixes it
aggregate of adequate strength is governed by either
is sometimes difficult to obtain air contents as large
the strength of the cement paste or the bond between
as those normally specified for the leaner mixes most
the paste and the aggregate particles. At early ages,
often used in cast-in-place flatwork. Admixtures are
the bond strength is lower than the paste strength. At
added to the concrete during the mixing cycle to
later ages, the reverse can be the case.
entrain the air. A slight reduction of strength should
For a given cement and acceptable aggregates, the be anticipated when concrete is air entrained.
strength that can be developed by a workable,
properly placed mixture of cement, aggregate, and Tensile strength
water (under the same mixing, curing, and testing A critical measure of the performance of architectural
conditions) is influenced by: precast concrete is its resistance to cracking that is a
1. The ratio of water to cementing materials function of the tensile strength. Reinforcement does
not prevent cracking, but controls crack widths after
2. The ratio of cementing materials to aggregate cracking has occurred. Tensile stresses that would
3. Grading, surface texture, shape, strength, and theoretically result in cracking are permitted by A23.3
siffness of aggregate particles in prestressed concrete.
4. Maximum size of the aggregate The flexural tensile strength is called the modulus of
rupture. It can be determined by test, but for
Mix factors, partially or totally independent of water-to-
structural design the modulus of rupture is generally
cementing materials ratio, that affect the strength are:
assumed to be a function of compressive strength as
1. Type and brand of cement given by:
2. Amount and type of admixture or pozzolan fr = 0.6 fc
3. Mineral composition of the aggregate fr = modulus of rupture (MPa)
Compressive strength is measured by testing fc = compressive strength (MPa)
100 200 mm cylinders in accordance with A23.2 = 1.0 for normal density concrete
procedures. Grout materials are tested using 50 or
100 mm cubes. = 0.85 for structural semi-low density concrete
Testing of no-slump concrete is covered in A23.4. = 0.75 for structural low density concrete

Shear strength Much of the creep and shrinkage in precast members
The shear (or diagonal tension) strength of concrete takes place during yard storage. Connection details
is also a function of compressive strength. The and joints must be designed to accommodate the
equations for shear strength specified in A23.3 are volume changes that occur after the precast elements
given in Chapter 3. The shear strength of semi-low have been erected and connected to the structure.
density and low-density concrete is determined using Hollow core slabs are often shipped at an early age,
the factor, , as described on the preceding page. but are not normally rigidly connected to the
supporting structure.
Modulus of elasticity
Typical creep, shrinkage, and temperature strains
The modulus of elasticity, E, is the ratio of normal and design examples are given in Chapter 2.
stress to corresponding strain. It is the material
property that determines the immediate deformation Temperature effects:
under load. E is used to calculate deflections, axial
shortening and elongation, buckling and relative The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete
distribution of applied forces in composite and non- varies with the aggregate used as shown in Fig.
homogeneous structural elements. 1.2.1. Ranges for normal density concrete are
9 to 13 106/ C when made with siliceous
The modulus of elasticity of concrete and other aggregates and 6 to 9 x 106/ C when made with
masonry materials is not as well defined as for calcareous aggregates. The approximate values for
materials such as steel. E is therefore defined by an structural low density concretes are 6.5 to
approximate slope, such as the secant modulus. 11 106/ C, depending on the type of aggregate
Calculations that involve E have an inherent and amount of natural sand. Coefficients of
imprecision, but this seldom affects practical 11 106/ C for normal density and 9 106/ oC for
performance. While it can be desirable in rare semi-low density concrete are frequently used. If
instances to determine the modulus of elasticity by greater accuracy is needed, tests should be
test, particularly with some low density concretes, the conducted on the specific concrete.
equation given in A23.3 is usually adequate for
design: Since the thermal coefficient for steel is also about
1.5 11 x 106/ C, the steel reinforcement does not

Ec = (3300 fc + 6900) c produce significant stresses in the concrete due to
2300 temperature changes.
Ec = modulus of elasticity (MPa)
Shrinkage and creep:
c = density of concrete (kg/m3)
Precast concrete elements are subject to air-drying
Poisson's ratio
as soon as they are removed from the forms. As a
Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to axial result of this drying, the concrete slowly loses some
strain. Values generally range between 0.11 and of its original water causing shrinkage to occur.
0.27, and are usually assumed to be 0.20 for both
When concrete is subjected to a sustained load, the
normal and low density concrete.
deformation can be divided into two parts:
Volume changes
1. elastic deformation that occurs immediately, and
Volume changes in precast concrete members are
caused by changes in temperature, shrinkage and by 2. time-dependent deformation, called creep,
creep caused by sustained stress. If precast concrete beginning immediately and continuing over time.
members are free to deform, volume changes are of Creep and shrinkage strains vary with relative
little consequence. If elements are restrained by humidity, volume-surface ratio (see Fig.1.2.2), level of
foundations, connections, steel reinforcement, or sustained load including prestress, concrete age and
connecting elements, significant stresses can strength at the time of load application, amount and
develop over time. location of steel reinforcement, and other
The volume changes due to temperature variations characteristics of the material and design. Different
and creep can be positive (expansion) or negative values of shrinkage and creep may be needed when
(contraction), while volume changes from shrinkage high strength concretes are used. Typically, the joints
are only negative. between precast members are detailed to relieve
such strains.

Fig. 1.2.1 Average coefficients of linear thermal Fig.1.2.2 Volume-surface ratios for precast
expansion of rock (aggregate) and structural concrete elements
concrete
Average Coefficient
Type of Rock
Of Thermal Expansion
(Aggregate)
(106 / C)
*
Aggregate Concrete
Quartzite, Cherts 11.0 - 12.6 11.9 - 12.8
Sandstones 10.0 - 12.0 10.0 - 11.7
Quartz Sands & Gravels 9.9 - 12.8 11.0 - 15.7
Granites & Gneisses 5.8 - 9.5 6.8 - 9.5
Syenites,
Diorites, Andesite, 5.4 - 8.1 8.0 - 9.5
Gabbros, Diabas, Basalt
Limestones 3.6 - 6.5 6.1 - 9.2
Marbles 4.0 - 7.0 4.1
Dolomites 7.0 - 9.9
Expanded Shale, Freeze-thaw damage is accelerated by deicing
6.5 - 7.7 chemicals. Deicers can be applied indirectly in
Clay & Slate
various ways such as salt water dripping from the
Expanded Slag 7.0 - 11.2 undersides of vehicles and splash water. Some
Blast-Furnace Slag 9.2 - 10.6 proprietary treatments such as sealers, membranes
and corrosion inhibiters have been found to provide
Pumice 9.4 - 11.0
additional protection to freeze-thaw, deicing and other
Perlite 7.6 - 11.7 chemical damage. (See S413 Parking Structures.)
Vermiculite 8.3 - 14.2 Other foreign materials, such as sulphates in soils or
Barite 18.0 ground water and industrial acids, can damage
concrete. The former can be resisted by specifying
Limonite, Magnetite 8.3 - 11.0 cements with a low C3A content. The presence of
None (Neat Cement) 18.5 acids generally requires a membrane or a topping of
concrete or other material. When aggregates or
Cellular Concrete 9.0 - 12.6
cement with high alkali content are used in a moist
1 : 1 (Cement : Sand) 13.5 environment, the danger of alkali-aggregate reactivity
1:3 11.2
(AAR) should be considered. [5]
1:6 10.0 1.2.2 Grout, Mortar and Drypack

* Coefficients for concretes made with aggregates from When water, sand and cementing materials are
different sources vary from these values, especially those mixed together without coarse aggregate, the result is
for gravels, granites, and limestones. Fine aggregates are
generally the same material as coarse aggregates. called mortar, grout, or drypack, depending on the
Tests made on 2-year old samples. consistency. These materials have numerous
applications in precast concrete construction:
Freeze-thaw and chemical resistance
sometimes for fire or corrosion protection, for
Cycles of freezing and thawing can cause damage to cosmetic treatment, or to transfer loads in horizontal
concrete ranging from minor surface scaling to and vertical joints.
severe disintegration. Corrosion of reinforcement, Different materials are used:
prestressing strand or connection hardware can also 1. Cement
result, affecting the integrity of the structure. 2. Shrinkage-compensating cement
The effects of freezing and thawing can be resisted by 3. Expansive cement made with special additives
high quality concrete and air entrainment. Adequate 4. Gypsum or gypsum cements
concrete cover over reinforcement and surface 5. Epoxy resins
drainage is essential in structures exposed to weather. 6. Proprietary grouts and repair mortars

Sand-cement mixtures Manufacturers' recommendations should be followed
as some expansive ingredients may cause
Most grout is a simple mixture of cement, sand, and
undesirable effects in some applications.
water. Proportions are usually one part cement to
2.25 to 3 parts sand. The amount of water depends Aluminum powder added to ordinary sand-cement
on the method of placement. grout forms a gas-liberating mixture. Extremely small
amounts of powder are required (about a teaspoonful
Flowable grouts are high-slump mixes used to fill
per bag of cement) making these mixes very
voids that are either formed in the field or cast into
sensitive to variations in the ingredients. Trial mixes
the precast element such as the shear keys between
should be tested.
hollow core slabs. Grouts are used at joints that may
be heavily congested but not confined, requiring Epoxy grouts
some formwork. These grouts usually have a high Epoxy grouts are used when very high strength is
water-cement ratio, resulting in low strength and high desired, or when positive bonding to the concrete is
shrinkage. There is a tendency for the solids to settle, necessary. They are mixtures of epoxy resins and a
leaving a layer of water on the top. Admixtures can filler material, usually sand.
improve the characteristics of flowable grouts.
The physical properties of epoxy compounds vary
For very small spaces in confined areas, grouts can
widely. The compound to be used should be
be pumped or pressure injected. Confinement must
determined either through experience or by test. [41]
be sufficiently strong to resist the hydraulic pressure.
The thermal expansion of epoxy grouts can be up to
Less water can be used than for flowable grouts,
7 times that of concrete, and the modulus of elasticity
hence less shrinkage and higher strengths can be
of epoxy grouts are considerably different than
obtained.
concrete.
A stiffer grout, or mortar, is used when the joint is not
Low viscosity epoxy resins without fillers can be
totally confined, for example in vertical joints between
pressure-injected or gravity fed into cracked concrete
wall panels. This material will usually develop
as a repair measure.
strengths of 20 MPa to 45 MPa, and have much less
shrinkage than flowable grout. Post-tensioning grout
Drypack is the name used for very stiff sand-cement Post-tensioning grouts are a mixture of cement and
mixes. Drypack is used if a relatively high strength is water with or without admixtures. [48]
desired, for example, under bearing walls and column
base plates. Compaction is by hand tamping, using a 1.2.3 Reinforcement
rod or stick. Reinforcement used in structural and architectural
When freeze-thaw durability is a factor, grout should precast concrete includes prestressing tendons,
be air-entrained. An air content of 9 or 10% may be deformed steel bars, and welded wire reinforcement.
required for adequate protection. Metallic and non-metallic fibre reinforcing can also be
Typical cement mortars have very slow early strength used. Specifications for non-metallic reinforcing
gain when placed in cold weather. Heating is usually materials are covered in S806.
not effective because the heat is rapidly dissipated Prestressing tendons
into the surrounding concrete. Special proprietary
mixes may be required unless a heated enclosure Tendons for prestressing concrete can be wires,
can be provided. strands, or bars. In precast, prestressed structural
concrete, nearly all tendons are 7-wire strands
Non-shrink grout conforming to ASTM A416/A416M. The strands are
Shrinkage of sand-cement grout can be reduced by usually pretensioned (tensioned prior to concrete
using proprietary non-shrink mixes, or by adding placement). After the concrete has reached a
aluminum powder to the mix. Non-shrink grouts can predetermined strength, the strands are cut and the
be classified by the method of expansion: prestress force is transferred to the concrete through
1. Gas-liberating bond.
2. Metal-oxidizing Until the late 1970s, most prestressing strand was

stress-relieved. Today, low-relaxation strand is
3. Gypsum-forming
almost universally used. Low-relaxation strand as
4. Expansive cement specified in ASTM A416/A416M differs from stress-

relieved strand in two respects: first, it meets more continuous automatic welder. Pressure and heat fuse
restrictive relaxation loss requirements, and second, the intersecting wires together and fix all wires in their
the minimum yield strength at an extension of 1% is proper position.
90% of the specified minimum tensile strength, Smooth wires, deformed wires or a combination of
compared to 85% for stress-relieved strand. The load both can be used in welded wire reinforcement. Wire
tables in Chapter 7 are based on low-relaxation sizes are denoted by their area in mm2 prefixed with
strand. the letters MW for smooth wire or MD for deformed
Architectural precast concrete is sometimes wire. Welded wire reinforcement styles are
prestressed. Prestressing tendons can be either designated by the spacing and wire sizes as shown in
pretensioned or post-tensioned depending on the Figs. 8.2.11 to 8.2.14. For one way welded wire
facilities available at the plant. reinforcement, the area of the smaller wires shall not
be less than 40% of the area of the larger wires.
Prestressing wire or bars are occasionally used as
primary reinforcement in precast elements. The Smooth wire reinforcement bonds to concrete by the
properties of prestressing strand, wire and bars are mechanical anchorage at each welded wire
given in Chapter 8. intersection. Deformed wire reinforcement utilizes
wire indentations plus welded intersections for bond
Deformed reinforcing bars and wires and anchorage. Many plants have equipment for
Hot-rolled deformed reinforcing bars are required to bending welded wire reinforcement into various
meet one or more of the following standards: CSA shapes such as U-shaped stirrups, four-sided cages,
G30.18 or ASTM A82, A184, A185, A496, A497, etc. Designers are cautioned to ensure that welded
A704 or A775. These specifications cover both wire reinforcement meets the ductility requirements of
weldable steel and regular steel. Bars are usually A23.1 when used as shear reinforcement.
specified to have a minimum yield strength of 400
Protection of reinforcement
MPa (Grade 400R and 400W). Grade 300R bars may
be available only in sizes 10M and 15M. Grade 500R Reinforcement is protected from corrosion by
and 500W steel are also available. The maximum embedment in concrete. A protective iron oxide film
yield strength of 400W and 500W bars is limited to forms on the surface of bars, wires and tendons as a
525 MPa and 625 MPa, respectively, to ensure ductile result of the high alkalinity of the cement paste. As
behaviour. The W in the grade designation indicates long as the alkalinity is maintained, this film is
a weldable bar with controlled chemistry and a effective in preventing corrosion.
maximum carbon equivalent of 0.55%.
The protective high alkalinity of the cement paste can
Some precast plants use weldable steel (400W) for be lost by leaching, carbonation or the presence of
all reinforcement. Advantages are a reduction in chlorides. Sufficient cover over the reinforcement
inventory and the possibility of errors. Another using concrete of low permeability will usually provide
advantage is that bar ends can be used for welded adequate protection. Low permeability is obtained by
connections instead of being scrapped. See W186 for well-consolidated concrete having a low water-to-
the welding of reinforcing bars. cementing material ratio, a characteristic of precast
concrete. Permeability can be further decreased by
For a reinforcing bar to develop its full strength in
replacing some of the cement with fly ash or slag or
concrete, a minimum length of embedment or a hook
with the addition of small amounts of silica-fume to
is required. Information on bar sizes, bend and hook
the concrete mix. (See Section 6.5.)
dimensions and development lengths are given in
reference [13] and Figs. 8.2.6 to 8.2.10. Cracks in concrete can allow oxygen and moisture to
reach the embedded steel, providing conditions
Deformed wire can be used in small, thin members
where rusting of the steel and staining of the surface
when reinforcement smaller than 10 M bars is used to
may occur. A sufficient amount of closely spaced
meet concrete cover and/or small bend radii
reinforcement limits the width of cracks and the
requirements. Deformed wires should conform to
intrusion of water, maintaining the protection of the
ASTM A497 see Figs 8.2.11 and 8.2.14.
steel. Prestressing is particularly useful to prevent or
Welded wire reinforcement limit cracking.
Welded wire reinforcement is prefabricated Concrete cover is the minimum clear distance from
reinforcement consisting of parallel cold-drawn wires the reinforcement to the surface of the concrete. For
welded together in square or rectangular grids. Each exposed aggregate surfaces, the concrete cover is
wire intersection is electrically resistance-welded by a measured from the deformations of the reinforcement

to the deepest point of the exposed aggregate 5. The type of finish treatment of the concrete surface.
surface. Allowance must also be given to scoring, 6. The environment at the concrete surface: interior
false joints, and drips, as these can reduce the cover. or exposed to weather, ocean atmosphere, soils
In determining cover, consideration should be given or corrosive industrial fumes.
to the following:
7. Fire resistance requirements.
1. Structural or nonstructural use of precast element.
The minimum cover requirements for precast
2. Maximum aggregate size cover should be concrete manufactured under plant control conditions
greater than 1.5 times the nominal maximum as specified in A23.4 are shown in Fig. 1.2.3.
aggregate size, particularly if a face mix is used.
3. The means of securing the reinforcement in a
Galvanized reinforcement
controlled position and maintaining this control
during placement of concrete. Galvanized reinforcing bars or welded wire
4. Accessibility for the placement of concrete, and reinforcement are sometimes used when minimum
the proportioning of the concrete mix relative to cover requirements cannot be achieved, or when the
the structural environment.
Fig. 1.2.3 Minimum cover requirements to reinforcement, tendon sheaths, and ducts for precast
concrete*
Exposure
Chlorides, sulphates, manure,
Not exposed Earth or weather sewage and industrial effluents
Unprotected concrete
C-1, C-3, A-1, A-2, A-3, S-
Exposure condition N F1, F2 C-XL
1, S-2, S-3
Piles - 40 mm 50 mm 40 mm
Beams, girders, and columns 20 mm 30 mm 50 mm 40 mm
Slabs, walls, joists, shells, and
20 mm 25 mm 50 mm 40 mm
folded plates
Ratio of cover to nominal bar
1.0 1.5 1.5 (cover 60) 1.5 (cover 60)
diameter
Ratio of cover to nominal
1.0 1.5 1.5 (cover 60) 1.5 (cover 60)
maximum aggregate size
Cover to mesh reinforcing in all
20 mm 25 mm 40 mm 35 mm
precast products
Note: The cover for precast concrete is reduced from the cover used in cast-in-place concrete due to greater dimensional control of formed
concrete, tighter tolerances on placement of reinforcing and the better quality of concrete in plant-controlled conditions.
Exposure class N refers only to concrete that will be continually dry within a conditioned space, i.e., members entirely within the
vapour barrier of a building envelope.
The specified cover from screeded surfaces shall be at least 1.5 times the nominal maximum aggregate size to reduce interference
between aggregate and reinforcement where variations in bar placement may result in a cover smaller than specified.
Greater cover or protective coatings may be required for exposure to industrial chemicals, food processing, and other corrosive
materials. (See CSA A23.1 and PCA Publication IS001T.)
The cover requirements for parking structures may be modified due to the use of additional protective measures. (See CSA S413.)
Further reduced cover below the above values is permitted with the use of one or more of the following concrete protection systems:
membrane, concrete with a rapid chloride permeability test result (ASTM C1202) of less than 1500 coulombs at 56 days, corrosion
inhibitor, sealer, galvanized reinforcement, or stainless steel reinforcement. (See CSA A23.4 Table1.)
Cover requirements over reinforcement should be increased when the precast elements are acid etched, exposed to a corrosive
environment, or subjected to other severe exposure conditions. For these conditions, the cover should be greater than one and one
half times the nominal maximum aggregate size. (Refer to CSA A23.4.)
*Material is reproduced with the permission of Canadian Standards Association from the CSA Standard A23.4-05, Precast Concrete Materials and
Construction that are copyrighted by Canadian Standards Association, 178 Rexdale Blvd., Toronto, Ontario, M9W 1R3. While use of this material has been
authorized, CSA shall not be responsible for the manner in which the information is presented, nor for any interpretations thereof. For more information on CSA or
to purchase standards, please visit www.shopcsa.ca or call 1-800-463-6727.

concrete is exposed to a particularly severe may need to be modified. CSA S413 has eliminated
environment. Galvanizing may not be effective under epoxy coating as suitable protection for
certain conditions such as marine environments. reinforcement.
Galvanized welded wire reinforcement is usually
Bars are generally factory epoxy coated when
available as a stock item in some sizes. (See
straight. Subsequent shearing, bending and
Chapter 8.) Individual wires are galvanized before
handling should conform to ASTM D3963M.
they are welded together to form the fabric. Zinc at
Damaged or removed epoxy coating should be
each wire intersection is burned off during welding,
patched using the manufacturers approved patch
but the resulting black spots have not caused
compound. All tie wire, chairs and bar supports used
appreciable corrosion problems. After welding, the
for the installation of coated rebar should be non-
reinforcement is normally shipped to the plant
metallic materials or be supplied with an acceptable
without further treatment. Galvanized welded wire
protective coating. Epoxy coated reinforcing bars
reinforcement shall be made from zinc coated
should be handled with nylon slings.
carbon steel wire conforming to ASTM A641. The
use of galvanized reinforcement close to steel forms Epoxy coated strand
or to adjacent non-galvanized reinforcement in fresh
Epoxy coated strand material is described in the
concrete may cause shadowing or reflection of the
standard ASTM A882 Standard Specification for
steel on to the final concrete surface. See reference
Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing Steel
[31] for ways to avoid this occurrence by passivating
Strand. For bonded construction, the epoxy coating
the galvanized steel or the concrete mix.
is impregnated with a grit to develop a bond with the
Dissimilar metals in concrete concrete.
The American Galvanizers Association (AGA) [71] The behavior of epoxy coated strand at elevated
states that when using galvanized reinforcement in temperatures is a major concern due to the
concrete there is the possibility of establishing a softening of the epoxy. Pull-out tests show there is a
bimetallic couple between zinc and bare steel (i.e., progressive reduction in bond strength initiated at
at a break in the zinc coating or direct contact about 50C with a virtual complete loss of bond
between galvanized steel and black steel bars) or occurring at about 90C. This behavior necessitates
other dissimilar metals. A bimetallic couple of this a careful monitoring of concrete temperature at
type in concrete should not be expected to exhibit transfer of prestress. [20]
corrosive reactions as long as the two metals remain
It is not recommended that epoxy coated strands be
passivated. To ensure this is the case, the concrete
depth to the zinc/steel contact should not be less used for pretensioned precast concrete products
than the cover required to protect black steel alone because of the uncertainties in the properties noted
under the same conditions. above, particularly the behavior under elevated
temperatures. The Note to CSA A23.3 Clause 3.1.1
Galvanized reinforcement should not be coupled states that epoxy coated strands should not be used
directly to large areas of black steel reinforcement, in building structures.
copper, or other dissimilar metal. Bar supports and
accessories should be galvanized. Tie wire should 1.2.4 Protection of Connections
be plastic coated. If desired, polyethylene and other
similar tapes can be used to provide isolation Painted steel
between dissimilar metals. In most building environments, the painting of
Epoxy coated reinforcement exposed steel in connections is sufficient to prevent
corrosion damage. Choices of paint systems range
Reinforcing bars and welded wire reinforcement are from one coat of primer to multi-coat systems using
available for use in products where epoxy coatings zinc rich paint or epoxy systems.
are specified. Epoxy coated reinforcing bars should
conform to ASTM A775M. Epoxy coated welded wire Long oil alkyds have the advantage of low cost
reinforcement should conform to ASTM A884. These surface preparation and the ease of application and
standards describe steel surface protection, coating touch up. Their disadvantage is their relatively short
application, thickness, continuity and adhesion of life span in corrosive conditions.
coating and quality control requirements.
Epoxy polyamidoamines have an extended life span
Epoxy coating reduces bond strength. (See CSA and are good in corrosive environments. However,
A23.3.) Similarly, the requirements for bond strength they have a higher material cost and surface

preparation cost. Epoxy polyamidoamines are more 3. Welding processes such as metal-inert gas
difficult to field touch up since they are a two-part (MIG), tungsten-inert gas (TIG), or CO2
mixture requiring controlled temperatures during shielded arc are recommended when possible
application. Any epoxy based topcoat has the since they produce essentially no slag.
disadvantage of chalking due to weathering and
4. If special process welding is not available,
environmental effects, especially with direct or
select a coated rod specifically designed for
indirect UV exposure.
self-slagging as recommended by welding
For both long oil alkyd and epoxy polyamidoamine equipment suppliers. Refer to item 2 above.
systems, the protection is lost once the surface is It is recognized that any form of cold working
broken since corrosion can start undercutting reduces the ductility of steel. Operations such as
adjacent areas. punching holes, notching, producing fillets of small
Zinc-rich urethanes minimize this problem by radii, shearing and sharp bending may lead to strain
providing galvanic protection. Zinc-rich urethane has embrittlement of susceptible steels.
the best corrosion resistance and life expectancy
The following precautions are recommended by the
and is relatively easy to apply. The disadvantage of
American Hot Dip Galvanizers Association if cold-
the zinc-rich urethane is that it only comes in a
worked steel is to be galvanized:
brown colour. If other colors are required, epoxy or
urethane paints may be used as a top coat. 1. Select steel with a carbon content below 0.25%.
Consult the CPCI members in your area for paint 2. Choose steel with low transition temperatures
systems commonly used. since cold working raises the ductile-brittle
transition temperature and galvanizing (heating)
Galvanized steel may raise it even further.
In corrosive environments, hot dip galvanizing of 3. For steels having carbon contents between
connection hardware is sometimes used. 0.10% and 0.25%, a bending radius of at least
Connections should be designed to minimize or three times the section thickness (3t) should be
eliminate field welding if galvanized connections are maintained. In some cases, 6t yields even
used. The fumes from welding galvanized material better results. If less than 3t bending is
are very toxic and present a health hazard to the unavoidable, the material should be stress-
welder, even with the use of protective equipment. relieved at 600C for one hour per 25 mm of
The process of welding destroys the protective section thickness.
coating, requiring a touch up with a cold applied
zinc-rich paint. 4. Drill, rather than punch, holes in material thicker
than 20 mm. If holes are punched, they should
Several precautions are recommended to ensure be punched undersize, then reamed an
that the strength of the various elements of a additional 3 mm overall or drilled to size.
connection is not reduced by embrittlement during
the hot dip galvanizing process. 5. Edges of steel sections greater than 15 mm
thick subject to tensile loads should be
When items of a connection assembly require machined or machine cut.
welding, such as anchor bars to plates, the following
recommendations have been found to produce 6. In critical applications, the steel should be hot
satisfactory results and are recommended by the worked above 650C in accordance with steel-
American Galvanizers Association [71]: makers recommendation. Where cold working
cannot be avoided, stress-relieve as
1. An uncoated electrode should be used recommended in item 3 above.
whenever possible to prevent flux deposits.
ASTM A143 "Recommended Practice for Safe-
2. If a coated electrode is used, all welding flux guarding against Embrittlement of Hot Dip
residues must be removed by wire brushing, Galvanized Structural Steel Products and Procedure
flame cleaning, chipping, grinding, needle gun for Detecting Embrittlement" and CSA Specification
or abrasive blast cleaning. This is necessary G164 "Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Articles,"
because welding flux residues are chemically provide guidance on cold working and stress
inert in the normal pickling solutions used by relieving procedures. However if at all possible,
galvanizers; their existence will produce rough severe cold working of susceptible steels is best
and incomplete zinc coverage. avoided.

Another area of concern is hydrogen embrittlement. free from adjacent concrete to allow expansion
Hydrogen embrittlement is a ductile-to-brittle change during welding without spalling the concrete.
that occurs in certain high strength steels. Hydrogen
embrittlement is not common, but precautions 1.2.5 Ultra High Performance Concrete
should be taken if the steel involved has an ultimate
Introduction
tensile strength exceeding approximately 1000 MPa,
or if the pickling process is poorly controlled, Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) covers
resulting in long exposure to hydrochloric acid. In concretes with compressive strengths from 120 MPa
these cases, grit blasting is recommended instead of to 200 MPa [49, 55] with flexural strengths of up to
acid pickling. These precautions are also outlined in 40 MPa (40 mm x 40 mm x 160 mm, 3-point bending
reference. [24] test, NF EN 196-1). [50, 51, 52, 54]
Alternatives to hot dip galvanizing include: CSA A23.3 is based on concretes in the range of 20
electrogalvanizing (threaded items) MPa to 80 MPa. (See Clause 8.6.1.1.) Clause
8.6.1.2 allows the use of UHPC provided the
J finish properties, detailing and performance requirements
metalizing are established prior to use.
cold galvanizing using zinc rich paint Principles of the technology
Stainless steel There are two different concepts used in the design
In highly corrosive environments, stainless steel may of UHPC:
be used for connections and embedments. AISI 1. Optimize multi-scale components and fibres to
(American Iron and Steel Institute) Types 304 and produce a material with ductility.
316 stainless steels are the most commonly used in
2. Use of a gradation of materials to produce an
structural applications. These types are a low carbon
modification of Type 302 for limiting of carbide ultra-high performance matrix.
precipitation during welding. Type 316 has a higher The resulting ultra high performance and improved
corrosion resistance than Type 304 and is only used resistance to aggressive agents is due to a
for chemical handling equipment. Types 304L and significant reduction in the porosity of the matrix and
316L are extra low carbon modifications of Types a discontinuous pore structure. [55] The use of low
304 and 316 and are used where carbide water/cementitious material ratios (w/c < 0.25) is
precipitation is a problem. Type 304 and 304L are made possible using a specific gradation of
commonly used in precast construction. There are a materials and superplasticizers that deflocculate the
limited number of structural shapes and sizes fine particles. Maximum density is obtained using a
available in stainless steel. Consult with CPCI modified compact grading with four classes of
members for the availability of different shapes, particles: quartz sand, ground quartz, cement and
sizes and material properties. silica fume.
Austenitic stainless steel can be welded by all The ultra fines are silica fume of very high purity that
common methods and the equipment used and the form sub-micro spheres that fill the interspatial voids
testing required is basically the same as for carbon between the cement particles and react with the
steel. Inspection of welds should include verification cement hydrates. The resulting matrix is extremely
of the proper electrode, proper storage of the impermeable due to a sealing of the pores. This
electrodes and operator certification, in addition to provides superior resistance to aggressive agents.
the non-destructive testing required. The method
and frequency of testing should be as directed by The maximum size of coarse aggregate is
the design engineer. significantly reduced, thereby producing a
granularity with improved flow characteristics and
The welding of stainless steel produces more heat reduced micro defects in the matrix. Formulations
than conventional welding and stainless steel has a are available with slump flow rates to suit the
coefficient of thermal expansion greater than that of precasters casting techniques.
structural steel. This can create adverse expansion
of embedments during welding requiring special UHPC contains high strength steel (>2,000 MPa) or
detailing to avoid cracking the adjacent concrete. organic fibres (2% by volume) and an aspect ratio
Stainless steel embedment edges should be kept relative to the maximum coarse aggregate

Typical UHPC Mixture Fig 1.2.5 UHPC behaviour in bending
Cement 710 kg
Sand 1020 kg
Ground Quartz 215 kg
Silica Fume 203 kg
Fibres (metallic) 160 kg
Admixture 10 kg
Water 140 litres
This is critical to ensure a proper dispersion and

bond to the matrix.
Mechanical properties and analysis
Fire resistance
Figs. 1.2.4 and 1.2.5 for the same UHPC mix show
Ultra High Performance Concretes are non-
the compressive and bending behaviour,
combustible. However, the very low porosity of
respectively. Flexural capacity is approximately twice
UHPCs induce large internal stresses at elevated
the load that produces the first crack, see Fig. 1.2.6.
temperatures, preventing water vapour from
The high strength may allow the design of structures
escaping resulting in spalling. This spalling can be
without conventional reinforcement (for tension,
significantly reduced by incorporating adequate
shear, temperature and shrinkage). [53, 54, 56, 57]
polypropylene fibres. When UHPC is used with steel
Numerous full-scale tests of beams, columns and fibres, a small quantity of sacrificial polypropylene
shells have been performed. These tests have fibres should be added. At 150C, the polypropylene
validated the calculation methods chosen, as fibres begin to soften and melt, thereby providing
referenced by the BFUP working group. [50] escape routes for trapped vapour. [60]
Creep & shrinkage behaviour Durability and chemical stability
Creep and shrinkage behaviour is significantly The microstructure of UHPC is virtually impermeable
different from normal concrete. Initial shrinkage is preventing the intrusion of aggressive agents. Tests
high and must be accommodated in the of UHPC have been performed in different
manufacturing process, see Figs. 1.2.7 and 1.2.8. laboratories in which the porosity distribution, gas
UHPC does not exhibit long term drying shrinkage. permeability, carbonation, chlorine diffusion and
UHPC creep coefficients are less than 0.8 much leaching have been determined. [61, 62]
lower than conventional concrete. When a thermal Freeze-thaw tests on UHPC were performed to 300
treatment is applied, the creep coefficient can be as cycles without any degradation.
low as 0.2. [59] Prestress losses are therefore
substantially reduced when UHPC is used. Rapid chloride ion permeability tests on UHPC give
results of approximately 20 coulombs. [65]
Fig 1.2.4 UHPC behaviour in compression
Chemical attacks and aging
UHPC resists chemical conditions that can rapidly
and severely damage ordinary reinforced concretes.
Laboratory tests have been performed with different
aggressive chemical compounds such as calcium
sulphate, sodium sulphate, acetic acid, ammonium
sulphide and nitrate and also sea water and distilled
water. The results show UHPC has a very good
resistance to chemical attacks. [62]
UHPC exhibited high resistance when subjected to
CO2, CH4, H2S gases at 120C and 7 MPa pressure.
Autogenous or self healing was demonstrated during
aging tests. [62]

Cover to strand
The minimum cover for UHPC to prestressing

tendons may be as low as 10 mm. [58, 61, 62] The
fire code requirements for concrete cover are
recommended in fire rated structures using UHPC.
[60]
Flexural test of UHPC beam
Fig 1.2.6 Full scale test on a prestressed beam, ENS Cachan
Fig 1.2.7 UHPC basic creep Fig 1.2.8 UHPC shrinkage: after thermal
treatment, no shrinkage is observed.
[58, 59]

1.3 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE Unbonded post-tensioned construction often uses
monostrand tendons: a plastic sheath is extruded
Post-tensioned construction differs from pretensioned
over strands that have been lubricated with a non-
construction in the timing of the application of stress corrosive grease for additional corrosion protection.
to the prestressed reinforcement. With pretensioned
elements, stress is applied to the steel before Tendons
concrete is placed. In post-tensioned elements, the Post-tensioning tendons can be of three different
stress is applied to the steel after the concrete has types: strand, bar or wire. These designations
been cured to an acceptable compressive strength. determine the post-tensioning system. Although
Post-tensioned construction offers many of the popular in the 1960s and 1970s, wire post-
benefits of pretensioned construction: tensioning is no longer common as strand systems
have become more economical. Bar and strand
1. Effective use of high strength materials properties are given in Fig. 8.2.1 and Fig. 8.2.2.
2. Shallow, more attractive structures Of the several grades and sizes of seven wire strand
available, the most commonly used is Grade 1860
3. Control of deflections
15 mm diameter strand.
4. Virtual elimination of cracks
Anchorages
5. Long, economical spans
The anchorages for post-tensioning tendons are
6. Low cost fire resistant construction specially designed for the type of tendon being
Other benefits: anchored. Several types of anchorages are shown in
Figs. 8.2.4 and 8.2.5. Generic information is
1. Prestressing at the jobsite presented. While dimensions can vary from actual
2. Moment connections for precast elements sizes by 10%, the data provided will allow for the
adequate detailing of structural elements. Post-
3. Staged prestressing tensioning suppliers should be consulted for actual
4. Watertight construction sizes.
5. Reduced prestress losses Anchorage systems can be used for live ends (the
end of the tendon where the jacking occurs) or dead
6. Structural continuity ends (the end of the tendon that is fixed within the
concrete, also called the fixed end). Live end
Post-tensioning methods and materials can be
anchorages can be used as dead end anchorages or
applied to both precast and cast-in-place concrete
anchorages can be used for stressing both ends of a
construction, as well as for the rehabilitation of
tendon when friction losses are high.
concrete structures and elements.
Multistrand live end anchors consist of an anchor
1.3.1 Post-Tensioning Materials head that grips individual strands by means of
tapered wedges, inserted in conical holes in the
Post-tensioning hardware consists of sheathing,
anchor head encircling the strand (Fig. 8.2.4). Dead
tendons and anchors. Although there are several
end or fixed anchors can be made of individual
different types of post-tensioning available, three
strands with the ends crimped to form a bulb. The
basic components are common to all systems.
strand bond and crimped ends anchor each strand in
Sheathing the concrete (Type 1). Fixed anchors can also be
Sheathing can be fabricated from either steel or looped either around a split pipe or around a
plastic. In bonded post-tensioned construction where reinforcing bar and steel angle cage.
a bond between the concrete outside the sheath and The monostrand system consists of a steel casting
the grout inside the sheath is required, both steel and that can be used as a live, intermediate or dead end
plastic sheathing can be employed. Steel sheathing anchor. Used mostly for unbonded suspended slabs,
can be made from strip steel formed into a monostrand tendons can be bonded by providing
corrugated, helical tube or from thin walled steel tube. non-greased strands in a steel or plastic tube sheath
Sheathing splices must be properly aligned and and grout vents.
sealed to prevent concrete ingress.

The post-tensioning anchor plate transmits the
Protection of tendons
concentrated prestress force from the tendon
The minimum clear cover requirements in Table 17 of anchoring device over a larger bearing area into the
A23.1 for post-tensioning tendons are superseded in concrete.
Table 1 of A23.4 when post-tensioning tendon ducts
The anchor plate can be placed in any of the
are cast into precast elements.
following ways:
Bonded post-tensioning tendons require the injection
1. Cast into a precast segment.
of a special purpose grout material in the ducts to
completely fill all spaces around the strands. Grout 2. Placed against a precast surface.
tubes are usually located at all high and low points on 3. Placed against cushioning materials.
tendon profiles. See the PTI grouting specification for
detailed information. [48] Joints
Tendon anchors at the ends of concrete members Joints between segments can be concreted, grouted,
must be protected from corrosion. Special grease epoxied together or left dry. Certain applications lend
filled fittings have been developed for unbonded themselves to match casting that involves casting
tendon anchors. Bonded tendon anchors are adjacent units against each other for an exact fit. A
protected by concrete backup, bituminous material or temporary clamping stress of approximately 0.35
other approved methods. MPa is applied when match cast units are joined
together using an epoxy mortar.
1.3.2 Segmental Construction Sheathing
Segmental construction is used when precast units Requirements for internal tendons are given in
are too large or too heavy to transport and/or erect at Section 1.3.1. The requirements for external tendons
the jobsite. Individual segments are joined together to given in S6 are also suitable for building construction
form the desired member and span. Post-tensioning applications.
systems are used extensively for this purpose. Here,
the primary load carrying elements consist of precast Sheathing in segments is used to form the holes or
(sometimes pretensioned) or cast-in-place concrete enclose the space where prestressing tendons are to
segments post-tensioned together for structural be located. Prestressing tendons are installed after
integrity. Examples are precast concrete circular the segments are placed. The cross section of the
tanks, chimneys, towers, stadium framing, shear sheathing must be adequate to allow proper
walls, moment frames and segmental bridges. installation of the prestressing steel and to provide
enough passage area for filling the duct with grout
Various post-tensioning components are used as after stressing the tendons.
follows:
Grouting
Anchorages
Grouting provides corrosion protection for the
Post-tensioning tendon anchors are located in an end prestressing tendons, and develops bond between
block or anchorage area to safely transfer anchorage the prestressing tendon and the surrounding
forces into the structure during initial post-tensioning concrete. To accomplish this, the grout must fill all the
and all loading stages. voids in and around the post-tensioning tendon for
The end blocks are located in the end segments of a the entire length of the tendon.
segmental structure when all tendons extend the full
Unbonded tendons
length of the structure. Anchorage areas can be
located in intermediate segments (continuous beam In unbonded post-tensioning, a corrosion protection
or cantilever structures) with segmental tendons system must be provided to ensure at least the same
distributed according to the moment or shear degree of corrosion protection as grout. This can be
diagram. achieved by using a protective coating on the
prestressing steel and encasing the coated tendon to
Special attention should be given to the proper
protect the coating during the handling, installation
reinforcement of bearings and anchorages.
and stressing of the tendon.
Anchorage zones should contain sufficient horizontal
and vertical stirrups or grillage reinforcement placed
in the plane parallel to the end surface.

Placement and stressing of tendons stressing of portions of a structure by using tendons
of variable lengths; stressing the short ones first and
When tendons are installed in the segments before
the long ones later.
casting, they are subsequently coupled together at
each joint. This construction method permits Special attention must be given to the corrosion
stressing of part of a tendon, after installing one or protection of the post-tensioning steel that must
more segments, before the full length is completely remain unbonded at any stage of the construction. If
installed. a tendon containing couplers is to be stressed over
its full length, the couplers must be able to
Tendons can be installed after casting and erection
accommodate the movement anticipated at that
and can be coupled together at joints between
location.
segments. This procedure permits intermediate

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[44] Abdel-Karim, A. M., and Tadros, Maher K.,
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CHAPTER 2
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
2.0 NOTATION ...................................................................................................................... 2-2
2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 2-6
2.2 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS.............................................................................................. 2-6
2.2.1 Framing Dimensions........................................................................................... 2-6
2.2.2 Span to Depth Ratios ......................................................................................... 2-6
2.2.3 Gravity and Lateral Load Resisting Systems ..................................................... 2-7
2.2.4 Control of Volume Change Deformations and Restraint Forces ........................ 2-7
2.2.5 Connection Concepts ......................................................................................... 2-7
2.3 EXPANSION JOINTS...................................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.1 General ............................................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.2 Spacing of Expansion Joints .............................................................................. 2-8
2.3.3 Width of Expansion Joints .................................................................................. 2-8
2.4 VOLUME CHANGES....................................................................................................... 2-9
2.4.1 Volume Change Data ......................................................................................... 2-9
2.4.2 Volume Change Considerations....................................................................... 2-14
2.4.3 Thermal Bowing................................................................................................ 2-15
2.5 DIAPHRAGM DESIGN .................................................................................................. 2-17
2.5.1 Simple Diaphragm Design The Horizontal Beam Analogy............................ 2-18
2.5.2 Alternate Methods of Diaphragm Design ......................................................... 2-20
2.6 BUILDINGS WITH MOMENT-RESISTING FRAMES ................................................... 2-20
2.6.1 General ............................................................................................................. 2-20
2.6.2 Moment Resistance of Column Bases ............................................................. 2-21
2.6.3 Fixity of Column Bases..................................................................................... 2-25
2.6.4 Computer Models for Frame Analysis .............................................................. 2-25
2.6.5 Volume Change Effects in Moment-resisting Frames...................................... 2-25
2.6.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns ......................................................................... 2-32
2.6.7 Slenderness Effects in Compression Elements ............................................... 2-34
2.6.8 Shear Wall-frame Interaction............................................................................ 2-43
2.7 SHEAR WALLS ............................................................................................................. 2-43
2.7.1 General ............................................................................................................. 2-43
2.7.2 Rigidity of Solid Shear Walls ............................................................................ 2-44
2.7.3 Lateral Load Distribution to Shear Walls .......................................................... 2-45
2.7.4 Unsymmetrical Shear Walls ............................................................................. 2-45
2.7.5 Coupled Shear Walls........................................................................................ 2-47
2.7.6 Shear Walls with Large Openings .................................................................... 2-48
2.7.7 Architectural Panels as Shear Walls ................................................................ 2-60
2.8 EARTHQUAKE DESIGN AND ANALYSIS.................................................................... 2-60
2.8.1 General ............................................................................................................. 2-60
2.8.2 Building Code Requirements............................................................................ 2-61
2.8.3 2005 NBCC Requirements ............................................................................... 2-62
2.8.4 Structural Layout and Connections .................................................................. 2-69
2.8.5 Design Guidelines for Structural Wall Panels................................................... 2-71
2.8.6 Design Guidelines for Cladding Panel Connections ........................................ 2-71
2.8.7 Analysis of Panels ............................................................................................ 2-72
2.9 SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................. 2-84
2.9.1 General ............................................................................................................. 2-84
2.9.2 Joints and Joint Construction ........................................................................... 2-84
2.9.3 Design Considerations ..................................................................................... 2-87
2.9.4 Post-tensioning Considerations........................................................................ 2-88
2.10 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 2-89

2.0 NOTATION Dnx = plan dimension of the building at Level x
perpendicular to the direction of seismic
A = area (with subscripts) loading being considered
Ab = total area of anchor bolts which are in d = dimension of building; distance from
tension extreme compression fibre to centroid of
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear tension reinforcement
transfer E = modulus of elasticity of a beam (with
Al = cross-sectional area in linear measure subscripts)
Ar = response amplification factor to account for Ec = modulus of elasticity of column concrete
type of attachment of mechanical/electrical Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
equipment
e = distance between the location of the
As = area of reinforcement resultant of all forces at and above the level
Avf = area of shear friction reinforcement being considered and the centre of rigidity
at the level being considered or eccentricity
Aw = area of shear wall of axial load
Ax = amplification factor at Level x to account for ex = distance measured perpendicular to the
variation of response of direction of earthquake loading between
mechanical/electrical equipment with centre of mass and centre of rigidity at the
elevation within the building level being considered
B = maximum value of Bx Fa = acceleration-based site coefficient
Bx = ratio at Level x used to determine torsional Fb = degree of base fixity (decimal)
sensitivity
Ffh = factored horizontal force
b = width of panel or width of a section or
structure Ffv = factored vertical force
bv = width of cross section at contact surface Fi = lateral force at bay i or shear wall i or
being investigated for longitudinal shear restraining force at level i or the force
resisted by an individual shearwall
C = compressive force or coefficient of thermal
expansion Fi, Fx = force at level x
Cf = factored compressive force Ft = that portion of V considered concentrated at
the top of the structure, level n
Cm = a factor relating actual moment to
equivalent uniform moment Fv = velocity-based site coefficient
Cp = seismic coefficient for mechanical/electrical Fx = lateral force applied to level x
equipment f = fibre stress
Cs = Shrinkage coefficient fc = specified concrete compressive strength
= 35 if concrete moist cured for 7 days ff t = factored tensile stress
= 55 if steam cured for 1-3 days fm = specified compressive strength of masonry
Cu = ultimate creep coefficient that varies ft = unfactored tensile stress
between 1.30 and 4.15
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement
= 2.35 in the absence of specific creep data
for local aggregates and conditions G = shear modulus of elasticity (modulus of
rigidity)
D = dead load or dimension of building in
direction parallel to applied lateral force g = assumed length over which elongation of
the anchor bolt takes place = of
Dn = plan dimension of the building in the development length + projection for
direction of the computed eccentricity deformed anchor bolts or the length to the
hook + projection for smooth anchor bolts
(Fig. 2.6.1)

H = horizontal force needed to overcome friction A = length of building or element or length of
span or structure or distance between
Hf = total factored lateral force within a storey supports
Hf P = factored sliding force acting on a wall anel Ac = height of storey, centre-to-centre of floors or
h = height of element or column or element roof
thickness or width in direction of bending An = clear span
hi, hn, = height above the base (i = 0) to Level i, n, As = distance from column to centre of stiffness
or x respectively, where the base of the
hx Au = unsupported length of a compression
structure is that level at which horizontal
earthquake motions are considered to be element
imparted to the structure Aw = length of weld
hs = interstorey height (hi hi1) or storey height M = unfactored moment or applied moment = Pe
I = moment of inertia Mt = volume change moment
Ib = moment of inertia of a beam Mtx = torsional moment at level x
Ibp = moment of inertia of base plate (vertical Mv = factor to account for higher mode effect on
cross-section dimensions) base shear
Ic = moment of inertia of a column Mx = overturning moment at level x
IE = earthquake importance factor of the structure mj = moment at point j
If = moment of inertia of the footing (plan N = total number of storeys above exterior
dimensions) grade to level n (N is usually numerically
Ig = uncracked moment of inertia equal to n) or unfactored horizontal force
J = numerical reduction coefficient for base Nf = factored horizontal force
overturning moment N60 = average Standard Penetration Resistance
Jx = numerical reduction coefficient for for the top 30 m, corrected to a rod energy
overturning moment at level x efficiency of 60% of the theoretical
maximum
K = stiffness (with subscripts) or stiffness
coefficient = 1/ or constant used for the n = uppermost level in the main portion of the
calculation of equivalent creep and structure
shrinkage shortening P = shrinkage modification factor (with
Kl = a constant for design purposes which varies subscripts) or unfactored axial load
from 3 to 5 Pc = critical load
Kr = relative stiffness PGA = Peak Ground Acceleration expressed as a
Kt = constant used for the calculation of ratio to gravitational acceleration
equivalent temperature shortening = 1.5 Pf = factored axial load
k = effective length factor Po = prestressing force after assumed initial loss
kf = coefficient from Fig. 2.6.14 Psh = shrinkage modification factor for non-
km = coefficient from Fig. 2.6.14 standard conditions (Fig. 2.4.1)
ks = coefficient of subgrade reaction from Fig. PT = plasticity index for clays
2.6.2. Q = creep modification factor (with subscripts)
Level i = any level of the building, i = 1 for first level or stability index for a storey or statical
above the base moment
Level n= that level that is uppermost in the main Qcr = modification factor for non-standard
portion of the structure conditions (Fig. 2.4.1)
Level x = that level that is under design consideration RB,T = reaction at bottom, top
L = live load

Rd = ductility related force modification factor that Vf = factored shear force or total factored lateral
reflects the capability of a structure to force within the storey
dissipate energy through inelastic behavior Vp = lateral force on a part of the structure
Ro = overstrength related force modification Vr = factored shear resistance
factor that accounts for the dependable
portion of reserve strength in a structure VrC = factored shear resistance of a connection
designed according to NBCC profisions VrP = factored shear resistance of a wall panel
r = radius of gyration VrW = factored shear resistance of a wall
ri = the rigidity of wall i Vs = average shear wave velocity in the top 30
Sl = section modulus in linear measure m of soil or rock
Sp = horizontal force factor for part or portion of a Vw = total wind shear or specified shear force on
building and its anchorage a wall
S(T) = the design spectral response acceleration, Vp = lateral force due to non-structural wythe
expressed as a ratio to gravitational and insulation
acceleration, for a period of T
VpP = probable shear resistance of a wall panel
Sa(T) = the 5% damped spectral response seismic force due to panel weight
acceleration, expressed as a ratio to vc = factored shear resistance per unit length
gravitational acceleration, for a period of T due to concrete alone
SFRS = Seismic Force Resisting System(s) - is that vf = factored shear force per unit length
part of the structural system that has been
vr = factored shear resistance per unit length or
considered in the design to provide the
unit shear on panel edge
required resistance to the earthquake
forces and effects W = dead load except that the minimum partition
s = spacing of weld clips load need not exceed 0.5 kPa, plus 25% of
the design snow load, plus 60% of the
su = average undrained shear strength in the top storage load for areas used for storage
30 m of soil except that parking garages need not be
T = unfactored tensile force or period in considered storage areas, and the full
seconds or total tensile capacity or force contents of any tanks, or total lateral load
Ta = fundamental lateral period of vibration of Wi, Wx = that portion of W that is located at or is
the building or structure in seconds in the assigned to Level i or x respectively
direction under consideration Wp = weight of a part or portion of a structure,
Tf = factored tensile force e.g., cladding, partitions and appendages
Tr = factored tensile resistance x1 = distance from face of column to the centre

of the anchor bolts, positive when anchor
Tx = floor torque at Level x, bolts are outside the column, and negative
T2, T1 = inside and outside temperature when anchor bolts are inside the column
t = thickness or time in days x2 = distance from the face of the column to
base plate anchorage
V = lateral earthquake design force at the base
of the structure, as determined by = load factor (with subscripts)
Equivalent Static Force Procedure or shear 1 = ratio of average stress in rectangular
at support (with subscripts) compression block to the specified concrete
Vd = lateral earthquake design force at the base strength
of the structure as determined by Dynamic 1 = stress block depth factor
Analysis Procedures
d = for sway frames is the ratio of maximum
Ve = lateral earthquake elastic force at the base factored sustained shear within a storey to
of the structure as determined by Dynamic the maximum factored shear in that storey
Analysis Procedures

= moment magnifier or volume-change f,bp = flexibility coefficients of the footing/soil
shortening (with subscripts) interaction, the base plate and the anchor
ab
ave = average displacement of the structure at bolts, respectively
Level x, = factor to account for low density concrete
c = calculated creep shortening = shear-friction coefficient
ec = equivalent creep shortening e = effective shear friction coefficient
es = equivalent shrinkage shortenings s = static coefficient of friction
max = maximum displacement of the structure at = sum of values
Level x,
= unit strain (with subscripts)
s = calculated shrinkage shortening
e = equivalent unit strain
= total equivalent shortening or column
shu = ultimate shrinkage strain
deflection or magnitude of bow
= 780 106 mm/mm in the absence of
f = deflection due to factored loads
specific shrinkage data for local conditions
o = elasticity-computed first order lateral
= rotation (with subscripts)
deflection due to Hf (neglecting P effects)
at the top of the storey relative to the = resistance factor (with subscripts)
bottom of the storey = ratio of column to beam stiffnesses
= flexibility coefficient (with subscripts)

2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
This chapter provides guidelines for the analysis and Maximum economy occurs when the building is laid
design of structures built using precast components. out to take advantage of the above principles. The
The primary advantages of precast concrete products primary considerations in preliminary analysis of a
and systems include: structure are:
1. Construction speed 1. Framing dimensions
2. Plant-controlled quality control 2. Span to depth ratios
3. Fire resistance and durability 3. Gravity and lateral load resisting systems
4. Prestressing that allows greater span-to-depth 4. Control of volume change deformations
ratios, more controllable performance and less
5. Connection concepts
material usage
5. Architectural precast concretes wide variety of 2.2.1 Framing Dimensions
highly attractive surfaces, shapes, finishes and It is economical to minimize a buildings wall-to-floor
colours ratio. Bays should be laid out to fit the module of the
6. Thermal and acoustical control components selected. Double tee and hollow core
slabs should be used at spans close to their
7. All weather construction maximum capacity to reduce the number of slabs to
The following general principles are offered to realize be installed. Typical precast sections are shown in
precasts benefits through economical and effective Chapter 7, but may vary regionally. Consult with local
use: CPCI members for available sizes. The height, width
and weight of precast members, including wall panels
1. Precast concrete is basically a simple-span and floor and roof slabs, may be limited by shipping
material. Continuity can be achieved with restrictions.
properly designed connections.
Optimum framing dimensions will usually result when
2. The sizes and shapes of elements are often a the total number of precast components is minimized
function of production, shipping and erection with fewer pieces to manufacture, transport and
considerations. erect. Where feasible, wall panels and columns can
3. Precast concretes mass allows for stability be cast in multi-storey units to achieve economy.
under wind loads, acoustic and vibration control,
reduction in heating and cooling loads, and fire 2.2.2 Span to Depth Ratios
resistance. The high dead to live load ratio Selection of floor to floor dimensions should consider
provides greater safety factors against gravity the practical span-to-depth ratio of the horizontal
overloads. framing elements, allowing adequate space for
4. Maximum economy is achieved with repetition. mechanical ductwork.
Standard sections should be used whenever Typical span to depth ratios of flexural precast,
possible. prestressed concrete elements are:
5. Successful use is largely dependent on an Hollow core floor slabs 30 to 40
effective structural layout, details, and carefully
Hollow core roof slabs 40 to 50
designed connections.
Double tee floor slabs 25 to 35
6. The effects of volume changes caused by creep,
shrinkage and temperature change must be Double tee roof slabs 35 to 40
considered. Beams 10 to 20
7. While architectural panels are often used only as These values are general guidelines, not limits. The
cladding, the inherent load-carrying capacity of required depth of a beam or slab is influenced by the
these panels can be utilized to support both ratio of live load to total load. Deeper sections may be
vertical and lateral loads. required where this ratio is high.
8. Prestressing improves the economy and Span to depth ratios are given in Table 9.2 of A23.3
performance of precast members. for non-prestressed flexural elements.

2.2.3 Gravity and Lateral Load Resisting shrinkage cause a shortening of an element. The
Systems critical temperature load case is nearly always the
result of a temperature drop.
A building system should be selected during the
preliminary analysis. The gravity and lateral load Connections should be designed so that volume
resisting systems may function separately or be change shortening is accommodated. Section 2.4
combined. provides data and guidelines for estimating the
amount of shortening that may take place.
Bearing wall construction and beam-column framing
have been successfully used for low, medium and Pretensioned elements should not be welded to their
high rise buildings. Lateral forces can be resisted by supports at the bottom. Volume changes are usually
shear walls, moment frames, or a combination of adequately accommodated when elements are
both. Diaphragm action will dictate the location of the connected only at the top. Connections made using
lateral force resisting elements. cast-in-place concrete may exhibit fewer volume
Methods used to resist lateral loads include: change effects because micro-cracking and creep in
the cast-in-place portion can relieve the restraint.
1. Shear walls: Shear walls can be precast
concrete, cast-in-place concrete, or masonry Long buildings may require expansion joints (See
and are discussed in more detail in Sect. 2.7. Sect. 2.3.)
When architectural or structural precast
elements are used for exterior cladding, they can 2.2.5 Connection Concepts
often be designed and used as shear walls.
During preliminary analysis, the types of connections
2. Cantilevered columns or wall panels: Cantilever used should be determined, as they can effect
action is usually only feasible in low-rise component dimensions, the overall structural
buildings. Base fixity can be attained by behaviour, erection procedures, fire ratings and
connecting columns or panels to the foundation. building envelope construction. Chapter 4 is devoted
A detailed analysis of footing rotation is to connections.
described in Sect. 2.6.2.
3. Steel or concrete X-bracing: Bracing has been 2.3 EXPANSION JOINTS
used effectively in mid-rise buildings. A related
resistance system occurs naturally in parking 2.3.1 General
structures with sloped decks in the direction of
Joints are placed in structures to limit the forces
traffic flow.
resulting from volume change deformations due to
4. Moment resisting frames: A minimum number of temperature changes, shrinkage and creep, and to
frames should be used to avoid building up permit the movement of structural elements. An
substantial volume change forces. It is expansion joint is needed if the movements
sometimes feasible to provide a moment generated by temperature rise are significantly
connection at only one end of an element, or a greater than shrinkage and creep movements.
connection that will resist moments with lateral Expansion joints are seldom required in concrete
forces in only one direction to reduce built up structures. Instead, joints that permit contraction of
restraint forces. Moment resisting frames are the structure are needed to relieve the strains caused
discussed in more detail in Sect. 2.6. by temperature drop and restrained creep and
5. Combined systems: Combinations of shear shrinkage, that are additive. Such joints are
walls, moment frames and X-bracing systems contraction or control joints but are commonly
may also be used. referred to as expansion joints.
These systems depend on the distribution of lateral Joints subject to earthquake movements must work in
loads through diaphragm action of the roof and floor all directions.
systems as discussed in Sect. 2.5. It is desirable to have as few expansion joints as
possible. Expansion joints are often located by rules
2.2.4 Control of Volume Change
of thumb without considering the structural framing
Deformations and Restraint Forces
system. This section presents general guidelines for
Volume changes of concrete result from creep, determining the spacing and width of expansion
shrinkage and temperature change. Creep and joints.

Fig. 2.3.1 General guidelines for determination of building length without the use of expansion joints
These curves are directly applicable to buildings of beam-and-column construction, hinged at the base, with heated interiors.
The following rules are applicable for other conditions:
(a) If a building will be heated and will have hinged column bases, use the allowable length as specified;
(b) If a building will be air conditioned as well as heated, increase the allowable length by 15% provided the environmental control
system will run continuously;
(c) If a building will be unheated, decrease the allowable length by 33%;
(d) If a building has fixed-column bases, decrease the allowable length by 15%;
(e) If the building has substantially greater stiffness against lateral displacement at one end of the plan dimension, decrease the
allowable length by 25%.
When more than one of these design conditions prevail, the factor to be applied should be the algebraic sum of the adjustment factors of all
the various applicable conditions.
Note: A detailed volume change frame analysis will provide more accurate expansion joint requirements.
Source: Expansion Joints in Buildings, Technical Report No. 65, National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, 1974.
2.3.2 Spacing of Expansion Joints connection design methods in Chap. 4 can aid in
determining spacing of expansion joints.
There are different opinions concerning the spacing
of expansion joints. Typical practice in prestressed or Figure 2.3.1 shows recommended expansion joint
reinforced concrete structures is to locate expansion spacing that can be modified for the various
joints at distances between 45 m and 90 m apart. conditions shown in the notes. Values for design
Reinforced concrete buildings exceeding these limits temperature changes can be obtained from Sect. 2.4.
have performed well without expansion joints. When expansion joints are required in non-
Recommended joint spacing for precast concrete rectangular structures, they should be located at or
buildings are often based on experience. Additional near plan or elevation changes.
factors that can affect joint spacing include types of
connections used, column stiffness in simple span 2.3.3 Width of Expansion Joints
structures, relative stiffness between beams and The width of a joint can be calculated using a
columns in framed structures, and weather exposure coefficient of expansion of 10 106 mm/(mm C) for
o
conditions. Unheated structures, such as parking 6

normal density concrete and 9 10 mm/(mm oC)
garages, are subjected to greater temperature for low density concrete. The report referenced in Fig.
changes than heated buildings, so shorter distances 2.3.1 recommends a minimum width of 25 mm. Since
between expansion joints are required. the primary problem in concrete buildings is
Sections 2.4 and 2.6 present methods for analyzing contraction rather than expansion, joints that are too
the potential movement of framed structures and the wide may result in problems with reduced bearing or
effect of restraint of movement on the connections loss of filler material. Seismic and wind movements
and structural frame. This information along with the must also be considered.

Fig. 2.4.1 Creep and shrinkage modification connections, service load behaviour and the ultimate
factors for non-standard conditions* capacity of precast prestressed structures. These
strains and forces must be considered in a design.
Qcr = Qa Qh Qf Qr Qsl Qv Psh = Pc Ph Pf Pr Psl Pv
Vertical elements, such as load bearing wall panels,
Qa
are also subject to volume change strains that can be
Relative calculated using Figs. 2.4.1 to 2.4.5. These effects
Age at Accel-
Moist Humidity
loading erated (4) Qh Ph will be significant in high rise buildings. Only
cured
(days) cured differential movements between elements will
(%)
significantly affect performance of a structure. For
1 1.25 1.00 40 1.00 1.00
example, volume change effects can be critical at the
7 1.00 0.94 60 0.87 0.80 corner of a building where load bearing panels are
20 0.87 0.85 80 0.73 0.60 adjacent to non-load bearing panels.
60 0.77 0.76 100 0.60 0.00
2.4.1 Volume Change Data
Ratio of Volume/
fine to surface
total
Qf Pf
ratio
Qr Pr Creep
aggr.(3) (mm)(2) Creep of concrete is defined as the time dependent
0.30 0.95 0.72 38 1.00 1.00 increase in strain under sustained loading. Other time
0.40 0.98 0.86 75 0.82 0.84 dependent deformations are shrinkage and
temperature changes in concrete.
0.50 1.00 1.00 150 0.70 0.59
Creep is usually expressed in terms of the creep
0.70 1.05 1.04 250 0.67 0.37
coefficient, Cu, defined as the ratio of creep strain cr
Slump
Qsl Psl Air (%) Qv Pv to initial immediate strain i. Creep strain increases
(mm)
with time at a decreasing rate. Creep strain cr is
50 0.95 0.97 6 1.00 1.00 determined using:
70 1.00 1.00 8 1.18 1.01
t 0.6
125 1.15 1.09 10 1.36 1.03 cr = i CuQcr
10 + t0.6
*
Cementitous content (kg/m )
3
Pi
225 300 410 i =
AEci
Pc 0.89 0.93 1.00
(1) Standard conditions produce modification factors of 1.0.
t = time in days
(2) Volume/surface ratio of a rectangular member having Shrinkage
a b cross-section is ab/(2a + 2b).
(3) Ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate is expressed as
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of hardened
the ratio of the masses.
concrete with time. Unlike creep, shrinkage is
(4) For average ambient relative humidity, see Fig. 2.4.2.
independent of externally applied loads. The
decrease in volume is mainly attributed to moisture
* Above table is based on the CAC Concrete Design
loss caused by drying and hydration as well as
Handbook, Third Edition. When used in low to moderate
amounts (<25%), the effect of fly ash, ground granulated chemical changes that result in the carbonation of
blast-furnace slag and silica fume on the drying shrinkage cement hydration products.
and creep of concrete is generally small and of little
practical significance. Shrinkage strains start immediately after concrete is
exposed to a drying environment.
2.4 VOLUME CHANGES The shrinkage strain sh is determined using the
expression:
The strains resulting from creep, shrinkage, and
temperature change, and the potential restraint forces t
sh = shu Psh
caused by these strains have important effects on Cs + t

Fig. 2.4.2 Annual average ambient relative humidity (%)
Fig. 2.4.3 Approximate creep and shrinkage strains (x10-6)

Creep1 Shrinkage2
Time t t 0.6 t
cr = i sh = shuPsh
10 + t0.6 u cr
(days) CQ
Cs + t
Normal density Low density Moist cure Accelerated cure
1 59 88 23 16
3 106 158 62 39
5 137 204 101 62
7 60 238 133 86
10 188 280 172 117
20 246 367 281 210
30 286 426 359 273
40 314 468 413 328
50 336 501 460 374
60 356 516 491 406
90 395 589 562 483
120 420 626 600 538
180 456 679 655 601
1 yr. 510 760 710 679
2 yr. 552 822 741 725
5 yr. 594 885 764 757
10 yr 613 913 772 764
Final 630 940 780 780
1. Based on Pi /A = 7.0 MPa, fci = 25 MPa, Eci = 25 300 MPa, Cu = 2.35, Qcr = 1.0. For other values of Pi /A and Eci, multiply creep strains by
3615 Pi
.
AEci
6
2. Based on Cs = 35 for moist cure, Cs = 55 for accelerated cure, shu = 780 10 mm/mm, Psh = 1.0.

Fig. 2.4.4 Maximum seasonal structural temperature change based on the temperature at construction (C)
Fig. 2.4.5 Design temperature strains* (106)

Temperature zone Normal density Low density
(from Fig. 2.4.4) Heated Unheated Heated Unheated
5 27 41 23 34
10 54 81 45 68
15 81 122 68 101
20 108 162 90 135
25 135 203 113 169
30 162 243 135 203
35 189 284 158 236
40 216 324 180 270
45 243 365 203 304
50 270 405 225 338
* Based on accepted coefficients of thermal expansion, reduced to account for thermal lag (See referenced committee report, PCI JOURNAL,
Sept-Oct, 1977).
Effect of time on creep and shrinkage strains associated with these temperature zones are
The influence of time in the previous equations for given in Fig. 2.4.5.
creep and shrinkage is demonstrated in Fig. 2.4.3, Approximate values of creep and shrinkage
where values of creep and shrinkage strains for a
prestressed element under standard conditions are The behaviour of actual structures indicates that
presented. reasonable estimates of volume change
characteristics are satisfactory for the design of most
Temperature strains structures even though test data relating volume
Design values for maximum seasonal climatic changes to the variables shown in Fig. 2.4.1 exhibit a
temperature for various geographic locations are considerable scatter. The approximate values shown
shown in Fig. 2.4.4. Design values for temperature in Figs. 2.4.6 and 2.4.7 can be used.

Fig. 2.4.6 Volume change strains for typical non-prestressed building elements (106)
Heated structures
Temp. Normal density concrete Low density concrete
zone Avg. relative humidity (Fig. 2.4.2) Avg. relative humidity (Fig. 2.4.2)
(Fig. 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 320 290 260 220 190 320 290 260 220 190
5 350 320 290 250 220 340 310 280 240 210
10 370 340 310 270 240 360 330 300 260 230
15 400 370 340 300 270 390 360 330 290 260
20 430 400 370 330 300 410 380 350 310 280
25 460 430 400 360 330 430 400 370 330 300
30 480 450 420 380 350 460 430 400 360 330
35 510 480 450 410 380 480 450 420 380 350
40 540 510 480 440 410 500 470 440 400 370
45 560 530 500 460 430 520 490 460 420 390
50 590 560 530 490 460 550 520 490 450 420
Unheated structures
0 320 290 260 220 190 320 290 260 220 190
5 360 330 300 260 230 350 320 290 250 220
10 400 370 340 300 270 390 360 330 290 260
15 440 410 380 340 310 420 390 360 320 290
20 480 450 420 380 350 460 430 400 360 330
25 520 490 460 420 390 490 460 430 390 360
30 560 530 500 460 430 520 490 460 420 390
35 600 570 540 500 470 560 530 500 460 430
40 640 610 580 540 510 590 560 530 490 460
45 690 660 630 590 560 620 590 560 520 490
50 720 690 660 620 590 660 630 600 560 530
Table is based on:
1. Moist cured 5. Air % 6
2. Ratio of fine to total aggregates = 0.50 6. Cement content = 410 kg/m
3
3. Volume to surface ratio = 38 mm 7. Age at erection = 50 days

4. Slump = 70 mm
Example 2.1 Calculation of volume change
Problem:
shortening by the detailed method
Determine the actual shortening that can be
Given: anticipated from:
300 700 rectangular concrete beam. a) Casting to erection at 50 days
Heated structure in Calgary, AB.
b) Erection to the end of service life
Initial accelerated cure.
Prestress transfer at one day. c) Temperature variations
12 -13 mm diameter, 1860 MPa strands. Solution:
Initial Prestress = 70% fpu a) At 50 days:
Assume initial prestress loss = 10% Calculate initial creep:
Length = 7.5 m
Ap = (12)(99) = 1188 mm2
Concrete properties:
fci : 30 MPa Pi = (1188)(1860)(0.70)(0.90) /103
Air content: 5% = 1392 kN
Slump: 100 mm Pi 1392 103
Fine aggregate: 670 kg/m3 i = =
AEci (300)(700)(27700)
Coarse aggregate: 1000 kg/m3
= 239 106 mm / mm
Type GU cement: 410 kg/m3

Fig. 2.4.7 Volume change strains for typical prestressed building elements (106)
Heated structures

(Fig. 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 700 640 580 520 460 840 780 710 630 560
5 730 670 610 550 490 860 800 730 650 580
10 750 690 630 570 510 890 830 760 680 610
15 780 720 660 600 540 910 850 780 700 630
20 810 750 690 630 570 930 870 800 720 650
25 840 780 720 660 600 950 890 820 740 670
30 860 800 740 680 620 980 920 850 770 700
35 890 830 770 710 650 1000 940 870 790 720
40 920 860 800 740 680 1020 960 890 810 740
45 940 880 820 760 700 1040 980 910 830 760
50 990 910 850 790 730 1070 1010 940 860 790
Unheated structures
0 700 640 580 520 460 840 780 710 630 560
5 740 680 620 560 500 870 810 740 660 590
10 780 720 660 600 540 910 850 780 700 630
15 820 760 700 640 580 940 880 810 730 660
20 860 800 740 680 620 980 920 850 770 700
25 900 840 780 720 660 1010 950 880 800 730
30 940 880 820 760 700 1040 980 910 830 760
35 980 920 860 800 740 1080 1020 950 870 800
40 1020 960 900 840 780 1110 1050 980 900 830
45 1060 1000 940 880 820 1140 1080 1010 930 860
50 1100 1040 980 920 860 1180 1120 1050 970 900
Table is based on: 6. Slump = 70 mm
1. P/A = 7.0 MPa 7. Air % 6
2. fci = 25 MPa
3
8. Cement content = 410 kg/m
3. Accelerated cured one day 9. Age at erection = 50 days
4. Ratio of fine to total aggregates = 0.50 10. K A = 5
5. Volume to surface ratio = 38 mm 11. K t = 1.5
Calculate creep and shrinkage modification Qr = 0.77, Pr = 0.74

factors - Fig. 2.4.1:
Slump=100 mm
Accelerated cure for 1 day:
Qsl = 1.08, Psl = 1.05
Qa = 1.00
Cement content = 410 kg/m3 Air = 5%
Pc = 1.00 Qv = 1.00, Pv = 1.00
Relative humidity = 70% (Fig. 2.4.2): Creep modification factor:
Qh = 0.80, Ph = 0.70 Qcr = Qa Qh Qf Qr Qsl Qv
Ratio of fine to total aggregates = (1.00)(0.80)(0.98)(0.77)(1.08)(1.00)
670 = 0.65
= = 0.40
670 + 1000 Shrinkage modification factor:
Qf = 0.98, Pf = 0.86 Psh = Pc Ph Pf Pr Psl Pv
Volume to surface ratio = (1.00)(0.70)(0.86)(0.74)(1.05)(1.00)
(300)(700) = 0.47
= = 105 mm
(2)(300 + 700)

Calculate total strains and displacement at 50 Typical volume change movements
days:
a) Creep strains of load bearing exterior wall
t 0.6 panels can be estimated as 120 106 mm/mm
cr = i
10 + t0.6 u cr
C Q
for design, assuming usual magnitudes of
loadings for panels supporting floors. Stacked
500.6 exterior panels, supporting only the weight of
= (239 106 ) (2.35)(0.65)
10 + 500.6 exterior wall panels can be assumed to have a

design creep strain of 30 106 mm/mm.
= 187 10 6 mm / mm
b) Shrinkage strains for structural wall panels,
t considering usual panel volume to surface ratios
sh = shu P sh and erection at 90 days, can be estimated to be
Cs + t
200 106 mm/mm for normal density concrete
50 and 250 106 mm/mm for low density concrete.
= (780 106 ) (0.47)
55 + 50 c) Thermal movements can be determined using
= 174 10 6 mm / mm the map shown in Fig. 2.4.4. In heavy concrete
elements, such as beams, there is thermal lag
tot = (187 106 + 174 106) (7500) that reduces the temperature shortening effect.
= 2.7 mm Elements in heated buildings will not undergo as
large a temperature differential as those in
b) From 50 days to final: unheated ones. The calculated temperature
Calculate total final strains and displacements: strains can be reduced by a factor of 0.5 and
cr = (239 106)(1.0)(2.35)(0.65) 0.75 for heated and unheated buildings,
respectively. The value for the unheated building
= 365 106 mm/mm should be used if the elements are likely to be
sh = (780 106)(1.0)(0.47) exposed through a full annual temperature cycle.
= 367 106 mm/mm Volume change movement values are approximate
6 6
tot = (365 10 + 367 10 )(7500) and suitable for most designs. An in-depth
determination should be made to establish more
= 5.5 mm exact values compatible with the specific design
Difference from 50 days to final: parameters where volume change movements may
be a significant design factor.
diff = 5.5 2.7 = 2.8 mm
c) Temperature effects: Example 2.2 Shortening of exterior load bearing
panels
From Fig. 2.4.4:
Estimate the total shortening of the exterior load
temp = 39C for Calgary: bearing insulated wall panels in a 10 storey structure.
From Fig. 2.4.5: Panels are normal density concrete 2750 mm high.
Structure is located in Kingston, ON:
t = 211 106 mm/mm
Creep strain = 120 106 mm/mm
t = (211 106 )(7500)
Shrinkage strain = 200 106 mm/mm
= 1.6 mm
Design temperature = 35C (from Fig. 2.4.4)
2.4.2 Volume Change Considerations Coefficient of expansion = 10 106 mm/(mm oC)
Load bearing exterior wall panels are subject to Temperature strain = (0.5)(10 106)(35)
concrete volume change deformations, defined as
movements due to concrete creep, shrinkage and = 175 106
temperature change. Creep and shrinkage result in Total strain = (120 + 200 + 175)(106)
shortening. Thermal movements can cause
shortening or expansion. The amount of movement = 495 106
anticipated must be determined to design joints and Total shortening = (495 106)(2750)(10)
connections.
= 14 mm

Fig. 2.4.8a Thermal bow of uninsulated wall panel widths should be sized to accommodate sealant
movement capability and construction tolerances.
Differential movements can occur at building corners
and at interfaces with other building systems or
construction materials, such as windows.
The cumulative movements at the top or ends of a
structure can increase as the height and length of a
building increases. The movements of exterior walls
can affect interior partitions resulting in distress or
cracking. Non-structural components at the interior of
a building must be detailed to allow for the volume
change movements of exterior structural precast
walls.
2.4.3 Thermal Bowing
A temperature difference between the inside and
outside of a wall panel, especially composite
insulated sandwich panels, and between the top and
underside of an uninsulated roof deck can cause
elements to bow, see Fig. 2.4.8a. The magnitude of
bowing can be determined by:
Estimates of building movement must be analyzed C(T1 T2 ) A2
using engineering judgement. Floors and interior =
8h
walls attached to exterior load bearing panels will
restrain vertical movement. Heavily loaded elements where C is the coefficient and thermal expansion.
will distribute load to less heavily loaded members. Temperature measurements indicate that in open
Calculated values can be larger than actual values. structures, such as the roofs of parking decks, the
Movements of building corners temperature differential (T1 T2) seldom exceeds 16
to 22C. In an insulated sandwich wall panel, the
It is possible that differential volume change difference can be higher, but is tempered by thermal
movements may occur when load bearing panels are lag due to the mass of the concrete.
adjacent to non-load bearing panels, such as at the
corners of a building. The connections will attempt to Moisture differences between the inside and outside
transfer significant vertical forces if connections of an enclosed building can also cause bowing.
restrain these movements. Structural behaviour of Calculation of this effect is much less precise and
building corners where panels meet requires design involves more variables. The exterior layer of a
for volume change movement forces as well as for concrete panel absorbs moisture from the
other design forces. atmosphere and periodic precipitation, while the
interior layer is relatively dry causing the inside layer
Design considerations for panels meeting at corners to shrink more than the outside, creating an outward
should also consider the influence of sun exposure bow. This can overcome the possible inward thermal
temperature differentials. Depending upon exterior bowing in cold weather, and may explain the general
panel finishes and plan orientation, 5C to 8C observation that wall panels always bow outward.
temperature differentials may develop. Corner panel
connections should be analyzed when temperature Example 2.3 Thermal bow in an uninsulated wall
differentials at building corners can develop. panel
Influence upon non-structural components Given:
A 6 m high, 150 mm thick wall panel as shown in
It is important to consider the influence of volume Figure 2.4.8b
change movement on non-structural members.
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
Exterior sealants should be able to accommodate
C = 10.8 106 mm/(mm C)
movements caused by volume changes. Sealants
can be subject to differential volume change Temperature differential T1 T2 = 20C
movements either horizontally or vertically. Joint Ec = 29900 MPa

Fig. 2.4.8b Force required at mid-height to Fig. 2.4.9 Corner separation due to thermal bow
restrain bowing
The residual bow can be calculated by adjusting the

equation in Fig. 2.4.10, case (e) to read:
MA2
=
16EtI
Substituting A / 2 for A :
2 = Residual Bow
(13.6 106 )(3000)2
2 = = 1.2 mm
Problem: (16)(22400)(281 106 )
Determine the potential thermal bow 1, the force, P,
required at midheight to restrain the bowing, the Bowing in non insulated wall panels is usually not
stress in the panel caused by the restraint, and the structurally significant but may cause separation at
residual bow, 2. the corners and damage to joint sealants, see Fig.
2.4.9. Bowing can be restrained with one or more
Solution:
connections between panels. Figure 2.4.10 gives
(10.8 10 6 )(20)(6000)2 equations for calculating the required restraint and
1 = = 6.5 mm
(8)(150) the moments this will cause in the panel. The bowing
of insulated sandwich wall panels increases with the
The effective modulus of elasticity, Et ,is determined degree of composite action.
from the notes in Fig. 2.4.10:
Et = (0.75)(29,900) = 22,400 MPa 2.4.3.1 Bowing of horizontal members
bh3 (1000)(1503 ) Differential temperature can cause upward bowing in
I = = = 281 106 mm4 / m
12 12 roof elements, especially in open structures such as
assuming uncracked section. parking decks. For rare cases when precast elements
are restrained against rotation at the ends, positive
From Fig. 2.4.10, Case (a): moments (bottom tension) can develop at the support
48EtI (48)(22400)(281 106 )(6.5) as shown in Cases (d) and (e) in Fig. 2.4.10. Bottom
P = =
A3 (6000)3 tension can cause cracking, but once cracks occur,
the tension is relieved. Thermal induced positive
= 9.09 kN / m width moments are independent of span length.
PA (9.09)(6)
M = = = 13.6 kN - m / m width Note, from Fig. 2.4.10, the restraint moment is
4 4 doubled if only one end is restrained. The cyclical
My (13.6)(106 )(75) effects can magnify the potential damage as thermal
Panel Stress = = = 3.6 MPa
I (281 106 ) bow occurs with daily temperature changes.

Fig. 2.4.10 Force required to restrain bowing
Intermediate Restraint (Ends Free to Rotate) End Restraint
(a) Single Restraint at Midspan (d) Both Ends Restrained
48E t l
P=
A3
PA
Moment in panel =
4 8Et l
M=
A2
(b) Two Restraint Points (e) One End Restrained
24Et l
P=
3aA2 4a3
Moment in panel = Pa 16E t l

M=
A2
(c) Three or More Restraint Points (Approximate Uniform

Continuous Restraint)
77Et l
P = w A =
A3 For Daily Temperature Change,
Use Et = 0.75 Ec
Moment in panel =
wA 2 A For Season Changes,
= P Use Et = 0.50 Ec
8 8
Example 2.4 Thermal bow in a roof element Fig. 2.4.11 Second degree parabola
Given:
700 mm deep double tee spanning 18.3 m on the
upper level of a parking deck supported on
elastomeric bearing pads under each leg.
C = 10.8 106 mm/(mm C)
T1T2 = 20C
Problem:
Find the upward bow at mid span and end rotation of
the double tee roof slab.
Solution:
(10.8 106 )(20)(18300)2
= = 12.9 mm 2.5 DIAPHRAGM DESIGN
(8)(700)
Horizontal loads from wind or earthquake are usually
End rotation 4 /L as shown in Fig. 2.4.11. transmitted to shear walls or moment-resisting frames
= 4(12.9)/18300 = 0.0028 radians through the roof and floors acting as horizontal
The upward temperature bow must be added to diaphragms. Traditionally, precast structures have
deflections due to dead and live loads and the effects been designed with the assumption that floor systems
of prestressing. End rotations are included in the act as rigid diaphragms. As a result, horizontal loads
design of bearing pads. are distributed to lateral load resisting elements in

Fig. 2.5.1 Analogous beam design of a diaphragm
Notes:
1. Grouted joints cannot be considered effective unless prevented from separating. Chord forces for diaphragms involving grouted joints
must be based on shear forces in addition to bending.
Mf Vf
2. Tf = + , where e can be considered as the effective shear friction coefficient.
b e
proportion to their relative stiffness. Recent and As in a beam, tension and compression forces are
ongoing research into diaphragm behaviour, induced in the chords or flanges of the analogous
particularly with long span construction, suggests that beam as shown in Fig. 2.5.1.
more refined methods may be appropriate. Shear in the analogous beam must be transferred
Designers are encouraged to consult PCI resources between adjacent elements and to supporting
and local precast producers for the latest elements when precast concrete elements that span
developments from ongoing research programs. parallel to the supporting shear walls or frames are
used for the diaphragm. Web shear must also be
2.5.1 Simple Diaphragm Design The transferred to the chord elements. Diaphragm design
Horizontal Beam Analogy is essentially a connection design solution.
A diaphragm is analyzed by considering a roof or
2.5.1.1 Shear transfer between elements
floor as a deep horizontal beam, analogous to a plate
girder or I-beam. The shear walls or structural frames Shear transfer between elements is usually
are the supports for this analogous beam. Lateral accomplished using grout keys or flange weld plates
loads are transmitted to these supports as reactions. in floors or roofs without composite topping.

Fig. 2.5.2 Typical flange weld plate details
Notes:
1. See Chapter 4 for design of welds and connections.
2. Not suitable for diaphragms in high seismic areas, pending further research.
3. Recommendations for welding reinforcing bars must be closely followed.
4. Courtesy JVI, Inc.
Weld plates may be analyzed as illustrated in Fig. can restrain differential camber. Grout keys may be
2.5.2. In addition to the hardware details shown, used to distribute concentrated loads.
many other connections are used by precast concrete
Connections that transfer shear from diaphragms to
manufacturers.
shear walls or moment-resisting frames are analyzed
For elements connected by grout keys not in the same manner as connections between
intentionally roughened, a conservative value of elements. Designs must ensure the diaphragm
0.3 MPa can be used for the average shear remains connected to the shear walls or moment
resistance of a grouted key and 0.6 MPa may be frames during an earthquake.
used for grouted joints with intentionally roughened
surfaces. Reinforcement placed as shown in Fig. In bearing wall buildings, perimeter reinforcement is
2.5.3 can be used to transfer the shear. This steel is required for structural integrity in accordance with
designed using the shear-friction method that is A23.3, Clause 16.5, particularly for seismic loads.
covered in Chapter 4.
2.5.1.2 Chord forces
In floors or roofs with composite topping, the topping
itself can act as the diaphragm if it is adequately Chord forces can be calculated as shown in Fig.
reinforced. Reinforcement requirements can be 2.5.1. For roofs with intermediate supports, the shear
determined by shear-friction analysis. force is carried across the beam using weld plates or
The connections between elements often serve bars in the grout keys as shown in Section A. Bars
functions in addition to the transfer of shear for lateral are designed by shear-friction and the forces are
loads. For example, weld plates in flanged elements usually low.

Fig. 2.5.3 Use of perimeter reinforcement as Fig. 2.6.1 Assumptions used in derivation of
shear-friction reinforcement rotational coefficients for column bases
In flanged deck elements, the chord tension at the

perimeter of a building is usually transferred between
elements by the same type of connection used for
shear transfer, see Fig. 2.5.2. When forces are high,
such as in seismic designs, transverse reinforcing
bars may be placed in the flange and attached to the
connection device by welding or lapping with the
connection bars. Examples of each of these
applications are given in Sect. 2.7 and 2.8. 2.6 BUILDINGS WITH MOMENT-RESISTING
FRAMES
2.5.2 Alternate Methods of Diaphragm 2.6.1 General
Design Precast, prestressed concrete beam and slab
While the horizontal beam analogy may be suitable elements are usually designed and connected into a
for some applications, some structures may require structure as simple-span elements because:
more detailed and complex diaphragm analyses to 1. Positive moment capacity is much easier and
consider the effects of openings, discontinuities, and less expensive to attain with pretensioned
geometry changes. In some situations, strut-andtie elements than negative moment capacity at
modeling of the diaphragm may be appropriate where supports.
the diaphragm is analysed as an idealized truss with 2. Connections which achieve continuity at the
compression struts and tensions ties. supports are sometimes complicated and costly.
Finite element analysis of precast elements, joints 3. The restraint to volume changes that occurs in
and connections can be used to examine in-plane rigid connections may cause serious cracking
behaviour of a system. These analyses can provide and unsatisfactory performance.
insight into areas with high load concentrations, joint When designing precast, prestressed concrete
separations or diaphragm deformations and structures, it is simpler to have connections that allow
demonstrate a more realistic behaviour of a lateral movement and rotation, i.e., pinned ends, and
diaphragm. Chord forces and connection forces achieve lateral stability through the use of floor and
obtained from the analysis may be used for design. roof diaphragms and shear walls.

Fig. 2.6.2 Approximate relationship between 2.6.2 Moment Resistance of Column Bases
allowable soil bearing value and
Single-storey and low-rise buildings without shear
coefficient of subgrade reaction, ks
walls may be designed to depend on the fixity of the
column base to resist lateral loads. The ability of a
spread footing to resist moments caused by lateral
loads is dependent on the rotational characteristics of
the base. The total rotation of the column base is a
function of rotation between the footing and soil,
bending in the base plate, and elongation of the
anchor bolts, as shown in Fig. 2.6.1.
The total rotation of the base is:
b = f + bp + ab
If the axial load is large enough that there is no
tension in the anchor bolts, bp and ab are zero, and:
b = f
Rotational characteristics can be expressed in terms
of flexibility or stiffness coefficients:
= M = M/K
M = applied moment = Pe
e = eccentricity of the applied load, P
= flexibility coefficient
K = stiffness coefficient = 1/
If bending of the base plate and strain in the anchor
However, in some structures, adequate shear walls bolts are assumed as shown in Fig. 2.6.1, the
interfere with the function of the building, or are more flexibility coefficients for the base can be derived, [2]
expensive than alternate solutions. In these cases, and the total rotation of the base becomes:
the lateral stability of the structure can be designed to b = M(f + bp + ab) = Pe(f + bp + ab)
depend on the moment-resisting capacity of either
the column bases, a beam-column frame, or both. f = 1/(ks If)
When moment connections between beams and (x1 x 2 )3 [2e /(h + 2x1 ) 1]
bp = 0
columns are required to resist lateral loads, it is very 6eEs Ibp (h + x1 )
important that the amount of beam-column moment
framing be kept to a minimum and that it be located g[2e /(h + 2x1 ) 1]
ab = 0
near the centre of the building to reduce volume 2eA bEs (h + x1 )
change effects. For example, in a line with ten bays,
if moment connections in the four interior bays are Rotation of the base may cause an additional
adequate, do not use moment connections in the eccentricity of the loads on the columns, resulting in
remaining bays for the sake of convenience. moments which must be added to the moments
induced by the lateral loads.
Whenever possible, to reduce the magnitude of the
forces at the connections, make the moment Note that if the eccentricity, e, is less than h/2 + x1
connection after most of the dead loads have been (inside the centre of compression), bp and ab are
applied. This requires careful specification of the less than zero, meaning that there is no rotation
construction process, and field inspection. The between the column and the footing, and only the
moment connections need only resist the negative rotation from soil deformation need be considered.
moments from live load, lateral loads and volume Values are tabulated for typical cases in Figs. 2.6.3
changes, and will then be less costly. and 2.6.4.

Fig. 2.6.3 Flexibility coefficients for footing soil interaction
Flexibility of base = b = f + ab + bp
Rotation of base = bPe
Stiffness of base = K b = 1/ b
Fixity of base = K b /(K c + K b )
Kc = column stiffness = 4EcIc /hs
Ec = modulus of elasticity of column concrete
Ic = moment of inertia of column
hs = storey height
f [106/(kN-m)] for square footings

3
Footing size ks (kN/m )
(mm) 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000
600 600 4630 2315 1543 1157 926
750 750 1896 948 632 474 380
900 900 915 457 305 229 183
1050 1050 494 247 165 123 99
1200 1200 289 145 97 72 58
1350 1350 181 90 60 45 36
1500 1500 119 59 40 30 24
1650 1650 81 41 27 20 16
1800 1800 57 29 19 14 11
1950 1950 42 21 14 10 8
2100 2100 31 15 10 8 6
2250 2250 23 12 8 6 5
2400 2400 18 9 6 5 4
2700 2700 11 6 4 3 2
3000 3000 7 4 3 2 2
3300 3300 5 3 2 1 1
3600 3600 4 2 1 1 1
Note: Approximate values of ks can be determined from Fig. 2.6.2.

Fig. 2.6.4 Flexibility coefficients for anchor bolts and base plates
ab + bp [106/(kN-m)] for typical details

Column e Case : Exterior anchor bolts Case : Interior anchor bolts
size, h Base plate thickness & anch. bolt diam. Base plate thickness & anc. bolt diam.
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
20 25 30 35 20 25 30 35
100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
150 0 0 0 0 23.9 15.3 10.6 7.8
200 0 0 0 0 35.8 22.9 15.9 11.7
300 300 250 13.1 7.3 4.6 3.2 43.0 27.5 19.1 14.0
300 21.8 12.2 7.7 5.3 47.8 30.6 21.2 15.6
350 28.0 15.7 9.9 6.8 51.2 32.7 22.7 16.7
400 32.6 18.3 11.6 7.9 53.7 34.4 23.8 17.5
450 36.3 20.4 12.9 8.8 55.7 35.7 24.8 18.2
150 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
200 0 0 0 0 8.5 5.5 3.8 2.8
250 0 0 0 0 13.6 8.7 6.1 4.5
400 400 300 6.0 3.4 2.2 1.5 17.1 10.9 7.6 5.6
350 10.3 5.9 3.7 2.6 19.5 12.5 8.7 6.4
400 13.5 7.7 4.9 3.4 21.3 13.6 9.5 7.0
450 16.1 9.1 5.8 5.8 22.7 14.6 10.1 7.4
500 18.1 10.3 6.5 6.5 23.9 15.3 10.6 7.8
200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
250 0 0 0 0 4.0 2.6 1.8 1.3
300 0 0 0 0 6.6 4.2 3.0 2.2
500 500 350 3.2 1.8 1.2 1.2 8.5 5.5 3.8 2.8
400 5.6 3.2 2.1 2.1 10.0 6.4 4.4 3.3
450 7.5 4.3 2.8 2.8 11.1 7.1 4.9 3.6
500 9.0 5.2 3.3 3.3 11.9 7.6 5.3 3.9
550 10.2 5.9 3.8 3.8 12.7 8.1 5.6 4.1
250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
300 0 0 0 0 2.2 1.4 1.0 0.7
350 0 0 0 0 3.7 2.4 1.7 1.2
600 600 400 1.9 1.1 0.7 0.5 4.9 3.1 2.2 1.6
450 3.4 2.0 1.3 0.9 5.8 3.7 2.6 1.9
500 4.6 2.6 1.7 1.2 6.5 4.2 2.9 2.1
550 5.5 3.2 2.1 1.4 7.1 4.6 3.2 2.3
600 6.3 3.7 2.4 1.6 7.6 4.9 3.4 2.5

Fig. 2.6.5 Column stability and base fixity for 1. 1.4D
Examples 2.5 and 2.6
2. (1.25D or 0.9D) + 1.5L + (0.5S or 0.4W)
3. (1.25D or 0.9D) + 1.5S + (0.5L or 0.4W)
4. (1.25D or 0.9D) + 1.4W + (0.5L or 0.5S)
5. 1.0D + 1.0E + (0.5L + 0.25S)
The maximum eccentricity will occur when Eqn (4.) is
applied with 0.9D and 0.5L.
Moment at base of column:
M = (9)(5) = 45 kN-m
Pf = (0.9)(355) = 320 kN
Mf = (1.4)(45) = 63.0 kN-m
Eccentricity due to wind load:
Mf 63.0
= = = 0.197 m = 197 mm
Pf 320
To determine the moments caused by base rotation,
an iterative procedure is required.
Estimate eccentricity due to rotation = 7 mm:
e = 197 + 7 = 204 mm
Check rotation between column and footing:
h/2 + x1 = 500/2 + (50) = 200 mm < 204
Thus there is tension in the anchor bolts and rotation
between the column and footing:
If = (1800)4/12 = 875000 106 mm4
From Fig. 2.6.2:
ks 55000 kN/m3
f = 1/(kS If) = 1/[(55000)(875)]
= 20.8 106/(kN-m)
2e
g 1
ab = h + 2x1
Example 2.5 Stability analysis of an unbraced 2eEs A b (h + x1 )
frame (2)(204)
(465) 1
Given: (500) + (2)( 50)
The column shown in Fig. 2.6.5 =
(2)(204)(200000)(349)(500 50)
Soil bearing capacity = 240 kN/m2
= 0.726 10 6 /(kN - m)
Non-seismic zone
P = 355 kN dead load, 135 kN live load (x1 x 2 )3 [2e /(h + 2x1 ) 1]
bp =
W = 9 kN wind load 6eEs Ibp (h + x1 )
Problem: = 0 (since x1 + x 2 = 50 + 50 = 0)
Determine the column design loads and moments for Mf = (320)(0.204) = 65.3 kN-m
stability as an unbraced frame.
b = (f + ab) Mf
Solution:
The column is designed for the following load = (20.8 + 0.726)(106)(65.3)
combinations: = 0.0014

Eccentricity caused by rotation: Kb = 1/b
= b hs = (0.0014)(5000) = 6.8 mm 7 mm 4Ec c
Kc =
assumed OK hs
No further trial is required. hs = column height
Thus design requirements for 0.9D + 1.4W: Example 2.6 Calculation of degree of fixity
Pf = 320 kN
Given:
Mf = 65.3 kN-m The column base shown in Example 2.5.
Check for 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.4W: Ec = 29900 MPa
Pf = 1.25(355) + 1.5(135) + 0.4(0) = 646 kN Problem:
Mf = 0.4W = 0.4(9)(5) = 18 kN-m Determine the degree of fixity.
e = 18/646 = 0.0279 m = 28 mm Solution:
Estimate eccentricity due to rotation = 2 mm: b = f + ab + bp = (20.8 + 0.726 + 0) x 106
3
Mf = 646(28 + 2)/10 = 19.4 kN-m = 21.5 x 106 rad/kN-m
6
b = fMf = (20.8 10 )(19.4) = 0.000403 rad Kb = 1/b = 1/(21.5 106)
bhs = (0.000403)(5000) = 2.02 mm 2 mm = 46.5 10-3 kN-m/rad
assumed OK
Ic = bd3/12 = 5004/12 = 5208 106 mm4
Design requirements for 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.4W:
4EcIc (4)(29900)(5208 106 )
Pf = 646 kN Kc = =
hs 5000 106
Mf = 19.4 kN-m
= 124.6 103 kN - m / rad
It is required by A23.3, Clause 10.15.3.1, that the Kb 46.5
moment caused by a minimum eccentricity of 15 + Fb = = = 0.271
K b + K c 46.5 + 124.6
0.03h be considered:
Pf = (1.25)(355) + (1.5)(135) = 646 kN In a computer model for structural analysis, the
degree of base fixity is modeled by using Kb as the
e = 15 + 0.03h = 15 + (0.03)(500) = 30 mm
rotational spring stiffness of the support node.
Estimate eccentricity due to rotation = 3 mm:
2.6.4 Computer Models for Frame Analysis
Mf = Pfe = (646)(30 + 3)/103 = 21.3 kN-m
When precast frames are modeled as sticks, as is
b = (20.8 106)(21.3) = 0.00044 rad
usually done with steel frames, the results are often
bhs = (0.00044)(5000) = 2.2 mm 3 mm very misleading. For example, the structure as
assumed OK modeled in Fig. 2.6.6 (a) will indicate more flexibility
than exists. A lateral drift will be overestimated and
Thus design requirements for 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.4W: the moments caused by axial shortening will be
Pf = 646 kN underestimated. Figure 2.6.6 (b) shows a model that
Mf = 21.3 kN-m will better estimate the true condition.
2.6.3 Fixity of Column Bases 2.6.5 Volume Change Effects in Moment-

resisting Frames
The degree of fixity of a column base is the ratio of
the rotational stiffness of the base to the sum of the The restraint of volume changes in moment-resisting
rotational stiffnesses of the column plus the base: frames causes tension in the girders and deflections
Kb and moments in the columns. The magnitude of
Fb = these tensions, moments and deflections is
Kb + Kc
dependent on the distance from the centre of
Fb = degree of base fixity, expressed as a stiffness of the frame.
decimal

Fig. 2.6.6 Computer models
The centre of stiffness is that point of a building Calculation of volume change restraint forces In
where no lateral movement will occur when the moment-resisting frames
horizontal members are subject to uniform
Computer analysis allows the input of the shortening
shortening. For frames that are symmetrical with
strains due to volume changes. The equivalent
respect to bay sizes, storey heights and element
strains described below can be input directly. The
stiffnesses, the centre of stiffness is located at the
designer should use the rotational spring stiffness
midpoint of the building frame, as shown in Fig. 2.6.7.
method. As a design check to examine the extreme
Tension in girders is largest in the bay nearest the conditions, it may be useful to make two computer
centre of stiffness. Deflections and moments in runs, one with the base pinned and one with the base
columns are larger furthest from the centre of fixed.
stiffness. In Fig. 2.6.7:
The coefficients from Figs. 2.6.8 and 2.6.10 may be
F1 < F2 < F3
used for frames that are approximately symmetrical.
1 > 2 > 3 The use of these tables is described in Fig. 2.6.9.
M1 > M2 > M3
Equivalent volume change
The degree of fixity of the column base, as described
in Sect. 2.6.3, has a great effect on the magnitude of If a horizontal framing element is connected at the
the forces and moments caused by volume change ends, a tensile force is built up in the element and
restraint. An assumption of a fully fixed base can transmitted to the supporting elements such that the
overestimate the restraint forces and assuming a volume change shortening is restrained. The effect of
pinned base may have the opposite effect. The the shortening on the shears and moments of the
degree of fixity used in the volume change analysis support is lessened because of creep and micro-
should be consistent with that used in the analysis of cracking of the element and its support, since the
the column for other loadings and the determination shortening takes place gradually.
of slenderness effects.

Fig. 2.6.7 Effect of volume change restraints in building frames
Fig. 2.6.8 Build-up of restraint forces in beams (kb)

Total number Number of bays from end (i)
of bays (n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 1.00
3 1.00 4.00
4 1.00 3.00
5 1.00 2.67 9.00
6 1.00 2.50 6.00
7 1.00 2.40 5.00 16.00
8 1.00 2.33 4.50 10.00
9 1.00 2.29 4.20 8.00 25.00
10 1.00 2.25 4.00 7.00 15.00
11 1.00 2.22 3.86 6.40 11.67 36.00
12 1.00 2.20 3.75 6.00 10.00 21.00
13 1.00 2.18 3.67 5.71 9.00 16.00 49.00
14 1.00 2.17 3.60 5.50 8.33 13.50 28.00
15 1.00 2.15 3.55 5.33 7.86 12.00 21.00 64.00
16 1.00 2.14 3.50 5.20 7.50 11.00 17.50 36.00
The volume change shortenings can be treated in the similarly modified. However, the maximum
same manner as short term elastic deformations by temperature change will usually occur over a much
using a concept of equivalent shortening. shorter time, probably within 60 to 90 days:
The following relations can be assumed: et = t / Kt
ec = c / K A et and t = the equivalent and calculated temperature
shortening, respectively
es = s / K A
Kt = a constant; recommended value = 1.5
ec, es = equivalent creep and shrinkage
shortenings,respectively The total equivalent shortening to be used for design is:
c, s = calculated creep and shrinkage = ec + es + et
shortenings,respectively + s t
= c +
KA = a constant for design purposes which KA Kt
varies from 3 to 5 The actual modulus of elasticity of the elements is
The value of K A will be near the lower end of the used when the equivalent shortening is used in the
range when the elements are heavily reinforced, and frame analysis for determining shears and moments
near the upper end when they are lightly reinforced. in the supporting elements, rather than a reduced
For most common structures, a value of K A = 4 is modulus.
conservative.
Figures 2.6.11 and 2.6.12 provide equivalent volume
Shortening due to temperature change will be change strains for typical building frames.

Fig. 2.6.9 Notation for the use of Fig. 2.6.10
i = e A s kf, km = coefficients from Fig. 2.6.10

n + 1 i
Fi = k f k b iEc Ic / h3s kb = i (or from Fig. 2.6.8)
n + 2 2i
Mi = k m iEcIc / h2s n = number of bays
Fi = F1, F2, etc., as shown above i = as shown in Fig. 2.6.7

Fig. 2.6.10 Coefficients kf and km for forces and moments caused by volume change restraint (see Fig.
2.6.9 for notation)
No. of EbIb / A Base Values of kf Values of km
Kr =
stories Ec Ic / hs fixity Base 2nd floor 3rd floor 4th
F1 F2 F3 F4 M1 M2L M2U M3L M3U M4

Fixed 3.0 3.0 3.0 0
0
Pinned 0 0 0 0
Fixed 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0
0.5
Pinned 1.2 1.2 0 1.2
1 Fixed 7.5 7.5 4.5 3.0
1.0
Pinned 1.7 1.7 0 1.7
Fixed 9.0 9.0 5.0 4.0
2.0
Pinned 2.2 2.2 0 2.2
4.0 Fixed 10.1 10.1 5.4 4.7
or more Pinned 2.5 2.5 0 2.5
Fixed 6.8 9.4 2.6 4.3 2.6 2.6 0
0
Pinned 1.5 3.0 1.5 0 1.5 1.5 0
Fixed 8.1 10.7 2.6 4.7 3.4 2.1 0.4
0.5
Pinned 1.9 3.4 1.4 0 1.9 1.2 0.2
2 Fixed 8.9 11.2 2.3 4.9 3.9 1.8 0.5
1.0
Pinned 2.1 3.4 1.3 0 2.1 1.0 0.3
Fixed 9.7 11.6 1.9 5.2 4.5 1.4 0.5
2.0
Pinned 2.4 3.4 1.0 0 2.4 0.8 0.3
4.0 Fixed 10.4 11.9 1.4 5.5 5.0 1.0 0.4
or more Pinned 2.6 3.4 0.8 0 2.6 0.5 0.2
Fixed 7.1 10.6 4.1 0.7 4.4 2.8 2.8 0.7 0.7 0
0
Pinned 1.6 3.6 2.4 0.4 0 1.6 1.6 0.4 0.4 0
Fixed 8.2 11.1 3.5 0.5 4.7 3.5 2.2 0.7 0.4 0.09
0.5
Pinned 1.9 3.6 1.9 0.3 0 1.9 1.2 0.4 0.2 0.05
3 Fixed 8.9 11.4 2.9 0.4 5.0 3.9 1.9 0.7 0.3 0.09
1.0
or more Pinned 2.2 3.5 1.6 0.2 0 2.2 1.0 0.4 0.2 0.05
Fixed 9.7 11.7 2.2 0.2 5.2 4.7 1.4 0.6 0.2 0.06
2.0
Pinned 2.4 3.5 1.2 0.1 0 2.4 0.8 0.3 0.1 0.03
4.0 Fixed 10.4 11.9 1.5 0.04 5.5 5.0 1.0 0.5 0.04 0.01
or more Pinned 2.6 3.4 0.8 0.02 0 2.6 0.5 0.2 0.02 0.00

Fig. 2.6.11 Equivalent volume change strains for typical continuous building frames with prestressed
elements (106)
Heated structures
(Fig. 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 140 130 120 100 90 170 160 140 130 110
5 160 150 130 120 110 180 170 160 140 130
10 180 160 150 140 130 200 190 170 160 140
15 190 180 170 160 150 210 200 190 170 160
20 210 200 190 180 160 230 220 200 190 170
25 230 220 210 190 180 240 230 220 200 190
30 250 240 220 210 200 260 250 230 220 200
35 270 250 240 230 220 270 260 250 230 220
40 280 270 260 250 240 290 280 260 250 230
45 300 290 280 270 250 300 290 280 260 250
50 320 310 300 280 270 320 310 290 280 260
Unheated structures
0 140 130 120 100 90 170 160 140 130 110
5 170 160 140 130 120 190 180 170 150 140
10 190 180 170 160 150 210 200 190 170 160
15 220 210 200 190 170 240 220 210 190 180
20 250 240 220 210 200 260 250 230 220 200
25 280 260 250 240 230 280 270 260 240 230
30 300 290 280 270 250 300 290 280 260 250
35 330 320 310 290 280 330 310 300 280 270
40 360 340 330 320 310 350 340 320 310 290
45 380 370 360 350 340 370 360 350 330 320
50 410 400 390 370 360 390 380 370 350 340
Note: Above table based on the same parameters as Fig. 2.4.7 with the addition that K A = 5 and K t = 1.5.
Example 2.7 Calculation of column moment
caused by volume change shortening of a beam
Given:
The beam in Example 2.1 is supported and attached
to two 400 400 columns as shown in the sketch.
fc (col) = 35 MPa
Ec = 29900 MPa
Problem:
Determine the horizontal force at the top of the
column caused by volume change shortening of the
beam.
Solution:
Ic = bh3/12 = 4004/12 = 2130 106 mm4
From Example 2.1:
Calculate the equivalent shortening from strain values
computed in Example 2.1:
+ s t
= c + L
KA Kt
(365 187 + 367 174) 211
= + (106 )(7500)
5 1.5
= 1.6 mm

Fig. 2.6.12 Equivalent volume change strains for typical continuous building frames with reinforced
elements (106)
Heated structures
(Fig. 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 70 60 50 40 40 70 60 50 40 40
5 80 80 70 60 60 80 70 70 60 50
10 100 90 90 80 70 90 90 80 70 70
15 120 110 110 100 90 110 100 100 90 80
20 140 130 120 120 110 120 120 110 100 100
25 160 150 140 130 130 140 130 130 120 110
30 180 170 160 150 150 150 150 140 130 130
35 190 180 180 170 160 170 160 160 150 140
40 210 200 200 190 180 180 180 170 160 160
45 230 220 210 210 200 200 190 190 180 170
50 250 240 230 220 220 210 210 200 190 190
Unheated structures
0 70 60 50 40 40 70 60 50 40 40
5 90 80 80 70 60 90 80 80 70 60
10 120 110 110 100 90 110 100 100 90 80
15 150 140 130 130 120 130 120 120 110 110
20 170 160 160 150 150 150 150 140 130 130
25 200 190 190 180 170 180 170 170 160 150
30 230 220 210 210 200 200 190 190 180 170
35 250 250 240 230 230 220 210 210 200 200
40 280 270 270 260 250 240 240 230 220 220
45 310 300 300 290 280 270 260 250 250 240
50 330 330 320 310 310 290 280 280 270 260
Note: Above table based on the same parameters as Fig. 2.4.6 with the addition that K A = 5 and K t = 1.5.
/2 = 1.6 / 2 = 0.8 mm each end Problem:

N = 3Ec Ic ( / 2) / hs3 Determine the maximum tension in the beams and
6 3 the maximum moment in the columns caused by
= (3)(29900)(2130 10 )(0.8) / 3750 volume change restraint.
= 2800 N = 2.8 kN Solution:
M = Nhs 1. Determine relative stiffness between the columns
= (2.8)(3750) / 103 and beams:
Ib =(300)(600)3 / 12 = 5400 106 mm4
= 10.5 kN-m
EbIb/ A =(29.9)(5400) / 8000 = 20.2 103 kN-m
Example 2.8 Volume change restraint forces Ic =4004/12 = 2130 106 mm4
Given: EcIc/hs =(32.0)(2130) / 5000 = 13.6 103 kN-m
A 4-bay, 2-storey heated frame as shown E I /A
Kr = bb = 1.5
Beams are prestressed EcIc / hs
Beam modulus of elasticity = Eb = 29900 MPa 2. Determine the deflections:
Column modulus of elasticity = Ec = 32000 MPa From Fig. 2.6.11:
Column bases 20% fixed (see Sect. 2.6.3) e = 246 106 mm/mm
Design R.H. = 70% B = e A = (246 106)(8000) = 2.0 mm
Design temperature change = 39C A = e(2 A ) = 4.0 mm

3. Determine the maximum beam tension that occurs km (20% fixed)= 2.25 + 0.20 (4.202.25)=2.64
nearest the centre of stiffness, i.e., beams BC and M2L =(2.64)(4.0103)(32.0)(2130106)/ 50002
CD, 2nd floor:
= 28.8 kN-m
From Fig. 2.6.8:
For n = 4 and i = 2, kb = 3.00 2.6.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns
From Fig. 2.6.10: Many precast concrete structures utilize multi-storey

columns with simple-span beams resting on
For Kr = 1.0, fixed base, kf = 11.2 haunches. Figs. 2.6.13 and 2.6.14 are aids for
For Kr = 2.0, fixed base, kf = 11.6 determining the various combinations of load and
moment that can occur with these columns.
For Kr = 1.5, kf = 11.4
The following conditions and limitations apply to Figs.
For pinned base, kf = 3.4 (for Kr = 1.0 and 2.0)
2.6.13 and 2.6.14:
For 20% fixed: 1. The coefficients are only valid for braced columns.
kf = 3.4 + 0.20 (11.4 3.4) = 5.0 Lateral stability must be achieved by shear walls
F2 = kf kb i Ec Ic / hs3 or moment resisting frames.
= (5.0)(3.0)(2.0)(32.0)(2130 106) / 50003 2. A straight line interpolation between the

coefficients for pinned and fixed bases can be
= 16.4 kN used for partially fixed column bases, see Sect.
4. Determine maximum column moments: 2.6.3.
For base moment, M1: 3. The coefficients for the 4-storey columns may be
From Fig. 2.6.10 by interpolation: used for higher columns.
km (fixed) = (4.9 + 5.2)/2 = 5.05 4. The coefficients in the Max line will give the
maximum required restraining force, Fi. Column
km (pinned) =0 moments can be caused by patterned live loads,
km (20% fixed) = 0 + 0.20 (5.05)= 1.0 assumed equal at each level, that occur on either
M1= km i Ec Ic /hs2 side of a column, such as live loads on interior
columns. The maximum axial column force will not
= (1.0)(4.0103)(32.0)(2130106) / 50002 necessarily occur with the loading pattern that
= 10.9 kN-m causes the maximum moment.
For second floor moment, M2L: 5. The coefficients in One Side line will give the
maximum moments that occur when a column is
km (fixed) = (3.9 + 4.5) / 2 = 4.2
loaded on one side, such as the end column in a
km (pinned) = (2.1 + 2.4) / 2 = 2.25 bay.

Fig. 2.6.13 Notation for the use of Fig. 2.6.14
Fi = k f P e / hs
Mj = km P e
Fi = restraining force at level i
mj = moment at point j
kf, km = coefficients from Fig. 2.6.14
P = vertical load acting at eccentricity e
Columns braced against sidesway
Example 2.9 Use of Figs. 2.6.13 and 2.6.14 To determine the maximum moment at point B:
Given: For a pinned base, km = 0.67
A 3-storey frame with beam reactions on column For a fixed base, km = 0.77
haunches at each level:
For 65% fixed, km = 0.67+ (0.65)(0.77 0.67)
Dead load = 220 kN = 0.74
Live load = 90 kN Mf = km Pf e = (0.74)(47.3) = 35.0 kN-m
Eccentricity, e = 350 mm Maximum restraining force at level 2:
Storey height, hs= 5000 mm kf = 1.40 + (0.65)(1.62 1.40) = 1.54

Ff = kf Pf e / hs = (1.54)(47.3) / 5
Column base is 65% fixed
= 14.6 kN (tension or compression)
Problem: b) For the exterior column:
Use Fig. 2.6.14 to determine the maximum
restraining force and moment in the lowest storey for: The total load is eccentric on the same side of the
column. Use the coefficients in the One Side line:
a) An interior column in a multi-bay frame
Pf e = (410)(350 103) = 143.5 kN-m
b) An exterior column
To determine the maximum moment at point B:
Solution: For a pinned base, km = 0.40
Factored load = (1.25)(220) + (1.5)(90) For a fixed base, km = 0.46
= 275 + 135 = 410 kN For a 65% fixed, km = 0.40 + 0.65(0.46 0.40)
a) For the interior column: = 0.44
The dead load reaction will be the same on either Mf = km Pf e = (0.44)(143.5) = 63.1 kN-m
side, thus no moment results. The live load could Maximum restraining force at level 2:
occur on any one side at any floor, hence use the kf = 0.60 + (0.65)(0.60 - 0.22) = 0.35
coefficients in the Max line:
Ff = kf Pf e/hs = (0.35)(143.5) / 5
3
Pf e = (135)(350 10 ) = 47.3 kN-m = 10.0 kN (tension)

Fig. 2.6.14 Coefficients kf and km for determining moments and restraining forces on eccentrically loaded
columns braced against sidesway
+ indicates clockwise moments on the columns and compression in the restraining beam
No. P kf at level km at point
of Base acting
1 2 3 4 5 A B C D E F G H
storeys fixity at level
3 + 0.25 1.50 + 1.25 0 0.25 + 0.25 + 1.00
2 0.50 0 + 0.50 0 + 0.50 + 0.50 0
Pinned Max 0.75 1.50 1.75 0 0.75 0.75 1.00
2 One side 0.25 1.50 + 1.75 0 + 0.25 + 0.75 + 1.00
3 + 0.43 1.72 + 1.29 0.14 0.29 + 0.29 + 1.00
Fixed 2 0.86 + 0.43 + 0.43 + 0.29 + 0.57 + 0.43 0
Max 1.29 2.15 1.72 0.43 0.86 0.72 1.00
One side 0.43 1.29 + 1.72 + 0.15 + 0.28 + 0.72 + 1.00
4 0.07 + 0.40 1.60 + 1.27 0 + 0.07 0.07 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00
3 + 0.13 0.80 + 0.20 + 0.47 0 0.13 + 0.13 + 0.53 + 0.47 0
Pinned 2 0.47 0.20 + 0.80 0.13 0 + 0.47 + 0.53 + 0.13 0.13 0
Max 0.67 1.40 2.60 1.87 0 0.67 0.73 0.93 0.87 1.00
3 One side 0.41 0.60 0.60 + 1.61 0 + 0.40 + 0.60 + 0.40 + 0.60 + 1.00
4 0.12 + 0.47 1.62 + 1.27 + 0.04 + 0.08 0.08 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00
3 + 0.23 0.92 + 0.23 + 0.46 0.08 0.15 + 0.15 + 0.54 + 0.46 0
Fixed 2 0.81 + 0.23 + 0.70 0.12 + 0.27 + 0.54 + 0.46 + 0.12 0.12 0
Max 1.16 1.62 2.55 1.85 0.38 0.77 0.69 0.92 0.85 1.00
One side 0.70 0.22 0.69 + 1.61 + 0.23 + 0.46 + 0.54 + 0.38 + 0.62 + 1.00
5 + 0.02 0.11 + 0.43 1.61 + 1.27 0 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.07 0.07 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00
4 0.04 + 0.22 0.86 + 0.22 + 0.46 0 + 0.04 0.04 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.54 + 0.46 0
Pinned 3 + 0.13 0.75 0 + 0.75 0.12 0 0.13 + 0.13 + 0.50 + 0.50 + 0.12 0.12 0
2 0.46 0.22 + 0.86 0.22 + 0.04 0 + 0.46 + 0.54 + 0.14 0.14 0.04 + 0.04 0
Max 0.65 1.30 2.15 2.80 1.89 0 0.64 0.72 0.86 0.86 0.97 0.89 1.00
4 One side 0.35 0.86 + 0.43 0.86 + 1.65 0 + 0.35 + 0.65 + 0.57 + 0.43 + 0.35 + 0.65 + 1.00
5 + 0.03 0.12 + 0.43 1.61 + 1.27 0.01 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.07 0.07 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00
4 0.06 + 0.25 0.87 + 0.22 + 0.46 + 0.02 + 0.04 0.04 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.54 + 0.46 0
Fixed 3 + 0.22 0.87 + 0.03 + 0.74 0.12 0.07 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.51 + 0.50 + 0.12 0.12 0
2 0.80 + 0.21 + 0.74 0.18 + 0.03 + 0.27 + 0.54 + 0.46 + 0.12 0.12 0.03 + 0.03 0
Max 1.11 1.45 2.07 2.75 1.88 0.37 0.74 0.67 0.84 0.83 0.96 0.88 1.00
One side 0.61 0.53 + 0.33 0.83 + 1.64 + 0.21 + 0.41 + 0.59 + 0.56 + 0.44 + 0.36 + 0.64 + 1.00
2.6.7 Slenderness Effects in Compression = ratio of K of compression elements

Elements to K of flexural elements in a plane at
one end of a compression element
Approximate evaluation of slenderness effects
base = Kc /Kb (Sect. 2.6.2) 10 base 1.0
Application of the Code provisions for slenderness of
elements braced against sidesway is shown in Chap. k = effective length factor
3 and for unbraced frames in Example 2.10. A more Slenderness effects by structural analysis
rigorous approach is discussed briefly later in this
In lieu of the approximate evaluation of slenderness
section.
effects, the requirements of the Code can be met by
The effective length factor, k, can be determined from using P analysis. [4] [5]
the alignment charts, see Fig. 2.6.15. For column
P analysis accounts for the frame drift by
bases, the value of for use in these charts can be
computing moments and shears that are required for
calculated from the rotational stiffness coefficients
equilibrium of the structure in the deformed shape.
described in Sect. 2.6.2 with base = Kc /Kb. For
most structures, base should not be taken less than An iterative procedure can be used:
1.0. For column bases which are assumed pinned in 1. Select an initial frame deflection to account for
the frame analysis, base can be assumed equal to out-of-plumbness such as 0.25%.
10 when using Fig. 2.6.15.

Fig. 2.6.15 Alignment charts for determining effective length factors
Note: The assumptions used in deriving these charts may underestimate k, which is unconservative. It is considered satisfactory to
compute using the member stiffnesses given in A23.3, Clause 10.14.1.2
Fig. 2.6.16 P effects in a frame 4. Calculate the shears resulting from the
deflection determined in Step 3. Determine the
corresponding deflection.
5. The change in shear from step to step should
reduce after successive iterations. If it does not
reduce, the structure has a stability problem and
element dimensions should be revised.
Generally an upper bound value for the design
storey shear can be selected following a few
iterations.
6. The computed forces, corresponding to these
storey shears, account for the effects of storey
drift on frame stability. Columns can be designed
with an effective length factor > 1.0.
7. For load cases with short-term lateral loads such
2. Calculate the approximate storey shears as wind and earthquake, deflections should be
resulting from this initial deflection and gravity computed using an effective EI for these
loads. (See Fig. 2.6.16.) members that recognizes possible cracking but
not creep.
3. Determine the frame deflection corresponding to
the shears from Step 2. This deflection must be 8. For load cases with volume change effects,
based on a reduced EI to account for creep due there is generally no additional storey shear as
to sustained loads and cracking. these forces tend to cancel.

Storeys in structures shall be designated as non- Roof: P = (1.0)(2.6)(45.4/2)
sway if Q 0.05 where: (Including 1.1 m tall parapet at roof level)
Pf o = 59 kN
Q =
Vf A c Floor: P = (1.0)(3.0)(45.4/2)
Pf = summation of factored loads in a given = 68.1 kN/floor
storey
The wind analysis can be done by computer. Output
o = elastically computed first order lateral moments are shown in Fig. 2.6.19. Uncracked
deflection due to Hf (neglecting P effects) section properties are used in the analysis due to the
at the top of the storey relative to the size of the members and prestressing used to limit
bottom of the storey cracking.
Vf = total factored lateral force within the storey
Wind drift:
lc = height of storey, centre-to-centre of floors
or roof From the computer analysis, deflection at the first
floor due to wind is 0.71 mm. The total drift per storey
Example 2.10 3 storey frame example (no under service wind and gravity is limited by the NBCC
seismic) to 1/500 of the storey height.
Given: 0.71
= 0.00024 mm/mm 0.002
A 3 storey office building with a floor to floor height of 3000
3 metres is illustrated by the schematic drawings in Volume change analysis, east-west direction:
Fig. 2.6.17a. Deck elements are normal density
double tees with field applied topping. Beams, The structure will be designed for a temperature
double tees and columns are precast prestressed change of 45C and an average ambient R.H. of
concrete. Unfactored loads are given as follows: 70%, obtained from Fig. 2.4.4 and 2.4.2.
Dead loads: Beams and columns are prestressed, normal density

concrete, so use Fig. 2.4.7 and Fig. 2.6.11 to find
Double tees & topping = 4.5 kN/m2 volume change strains. For a heated structure:
Beams, columns, misc. = 2.6 kN/m2 Actual strain = 760 106
2
Partitions (at floor levels) = 1.0 kN/m Equivalent strain = 270 106
or Roofing (at roof level) ________ In the east-west direction, the structure is symmetric
2
8.1 kN/m and the centre of stiffness can be assumed to be at
Live loads: the centreline of the building.
Floor (Average of office and corridor including From Fig. 2.6.10 for a structure with 3 or more floors,
reduction for Tributary Area) = 2.4 kN/m 2 pinned column base and Kr 1 due to beam and
column geometry:
Roof = 3.0 kN/m2
Ec = 29900 MPa
Wind = 1.0 kN/m2
km at second floor = 2.2
(Gross projected area)
Column moment = km i Ec Ic / hs2
Problem:
For column at line 1, 35140 mm from stiffness centre:
Analyze the structure for volume change effects and
for wind loads in the east-west direction. Seismic 1 = (270106)(35,140) = 9.49 mm
loads are not considered in this example.
M1 = 2.2(9.49)(29,900)(21,094) / 30002
Solution: = 1463 kN-m
Wind load analysis, east-west direction:
Lateral stability in the east-west direction is achieved 3 = 6.17 mm M3 = 951 kN-m
by providing moment connections between the 4 = 3.70 mm M4 = 570 kN-m
inverted tee beams and columns on lines B and C.
5 = 1.23 mm M5 = 190 kN-m
Storey wind shears per frame:

Fig. 2.6.17a 3-storey office structure of Example 2.10

Fig. 2.6.17b Interior building section

As shown in the results, moments caused by volume Sum of all columns loads:
change increase substantially for columns located far Pstorey (kN)
from the centre of the building. The amount of beam- Storey D L D+L
column moment framing should be kept to a minimum 3 26,000 9,500 35,550
and be located near the centre of the building to 2 26,000 7,600 33,600
reduce volume change effects. For example, in a line 1 26,000 7,600 33,600
with seven bays, if moment connections in the four
Total 78,000 24,700 102,750
interior bays are adequate, do not use moment
connections in the remaining bays for the sake of Pf = 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.5S
convenience.
Pf = 1.25 (78,000) + 1.5 (2)(7,600) + 0.5 (9,500)
Column slenderness effects east and west bending: = 97500 + 27,550
Sway frames have stability concerns and the design = 125050 kN
process is complex. Many structural analysis First level moment magnifier:
programs have the capability to calculate a second
A u = 2100 mm
order analysis and directly incorporate the P-
effects. Alternatively, the analysis can be carried out For moments caused by gravity loads:
using the approximate method of moment d = 97500 / 125050 = 0.78
magnification using the following steps:
For moments caused by wind:
1. Using the factored load combinations, compute
d = 0
gravity dead and live load moments using linear
elastic analysis. Appreciable lateral deflection of For columns at lines 1 and 10:
the frame under gravity load should be avoided Ec = Eb = 29900 MPa
as creep will amplify these deflections over time Ic = 21094 106 mm4
and could cause serviceability and strength
concerns. Ib = 49500 106 mm 4
From Fig. 2.6.15.
2. Compute lateral load moments due to Wind (or
A (base)= 10.0 for a pinned base (see Sect.
seismic if applicable).
2.6.7)
3. Magnify the lateral load moments using the
moment magnification factor to account for In using Fig. 2.6.15, Column I = 0.7 Ic and Beam I =
lateral drift. This will account for second order 0.35 Ib
effects of vertical loads acting in the laterally 0.7EcIc / hs
B =
displaced configuration. 0.35EbIb / A
4. Add the moments from step 1 to the magnified (2)(0.7)(21094) / 3000
= = 5.19
moments of step 3. (0.35)(49500) / 9140
This analysis assumes the plane frame is subjected where Ic and Ib are the gross section properties in this
to loads causing deflections in that plane. If torsional example
displacements are significant, a three dimensional k = 2.6 (unbraced frame)
second order analysis should be used.
El = (0.4EcIc) / (1 + d) A23.3 Eqn (10 19)
If the frame is flexible and deflects substantially under
gravity loads, it may be necessary to increase Gravity loads:
moments derived from the gravity load analysis using EI = (0.4)(29.9)(21,094)/(1 + 0.78)
the approximate method of moment magnification.
This would result in the calculation of two moment = 141700 kN-mm2
magnifiers. One magnifier is determined for moments Pc = 2 EI / (k A u)2 = 2 (141700) / (2.6 2.1)2
caused by gravity loads and the other magnifier is from A23.3 Eqn (10-17)
determined for moments caused by wind. The
calculation for each type of magnifier follows. = 46920 kN

Wind loads: V = (2)(68.1) + 59 = 195 kN
E = (0.4)(29.9)(21,094) / (1.0) Vf = (1.4)(195) = 273 kN
= 252280 kN-mm2 lc = storey height = 3000 mm
Pc = 2(252280)/(2.6 2.1)2 Pf o (125050)(0.99)
Q = = = 0.151 0.33
= 83520 kN Vf A c (273)(3000)
For columns at lines 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, assuming A23.3, Clause 10.16.3.3
column 5 as typical: 1 1
= = = 1.18
Ic = 21094 106 mm4 1 Q 1 0.151
A = 10.0 To complete the analysis for slenderness effects, the
(2)(0.7)(21094) / 3000 moment magnifier for the columns assumed braced
B = = 2.60 should also be calculated. In this case, it was
0.35(49500 / 9140 + 49500 / 9140) determined that the slenderness ratio was below the
k = 2.20 from Fig. 2.6.15 for unbraced way limit required for non-sway frames, so slenderness
frame. can be neglected.
Lines 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 upper level effective length
Gravity loads: factors:
A = B = 2.60
EI = (0.4)(29.9)(21 094)/(1 + 0.78)
From Fig. 2.6.15, k = 1.75:
= 141733 kN-mm2
Au = 2100 mm
Pc = 2(141733) / (2.20 2.1)2
k A u /r = (1.75)(2100)/[(0.3)(750)] = 16.3
= 65540 kN
Values of Q at the 2nd floor and 3rd storey are lower
Wind loads: than 0.05 and can be designated as non-sway
El = (0.4)(29.9)(21 094) / (1.0) (A23.3, Clause 10.14.4). The slenderness ratio was
compared to the limit for non-sway frames and
= 252280 kN-mm2
slenderness effects may be neglected at upper
Pc = 2 (252280) / (2.20 2.1)2 levels.
= 116650 kN Gravity loads and moments on columns:
Calculate the sum of Pc of all columns which resist A detailed analysis of the gravity loads and moments
lateral loads. The first level moment magnifiers can on the columns is not shown here, but is summarized
then be calculated as follows: in Fig. 2.6.18 for a typical exterior column. These
Gravity loads: moments are based on an elastic frame analysis and,
since the members are relatively small, they were
Pc = (4)(46920) + (12)(65540) = 974,160 kN
modeled at centreline for the beams and columns.
1.0 1.0 For frames made with deep beams and discrete
= = = 1.21
Pf 125050 connections, adjustments would be required in the
1 1 computer model to account for member stiffnesses
m ( Pc ) (0.75)(974160)
and connection locations.
from A23.3 Eqn (10-23)
For columns on lines 1 and 10, the minimum
Wind loads:
eccentricity to be considered:
Pc =(4)(83 520) + (12)(116 650) = 1,733,900 kN
1.0 emin (east-west) = 15 + (0.03)(750) = 37.5 mm
= = 1.11
(125,050) Moment connections at lines 1 and 10:
1
(0.75)(1733900) Negative beam moments can be determined by a
computer analysis or by approximate methods shown
The magnifier for moments caused by wind loads can
here.
also be computed as follows:
= first level wind drift from the computer Volume change moments (Mt):
analysis From Fig. 2.6.10, km for the column above, the
second floor is 1.0. Thus the net moment to be
= 0.71 mm distributed to the beams is (2.2 + 1.0) / 2.2 times the
f = (1.4)(0.71) = 0.99 mm calculated column moment below the second floor.
Pf = 125050 kN

Fig. 2.6.18 Summary of column B-1 design forces east-west bending
Load Storey
effect 1 2 3
Axial dead load, P, (kN) 2195 1457 715
Unfactored Axial live load, P, (kN) without snow 439 221 0
Forces Axial snow load, P, (kN) 262 262 262
Wind moment, W, (kN-m) 66 20.1 7.6
Volume change moment, Mt, (kN-m) 1463 665 133
Calculated Mf, (kN-m) 927 1302 1582
1.25 D + Minimum Mf, (kN-m) Does not govern 133 86 39
1.5 L + 0.5 S Design Mf, (kN-m) 927 1302 1582
Design Pf, (kN) 3534 2285 1028
1.25 D + Design Mf, (kN-m) 766 1086 1907
1.5 S + 0.5 L Design Pf, (kN) 3361 2327 1285
1.25 D + Moment magnifier for Wind Moment, 1.11 1.0 1.0
1.4 W + 0.5 L Design Mf, (kN-m) 673 1086 1359
Design Pf, (kN) 3055 1960 904
1.4 W + 0.5 S Design Mf, (kN-m) 603 977 1521
Design Pf, (kN) 2966 1980 1035
1.25 D + Design Mf, (kN-m) 2594 1907 1410
1.25 T + 0.5 L Design Pf, (kN) 2964 1932 895
1.25 D + Design Mf, (kN-m) 2513 1799 1573
1.25 T + 0.5 S Design Pf, (kN) 2877 1953 1023
1.25 T + 0.4W Design Mf, (kN-m) 2355 1798 1391
Design Pf, (kN) 2739 1820 893
Fig. 2.6.19 Wind moments in elements

Fig. 2.6.20 Moment connection details for Example 2.10

Fig. 2.6.21 Deformation modes 2.6.8 Shear Wall-frame Interaction
Rigid frames and shear walls respond differently to
lateral loads. This difference is illustrated in Fig.
2.6.21.
A frame deflects predominantly in a shear mode as
shown in Fig. 2.6.21(a).
A shear wall deflects predominantly in a cantilever
bending mode, see Fig. 2.6.21(b). Elevator shafts,
stairwells, and concrete walls normally exhibit this
behavior.
It is not always easy to differentiate between modes
of deformation. For example, a shear wall
penetrated by significant openings may act like a
frame in that region. An infilled frame will tend to
deflect in a bending mode. Also, shear deformation
of a shear wall can be more important than bending
deformation if the height to length ratio is low, as
discussed in Sect. 2.7.2.
This is distributed to the beam on each side of the
The load can be distributed to the lateral load
column in proportion to the stiffness. For example at
resisting units in proportion to their stiffnesses if all
column line 3:
vertical elements of a structure exhibit the same
M3 = 951 kN-m deformations under load, i.e., they are all frames or
2.2 + 1.0 all shear walls, see Sect. 2.7.3. The load distribution
M Beams = (951) = 1383 kN-m
2.2 in structures with both frames and shear walls is
considerably more complex because of differences
M31 = 12.29
(1383) = 793 kN-m in deformation modes. References [14] to [19]
9.14 + 12.29 address these issues.
M34 = 590 kN-m
In this example, gravity loads do not cause 2.7 SHEAR WALLS
appreciable sway, so moments due to gravity loads 2.7.1 General
are not magnified. Only moments due to lateral In most precast, prestressed concrete buildings, it is
loads are magnified to account for the lateral drift desirable to resist lateral loads with shear walls of
effect. If gravity loads cause appreciable sway, they precast, cast-in-place concrete or masonry
shall be increased by the gravity load magnification construction. Shear walls are usually the exterior
factor ( = 1.21 for Storey 1). wall system, interior walls, or walls of elevator,
Gravity load moments: stairway, mechanical shafts or cores.
In lieu of a more precise analysis, the moment Shear walls act as vertical cantilever beams that
coefficients given in the A23.3 for approximate frame transfer lateral forces from a superstructure to a
analysis can be used to calculate gravity load foundation. Most structures contain a number of
moments within the limitations noted in Clause 9.3. walls that resist lateral load in two orthogonal
Other moments: directions. The portion of the total lateral force that
each wall resists depends on the bending and shear
In this example, the wind load moments in the resistance of the wall, the participation of the floor,
beams can be taken from the computer output and the characteristics of the foundation. It is
shown in Fig. 2.6.19. In some cases, other common practice to assume that floors act as rigid
moments, such as those caused by differential elements for loads in the plane of the floor, and that
foundation settlement, could be significant and the deformations of the footings and soil can be
should be considered. neglected. For most structures, lateral load
The moment connection used in this example is distribution is based only on the properties of the
shown conceptually in Fig. 2.6.20. walls.

Fig. 2.7.1 Translation and rotation of rigid floors
overturning moment. Connecting units near the mid-
length of a wall will minimize the volume change
restraint forces.
Connection of rectangular wall units to form T or L
shaped walls increases their flexural rigidity, but has
little effect on shear rigidity. The effective flange width
that can be assumed for such walls is illustrated in
Fig. 2.7.2b.
In some structures it may be desirable to provide
shear connections between non-load bearing and
load bearing shear walls in order to increase the dead
load resistance to moments caused by lateral loads.
Erected load bearing walls may have both horizontal
and vertical joints across which forces must be
transferred. Fig. 2.7.2a indicates principal forces and
the resulting joint force system for three separate
cases. In buildings, superposition of forces and
various combinations of panel and joint assemblies
must be considered.
2.7.2 Rigidity of Solid Shear Walls

To determine the distribution of lateral loads, the
relative rigidity of all shear walls must be established.
Rigidity is defined as:

r =1 /
= sum of flexure and shear deflections
For structures with rectangular shear walls of the
same material, flexural deflections can be neglected
If the floor is considered to be a rigid body, it will when the wall height to length ratio is less than about
translate in a direction parallel to the applied load in 0.3. The rigidity of the element is then directly
proportion to the flexural and shear rigidity of the proportional to its web cross-sectional area. When
participating shear walls, see Fig. 2.7.1(a). If the the wall height to length ratio is greater than about
centre of rigidity is not coincident with the line of 3.0, shear deflections can be neglected, and the
action of the applied loads, the floor will rotate about rigidity is proportional to the moment of inertia (plan
the centre of rigidity, introducing additional forces, dimensions). When the height to length ratio is
see Fig. 2.7.1(b). The load on each shear wall is between 0.3 and 3.0, an equivalent moment of
determined by combining the effects produced by inertia, Ieq, can be derived for simplifying the
rigid body translation and rotation. calculation of wall rigidity. Ieq is an approximation of
the moment of inertia that will result in a flexural
A shear wall need not consist of a single element and deflection equal to the combined flexural and shear
can be composed of independent units such as deflections of the wall. Figure 2.7.3 compares the
double tees and sandwich or architectural precast deflections and Ieq for several load and restraint
wall panels. These units can be designed to act conditions.
individually or as interconnected units.
Interconnecting panels can result in a buildup of Connecting or coupling shear walls and large
volume change forces, so it is desirable to connect openings in walls will also affect stiffness, as
only as many units as necessary to resist the discussed in Sects. 2.7.5 and 2.7.6.

Fig. 2.7.2a Exterior forces and joint force systems
2.7.3 Lateral Load Distribution to Shear Fig. 2.7.2b Effective width of walls perpendicular
Walls to shear walls
Lateral loads are distributed to each shear wall in
proportion to their rigidity. It is usually considered
sufficient to design for lateral loads in two orthogonal
directions.
When the shear walls are symmetrical with respect to
the centre of load application, the force resisted by
any shear wall is:
r
Fi = i Fx
r
Note: The above flange width recommendations will normally be
satisfactory for single storey buildings or isolated walls but
Fi = force resisted by an individual shear wall may underestimate the effective flange width and resulting
shear wall rigidity in multi-storey buildings. Shear lag must
Fx = total shear at the level under consideration be considered in determining the effective flange width to be
used in these cases.
ri = the rigidity of wall i Example 2.11 Design of unsymmetrical shear
walls
r = sum of rigidities of all shear walls
Given:
2.7.4 Unsymmetrical Shear Walls The structure shown in Fig. 2.7.4. All walls are
2400 mm high and 200 mm thick.
Structures that have shear walls placed
Problem:
unsymmetrically to the centre of a lateral load should
Determine the shear in each wall, assuming the floors
be designed for the torsional effect. Typical examples
and roof are rigid diaphragms. Walls D and E are not
are shown in Fig. 2.7.4. For wind loading on most connected to wall B.
structures, a simplified method of determining
torsional resistance may be used in lieu of more Solution:
exact design. The method is similar to the design of Maximum height-to-length ratio of the north-south
walls = 2.4 / 9 < 0.3. Neglect flexural stiffness for
bolt groups in steel connections, and is illustrated in
distribution of the direct wind shear. Since walls are
the following example.
the same material and thickness, distribute in
proportion to their length.

Fig. 2.7.3 Shear wall deflections
Case Deflection due to: Equivalent moment of inertia, Ieq

Flexure Shear Single storey Multi-storey
2.78Ph I I
Ph3 8.34 A 13.4 A
A wE 1+ 1+
3EI A w h2 A w h2
(A w = At)
Wh3 1.39Wh I
8EI A wE 23.6I
1+
A w h2
W = wh W = wh
Note: For uniform distributed load on Cantilever (Case 2) W represents total load W = (w)(h).
Fig. 2.7.4 Unsymmetrical shear walls
Note: For tall structures, the shear centre should replace the centre of rigidity in determining the torsional effects.

Fig. 2.7.5 Coupled shear walls Fig. 2.7.6 Response to lateral loads
Total lateral load, W = (60)(3) = 180 kN (180)(9000) (1620)( 3000)(9000 103 )

Wall B = +
Determine centre of rigidity:
(33000) (6431000 106 )
(12000)(22000) + (9000)(42000) + (12000)(54000) = 49 6.8 = 42.2 kN
x=
12000 + 9000 + 12000 (180)(12000)
Wall C =
= 39000 mm from left (33000)
y = centre of building, since walls D and E are placed (1620)( 15000)(12000 103 )
+
symmetrically about the centre of the building in (6431000 106 )
the north-south direction
= 65.5 45.3 = 20.2 kN
Torsional moment:
TyA
T = (180)(39000 (60000/2))/103 Shear in the east-west walls =
Ip
= 1620 kN-m
Determine the polar moment of inertia of the shear (1620)(4500)(4500 103 )
=
wall group about the centre of rigidity: (6431000x106 )
Ip = Ixx + Iyy = 5.1kN
Ixx = Ay 2 of the east-west walls
2.7.5 Coupled Shear Walls
= (2)(4500)(4500)2 = 182,250 106 mm3
Figure 2.7.5 shows two examples of coupled shear
Iyy = A x 2 of the north-south walls walls. Coupling two walls increases the stiffness by
= (12,000)(39000 22000)2 transferring the shear through the coupling beam.
The wall curvatures are altered from that of a
+ (9000)(42000 39000)2
cantilever because of the frame action developed.
+ (12000)(54000 39000)2 Fig. 2.7.6 shows how the deflected shapes differ in
= 6249000 106 mm3 response to lateral loads.
Ip = 182250 + 6249000 Several approaches may be used to analyze the
= 6431000 10 mm 6 3 response of coupled shear walls. A simple approach
W A TxA is to ignore the coupling effect by considering the
Shear in the north-south walls = + walls as independent cantilevers. This method results
A Ip
in a conservative wall design. However, if the
(180)(12000) coupling beam is rigidly connected, significant shears
Wall A =
(33000) and moments will occur in the beam that may cause
unsightly and possibly dangerous cracking. To avoid
(1620)(39000 22000)(12000 103 )
+ the problem, the beam to panel connection can be
(6431000 106 ) detailed for little or no rigidity, or the beam can be
= 65.5 + 51.4 = 116.9 kN designed to resist the actual shears and moments.

Fig. 2.7.7 Computer models
A plane frame computer analysis will be sufficiently
precise for the majority of structures. The element
dimensions must be considered in modeling a
coupled shear wall as a frame, as a centreline
analysis may yield inaccurate results. A suggested
model is shown in Fig. 2.7.7(a).
Either finite element or frame analyses may be used
to determine the deflection of a coupled shear wall,
and its equivalent moment of inertia and the
distribution of shears in a building that contains both
solid and coupled shear walls. Some frame analysis
programs do not calculate shear deformations, so
shear deformations may have to be manually
calculated.
2.7.6 Shear Walls with Large Openings

Window panels and other wall panels with large
openings may also be analyzed with plane frame
computer programs. Fig. 2.7.7(b) shows suggested
models. An analysis similar to that described for
coupled shear walls may be used.
As with coupled shear walls, deflections predicted by
the computer analysis may be used to determine
equivalent stiffness for determining lateral load
distribution. Shear deflections may have to be hand
calculated and added to the flexural stiffnesses from
the frame analysis.
In tall structures, a more rigorous analysis may be
required, as vertical shear and axial deformations
influence the rigidity of panels with large openings.
Example 2.12 One Storey Building
Given:
Design the shear walls for a one-storey industrial
building, illustrated in Fig. 2.7.8. 2400 mm wide
double tees are used for both the roof and walls. Use
a wind load of 1.2 kN/m2. Backfill density = 16 kN/m3.
Problem:
Analyze the structure for the effects of wind loads.
Solution:
1. Calculate forces, reactions, shears and moments:
Total wind force to roof:
Finite element analysis may be used to determine the W = (1.2)(48)(5.4/2 + 0.75) = 200 kN
stiffness and the distribution of stresses within a
VL = VR = 100 kN
coupled shear wall. As the accuracy and cost of such
an analysis is a function of the element size used, W A (200)(48)
Diaphragm moment, M = =
this method is usually reserved for complex 8 8
structures. = 1200 kN-m

Fig. 2.7.8 Example of one-storey building Fig. 2.7.9 Connection of roof tee to wall
2. Check the sliding resistance of the shear wall:

Determine dead load on the footing:
DT wall: (7.05)(36)(1.9) = 482 kN
Footing: (0.3)(0.45)(36)(24) = 117 kN
Backfill: (0.9)(0.40)(36)(16) = 207 kN
Total = 806 kN
Assume a coefficient of friction against granular soil:
s = 0.5
Sliding resistance = s N= (0.5)(806)
= 403 kN
Factor of safety = 403 / 100 = 4.0 Note: Sometimes a more conservative assumption of
OK an axis at d/5, d/4 or d/3 from the leeward edge may
be used depending on the foundation conditions.
Note: A factor of 2.0 is specified by many building
Resisting moment = (806)(36/2)
codes.
= 14508 kN-m
3. Check overturning resistance:
Factor of safety = 14508 / 660
Applied overturning moment = (100)(1.2 + 5.4)
= 22.0 > 2.0 OK
= 660 kN-m 4. Analyze connections:
Resistance to overturning:
a) Shear ties in the double tee roof joint:
Assume an axis of rotation at the leeward edge of the
Maximum load at the next to last joint
building.

Fig. 2.7.10 Chord forces Reinforcing bars can be placed in the flanges to resist
higher forces or where more ductility is required.
Design procedures are discussed in Sect. 2.8.
d) Wall panel connections:
This shear wall can be designed to act as a
series of independent units, without ties between
the panels. The shear force is assumed to be -
distributed equally among the wall panels, see
Fig. 2.7.11.
n = 36000/2400 = 15 panels
Vi = VR /n = 100/15 = 6.67 kN
D = (1.9 kN/m2)(2400)(7050) 106
= 32.1 kN
Design base connection for 1.4W 0.9D
Tf = [(1.4)(6.67)(6300) (0.9)(32.1)(600)] / 1200
= 34.6 kN tension
Applied shear = [(24 2.4) / 24](100)
Alternatively, the shear wall can be designed with 2
= 90 kN or more panels connected together as illustrated in
Wind Load factor = 1.4 Fig. 2.7.12.
Vf = (90)(1.4) = 126 kN Shear ties between panels:
Vf = 126 / 36 = 3.5 kN/m
v = VR / d = 100 / 36 = 2.78 kN/m
Use ties as shown in Fig. 2.5.2. The unit shear stress, vf, is equal on all sides of the
A preferred maximum connection spacing is panel:
2500 mm to 3000 mm.
Vf = (2.78)(1.4) = 3.9 kN/m
b) Shear ties at the shear walls:
The total connection force between vertical panel
Vf = (100)(1.4) = 140 kN joints = 3.9(6.3) = 24.6 kN (can be designed using a
Vf = 140 / 36 = 3.9 kN/m single mid-height connection).
A connection as shown in Fig. 2.7.9 is designed Check for tension using factored loads:
similar to the shear tie between double tees.
The required load factor equation to use for this
At least two connections per panel are recommended condition is 0.9D 1.4W.
to distribute the load to the wall panels. From Fig.
2.7.9(a), these connections should occur at the tee The tensile force per unit length is:
stems. A spacing of 1200 mm will be used in this P M
ft =
case. A S
S = l 2/ 6 = 362 / 6 = 216 mm2
Other types of connections using short welded
headed studs are commonly used for this application. A = l = 36 m
In some cases, it may be desirable to provide a M = VRhs = (100)(6.3) = 630 kN-m
connection that permits vertical movement of the roof P = D.L. of wall = 482 kN
element, see Fig. 2.7.9(b). 0.9P 1.4M
ft =
c) Chord force, see Fig. 2.7.10: A S
T = C = M / d = 1200 / 36000 103 (0.9)(482) (1.4)(630)
=
36 216
= 33.3 kN
Tf = (1.4)(33.3) = 46.6 kN = 8.0 kN / m (compression)
This force can be transmitted between elements by No tension connections are required for wind loads.
ties at the roof tees, wall panels or a combination, as Minimum tension connections are required for
illustrated in Fig. 2.7.10. structural integrity, see A23.3, Clause 16.5.

Fig. 2.7.11 Panels acting as individual units in a Fig. 2.7.12 Panels connected together as a
shear wall monolithic shear wall
Solution: Wind in north-south direction:

This example will conservatively neglect the
resistance provided by the stairs, elevator and
longitudinal walls for wind in the north-south direction.
As shown in Fig. 2.7.13, flanged walls are modeled
for wind in the north-south direction. Fig. 2.7.14
shows the wind resisting elements and a summary of
their properties is shown in Fig. 2.7.15.
Example 2.13 Four storey building Sample calculation of these properties for Element f:
Given: 0.25h = 0.25(10200)
A typical four-storey residential building as shown in = 2550 (Does not control)
Fig. 2.7.13. 200 mm deep hollow core units are used The section properties of this T section are:
for the floors and roof, and 200 mm thick precast
concrete walls are used for all walls shown. Aw = (8200)(200) = 1640 103 mm2
Unfactored loads are given as follows: Af = (2080)(200) = 416 103 mm2
Gravity loads: L.L. D.L. (1640000)(4000) + (416000)(8100)
yb =
Roof: 1.44 1640000 + 416000
Roofing, mechanical, etc. 0.48 = 4910 mm
Hollow core slabs 3.06 yt = 8200 4910 = 3290 mm
3.54 kN/m2
Typical floor:
Living areas 1.92
Corridors & stairs 4.80
Partitions 0.48
Hollow-core slabs 3.06
3.54 kN/m2
Walls: 4.8 kN/m2
Stairs: 4.8 6.2 kN/m2
Wind loads: (200)(8200)3
I = + (1640000)(4100 4910)2
0 to 9 m above grade 1.2 kN/m2 12
9 m to 10.4 m above grade 1.4 kN/m2 +(416000)(8100 4910)2
Problem: = 14500 109 mm4

Analyze and design the structure for wind in the The equivalent stiffness is calculated using the Case
north-south and east-west directions. 1 multi-storey formula from Fig. 2.7.3:

I M = 253 kN-m
Ieq =
13.4 I 0.9P 1.4M
1+ f = 2
A w h2 A (A / 6)
14500 109 (0.9)(1410) (1.4)(253)
= 9
=
(13.4)(14500 10 ) 8.1 (8.12 / 6)
1+
(1640 103 )(2600)2 = +124 kN / m (compression)
9 4
= 780 10 mm The building is stable under wind loads in north-south
Ieq is the relative stiffness: direction. No tension connections are required
Kr = 1 / between panels and the foundation. Other design
Ph3 considerations may dictate the use of minimum
= vertical ties [6] and A23.3, Clause 16.5.
3EIeq
Wind in the east-west direction:
3EIeq
Kr = For wind in the east-west direction, the shear walls
Ph3 will be connected to the load bearing walls. The
Since 3, E, P, and h are all constants when assumed resisting elements are shown in Fig. 2.7.17
comparing stiffnesses, Kr varies directly with Ieq. and a summary of the properties is shown in Fig.
2.7.19.
Distribution of wind load to Element f, based on its
relative stiffness, is (Fig. 2.7.15): The shears and moments in the east-west direction
are shown in Fig. 2.7.20, and the distributions are
I (780)(100) shown in Fig. 2.7.18.
= = 5.5%
nIeq 14130
Consider Element B at the first floor to check
Fig. 2.7.16 shows the load summary for wall Element overturning due to wind in the east-west direction.
f for gravity and transverse wind loading. Note: 5.5% From Fig. 2.7.16, the dead loads on the 1040 mm
of the total wind load has been assumed to be carried long portion of Element B:
by this element. Concentrated loads from the corridor = 31.9 + (3)(43.6) + 11.7 = 174 kN/m
lintels can be assumed to be distributed as shown in
The dead load on the 2400 mm long portion of
this figure. These loads have been conservatively
Element B is the weight of the wall:
neglected to simplify the calculations.
= (10.4)(4.8) = 50 kN/m
Check the overturning of the shear wall dead load
resisting moment about the toe of the wall: The dead load resisting moment for 11 elements is
(8.1) therefore:
= (8.1) [31.9 + (3)(43.6) + 11.7]
2 M = (11) [(174)(1.04)(1.2) + (50)(2.4)(1.2)]
= 5720 kN - m = 3970 kN-m
Factor of safety: The factor of safety against overturning can be
dead load resisting moment calculated conservatively neglecting the contribution
=
wind moment of the other elements:
5720 3970
= = 22.6 > 2.0 OK Factor of safety = = 3.1 > 2.0 OK
253 1267
Check for tension using factored loads: To check for tension, also consider Element B:
Dead load on wall: Total dead load on wall:

P = (8.1) [31.9 + (3)(43.6) + (11.7)] P = (174)(1.04) + (50)(2.4) = 301 kN
= 1410 kN Total wall area:
Maximum wind moment at foundation: A = (2400 + 1040)(200) = 688,000 mm2

Fig. 2.7.13 Four-storey building example

Fig. 2.7.14 Wind resisting elements for north-south wind
Note: For tall structures it is inaccurate to consider wall elements 1, 2 & 3 and 4 & 5 individually as shown above. Consideration of shear lag
is necessary to determine to what extent these elements interact as a composite wall element.
The wind moment carried by Element B (Fig. Connections similar to those shown in Fig. 2.7.13
2.7.19): can be designed using the principles outlined in
Chap. 4.
M = 51.9 kN-m The factored stress is:
0.9P 1.4M Design of floor diaphragm:
f =
A S Analysis procedures for the floor diaphragm are
3
(0.9)(301 10 ) (1.4)(51.9 10 ) 6 described in Sect. 2.5. For this example, refer to Fig.
= 2.7.21.
688000 (230 109 /1200)
= 0.015 MPa (compression) The factored wind load for a typical floor is:
wf = (1.4)(1.2)(2.6) = 4.37 kN/m
The building is stable under wind loads in the east- For wind from the north or south:
west direction. No tension connections are required (4.37)(9)
between wall and the foundation. Other design VfR = = 20 kN
2
considerations may dictate the use of minimum
vertical ties. See A23.3, Clause 16.5 M (4.37)(9)2
Cf = Tf = f = = 2.6 kN
A (8)(17.0)
The connections required for the elements to act in a The reaction V is transferred to the shear wall by
composite manner can be designed by considering static friction:
Element A. The unit stress at the interface is
determined using the classic equation for horizontal DL of floor: (9/2)(18)(3.54) = 287 kN
shear: DL of wall: (2.4)(16.2)(4.8) / 2 = 93 kN
VQ Total = 380 kN
vh =
I Static coefficient of friction from Fig. 4.4.1 (bearing
Q = (1040)(200)(1400 956 100) strip to concrete) = 0.4. Reduce by factor of 5 as
recommended in Chapter 4.
= 71.6 106 mm3
(5.4)(71.6) = 0.4 / 5 = 0.08
vh = = 3.8 kN / m
101 Resisting force = (0.08)(380)
Total shear = (3.8)(2.4) = 9.1 kN/level = 30.4 > 20 kN OK

Fig. 2.7.15 Properties of resisting elements for wind in transverse north-south direction
Aw I Ieq No. of n Ieq Ieq
Element (100%)
(mm2 103) (mm 109)
4 4 9
(mm 10 ) elements (mm4 109) nIeq
1660 16355 800 2 1600 5.7
900 3442 400 2 800 2.8
1780 15956 850 2 1700 6.0
1640 14500 780 12 9360 5.5
1520 5321 670 1 670 4.7
n Ieq = 14130

Fig. 2.7.16 Loading on wall Element f
Summary of gravity loads

2
Load Tributary Unit loads (kN/m ) Wall weight Total unfactored load
mark area L.L. D.L. (kN/m) L.L. D.L. T.L.
PR 8.1 m2 1.44 3.54 11.7 kN 28.7 kN 40.4 kN
P4 8.1 m 4.80 3.06 38.9 kN 24.8 kN 63.7 kN
P3 8.1 m 4.80 3.06 38.9 kN 24.8 kN 63.7 kN
P2 8.1 m 4.80 3.06 38.9 kN 24.8 kN 63.7 kN
WR 9.0 m 1.44 3.54 13.0 kN/m 31.9 kN/m 44.9 kN/m
W4 9.0 m 0.77* 3.54 11.7 7.0 kN/m 43.6 kN/m 50.6 kN/m
W3 9.0 m 0.77* 3.54 11.7 7.0 kN/m 43.6 kN/m 50.6 kN/m
W2 9.0 m 0.77* 3.54 11.7 7.0 kN/m 43.6 kN/m 50.6 kN/m
W1 N/A 11.7 0 11.7 kN/m 11.7 kN/m
*Includes live load reduction allowed by codes

Fig. 2.7.17 Wind resisting elements for east-west wind
Note: For tall structures it is inaccurate to consider wall elements C & D and E, F & G individually as shown above. Consideration of shear
lag is necessary to determine to what extent these elements interact as a composite wall element.
Fig. 2.7.18 Distribution of wind shears and moments in longitudinal east-west direction
4th floor 3rd floor 2nd floor 1st floor
Element Dist. (%) Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
(kN) (kN-m) (kN) (kN-m) (kN) (kN-m) (kN) (kN-m)
64 87 122 330 180 723 283 1267
A 1.90 1.2 1.7 2.3 6.3 3.4 13.7 5.4 24.1
B 4.10 2.6 3.6 5.0 13.5 7.4 29.6 11.6 51.9
C 7.06 4.5 6.1 8.6 23.3 12.7 51.0 20.0 89.5
D 7.41 4.7 6.5 9.0 24.5 13.3 53.5 21.0 94.0
E 4.07 2.6 3.5 5.0 13.4 7.3 29.4 11.5 51.6
F 6.96 4.5 6.0 8.5 23.0 12.5 50.3 19.7 88.2
G 7.27 4.7 6.3 8.9 24.0 13.1 52.6 20.6 92.1
Note: The relative stiffness and percent distribution for the elements in this table are assumed the same for all stories. The exact values
may be slightly different for each storey because the values change due to the reduced flange width (see Fig. 2.7.2.b).
Although the friction force is adequate to resist the The shear resistance of the grout key (see Sect.
applied shear force, A23.3 Clause 16.5.3.7 requires 2.5.1.1) is:
additional connections to effectively tie the elements Vr = 0.3 A = (0.3)(9000/2)(75) / 103
together for ductility and structural integrity. It is
= 101 kN > 2.6kN OK
common to use the vertical wall/wall reinforcement
as both a vertical tie and a horizontal shear For wind from the east or west Fig. 2.7.21(b):
connection. (4.37)(18.4)
VfR = = 40 kN
2
The chord tension Tf is resisted by the steel
(4.37)(18.4)2
reinforcement in the floor slab. The grout key Cf = Tf = = 2.9 kN
(8)(62.8)
between slabs must also resist the corresponding
horizontal shear: Shear resistance of a grout joint:
A23.3, Clause 16.5.3.5 requires tension ties around Grout key= 75 mm deep
the perimeter with a factored tensile resistance of Vr = (0.3)(62800)(75) / 103
not less than 60 kN, that is greater than the = 1410 kN > 40 OK
diaphragm tension of 2.8 kN:
Only the resistance to wind loading has been
Required As = 60 x 103 / 0.85(400) = 176 mm2 analyzed in this example. Other required loadings,
including abnormal loads, must be reviewed for a
Use a 15M bar, As = 200 mm2 complete analysis.

Fig. 2.7.19 Properties of resisting elements for wind in longitudinal east-west direction
Ieq
Aw I yb Ieq No. of n Ieq y Ieq (y)
Element 2 3 4 9 4 9 4 9 nIeq
(mm 10 ) (mm 10 ) (mm) (mm 10 ) elem. (mm 10 ) (mm10 )
3 5
(mm 10 )
9
(100%)
280 101 956 54.5 4 218 1.90 37.4 2038
480 230 1200 118 11 1298 4.10 93.5 11,033
520 892 1300 203 2 406 7.06 20.7 4202
520 1137 1082 213 2 426 7.41 12.4 2641
480 231 1200 117 1 117 4.07 18.4 2153
520 851 810 200 1 200 6.96 16.2 3240
520 1022 1184 209 1 209 7.27 14.8 3093
nIeq = =
2874 28,400
Note:
1. Centre of rigidity = 28,400 / 2874 = 9.88 m
2. The east-west wind load is slightly eccentric by 9.8 18.4 / 2 = 0.68 m
3. Torsion due to this eccentricity is neglected in calculating shears and moments in Fig. 2.7.20

Fig. 2.7.20 Wind load in east-west direction Fig. 2.7.22 Foundation reaction distributions
resulting from lateral loads
Fig. 2.7.21 Diaphragm analysis
Fig. 2.7.23 Influence of shear lag on tube

behaviour

2.7.7 Architectural Panels as Shear Walls seismic design of structures is commonly called
capacity design. The nonlinear response of a one-
It is beneficial in many structures to take advantage
storey precast building subject to earthquake
of the inherent strength and rigidity of exterior panels,
excitation is discussed in Reference [10].
and design them as the lateral load resisting system.
The detailing for seismic forces must still be provided
Figure 2.7.22 illustrates the foundation reaction even when the factored wind forces exceed the
distributions of exterior architectural precast shear factored seismic forces as the actual seismic forces
wall systems under the action of lateral load, with and during an earthquake are expected to exceed the
without connections between the shear walls and the factored seismic forces calculated according to the
windward or leeward walls. A structure with corner Code.
connections is structurally more efficient for resisting
lateral loads. Load tests of prestressed concrete elements have
shown that large deflections occur as the design
The lateral load resisting system shown in Figure
strength is approached. Cyclic load tests have shown
2.7.22(b) is frequently labeled a tube. Full tube
that prestressed concrete beams can undergo
behavior does not develop because the components
several cycles of load reversals and still maintain
and the connections are not perfectly rigid. Figure
their original strength. This sort of ductile behaviour is
2.7.23 illustrates the difference. The peaking of the
exactly what is needed for the elements that are
foundation reaction at the corner results from shear
expected to be damaged during an earthquake.
lag that limits the effective width of the flange.
Accurate evaluation of shear lag is difficult, but the Prestressed concrete structures can be designed to
effective flange width for most structures should not withstand the effects of earthquakes in accordance
be assumed to extend farther from the face of the with the requirements of building codes. For some
web than: types of buildings, box-type structures offer an
1. One-half of the clear distance to an adjacent economical solution. In other cases, ductile moment-
shear wall web, or resisting frames can be used. The following
2. 25% of the wall height above the section under discussion deals mainly with the design of critical
consideration. connections and components to provide adequate
resistance to seismic forces, and the design
2.8 EARTHQUAKE DESIGN AND procedures necessary to ensure that the complete
ANALYSIS structure will behave as intended during an
2.8.1 General earthquake.
Earthquakes generate horizontal and vertical ground
There is a very significant difference between the
movement. When an earthquake passes beneath a
design for earthquake forces and the design for
structure, the foundation will tend to move with the
gravity or wind forces. The seismic forces that are
ground, while the superstructure will tend to remain in
expected due to a design earthquake are much larger
its original position. The lag between foundation and
than the factored seismic design forces given in the
superstructure movement will cause distortions and
building code. As a result, it is expected that a
develop forces in the structure. These distortions and
structure will suffer damage during a design
forces can best be investigated using non-linear
earthquake. To protect life and property, it is
dynamic analysis taking into account the properties of
important that this damage not cause collapse. This
the soil, the intensity and duration of the ground
is accomplished by designing the structure to be able
shaking and the physical properties of the structure.
to deform in the nonlinear range without failing.
A linear or elastic dynamic analysis can be used to
Capacity design predict the response to moderate earthquakes and
can also provide an insight into which elements are
The approach normally taken is to identify certain
likely to yield and what the maximum deflection is
elements within the structure where the damage will
likely to be in a more severe earthquake. Important
be concentrated rather than design the complete
structural properties include mass, stiffness, strength
structure to be able to deform in the inelastic range.
and ductility, and their distribution throughout the
These elements are provided with special seismic structure. In lieu of dynamic analysis, building codes
detailing to ensure adequate ductility. The remaining present formulae for equivalent static forces and
elements are made strong enough so that they will force distributions which can, if the underlying
remain elastic. The capacity of the ductile (damage assumptions are understood and respected, be used
limiting) elements limits the seismic force demands to design acceptable structures in the majority of
that will be applied on a structure. This approach to cases.

The current philosophy for the design of earthquake- resistance, and (2) the higher axial stresses and
resistant structures permits minor damage for resultant deformations in the exterior columns provide
moderate earthquakes, and accepts major damage significant energy absorption.
for severe earthquakes, provided collapse is An architectural precast concrete facade can be used
prevented and occupants can leave the building to provide the earthquake resistant structural
without serious injury. Large non-linear or inelastic elements. This can be in the form of either shear
deformations may be expected in some connections walls or spandrel beams and closely spaced columns
and other elements as a result of the earthquake (mullions) that simultaneously provide the exterior
induced forces. In precast structures, these are skin and the structural tube. It is also often possible to
accommodated by providing ductility in these create a structure that is symmetric in plan. The
elements and connections. While this ductility limits energy dissipation characteristics of precast walls will
the earthquake forces in the building and prevents depend to a great extent upon the behaviour of the
total collapse, the resultant distortions will usually connections. In addition, precast walls with large
lead to significant damage to connections and other openings can behave similar to a beam-column
structural elements that yield and may also result in system. However, unless comprehensive test data is
damage to non-structural elements and mechanical available, precast wall type structures should be
and electrical systems. treated as specified by codes for shear wall
Buildings may be designed as either flexible or rigid. structures.
Flexible structures will develop large deflections and The PRESSS (Precast Seismic Structural Systems)
small inertial forces; conversely, rigid structures will program has researched systems that take
develop large inertial forces but small deflections. advantage of the jointed nature of precast concrete,
Either type may be designed to be safe against total including the testing of a five storey 60% scale
collapse. However, experience demonstrates that a building. [20] This test structure used precast frames
rigid structure, properly designed to account for the with several different ductile joints in one direction,
large inertia forces, will incur significantly less and precast concrete shear walls in the other
damage to architectural, mechanical, and electrical direction. In 2002, a 39 storey building using a hybrid
elements. frame system was completed in San Francisco. [3]
To limit the damage to non-structural or architectural Further research and codification of precast seismic
elements in a flexible building, these elements may resisting systems is ongoing.
be uncoupled from the structural system so that they 2.8.2 Building Code Requirements
are not forced to undergo as much deformation as
the supporting structure. This requires connections The previous edition of the CPCI Design Manual,
between individual elements and the supporting Third Edition, was based on the requirements of the
structure be designed to withstand large distortions 1995 National Building Code of Canada (NBCC). This
without fracture. As explained above, damage can Fourth Edition is based on the 2005 NBCC. [7] The
also be reduced by building a more rigid building to seismic design provisions in the 2005 NBCC are very
minimize the deformations imposed on the different than the provisions in the 1995 NBCC.
architectural elements. This will require a stronger Some of the major changes are:
structure to reduce the amount of yielding and
consequent inelastic deformation that occurs. In most 1. revised seismicity maps.
buildings, non-structural architectural wall panels 2. specification of response spectrum values on a
should be uncoupled from the lateral force resisting city-by-city basis rather than zonal basis.
structure.
3. revised formula for calculating base shear.
Since ground motion is random in direction, a 4. revised methods to accommodate higher mode
structure that is shaped to be equally resistant in any effects for static analysis.
direction is the optimum solution. Experience has
shown that structures that are symmetric in plan, with 5. response spectrum method is now the base
minimum torsional eccentricity, behave better in method of analysis.
earthquakes than structures that are unsymmetric 6. revised foundation factors.
and have their centres of mass and rigidity well
separated. Closed sections (i.e., boxes or tubes) 7. the design earthquake has been changed to the
have demonstrated markedly improved behaviour event that has a probability of exceedance of 2%
when compared with open sections, because: (1) in 50 years.
closed sections provide a high degree of torsional 8. a new force reduction factor for overstrength.

9. new limits and restrictions on systems. to make an irregular SFRS regular or to reduce
the effects of torsion, and
10. introduction of maximum force cutoff values to
account for the reduction in response due to (c) in the design of the SFRS when inclusion of the
foundation rocking. elements not part of the SFRS in the analysis
11. introduction of minimum force values at long has an adverse effect on the SFRS.
periods. Structural modeling must be representative of the
12. revised drift limits in buildings. magnitude and spatial distribution of the mass of the
building and stiffness of all elements of the SFRS,
13. introduction of categories of building which includes stiff elements that are connected to
irregularities with special requirements/limits for the SFRS, and must account for:
certain cases.
(a) the effect of cracked sections in reinforced
14. restrictions on type of lateral force resisting concrete,
systems for post-disaster buildings.
(b) the effect of the finite size of members and joints,
Further information can be found in Reference [21].
(c) sway effects arising from the interaction of gravity
loads with the displaced configuration of the
2.8.3 2005 NBCC Requirements structure, and
General requirements (d) other effects which influence the buildings lateral
stiffness.
The deflections and specified loading due to
earthquake motions must be determined as given Methods of analysis
below unless the design spectral acceleration value The 2005 NBCC requires that analysis for design
S(0.2) is less than or equal to 0.12 in which case the earthquake actions be carried out using the Dynamic
effects of earthquakes need not be considered. Analysis Procedure except that the Equivalent Static
Structures must be designed with a clearly defined Force Procedure may be used for structures that
load path, or paths, to transfer the inertial forces meet any of the following criteria:
generated in an earthquake to the supporting ground. (a) Located in a region of low seismicity, specifically
The structure must have a clearly defined Seismic IEFaSa(0.2) < 0.35.
Force Resisting System(s) (SFRS). The SFRS must
be designed to resist 100% of the earthquake loads (b) A regular structure that is less than 60 m high
and their effects. and has a fundamental lateral period, Ta, less
than 2 seconds in each of two orthogonal
All structural framing elements not considered to be directions. Note that regular means not irregular,
part of the SFRS must be investigated and shown to as defined below.
behave elastically, or have sufficient nonlinear
capacity to support their gravity loads while (c) An irregular structure of Type 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 8
undergoing earthquake induced deformations (see Table 2.8.5) that is less than 20 m high and
calculated from the deflections. has a fundamental lateral period, Ta, less than
0.5 seconds in each of two orthogonal
Stiff elements, not considered part of the SFRS, such directions.
as architectural precast walls or panels, must be
connected to the structural elements of a building Dynamic analysis procedures
such that undesirable interactions are avoided when The Dynamic Analysis Procedure shall be in
the building deflects due to earthquake effects. accordance with one of the following methods:
Stiffness imparted to the structure from elements not (a) Linear Dynamic Analysis by either the Modal
part of the SFRS must not be used to resist Response Spectrum Method or the Numerical
earthquake deflections but must be accounted for: Integration Linear Time History Method using a
(a) in calculating the period of the structure for structural model as described above in the
determining forces if the added stiffness general requirements or,
decreases the fundamental lateral period by (b) Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis Method, in which
more than 15%, case a special study shall be performed.
(b) in determining the irregularity of the structure, The spectral acceleration values used in the Modal
except the additional stiffness must not be used Response Spectrum Method shall be the design

spectral acceleration values S(T). The effects of used in Tables 2.8.2 and 2.8.3 shall conform to Table
accidental torsional moments acting concurrently with 2.8.1 and shall be determined using V s . Where the
and due to the lateral earthquake forces shall be average shear wave velocity, V s , is not known, the
accounted for using either a static approach or a 3- Site Class shall be determined from energy corrected
dimensional dynamic analysis. Average Standard Penetration Resistance, N60 , or
If the base shear Vd is less than 80% of the lateral from soil average undrained shear strength, su, as
earthquake design force, V, Vd shall be taken as noted in Table 2.8.1. N60 and su, shall be calculated
0.8V. For irregular structures requiring dynamic based on rational analysis.
analysis, Vd shall be taken as the larger of the Vd or The fundamental lateral period Ta in the direction
V. under consideration shall be determined as:
The value of elastic storey shears, storey forces, a) For moment-resisting frames that resist 100% of
member forces, and deflections obtained from the the required lateral forces and the frame is no
Linear Dynamic Analysis shall be multiplied by Vd /Ve enclosed by or adjoined by more rigid elements
to determine the design values, where Vd is the base that would tend to prevent the frame from
shear. For the purpose of calculating deflections it is resisting lateral forces, and where hn is in
permitted to use V determined from Ta defined to metres:
obtain Vd. i) 0.085 (hn)3/4 for steel moment frames
See the 2005 NBCC for further information on the ii) 0.075 (hn)3/4 for concrete moment frames
dynamic method of analysis. iii) 0.1 N for other moment frames
Equivalent static force procedure b) 0.025 hn for braced frames where hn is in
metres,
The minimum lateral earthquake force, V, shall be
calculated in accordance with the following formula: c) 0.05 (hn)3/4 for shear wall and other structures
V = S(Ta)MvIEW/(RdRo) where hn is in metres, or
except that V shall not be taken less than: d) Other established methods of mechanics using a
structural model as defined in the general
S(2.0)MvIEW/(RdRo) requirements, except Ta shall not be taken
and for an SFRS with an Rd equal to or greater than greater than:
1.5, V need not be taken greater than: i) for moment resisting frames, Ta shall not be
S(0.2)IEW/(RdRo). taken greater than 1.5 times that in (a)
The design spectral acceleration values of S(T) shall ii) for braced frames, Ta shall not be taken
be determined as follows using linear interpolation for greater than 2.0 times that in (b)
intermediate values of T:
iii) for shear wall structures, Ta shall not be
S(T) = FaSa(0.2) for T < 0.2 s greater than 2.0 times that in (c)
= FvSa(0.5) or FaSa(0.2) whichever is e) For the purpose of calculating the deflections,
smaller for T = 0.5 s the period from (d) without the upper limit may
be used.
= FvSa(1.0) for T = 1.0 s
= FvSa(2.0) for T = 2.0 s The higher mode factor Mv is given in Table 2.8.7.
For values of Mv between fundamental lateral
= FvSa(2.0)/2 for T 4.0 s periods, Ta, of 1.0 and 2.0 s, the product S(Ta)MV
The 5% damped spectral response acceleration shall be obtained by linear interpolation.
values Sa(T) for the reference ground conditions (Site The earthquake importance factor IE is given in
Class C in Table 2.8.1) for periods T of 0.2 s, 0.5 s, Table 2.8.4.
1.0 s, and 2.0 s, are determined in accordance with
Section 1.1.3 of the 2005 NBCC and are based on a The weight W of the building shall be calculated in
2% probability of exceedance in 50 years. accordance with the following formula:
n
Acceleration and velocity based site coefficients W = Wi
Fa and Fv shall conform to Tables 2.8.2 and 2.8.3 i=1
using linear interpolation for intermediate values of The ductility related force modification factor Rd and
Sa(0.2) and Sa(1.0). The site classifications for soils overstrength related modification factor Ro are given

in Table 2.8.6 along with the corresponding system a) Torsional moments introduced by eccentricity
restrictions, where: between the centres of mass and resistance and
their dynamic amplification.
a) NP in the table means not permitted,
b) Torsional moments due to accidental
b) Numbers in the table are maximum height limits
eccentricities.
in metres,
Torsional sensitivity shall be determined by
c) NL in the table means system is permitted and
calculating the ratio Bx for each Level x according to
not limited in height as an SFRS.
the following equation for each orthogonal direction
For combinations of different types of SFRS acting in determined independently:
the same direction in the same storey, RdRo shall be Bx = max/ave
taken as the lowest value of RdRo corresponding to
max = the maximum storey displacement at the
these systems. For vertical variations of RdRo, extreme points of the structure at Level x in
excluding penthouses whose weight is less than 10% the direction of the earthquake induced by
of the level below, the value of RdRo used in the the equivalent static forces acting at
design of any storey shall be less than or equal to the distances 0.10Dnx from the centres of
lowest value of RdRo used in the given direction for mass at each floor
the stories above. ave = the average of the displacements at the
extreme points of the structure at level x
If it can be demonstrated through testing, research
produced by the above forces
and analysis that the seismic performance of a
structural system is at least equivalent to one of the B = the maximum of all values of Bx, in both
orthogonal directions except that the Bx for
standard SFRS given in the 2005 NBCC, then such a
one storey penthouses with a weight less
structural system will qualify for the values of Rd and than 10% of the level below need not be
Ro given for that system. considered
The total lateral seismic force, V, shall be distributed Torsional effects shall be accounted for as follows:
such that a portion, Ft, shall be assumed to be
a) For a building with B 1.7 by applying torsional
concentrated at the top of the building, where Ft is moments about a vertical axis at each level
equal to 0.07 TaV but need not exceed 0.25 V and throughout the building derived for each of the
may be considered as zero where Ta does not following load cases considered separately:
exceed 0.7 s; the remainder, V - Ft shall be
i) Tx = Fx(ex + 0.1Dnx)
distributed along the height of the building, including
the top level, in accordance with the formula: ii) Tx = Fx(ex - 0.1Dnx)
n
Fx = (V Ft )Wx hx /( Wihi ) Fx is the lateral force at each level and where
i=1 each element in the building is designed for the
The structure shall be designed to resist overturning most severe effect of the above load cases.
effects caused by the earthquake forces. The b) For a building with B > 1.7, for cases where
overturning moment at Level x, Mx, shall be IEFaSa(0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.35, by a
determined from the following equation: dynamic analysis procedure.
n
Mx = Jx Fi (hi hx ) Direction of loading
i= x Earthquake forces shall be assumed to act in any
Jx = 1.0 for hx 0.6hn horizontal direction, except that the following shall be
considered to provide adequate design force levels in
Jx = J + (1 - J)(hx / 0.6hn)for hx < 0.6hn
the structure:
The base overturning moment reduction factor J is a) Where components of the SFRS are oriented
given in Table 2.8.7. Values of J between along a set of orthogonal axes, independent
fundamental lateral periods, Ta, of 0.5 and 2.0 s shall analyses about each of the principal axes of the
be obtained by linear interpolation. structure shall be performed.
Torsional effects concurrent with the effects of the b) Where the components of the SFRS are not
forces and due to the following shall be considered in oriented along a set of orthogonal axes and
the design of the structure: IEFaSa(0.2) is less than 0.35, independent

analyses about any two orthogonal axes is Buildings with non-rigid or energy dissipating
permitted, or connections require special studies.
c) When the components of the SFRS are not Additional design provisions
oriented along a set of orthogonal axes and
IEFaSa(0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.35, Diaphragms and their connections shall be designed
analysis of the structure independently in any so as not to yield, and the design shall account for
two orthogonal directions for 100% of the the shape of the diaphragm, including openings, and
prescribed earthquake loads applied in one for the forces generated in the diaphragm due to the
direction plus 30% of the prescribed earthquake governing force load cases to ensure the diaphragm
loads in the perpendicular direction with the is not the weak link. See NBCC Appendix A. The
combination requiring the greater element design force in the diaphragm is limited to the load
strength being used in the design. capacity of the SFRS in addition to any applied forces
from other transferring SFRS elements above the
System restrictions diaphragm, or the design-based shear divided by the
Refer to Table 2.8.5 for Structural Irregularity types total number of storeys above grade. Regardless of
and definitions. Structures with a Discontinuity in wall strength, diaphragms need not be designed for
Capacity - Weak Storey (Type 6) are not permitted forces exceeding an Rd=1.5 elastic structure since
unless IEFaSa(0.2) is less than 0.2 and the forces many buildings have large overstrength in walls that
used for design of the SFRS are multiplied by RdRo. would require unrealistically large diaphragm forces.
Post-disaster buildings shall not have any irregularity For cases where IEFaSa(0.2) is equal to or greater
Type 1, 3, 4, 5 and 7 for cases where IEFaSa(0.2) is than 0.35, the elements supporting any discontinuous
equal to or greater than 0.35, shall not have an wall, column or braced frame, shall be designed for
irregularity Type 6, and shall have an SFRS with a Rd the lateral load capacity of the components of the
of 2.0 or greater. SFRS they support.
For buildings having fundamental lateral periods, Ta Where structures have vertical variations of RdRo, the
of 1.0 s or greater and where IEFvSa(1.0) is greater elements of the SFRS below the level where the
than 0.25, walls forming part of the SFRS shall be change in RdRo occurs shall be designed for the
continuous from their top to the foundation and shall forces associated with the lateral load capacity of the
not have irregularity Type 4 or 5. SFRS above that level.
Deflections and drift limits Where earthquake actions can produce forces in a
column or wall due to lateral loading along both
Lateral deflections obtained from a linear elastic orthogonal axes, account shall be taken of the effects
analysis using either the Equivalent Static Force of potential concurrent yielding of other elements
Procedure or a (linear) Dynamic Analysis Procedure framing into the column or wall from all directions at
and incorporating the effects of torsion, including the level under consideration and as appropriate at
accidental torsional moments, shall be multiplied by
other levels. This means to consider biaxial loading
RdRo/IE to give realistic values of anticipated
as well as concurrent loads framing into the element
deflections. The largest interstorey deflection at any
in question.
level based on the lateral deflections shall be limited
to 0.01hs for post-disaster buildings, 0.02hs for Foundation provisions
schools, and 0.025hs for all other buildings.
Foundations shall be designed to resist the lateral
Structural separation load capacity of the SFRS, except that when the
Adjacent structures shall either be separated by the foundations are allowed to rock, the design forces for
square root of the sum of the squares of their the foundation need not exceed those determined
individual deflections, or shall be connected to each using an RdRo equal to 2.0.
other. The connection method employed shall take The design of the foundations shall be such that they
into account the mass, stiffness, strength, ductility are capable of transferring the earthquake loads and
and anticipated motion of the connected buildings effects between the building and the ground without
and the character of the connection. Rigidly exceeding the capacities of the soil and rock.
connected buildings shall be assumed to have the
lowest RdRo value of the buildings connected. For cases where IEFaSa (0.2) is equal to or greater
than 0.35, the following requirements shall be
Expansion joints separating a structure shall meet
satisfied:
these requirements.

a) Piles or pile caps, drilled piers, and caissons Cp = Element or Component Factor (see
shall be interconnected by continuous ties in not Table 2.8.8)
less than two directions. Rp = Element or Component Response
b) Piles, drilled piers, and caissons shall be Modification Factor (see Table 2.8.8)
embedded a minimum of 100 mm into the pile
cap or structure. Ar = Element or Component Force
Amplification Factor (see Table 2.8.8)
c) Piles, drilled piers, and caissons other than
wood piles shall be connected to the pile cap or Ax = Height Factor (1 + 2 hx /hn)
structure for a minimum tension force equal to Wp = Weight of the component or element
0.15 times the factored compression load on the
pile. The force Vp shall be applied through the centre of
mass of the element or component.
At sites where IEFaSa (0.2) is equal to or greater than
0.35, basement walls shall be designed to resist For non post-disaster buildings, where IEFaSa(0.2) is
earthquake lateral pressures from backfill or natural less then 0.35, the requirements need not apply to
ground. Categories 6 through 21 of Table 2.8.8.
At sites where IEFaSa (0.2) is greater than 0.75, the The weight of access floors shall include the dead
following requirements shall be satisfied: load of the access floor and the weight of permanent
equipment which shall not be taken as less than 25%
a) A pile, drilled pier, or caisson shall be designed of the floor live load.
and detailed to accommodate cyclic inelastic
behaviour when the design moment in the When the mass of a tank plus contents is greater
element due to earthquake effects is greater than 10% of the mass of the supporting floor, the
than 75% of its moment capacity. lateral forces shall be determined by rational analysis.
b) Spread footings founded on soil defined as Site Forces shall be applied in the horizontal direction that
Class E or F shall be interconnected by result in the most critical loading for design except for
continuous ties in not less than two directions. Category 6 in Table 2.8.8 where the forces shall be
applied up and down vertically.
The potential for liquefaction of the soil and the
consequences, such as significant ground Connections to the structure for elements and
displacements and loss of soil strength and stiffness, components in Table 2.8.8 shall be designed to
shall be taken into account in the design of the support the component or element for gravity loads,
structure and its foundations. the requirements given above, and shall also satisfy
these additional requirements:
Elements of structures, nonstructural com- a) Friction due to gravity loads shall not be
ponents and equipment considered to provide resistance to seismic
Except as stated below, elements and components of forces.
buildings and their connections to the structure shall b) Rp for non-ductile connections, such as
be designed to accommodate the expected building adhesives or power-actuated fasteners, shall be
deflections and shall be designed for a lateral force, taken as 1.0.
Vp equal to:
c) Rp for anchorage using shallow expansion,
Vp = 0.3 FaSa(0.2) IE SpWp chemical, epoxy or cast-in-place anchors shall
Fa = given in Table 2.8.2 be 1.5, where shallow anchors are those with a
ratio of embedment length to diameter of less
Sa(0.2)= is the Spectral Response Acceleration than 8.
Value at 0.2 s
d) Power-actuated fasteners and drop-in anchors
IE = Importance Factor for the building shall not be used for tension loads.
Sp = Cp Ar Ax /Rp. The maximum value of Sp
shall be taken as 4.0 and the minimum
value of Sp shall be taken as 0.7

Table 2.8.1 Site classification for seismic site response
Average Properties in Top 30 m as per NBCC Division B Appendix A
Average Standard
Site Class Ground Profile Name Average Shear Wave Velocity, Penetration Resistance, Soil Undrained Shear
V s (m/s) Strength, su
N60
A Hard Rock V s > 1500 Not applicable Not applicable
B Rock 760 < V s 1500 Not applicable Not applicable

Very Dense Soil and
C 360 < V s < 760 N60 > 50 su > 100kPa
Soft Rock
D Stiff Soil 180 < V s < 360 15 < N60 < 50 50 < su 100 kPa
V s <180 N60 < 15 su < 50 kPa
E Any profile with more than 3 m of soil with the following characteristics:
Soft Soil
Plastic index PI > 20
Moisture content w 40%, and
Undrained shear strength su < 25 kPa
F Others(1) Site Specific Evaluation Required
Note: (1) See NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.A.
Table 2.8.2 Values of acceleration-based site coefficient Fa as a function of site class and Sa(0.2)
Site Values of Fa
Class Sa(0.2) 0.25 Sa(0.2) = 0.50 Sa(0.2) = 0.75 Sa(0.2) =1.00 Sa(0.2) 1.25
A 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
D 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0
E 2.1 1.4 1.1 0.9 0.9
F Site specific geotechnical investigations and dynamic site response analyses required
e) Connections for nonstructural elements or Lateral deflections of elements or components shall
components of Categories 1, 2 or 3 of Table be obtained from an elastic analysis and multiplied by
2.8.8 attached to the side of a building and Rp /IE to give realistic deflections.
above the first level above grade shall satisfy the
following requirements: The elements or components shall be designed so as
i) For connections where the body of the not to transfer to the structure any forces
connection is ductile, the body shall be unaccounted for in the design, and rigid elements
designed for values of Cp, Ar and Rp from the such as walls or panels shall satisfy the general
table, and the fasteners such as anchors, requirements.
welds, bolts and inserts shall also be
designed for values of Cp and Ar from the Isolated suspended equipment and components,
table, and Rp = 1.0. such as pendent lights, etc. may be designed as a
ii) Connections where the body of the pendulum system provided that adequate chains or
connection is not ductile shall be designed for cables are provided which are capable of supporting
values of Cp = 2.0, Rp = 1.0 and Ar from the 2.0 times the weight of the suspended component
table. and the deflection requirements noted above.
f) For the purposes of applying (e), a ductile Seismic restraint for suspended equipment, pipes,
connection is one where the body of the ducts, electrical trays, etc. shall be designed to meet
connection yields at its design load. the force and displacement requirements and be
Floors and roofs acting as diaphragms shall satisfy constructed in a manner that will not subject hanger
the requirements for diaphragms. rods to bending.

Table 2.8.3 Values of velocity-based site coefficient Fv as a function of site class and Sa(1.0)
Values of Fv
Site Class
Sa(1.0) < 0.1 Sa(1.0) = 0.2 Sa(1.0) = 0.3 Sa(1.0) =0.4 Sa(1.0) 0.5
A 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6
B 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
D 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.1
E 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.7
F Site specific geotechnical investigations and dynamic site response analyses required
Table 2.8.4 Importance factor for ultimate limit states earthquake loads and effects, IE
Importance Category Importance Factor, IE
Low 0.8
Normal 1.0
High 1.3
Post Disaster 1.5
Table 2.8.5 Structural irregularities

Type Irregularity Type and Definition
Vertical Stiffness Irregularity
Vertical stiffness irregularity shall be considered to exist when the lateral stiffness of the SFRS in a storey is less
1
than 70% of the stiffness of any adjacent storey, or less than 80% of the average stiffness of the three storeys
above or below.
Weight (mass) Irregularity
2 Weight irregularity shall be considered to exist where the weight, Wi, of any storey is more than 150% of the weight
of an adjacent storey. A roof that is lighter than the floor below need not be considered.
Vertical Geometric Irregularity
3 Vertical geometric irregularity shall be considered to exist where the horizontal dimension of the SFRS in any
storey is more than 130% of that in an adjacent storey.
In-plane Discontinuity in vertical lateral force-resisting element
4 An in-plane offset of a lateral force-resisting element of the SFRS or a reduction in lateral stiffness of the resisting
element in the storey below.
Out-of-Plane Offsets
5
Discontinuities in a lateral force path, such as out-of-plane offsets of the vertical elements of the SFRS.
Discontinuity in Capacity - Weak Storey
A weak storey is one in which the storey shear strength is less than that in the storey above. The storey shear
6
strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting elements of the SFRS sharing the storey shear for the direction
under consideration.
Torsional Sensitivity- to be considered when diaphragms are not flexible.
7 Torsional sensitivity shall be considered to exist when the ratio B calculated according to NBCC Sentence
4.1.8.11(9) exceeds 1.7.
Non-orthogonal Systems
8 A non-orthogonal system irregularity shall be considered to exist when the SFRS is not oriented along a set of
orthogonal axes.
Note: One-storey penthouses with a weight of less than 10% of the level below need not be considered in the application of this table. See
NBCC Table 4.1.8.6 for other notes.

Table 2.8.6 SFRS ductility related force modification factors (Rd), overstrength related force modification
factors (Ro) and general restrictions
Restrictions(1)
Type of SFRS Cases Where
Concrete Structures Designed and Detailed Rd Ro Cases Where IEFaSa(0.2)
IEFvSa(1.0)
According to CSA A23.3
0.2 to 0.35 to
<0.2 >0.75 >0.3
<0.35 0.75
Ductile moment resisting frames 4.0 1.7 NL NL NL NL NL
Moderately ductile moment resisting frames 2.5 1.4 NL NL 60 40 40
Ductile coupled walls 4.0 1.7 NL NL NL NL NL
Ductile partially coupled walls 3.5 1.7 NL NL NL NL NL
Ductile shear walls 3.5 1.6 NL NL NL NL NL
Moderately ductile shear walls 2.0 1.4 NL NL NL 60 60
Conventional construction
Moment resisting frames 1.5 1.3 NL NL 15 NP NP
Shear walls 1.5 1.3 NL NL 40 30 30
Other concrete SFRS(s) not listed above 1.0 1.0 15 15 NP NP NP
(1) NP= system is not permitted, NL = system is permitted and not limited in height as an SFRS, height may be limited in other parts of
NBCC. Numbers in this table are maximum height limits in m. The most stringent requirement governs.
Table 2.8.7 Higher mode factor Mv and base overturning reduction factor J
Type of Lateral Resisting
Sa(0.2)/Sa(2.0) Mv For Ta<1.0 Mv For Ta > 2.0 J For Ta < 0.5 J For Ta > 2.0
Systems
Moment resisting frames or
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
coupled walls
< 8.0 Braced frames 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.8
Walls, wall-frame systems,
1.0 1.2 1.0 0.7
other systems
Moment resisting frames or
1.0 1.2 1.0 0.7
coupled walls
8.0 Braced frames 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
Walls, wall-frame systems,
1.0 2.5 1.0 0.4
other systems
Notes:
1. For values of Mv between fundamental lateral periods, Ta of 1.0 and 2.0 s, the product S(Ta)Mv shall be obtained by linear interpolation.
2. Values of J between fundamental lateral periods, Ta of 0.5 and 2.0 s shall be obtained by linear interpolation.
3. A coupled wall is a wall system with coupling beams, where at least 66% of the base overturning moment resisted by the wall system
is carried by the axial tension and compression forces resulting from shear in the coupling beams.
4. For hybrid systems, values corresponding to walls must be used or a dynamic analysis must be carried out.
2.8.4 Structural Layout and Connections In seismic design, forces must be positively
Box-type structures can have a large number of transmitted. Load paths must be as direct as
precast concrete elements assembled into walls, possible. Anchors are often attached to or hooked
floors, roof and frames. Properly designed around reinforcing bars or otherwise terminated to
connections between pieces can create diaphragms effectively transfer forces to the bars. Reinforcement
and shear walls. Connections must be designed to in the vicinity of the anchors should be designed to
transmit forces between the elements within a distribute forces and preclude local failure. Concrete
horizontal diaphragm or shear wall. Other dimensions and reinforcement must be adequate to
connections can be designed to join diaphragms and
accommodate the connection hardware. Connections
shear walls. Some parts of the building, such as the
should be designed to transmit incidental forces that
shear walls, can be designed to absorb energy
through non-linear deformation. Horizontal are normal to the usual plane of the load path. The
diaphragms are normally designed to remain elastic ductility of each connection must be adequate for its
during an earthquake. location and intended role in resisting seismic forces.

Table 2.8.8 Elements of structures and nonstructural components and equipment
Category Part or Portion of a Building Cp Ar Rp
1 All exterior and interior walls except those of Category 2 and 3(1) 1.00 1.00 2.50
2 Cantilever parapet and other cantilever walls except retaining walls(1) 1.00 2.50 2.50
3 Exterior and interior ornamentations and appendages(1) 1.00 2.50 2.50
4 Floors and roofs acting as diaphragms(2) Satisfy NBCC 4.1.8.1.5 - - -
Towers, chimneys, smokestacks and penthouses when connected to or
5 1.00 2.50 2.50
forming part of a building
6 Horizontally cantilevered floors, balconies, beams, etc. 1.00 1.00 2.50
Suspended ceilings, light fixtures and other attachments to ceilings with
7 1.00 1.00 2.50
independent vertical support
8 Masonry veneer connections 1.00 1.00 1.50
9 Access floors 1.00 1.00 2.50
10 Masonry or concrete fences over 1.8 m tall 1.00 1.00 2.50
Machinery, fixtures, equipment, ducts and tanks (including contents)

11 that are rigid and rigidly connected(3)
1.00 1.00 1.25
that are flexible or flexibly connected(3)
1.00 2.50 2.50
Machinery, fixtures, equipment, ducts and tanks (including contents)
containing toxic or explosive materials, materials having a flashpoint below
12 38C or fire fighting fluids
that are rigid and rigidly connected(3) 1.50 1.00 1.25
that are flexible or flexibly connected(3) 1.50 2.50 2.50
Flat bottom tanks (including contents) attached directly to a floor at or
13 0.70 1.00 2.50
below grade within a building
Flat bottom tanks (including contents) attached directly to a floor at or
14 below grade within a building containing toxic or explosive materials, 1.00 1.00 2.50
materials having a flashpoint below 38C or firefighting fluids.
15 Pipes, ducts, cable trays (including contents) 1.00 1.00 3.00
16 Pipes, ducts (including contents) containing toxic or explosive materials 1.50 1.00 3.00
17 Electrical cable trays, bus ducts, conduit 1.00 2.50 5.00
18 Rigid components with ductile material and connections 1.00 1.00 2.50
19 Rigid components with nonductile material or connections 1.00 1.00 1.00
20 Flexible components with ductile material and connections 1.00 2.50 2.50
21 Flexible components with nonductile material or connections 1.00 2.50 1.00
Notes: (1), (2) and (3): see NBCC 2005 sentence 4.1.8.17, (8), (9) and (4) respectively.
Fig. 2.8.9 Forces and deflections due to lateral load 23 storey building Ref. [8]
Forces and deflections under

various corner conditions.
Refer to Section 2.8.5 and
points 1 through 7.
Half sidewall shear 1.00 1.00 1.00

Half sidewall moment 2.19 1.00 0.43
Half endwall axial force 0 1.00 1.53
Building deflection 2.87 1.00 0.89

Fig. 2.8.10 Drift response 8. The best energy absorbing elements are those
with high moment-rotation capabilities. The
energy absorbing capacity of a flexural element
is measured by the area under the moment-
rotation curve. Correctly reinforced concrete can
exhibit high ductility. See A23.3, for proper
methods or reinforcing to achieve ductility.
9. Joints represent discontinuities, and may be the
location of stress concentrations. Reinforcing or
mechanical anchorage must be provided
through the joints to fully transmit the horizontal
shear and flexure developed during an
earthquake. See Chap. 4 and Sect. 2.8.6 for a
discussion on connections. In zones of high
seismicity, cast-in-place reinforced concrete in
combination with precast concrete has proven to
be successful in economically transferring
2.8.5 Design Guidelines for Structural Wall seismic forces. [9]
Panels
2.8.6 Design Guidelines for Cladding Panel
Guidelines for structural walls subjected to seismic Connections
lateral forces:
Guidelines for cladding panels subjected to seismic
1. Exterior walls with perforated windows will act lateral forces:
somewhere between an unperforated wall and a
1. Wherever possible, make panel connections to
flexible frame. For tall buildings, this will result in
the supporting structure statically determinate to
a non-linear distribution of forces due to the
permit a more accurate determination of the
effect of shear lag, as indicated in Fig. 2.8.9. [8]
force distribution.
This figure indicates the relative differences, and
the base stress patterns, due to lateral loading 2. Choose the number and location of connections
on a 23-storey building (plan dimension 22 m by to minimize internal stresses and permit
30 m). movements in the plane of the panel to
accommodate storey drift and volume changes.
2. Portions of walls with openings can have Drift is defined as the relative movement of one
significant axial loads. These wall sections may storey with respect to the stories immediately
require reinforcement with closely spaced ties above or below the level under consideration.
similar to columns.
3. Locate connections to minimize torsional
3. Connected walls may act as coupled walls. The moments on supporting spandrel beams,
connection between walls can be achieved particularly if the beams are structural steel.
either by a lintel or by the floor construction.
4. Provide separation between non-load bearing
Provisions must be made for reversible shears
panels and the building frame to prevent contact
and moments in the connecting elements.
during an earthquake.
4. Walls will be subjected to lateral loads 5. Seismic forces should be combined with the
perpendicular to the plane of the wall (wind, forces and eccentricities created by
seismic) in addition to loads in the plane. manufacturing and erection tolerances.
5. Large deflections occur under severe 6. Between points of connection, non-load bearing
earthquakes. The investigation of individual panels should be separated from the building
walls and the entire structure should consider frame to avoid contact under seismic action. In
deflections (P- effect). the immediate area of connections, the panel will
6. Accidental torsion can occur in elements be forced to follow the supporting frame. A
subjected to seismic forces. Reinforcement statically determinate support system should be
should be detailed accordingly. designed, however there may be some built-in
restraint at the connections. Some allowance for
7. Seismic-induced forces are reversible. This is internal forces should be considered. Fig. 2.8.10
particularly important at joints. illustrates the effects of storey drift.

Fig. 2.8.11 Free body diagrams Fig. 2.8.12 Details of a typical sandwich panel
transfers loads through these connections to the

building frame. (See Fig. 2.8.12.)
2. Seismic loads, analysis, and design of
connections between the structural wythe and
the building frame is identical to that of non-
sandwich panels. The value Wp used to
2.8.7 Analysis of Panels determine the seismic force Vp will include the
weight of all elements of the panel.
The analysis of panels should be in accordance with
established methods of structural mechanics. The 3. Connection between the two wythes should be
following systematic approach is recommended: capable of transferring a seismic force Vp ,
where Vp is computed using the weight of the
1. Start with a free-body diagram for every load non-structural wythe and insulation.
condition.
4. The seismic forces Vp and Vp should be
2. Solve for reactions using equations of assumed to act in any horizontal direction in
equilibrium for statically determinate systems, or conjunction with the weight of the panel.
equations of equilibrium and compatibility for
statically indeterminate systems. 5. The non-structural wythe should be proportioned
and reinforced to resist the stresses induced by
3. Tabulate loads and reactions and identify critical the seismic force Vp in addition to its self weight.
design values.
Example 2.14 Architectural precast panel with
4. Compute the internal forces (moments, shears,
earthquake loading
axial) due to the critical values. For complicated
architectural shapes, consider the use of Given:
computer analysis using methods such as finite A multistory 16.5 m tall hospital is located in
element analysis. Montreal. A soil report indicates Site Class C. Precast
concrete cladding wall panels are 2130 mm tall by
A free-body diagram of a typical panel is shown in
8530 mm long, as shown below. A 1830 mm high
Fig. 2.8.11.
window is attached to the top of the panel, and a
Sandwich panels 2440 mm high window is attached to the bottom.
There are several additional design considerations Concrete fc = 35 MPa (normal density,
relating to sandwich panels (see Chaps. 3 and 5 for a 24 kN/m3)
more complete discussion): Window weight = 0.5 kPa
1. The structural wythe of non-composite panels Problem:
resists all loads, contains all connections, and Determine the seismic forces on the panel.

Solution: b) Connections: CP = 2.0, Ar = 1.0, RP = 1.0 (NBCC
From NBCC: Division B Appendix C: Clause 4.1.8.17.8(e))
Sa(0.2) = 0.69 VP = 0.3FaSa(0.2)IESPWP
Hospitals are post disaster facilities therefore Sp = Cp Ar Ax /Rp = 2.0(1.0)(1+2x0.9)/1
IE = 1.5
= 5.6, however 0.7 Sp 4.0
Connections are assumed to be non-ductile, Sp = 4.0
assuming the body of the connection does not yield
at its design load. VP = 0.3(1.0)(0.69)(1.5)(4.0)WP
Fa = 1.0 (Table 2.8.2) = 1.24WP
a) Wall element near top of building Cross-sectional area of panel = 0.30 m2
CP = 1.0, Ar = 1.0, RP = 2.5 (Table 2.8.8) Centre of gravity from datum (bottom outside corner):
hx /hn = 0.9 based on wall panel elevation and y= 876 mm; z = 114 mm.
building height
VP = 0.3FaSa(0.2)IESPWP (NBCC Clause Panel weight = 0.30 x 24 = 7.2 kN/m
4.1.8.17.1) Design the wall panel for uniformly distributed seismic

loads due to self weight and window loads:
Sp = Cp Ar Ax /Rp = 1.0(1.0)(1+2x0.9)/2.5
= 1.12 O.K. since 0.7 Sp 4.0 Seismic force due to self weight = 0.35 Wp
VP = 0.3(1.0)(0.69)(1.5)(1.12)WP = 0.35(7.2) = 2.52 kN/m inward or
= 0.35WP outward

Line load at top of panel (upper window) Wp of one-half of window = 1.22(8.53)(0.5) = 5.2 kN
1.83 Fp on panel = 1.24(5.2) = 6.45 kN, inward or outward
= 0.35 0.5
2
Wp (kN) z (mm) Wp z (kN-m)
= 0.16 kN/m inward or outward
Panel 61.4 114 7.0
Line load at underside of panel (lower window)
Upper Window 7.8 50 0.4
2.44
= 0.35 0.5 Lower Window 0 560 0
2
69.2 7.4
= 0.21 kN/m inward or outward Total
For the design of connections: Determine centre of dead load:

Wp =7.2(8.53)= 61.4 kN Centre of load from lower left: z = 7.4/69.2 = 107 mm
Fp =1.24(61.4)= 76.1 kN, where Fp is the Dead loads to connections:
seismic force
Vertical = 69.2/2 = 34.6 kN each connection
Upper window height = 1830 mm
Horizontal = 34.6(190 107)/825 = 3.5 kN,
Total window weight on wall panel = 1.83(8.53)(0.5) assuming that during erection
only the connections at each end
= 7.8 kN gravity load on wall panel
of the panel are used to resist
Wp of one-half of window = 7.8(0.5) = 3.9 kN dead load.
Fp on panel = 1.24(3.9) = 4.84 kN, inward or outward Outward on top connection
Lower window height = 2440 mm Inward on bottom connection
No gravity load from lower window on wall panel

Summary of Loads to Connections (kN)
Dead Load1 Seismic2
Connection
Vert (y) In. (z) Out (z) Vert (y) Horiz (x) In. (z) Out (z)
Top ctr 87.39 11.4 11.4
Top end 34.6 3.5 7.06 4.10 4.10
Tie-bk ctr X 39.3 39.3
Tie-bk end X 3.5 14.25 14.25
1. Load factor of 1.0 applied. To design the connections, wind load must also be examined and
the appropriate load factors must be applied to determine the
2. Load factor of 1.0 applied. governing load case such as 1.4D, 1.25D + 1.4W, and 1.0D + 1.0E.
Typical tie-back connection
Fp y z Fpy Fpz Rt = 87.39 (0.88 0.695)/0.825

(kN) (mm) (mm) (kN-m) (kN-m)
= 19.6 kN total panel
Panel 76.1 876 114 66.7 8.68 Rb = 87.39 -19.6 = 67.8 kN total panel
Upper
Window 4.84 2130 50 10.31 0.24 A continuous beam analysis shows that the centre
Lower connection will take 58% of the load and each end
Window 6.45 0 560 0 3.61 connection will take 21%.
Total 87.39 77.01 12.53 Rt end = 4.10 kN Rt centre = 11.4 kN

Rb end =14.25 kN Rb centre = 39.3 kN
Determine centre of seismic lateral force:
Seismic force parallel to face:
Centre of force from lower left:
() = 87.39 kN
Parallel
y = 77.01/87.39 = 0.88 m 87.39 (0.695 + 0.825 0.88)
() Up-down =
z = 12.53/87.39 = 0.14 m 2(3.96)
For seismic in-out loads: = 7.06 kN per connection
y = 0.88 m 87.39 (0.14 0.114 )
() In-out = = 0.29 kN
Fp = 87.39 kN total panel 2(3.96 )
Moments about bottom connection: per connection (does not control)

Example 2.15 Typical single-storey industrial
building
Given:
The single-storey manufacturing building shown is
located in Duncan, BC and is exposed in open
terrain. A soil report indicates site class D. Wall
panels are the seismic force resisting system. Wall
panels are 3050 mm wide sandwich panels with a
100 mm thick interior wythe, 50 mm insulation, and a
50 mm thick exterior wythe, weighing an average of
3.6 kPa. 3050 mm wide lightweight double tees are
used on the roof, weighing 1.9 kPa. A dead load of
0.5 kPa is superimposed on the roof. 25% of the roof
design snow load is 0.35 kPa
Problem:
Analyze the structure for seismic loads.
Solution:
Determine seismic forces:
From NBCC Division B Appendix C:
Sa(0.2) = 1.1
Mean roof height is 6.4m
Sa(1.0) = 0.37
From NBCC Clause 4.1.8.11.3.c. the fundamental
Sa(2.0) = 0.18 lateral period is;
Ta = 0.05(hn)3/4 = 0.05(6.4)3/4 = 0.2 s
By interpolation from Table 2.8.2 and Table 2.8.3.;
Fa = 1.06, Fv = 1.13
From NBCC Clause 4.1.8.4.6.
S(0.2)= FaSa(0.2)
= 1.06 (1.1) =1.17
S(2.0)= FvSa(2.0)
= 1.13(0.18)
= 0.203
From Table 2.8.6. for a conventional concrete shear
wall:
Rd = 1.5
Ro = 1.3
From Table 2.8.4 the importance factor for
earthquake load is 1.0.
From NBCC, Clause 4.1.8.7b, the structure can be
analyzed by the Equivalent Static Force Procedure
From NBCC Equation 4.1.8.11.2:
V = S(Ta)MVIEW/(RdRo)
From Table 2.8.7 Mv = 1.0
= 1.17(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
= 0.60W (does not control)

Check maximum: Accidental eccentricity = 0.1(48.75) = 4.8 m.
Vmax = 2/3 S(0.2) IEW/(RdRo) Thus, assume the centre of mass is 19.6 m from
the left wall and 29.2 m from the right wall.
= 2/3(1.17)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
29.2
= 0.40W (controls) VL = 3110 = 1863 kN
48.75
Check minimum: For the seismic diaphragm design (chord steel
Vmin = S(2.0) MVIEW/(RdRo) and shear connectors between roof tees) for this
single-storey building, will use total base shear V
= 0.203(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
= 3110 kN.
= 0.104W
2. Check sliding resistance of the foundation:
Building weight:
Dead load on the footing:
Walls = 3.6(7.2)[2(48.75) + 2(36.5)] = 4419 kN
Wall = 3.6(7.2)(36.5) = 946 kN
(50% goes directly into foundation)
300 mm x 450 mm footing
Roof = 48.75(36.5)(1.9 + 0.35 + 0.5) = 4893 kN
= 24(0.3)(0.45)(36.5) = 118 kN
Beams and columns (estimated load contribution
to roof) = 670 kN Assume 600 mm backfill = 20(0.25)(0.6)(36.5)
= 110 kN
W = 4419/2+4893+670 = 7773 kN
Total = 1174 kN
Lateral earthquake force V = 0.40W = 0.4(7773) =
3110 kN Assume coefficient of friction against granular soil,
1. In a single-storey building, the lateral earthquake s = 0.5
force acts through the roof diaphragm. For a
single-span diaphragm such as this, design is Sliding resistance = sN = 0.5(1174) = 587 kN <
straightforward. Assuming no substantial door 1863 kN indicating the foundation will slide.
openings in the shear walls, the centre of mass This analysis is an approximation and a more
and centre of stiffness is at the centre of the detailed analysis may be required, but based on the
building. above calculations additional foundation anchorage
Therefore from NBCC, Clause 4.1.8.11.9: B=1. may be required to prevent sliding.
However, NBCC, Clause 4.1.8.12.4 states that an Determine the reinforcement and connection
accidental torsion of 10% must be considered. requirements for the diaphragm.

a) Connections from the roof to the walls: tension reinforcement will be reduced based on
actual location of the bars rather than the 0.3 m
Diaphragm forces are designed to follow NBCC
assumption. The increased Tf requirement can
Clause 4.1.8.15.1. Therefore, to ensure that the
be recalculated based on the actual
diaphragm does not yield, it must be designed so
reinforcement location in the diaphragm and the
that the forces applied to it reflect the strength of
required reinforcing steel adjusted accordingly.
the SFRS to which the diaphragm is connected
rather than just the computed lateral earthquake The chord force can be transmitted between
loads. For example, if the actual base shear members by ties at the roof tees, wall panels or a
capacity of the SFRS is 10% larger than the combination, as illustrated. These ties and
required base shear, then the shear forces transmission of forces will usually provide the tie
applied to the diaphragm due to the lateral loads requirements for structural integrity as required
must also be increased by 10%, subject to the by Clause 16.5.
upper limits noted in NBCC. However, since this
d) Wall panel connections:
structure was designed using Rd=1.5, the
This shear wall may be designed to act as a
diaphragm need not be designed for forces
series of independent units, without ties between
higher than those calculated for this elastic
the panels. The shear force is assumed to be
structure.
distributed equally among the wall panels as
Assume a connection spacing of 1.5m on the shown.
east and west walls. The connection will have to n = 36.5/3.05 = 12 panels
be designed for a capacity of:
V = VR/n = 1863/12 = 155 kN/panel
1863 = 77 kN
(36.5 /1.5) Wall panel self weight:
b) Shear connections between double tees:
D = 3.6(3.05)(7.2) = 79 kN
The maximum shear is at first joint (3.05 m) from
155(6.4) 79(1.22)
left wall. The left wall is 19.6 m from the centre of Tf = = 367 kN
force. Assuming a uniformly distributed lateral 2.44
force of 3110/48.75 = 63.8 kN/m: This magnitude of tension may be too large for typical
Shear at joint = 1863 63.8 x 3.05 = 1668 kN panel-to-foundation tension connections.
c) To determine chord reinforcement, the seismic As an alternative, the shear walls may be designed
force is also assumed to be distributed uniformly with two or more panels connected together. The
across the building width, b: following sketch illustrates an analysis where tension
and compression compensate one another with
Diaphragm moment: simple shear connections across the vertical joints.
VA 3110(48.75) For simplicity, it is assumed that the walls have no
= = 18950 kN-m
8 8 openings. Connections are made across the vertical
panel joints to take advantage of the fact that
Chord force (see plan): compensating forces are generated in the panels.
Assume chord reinforcement is located 0.3 m from
exterior wall face. Since these are seismic forces, Note: Determining connection forces requires solving
they are considered factored: classic equations of equilibrium. Compression forces
18950 are assumed to be no problem, as the joint between
Tf = = 528 kN the shear wall panels and foundations is normally
(36.5 0.3(2))
grouted.
Determine the required amount of reinforcing steel:
Considering an interior panel:
Tf 528 x10 3
As = = = 1553 mm2 (6-20M) M about C = 0: V(h) = V1(b a) + D(b/2 a)
s fy 0.85 x 400
V(h) D(b / 2 a)
This amount of reinforcement should be placed at V1 =
ba
the perimeter. Since several bars are required,
they will have to be distributed within the chord V = 0: C = D
area, and the effective depth of the diaphragm

Since this force system can exist for all interior
panels, edge shears will balance to zero when all
panels have the same dimensions and weight. The
only requirement for the connections is a transfer of For the compression side exterior panel:
vertical shear. Therefore, connections which permit
155(6.4) - 79 3.05 - 0.305 - 326(3.05 - 0.305)

horizontal deformations can be used if volume 2
change restraint is of concern. At the exterior panels, Tf =
2.44
the edge shear V1 from an exterior panel will be = 0.31 kN (tension)
applied at one edge only. Because tension and
Cf = Tf + Df + V1 = 0.31 + 79 + 326 = 405 kN
compression base connections are not located at the
panel edges, equilibrium may have to be satisfied The wall panel and grout must be checked for the
with tension and compression connections to the above compressive forces. The compressive stress
foundation, or connections to the orthogonal panel block assumption of 305 mm used in the calculations
that will allow the non-shear wall to contribute should also be checked and confirmed for the
additional dead load at the corner. factored compressive force of 405 kN.
At the tension side exterior panel, equilibrium can be To finalize design of the shear wall connections, wind
determined by summing moments about the load must also be examined and the appropriate load
compression force, assuming the tension is taken by factors must be applied to determine the governing
a tie-down into the foundation: load case such as 0.9D + 1.4W, and 1.0D + 1.0E.
For this example, locate the foundation connections Example 2.16 Three level parking structure
0.305 m from each side. The pertinent dimensions
are: Given:
The three-level parking structure shown is located in
h = 6.4 m ; b = 3.05 m ; a = 0.305 m; d = 2.44 m Toronto, ON. A soil report indicates Site Class C.
V = 155 kN, D = 79 kN Problem:
For interior panels with factored loads: Determine the feasibility of a shear wall structure in
this location.
155(6.4) 79(3.05 / 2 0.305 )
V1 = = 326 kN
(3.05 0.305 ) Solution:
For gravity loads, 660 mm deep, 3050 mm wide
Cf = Dead load of panel pretopped double tees will be used. The total weight
For the tension side exterior panel: of double tees, beams, columns, and curbs will be
taken as 5.3 kPa. The code specified live load is 2.4
155(6.4) 79(3.05 / 2 0.305 ) 326(0.305 ) kPa. It is determined that for this magnitude of
Tf =
2.44 loading, 9150 mm bays with 600 mm square
= 326 kN columns, and 900 mm deep girders in the end bays
Cf = Tf + Df V1 = 326 + 79 326 = 79 kN will support the vertical loads.

Seismic analysis: S(0.2) = FaSa(0.2)
From NBCC Division B Appendix C: = 1.0 (0.26) =0.26
Sa(0.2) = 0.26 S(0.5) = the smaller of FvSa(0.5) or FaSa(0.2)
Sa(0.5) = 0.13 = 1.0(0.13) = 0.13
Sa(1.0) = 0.055 from interpolation, S(0.27) = 0.23
Sa(2.0) = 0.015 S(2.0) = FvSa(2.0)
From NBCC, Clause 4.1.8.11.3.c, the fundamental = 1.0(0.015)
lateral period for a shear wall structure is; = 0.015
Height to highest level = 3(3.2) = 9.6 m From Table 2.8.6. for a conventional concrete shear
Ta = 0.05hn3/4 = 0.05(9.6)3/4 = 0.27 s wall:
From Tables 2.8.2. and 2.8.3. Rd = 1.5, Ro = 1.3
Fa = 1.0, Fv = 1.0 From NBCC Clause 4.1.8.7.b. the structure can be
From NBCC, Clause 4.1.8.4.6. analyzed by the Equivalent Static Force Procedure

be used as part of the lateral load resisting system,
this may result in high forces due to restraint of
volumetric deformations; consequently, it is decided
that the corners will be isolated from the main
structure. Alternatively, it might have been decided to
use these corner elements, and provide connections
that are flexible in the direction of volumetric restraint.
The seismic torsion is assumed to all be taken by the
interior shear walls perpendicular to the direction of
the lateral force bearing considered.
The distribution of seismic shears to each level using
NBCC Clause 4.1.8.11.6 is shown in the table below.
Lateral force distribution through levels
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Level x hx (m) Fx (kN) % (kN)
3 3 9.6 3180 50
2 2 6.4 2118 33.3
From NBCC Eq. 4.1.8.11.2: 1 1 3.2 1062 16.7
V = S(Ta)MVIEW/(RdRo) Totals 6360 100
From Table 2.8.7. Mv = 1.0 For the north-south load resisting system, try two
= 0.23(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3) 200 mm thick load bearing shear walls located at
each end of the ramp. These walls support the 900
= 0.118W
mm deep girder, and may be as long as 9 m without
Check maximum: interfering with the traffic flow; a 6 m length is used as
Vmax = 2/3 S(0.2) IEW/(RdRo) a first iteration. The figure above illustrates the
arrangement and loading.
= 2/3(0.26)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
= 0.089W (governs) The shear walls are located 27.5 m from the centre in
the east-west direction of the structure that is the
Check minimum: centre of the lateral force resisting system. However,
Vmin = S(2.0) MVIEW/(RdRo) accidental torsion must be considered (NBCC Clause
4.1.8.12.4). The accidental eccentricity = 0.1(80.5) =
= 0.015(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
8.05 m. Summing moments about the shear walls on
= 0.008W one side, the force each pair of shear walls must
Dead Load (W) is the weight of the structure plus resist is:
25% of the snow load. 6360(54.9 / 2 + 8.05)
F =
54.9
W = 5.3(80.5)(54.9)(3)+0.25(1.12)(80.5)(54.9)
= 4112 kN or 2056 kN to each wall
= 71,507 kN The force at each level on the wall can be determined
Total lateral seismic force by the values of Column 5 in the previous table.
V = 71507(0.089) = 6360 kN Level 3 F3 = 0.5(2056) = 1028 kN
Level 2 F2 = 0.333(2056) = 685 kN
NBCC, Clause 4.1.8.11.6 states, that a portion of the Level 1 F1 = 0.167(2056) = 343 kN
lateral load shall be concentrated at top of building,
however: Overturning moment on the wall as per Clause
4.1.8.11.7:
Ta 0.7 therefore Ft = 0 = 343(3.2) + 685(6.4) + 1028(9.6)
Substantial shear resisting elements are required. = 15,642 kN-m
Loadbearing shear walls are chosen, primarily Dead load on each wall (includes all components)
because the vertical gravity load will help resist the
= 3(12.8/2)(18.3)(5.3)+0.25(1.12)(2.8/2)(18.3)
overturning moments due to applied lateral loads.
While the corner stairwells and elevator shafts could = 1895 kN

Eccentricity = 0.1(54.9) = 5.5 m
Total force in walls in one row:
6360(18.3 / 2 + 5.5)
F = = 5090 kN, or 5090/18
18.3
= 282 kN to each wall.
The force on each wall:
Level 3 F3= 0.50(282) = 141 kN
Level 2 F2= 0.333(282) = 94 kN
Level 1 F1= 0.167(282) = 48 kN
Overturning moment on each wall:
= 48(3.2) + 94(6.4) + 141(9.6) = 2110 kN-m
The double tee floor weight = 3.6 kPa
Dead load on each wall = one wall + one tee at each
level (three levels) + snow :
N = [24(0.2)(3.2)(2)+3.6(18.3)(3.05)] +
0.25(1.12)(18.3)(3.05) = 710 kN
For Seismic load combinations dead load is not Assuming 1.7 m effective depth to vertical
reduced (NBCC Clause 4.1.3.2.4.) reinforcement and neglect the compressive
rectangular stress block for this preliminary design.
For preliminary design, the depth of equivalent
rectangular stress block in the compression zone will 2110 710(1)
Tf = = 824 kN
be neglected. 1.7
Assuming the effective depth of vertical reinforcement Tf 824x103
As = = = 2423 mm2 (5-25M)
is 5.5 m: s f y 0.85x400
15642 1895(3)
Tf = = 1810 kN Diaphragm analysis
5.5
1730 x10 3 The diaphragm is modeled for north-south seismic
Tf
As = = = 5300 mm2 (11-25M) forces as shown below.
s fy 0.85 x 400
The force transfer between the precast shear wall Diaphragm forces are designed to follow NBCC
and the foundation can be accomplished by Clause 4.1.8.15.1. Therefore, to ensure that the
reinforcing bars with grouted sleeves, rated diaphragm does not yield, it must be designed so that
mechanical couplers, or welding. Alternatively, post- the forces applied to it reflect the strength of the
tensioning bars could be chosen. The preliminary SFRS to which the diaphragm is connected rather
analysis is completed by examining the capacity of than just the computed lateral earthquake loads. For
the foundation system to transfer this force to the example, if the actual base shear capacity of the
supporting ground; that analysis is not shown here. SFRS is 10% larger than the required base shear,
then the shear forces applied to the diaphragm due to
For resistance in the east-west direction, 18 individual the lateral loads must also be increased by 10%,
loadbearing walls located along the length on each subject to the upper limits noted in NBCC. However,
side of the interior ramped bay will be used. These since this structure was designed using Rd =1.5, the
200 mm thick walls are spaced 3.05 m on centres, diaphragm need not be designed for forces higher
supporting one 18.3 m span double tee on each side than those calculated for this elastic structure.
of the wall. Each wall is 2 m wide to accommodate
the 1.5 m stem spacing of the double tees, and to Assume that the SFRS forces in the diaphragm are
allow visibility between the wall units. As in the north- distributed uniformly. To simplify the calculation, the
south direction, an accidental eccentricity of 10% force is divided among the three bays, and the flat
must be considered: and ramp areas are analyzed separately.

13.2(54.9)
Vf = = 362 kN
2
R2 = 362/2 = 181 kN for the middle diaphragm
at the ramp
Diaphragm moment design:
Assuming a 17.7 m moment arm:
T3 = 4970/17.7 = 280 kN
This tensile force may be resisted by reinforcing bars
placed into field applied concrete topping or curbs
located at each end of the double tees, or by
reinforcing steel shop welded to plates cast in the
edges of the double tee flanges. These plates are
connected together in the field across the joint using
splice plates and welds.
Tf 280x103
As = = = 823 mm2 (4-15M)
s fy 0.85x400
Splice plate of 300 MPa steel:
T 280x103
Required Apl = f = = 1040 mm2
s fy 0.9x300
(Plate 8 x 134)
The arrangement of reinforcement is as shown.
Typical chord tension connections
3180
Total uniform load at roof level: = 39.5 kN/m
80.5
39.5
Uniform load on each bay = w1 = w3 =
3
= 13.2 kN/m
In the flat area, half of the load of the centre bay is
assumed taken by each of the north and south bays.
w2 = 13.2+ 13.2/2 = 19.8 kN/m
Because the overhanging cantilevers will reduce the
stresses in the level area, positive moments are
calculated for the ramp, and the results
conservatively used for the flat area. Negative
Diaphragm shear design:
moments are also calculated.
Vf to each wall from the 54.9 m span diaphragm =
Research [22] indicates that in a three-bay structure
181 kN at the middle bay, and 362 kN at the north
such as this one, the tee-to-beam joints at the end
and south bays.
bays at the four inverted tee beams are particularly
vulnerable. The pour strips over these beams should The middle ramp, 3.05 m of each wall is connected to
have transverse reinforcement across the joints to a tee.
improve strength and ductility.
Vf = 181/3.05 = 60 kN/m
w1(54.9)2 13.2(54.9)2
+Mf = = = 4970 kN-m If flange-to-wall connectors are provided at 1.0 m on
8 8
centres, required capacity per connector = 60 kN.
w 2 (12.8)2 19.8(12.8)2
-Mf = = = 1620 kN-m Connection forces at the north and south bays to
2 2
shear walls will be higher than this load, and heavier

connections will be required or the load path will have Fig. 2.9.1 Types of joints
to be designed to transfer the diaphragm shear to
connections on each side of the shear wall.
Alternatively, additional shear walls could be utilized
at the elevator and stair wells.
For the first interior tee-to-tee connection in the
diaphragm:
Vf = 362 3.05(13.2) = 322 kN
Vf = 322/18.3 = 17.6 kN/m
If flange connectors are provided at 1.5 m on centres,
required capacity per connector = 17.6(1.5) = 26.2 kN.
Conclusion:
This preliminary analysis indicates that the presumed
sizes and arrangement of seismic force resisting
systems are reasonable, although increasing the
length of shear walls would decrease the amount of
vertical tension reinforcement and assist with
connections to the diaphragm. Refinements can be
made to the structure including any architectural
revisions, and then the final analysis can be
performed.
2.9 SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION

2.9.1 General
Segmental construction [11] is defined as a method
of construction for buildings and other structures in
which primary load carrying elements are composed 4. the ability of constructing deep elements (by
of individual segments post-tensioned together. keeping the width of individual elements within
Segmental construction requires the Engineer to the allowable for transportation), and thus
consider the following: permitting the economical spanning of long
distances
1. choice of element size (dimension and weight)
5. various structural configurations, such as trusses
2. configuration and structural response of the joint with inclined or parallel chords, may be readily
between elements constructed
3. construction sequence, loads and deflections 6. temporary falsework can be minimized by use of
imposed at various stages cantilever construction for columns, similar to
4. recognition of tolerances and the effect of these familiar bridge construction methods
upon the joint 2.9.2 Joints and Joint Construction
Segmental construction provides all the advantages Joints are of two types: either open, to permit
associated with precast concrete and, in addition completion by a field pour, or narrow, where the joint
permits the economical use of precast for the solution may be completed either dry or by use of a thin layer
of specific problems: of adhesive (Fig. 2.9.1). Both methods, which have
1. reduction of erection weights, permitting the use been successfully used in the past, are discussed
of smaller capacity erection equipment below.
2. ability to manufacture large elements in plants of Wide or open joints

limited size The width of these joints vary from 50 to 300 mm.
3. multiple re-use of forms, permitting the They can be filled with concrete, grout or dry pack.
economical construction of complicated shapes Concrete filled joints require forming around the joint
and should be at least 100 mm wide to allow proper

concrete placement and compaction. High range quantities or batches not exceeding a mass of 5 kg.
water reducing agents in the joint concrete will Each batch must be thoroughly tamped and packed
substantially reduce the problem of compaction. The before the next batch is placed. Containment may be
joining of tendon ducts can be well supervised and necessary, particularly at the bottom of the joint.
inspected with wide joints.
All wide joints require preparatory treatment of the
The compressive strength of the joint concrete at a joint surfaces prior to filling. The joint surfaces must
specified age should be equal to the strength of the be clean, free from grease and oil, etc. and preferably
concrete in the adjacent precast segments. High wire brushed or sandblasted. Prior to construction of
early strength hydraulic cement may be used. the joint, the adjacent concrete surface should be
Aggregate size should be selected to ensure kept thoroughly wet for approximately 6 hours, or
maximum compaction. bonding agent should be applied.
The height of each concrete placement or lift must be Narrow or closed joints
limited so that the concrete can be properly
Narrow joints can be dry or epoxy bonded. The joint
consolidated. Ports are normally provided for
width varies from practically zero for dry joints to
inspection.
about 2 mm for epoxy bonded joints.
Formwork must prevent leakage of concrete during
In both cases, a perfect match of the joint surfaces is
and after its placement. Adequate curing is necessary
essential. This can be achieved through match-
to reach the design strength of the concrete.
casting or the use of precision steel bulkheads.
Grouted joints are usually filled using pressure
Match-casting requires that each new segment is
grouting. The perimeter of the joint is sealed with a
cast against its previously cast neighbour. The use of
compressible gasket, the compression achieved
bond breaking agents allows the segments to be
either by use of external devices or by introducing a
separated. Match-casting involves careful
small amount of prestress. Gaskets are also provided
organization and additional handling of the segments.
around the individual post-tensioning tendons to
prevent grout leakage into the ducts that would block The use of precision bulkheads provides more
passage of the tendons. The joint detail should flexibility in production and ties up less floor space,
provide for vents at the top to permit escape of but its success depends on machined steel
entrapped air during grouting. At the conclusion of the bulkheads fabricated to very tight tolerances.
grouting operation, vents should be closed and Match-cast segments are normally joined by coating
pressure increased to a minimum of 0.1 MPa at the abutting surfaces with a thin (1 mm) layer of epoxy
vent, to ensure full grout intrusion. Within a few days adhesive, and then drawing together and holding in
after grouting, vents should be re-opened and if position the precast elements. An epoxy filler is not
consolidation is evident, the vent is filled. always necessary, however, it does provide the
The width of the pressure grouted joint should not be following advantages:
greater than 50 mm. The compressive strength of the 1. During placement the epoxy will act as a
grout should equal that of the concrete in adjacent lubricant, which will assist in the alignment
segments, but not less than 30 MPa. Admixtures, process.
such as water reducing agents or expansive agents,
if used, should be of the non-staining type. 2. The epoxy will even out any small contact
surface differences and thus provide a uniform
Dry-packed joints are used in conjunction with bearing surface.
smaller elements having good access to all parts of
the joint. Dry-packing allows earlier application of the 3. The epoxy will provide a joint with tensile
final post-tensioning. capacity greater than the concrete, and thus
assure monolithic behaviour.
The concrete mortar must have a compressive
4. The epoxy will provide water tightness and
strength equal to the concrete in adjacent segments, durability at the joints.
or at least 30 MPa. Good mortar should be
thoroughly mixed and have zero slump. Maximum Epoxy bonding agents for match cast joints should be
aggregate size normally does not exceed 5 mm. thermosetting, 100% solid compositions, that do not
Mortar should be rammed into place using a heavy contain solvents or any non-reactive organic
hammer and a wood ram. The width of dry-packed ingredient, except for pigments required for colouring.
joints should not exceed approximately 50 mm. Epoxy bonding agents should be of two components,
Mortar should be introduced into the joint in small a resin and a hardener. The two components should

be distinctly pigmented, so that mixing produces a time can be noted from behaviour of lap joint samples
third colour similar to the concrete in the segments to spread on small cement boards), the epoxy should be
be joined, and should be packaged in pre-portioned, removed and any remainder washed off with solvent,
labelled, ready-to-use containers. according to the instructions of the manufacturer,
followed by sandblasting. Particular care is required
Epoxy bonding agents should be formulated to
in cold weather.
provide application temperature ranges that will
permit erection of match-cast segments at ambient Epoxy bonding agents should be relatively insensitive
temperatures from 5C to 45C. If two surfaces to be to damp conditions during application and, after
bonded have different temperatures, the adhesive curing, should exhibit high bonding strength to cured
applicable at the lower temperature should be used. concrete, good water resistivity, low creep
characteristics, and tensile strength greater than the
If the project requires or would benefit from erection
concrete. The compressive strength of the epoxy
at a concrete temperature lower than 5C, the
should equal that of the concrete in adjacent
temperature of the concrete within the vicinity of the
segments under any environmental condition that
joint should be elevated to at least 5C to ensure
may be encountered during the life of the structure.
effective wetting of the surface by the epoxy
compound in a reasonable length of time. An artificial Epoxy bonding agents should be tested to determine
environment will have to be provided to accomplish their workability, set time, open time, bond,
this elevation in temperature, and should be created compression and shear strength, and working
by an enclosure heated by circulating warm air or by temperature range. The frequency of tests should be
radiant heaters. Localized heating should be avoided, stated in the Contract.
and the heat should be provided in a manner that
prevents surface temperatures greater than 45C If desired, test specimens can be made at the site to
during the epoxy hardening process. Direct flame later verify the properties of the epoxy. These may
heating of concrete surfaces should be prohibited. include prisms of adhesive to test the compressive
strength, and diagonally-cut concrete cylinders or
Surfaces of the match-cast joints to be bonded prisms bonded together with the epoxy to indirectly
should be sound, and clean. All traces of mold test shear strength by compressive loading. If
release agents, curing compounds, laitance, oil, dirt necessary, concrete cores may be drilled through the
and loose concrete should be removed from surfaces bond line and tested in compression.
to be bonded by proper washing or sandblasting.
Dry joints are fast to handle during construction and,
The concrete surfaces that are to be bonded should providing there is a perfect match of segments, very
not be wet; a damp but not saturated surface is little can go wrong. Post-tensioning should be
permissible. To get rid of a wet surface, the concrete designed in such a way that after all losses a
may be dried with hot air just before applying the compressive stress of about 1.0 MPa remains across
adhesive. all dry joints.
The adhesive should be applied in a uniform
thickness to both surfaces. Care must be taken that Joint surfaces
no epoxy mix enters the ducts for the tendons. After
Requirements concerning surface quality must be
joining the segments, the ducts must be checked to
stricter for narrow joints than for wide joints filled with
ensure they are not blocked by any adhesive. Some
mortar or concrete.
post-tensioning should be applied within 45 minutes
after application of the epoxy material and a minimum Orientation:
average temporary prestress of 0.4 MPa over the
Surfaces should be oriented perpendicular to the
cross-section should be applied within 70% of the
main post-tensioning tendons, to minimize shearing
open time of the epoxy material, and should be
forces and dislocation in the plane of the joint during
maintained until the permanent tendons are stressed.
post-tensioning. Inclination with respect to a plane
At no point on the cross-section should the temporary
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis is permitted for
prestress be less than 0.2 MPa. If the correct amount
joints with assured friction resistance. The inclination
of adhesive has been used, a small amount will
should generally not exceed 20. Larger inclination,
extrude from the joint when pressure is applied.
but not more than approximately 30, may be
In case of unforeseen interruptions, and 70% of the permitted if the inclined surface area is located close
open time expires before the segments are fully to the neutral axis and does not exceed 25 percent of
joined (an approximate determination of the open the joints total surface area.

Quality: Flexural stresses
For wide joints, rough surfaces are preferable, as 1. For elements that are assembled using a dry
they produce better bond between segment and filling joint and to prevent joint opening, tension should
material. Since it is difficult in normal practice to not be permitted between segments under any
produce perfect sharp edges, it is advisable to make stage of erection or service loading.
joint surface edges slightly rounded or chamfered.
Although this will tend to make joints visible, it will 2. For elements that are assembled using an epoxy
also reduce the contrast if neighbouring segments joint, the allowable tensile stress at the joint may
have slight colour variance. Rounding or chamfering be considered the same as that for monolithic
of edges should not decrease the joint surface area construction.
by more than approximately 2.5 percent.
3. For elements that are assembled using a grout
For narrow joints, the surface, including formed keys, joint, the allowable tensile stress at the joint
should be even and smooth, to avoid point contact should be taken as zero unless tests indicate
and surface crushing or chipping off of edges during otherwise.
post-tensioning.
Joint shear
Holes for tendons and couplers
When joints are composed of an epoxy or grout with
Holes or sheathing for tendons must be located very a tensile strength at least equal to the concrete, the
precisely, such as by using steel templates or element may be designed as a monolithic. When a
precision steel bulkheads, when producing segments dry joint is used, shear should be considered
joined by post-tensioning. Care is required to prevent transferred by friction, using a friction factor of 0.7.
leakage or penetration of joint-filling materials into the (This value is given as a guide. The actual value to
duct, thus blocking passage of the tendons. be used requires engineering judgement.) At working
Joints are always crossed by post-tensioning ducts loads, care should be taken that there is no relative
and tendons. Two basic methods are used: displacement at the joint. At ultimate, the available
shear resistance Vr should be at least equal to Vf,
1. Tendons in ducts through the segments. where Vf is the factored shear.
2. Tendons placed outside the segment. Reinforcement
The second case does not cause any problems for Reinforcement, to meet at least minimum
the joints. The first case is discussed in detail in the requirements for flexural elements in accordance with
PTI Post-Tensioning Manual. [12] the Code, is normally required in segments for:
2.9.3 Design Considerations
1. transverse bending moments
Design procedures for precast segmental structures
are essentially the same as for monolithic 2. shear
prestressed concrete structures.[13] 3. torsion due to eccentric loading
Settlement and shortening of scaffolding due to dead
4. thermal and volume change forces
load of segments as well as construction loads must
be considered. Segments need to be carefully 5. temporary forces imposed during fabrication,
aligned and levelled before forming joints and post- transportation, or erection
tensioning.
Bearing and anchorage
Shortening of the segments and jointing materials
due to temperature, settlement, or change in loading Bearing areas are subjected to large concentrated
conditions should be checked before post-tensioning forces; they may also need to accommodate
the structure. If joints separate due to the above substantial movement due to volume changes and
causes, the post-tensioning may cause uneven thermal effects.
distribution of stresses or grout leakage. Generally, four different areas of diagonal splitting
Elements that are post-tensioned require the and cracking can be identified in anchorage or
following additional considerations: bearing areas that will require reinforcement:

1. Under end surfaces, not more than 20 mm deep, Couplers
to control possible surface cracking around Couplers should be designed to develop the full
anchorages. ultimate resistance of the tendons they connect.
Adjacent to the coupler, the tendons should be
2. Internally, to prevent splitting of separate
straight for a minimum length of 12 times the
anchorages. Size and location of this area and
diameter of the coupler. Adequate provisions should
of the magnitude of splitting (bursting) force
be made to ensure that couplers can move during
depends on the type of anchorage and the force prestressing. It is particularly important that the void
in the post-tensioning tendon, and should be areas around a coupler be deducted from gross
investigated individually for each type of section areas when computing stresses at the time of
anchorage. prestressing.
3. Internally, to prevent splitting between groups of Deflections
anchorages (not distributed on bearing surface Deflection calculations should consider dead load,
uniformly). For each case, the splitting force and prestress, erection loads, concrete creep and
necessary reinforcement should be defined shrinkage, and steel relaxation. For joints using an
separately for the vertical and horizontal epoxy or grout with a tensile strength at least equal to
directions. the concrete, the elements may be considered
monolithic. When a dry joint is used, deflection should
4. To decrease the possibility of damage to
be computed based on a bilinear moment-deflection
segments during post-tensioning due to
relationship, using a transformed cracked section
unintended stress concentrations, or during when tensile stresses exist in the precompressed
handling of segments, supplemental tensile zone.
reinforcement may be desirable immediately
adjacent to the joint surface. 2.9.4 Post-tensioning Considerations
Concrete that is placed around anchorages, after Background information on various post-tensioning
post-tensioning, should be reinforced to ensure that it systems and their applications is given in Chapter 1
will not spall. and in the PTI Post-Tensioning Manual. [12]

2.10 REFERENCES
[1] National Research Council., National Academy [12] Post-Tensioning Manual, Sixth Edition, Post-
of Sciences Expansion Joints in Buildings, Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, 2006
Technical Report No. 65, 1974
[13] Martynowicz, A. and McMillan, C.B., Large
[2] Martin, L.D., Background and Discussion on PCI Precast Prestressed Vierendeel Trusses
Design Handbook Second Edition, PCI Highlight Multistorey Building, PCI JOURNAL,
JOURNAL, Vol. 25, No. 1, Jan-Feb 1980, pp. 24- Vol. 20, No. 6, Nov-Dec 1975, pp. 50-65
41
[14] Benjamin, J.R., Statically Indeterminate
[3] Englekirk, R.E. Design-Construction of the Structure, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959
Paramount A 39 Story Precast Prestressed
Concrete Apartment Building, PCI JOURNAL, [15] Aristizabal-Ochoa, J.D., Moment Restraint and
Vol. 47, No. 4, Jul-Aug 2002 Second Order Analysis of a Cantilevered Precast
Column Supported by an Isolated Footing, PCI
[4] Gouwens, A.J., Lateral Load Analysis of JOURNAL, V47. No. 6, Nov-Dec 2002
Multistorey Frames with Shear Walls, Bulletin
AEC2, Portland Cement Association Computer [16] American Concrete Institute Response of
Program Multistory Concrete Structures to Lateral Forces,
Special Publication SP-36., 1973
[5] MacGregor, J.G., and Hage, S.E., Stability
Analysis and Design of Concrete, Proceedings, [17] ACI Committee 442 Response of Buildings to
JOURNAL of the Structural Division, ASCE, Lateral Forces, ACI JOURNAL, V68. No. 2,
October, 1977 February 1971
[6] Speyer, I.J., Consideration for the Design of [18] Portland Cement Association Design of
Precast Concrete Bearing Wall Buildings to Combined Frames and Shear Walls, Advanced
Withstand Abnormal Loads, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. Engineering Bulletin No. 14, 1965
21, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1976, pp. 18-51 [19] Fintel, M., Handbook of Concrete Engineering,
[7] National Research Council of Canada: The 2nd Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
National Building Code of Canada, 2005, NY, 1965
Volume 1 [20] Nakaki, S. D., Stanton, J.F., Sritharan, S. , An
[8] Design Considerations for Precast Prestressed overview of the PRESSS Five-Story Precast
Apartment Building, Prestressed Concrete Test Building PCI JOURNAL, Special Report,
Institute, 1975, 224 pp Vol. 44, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1999, pp. 26-39
[9] Kahn, L.F., Reinforced Concrete Infilled Shear [21] Devall, R. Introduction to Special Issue on
Walls for Aseismic Strengthening, Report UMEE Proposed Earthquake Design Requirements of
76R1, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Jan. the National Building Code of Canada, Canadian
1976 JOURNAL of Civill Engineering, No:30, Vol 2,
April 2003
[10] Spencer, R.A. and Tong, W.K.T., Design of a
One-story Precast Concrete Building for [22] Fleischman, Robert B., Farrow, Kenneth, T., and
Earthquake Loading, Proc., Eighth World Conf. eastman, Kristin, Seismic Performance of
on Earthquake Engineering, San Francisco, Perimeter Lateral System structures with Highly
1984, Vol. V, pp. 653-660 flexible Diaphragms Earthquake Spectra, Vol.
18, No.2, May 2002, Earthquake Eng. Research
[11] PCI Committee on Segmental Construction, Institute
Recommended Practice for Segmental
Construction in Prestressed Concrete, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 20, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1975, pp. 22-
41

CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF ELEMENTS
3.0 NOTATION ...................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 3-10
3.2 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS.......................................................................... 3-10
3.2.1 Load Combinations and Load Factors ............................................................. 3-10
3.2.2 Load Combination for Serviceability Checks.................................................... 3-10
3.2.3 Material Resistance Factors ............................................................................. 3-10
3.3 FACTORED FLEXURAL RESISTANCE ....................................................................... 3-10
3.3.1 Design Procedures ........................................................................................... 3-10
3.3.2 Analysis Using Equations in A23.3................................................................... 3-12
3.3.3 Analysis Using Strain Compatibility.................................................................. 3-24
3.4 FLEXURAL DESIGN AT SERVICE LIMIT STATE........................................................ 3-26
3.4.2 Reinforced Element Design.............................................................................. 3-26
3.4.3 Prestressed Element Design General ........................................................... 3-27
3.4.4 Prestress Loss General ................................................................................. 3-31
3.4.5 Prestress Loss by Simplified Method ............................................................... 3-32
3.4.6 Prestress Loss by Detailed Method.................................................................. 3-33
3.4.7 Prestress Losses and Deflection in Composite Elements................................ 3-39
3.4.8 Partially Prestressed Element Design .............................................................. 3-44
3.4.9 Prestress Transfer and Strand Development ................................................... 3-52
3.4.10 End Stresses at Transfer.................................................................................. 3-57
3.5 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION....................................................................................... 3-57
3.5.1 Initial Camber ................................................................................................... 3-57
3.5.2 Elastic Deflections ............................................................................................ 3-58
3.5.3 Long-Term Camber/Deflection ......................................................................... 3-60
3.5.4 Use of Multipliers for Determining Long-Term Camber and Deflection ........... 3-60
3.5.5 Detailed Method for Determining Long-Term Camber and Deflection
Fully Prestressed Elements.............................................................................. 3-62
3.5.6 Detailed Calculation of Live Load Deflection - Partially Prestressed Elements 3-62
3.5.7 Camber and Deflection of Composite Elements .............................................. 3-64
3.6 SHEAR .......................................................................................................................... 3-64
3.6.2 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance ............................................ 3-64
3.6.3 Shear Resistance Calculations and Shear Diagrams ...................................... 3-65
3.6.4 Longitudinal Shear Transfer in Composite Elements....................................... 3-69
3.7 DESIGN FOR SHEAR AND TORSION......................................................................... 3-73
3.8 COMPRESSION............................................................................................................ 3-79
3.8.1 Factored Resistance......................................................................................... 3-79
3.8.2 Development Length ........................................................................................ 3-81
3.8.3 Slenderness Effects.......................................................................................... 3-84
3.8.4 Effective Width of Wall Panels ......................................................................... 3-89
3.8.5 Load-bearing Insulated Wall Panels................................................................. 3-90
3.8.6 Non-uniform Moment of Inertia......................................................................... 3-90
3.8.7 Piles .................................................................................................................. 3-91
3.9 HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS................................................................................... 3-95
3.9.1 Form Suction and Impact Factors .................................................................... 3-95
3.9.2 Flexure.............................................................................................................. 3-95
3.9.3 Lateral Stability ............................................................................................... 3-100
3.9.4 Storage ........................................................................................................... 3-104
3.9.5 Transportation ................................................................................................ 3-105

3.9.6 Erection........................................................................................................... 3-105
3.10 SPECIAL DESIGN SITUATIONS................................................................................ 3-106
3.10.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads ................................................................ 3-106
3.10.2 Effects of Openings ........................................................................................ 3-107
3.10.3 Composite Topping with Hollow Core and Double Tee Slabs ....................... 3-108
3.10.4 Cantilevers...................................................................................................... 3-108
3.11 SANDWICH PANEL DESIGN ..................................................................................... 3-108
3.11.1 General ........................................................................................................... 3-108
3.11.2 Reinforcement ................................................................................................ 3-108
3.11.3 Non-load Bearing Panel Design ..................................................................... 3-109
3.11.4 Load Bearing Panel Design............................................................................ 3-109
3.12 DESIGN OF POST-TENSIONED ELEMENTS ........................................................... 3-113
3.12.1 General ........................................................................................................... 3-113
3.12.2 Methods of Analysis ....................................................................................... 3-113
3.12.3 Design for Service Loads ............................................................................... 3-115
3.12.4 Prestress Losses ............................................................................................ 3-116
3.12.5 Design for Factored Loads ............................................................................. 3-118
3.12.6 Other Considerations...................................................................................... 3-134
3.13 REFERENCES: ........................................................................................................... 3-142

DESIGN OF ELEMENTS
3.0 NOTATION b = length of a panel
A = effective tension area of concrete b = width of compression face of element
surrounding the flexural tension bt = width of tension zone of section
reinforcement
bv = width of cross section at contact surface
A = area of that part of cross-section between being investigated for longitudinal shear
flexural tension face and centroid of gross
section. bw = minimum effective web width within depth d
Ac = concrete cross-sectional area, not including C = compressive force
area of reinforcement C = cross sectional constant used in definition
Acomp = cross-sectional area of the equivalent of equivalent column torsional properties
rectangular stress block Cc = compressive force capacity of composite
Acr = area of cracked section topping
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear Cm = factor relating the actual moment diagram
transfer to an equivalent uniform moment diagram
Ag = gross area of section Cs = shrinkage coefficient
Ao = area enclosed by shear flow path, including Ct = creep coefficient
holes if any Cu = ultimate creep coefficient for standard
Aoh = area enclosed by stirrup centerline, conditions
including holes if any. c = distance from extreme compression fibre to
Ap = area of prestressed reinforcement in neutral axis
tension zone ca = applied overhanging moment arm
Ap = area of prestressed reinforcement in cr = resisting moment arm
compression zone
c1 = width of column in direction moments taken
Ar = concrete area in tension below the neutral
axis c2 = width of column in direction perpendicular
to moments taken
As = area of non-prestressed tension
reinforcement cu = neutral axis depth assuming fpr = fpu
A s = area of non-prestressed compression cy = neutral axis depth assuming fpr = fpy
reinforcement D = dead load
Ast = Ap + As Es/Ep d = distance from extreme compression fibre to
At = area of one leg of closed stirrup centroid of prestressed and non-
Atop = effective area of cast-in-place composite prestressed tension reinforcement, but
topping need not be less than 0.8h for prestressed
members.
Atr = area of uncracked transformed section
d = distance from extreme compression fibre to
Av = area of shear reinforcement centroid of non-prestressed tension
Avf = area of shear friction reinforcement reinforcement
Avl = area of shear ties d = distance from extreme compression fibre to
centroid of non-prestressed compression
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block reinforcement
a = width of a panel db = nominal diameter of reinforcing bar or
a = length of overhang prestressing strand
ag = maximum aggregate size dc = concrete cover to centre of reinforcement

dp, dp = distance from extreme compression fibre to fc = unit stress in concrete
centroid of stressed reinforcement fc = specified compressive strength of concrete
dv = effective shear depth; taken as flexural
fcc = specified compressive strength of
lever arm but need not be taken less than
composite topping, or of concrete in
0.9 d or 0.72 h
columns
E = modulus of elasticity fce = stress in concrete at the level of
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete prestressing tendons after all losses
Ecc = modulus of elasticity of concrete for column fce = compressive stress in concrete due to
prestress only after all losses, at the
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at time of
extreme fibre of a section at which tensile
prestress transfer
stresses are caused by applied loads
Ecs = modulus of elasticity of concrete for slab
fci = compressive stress in concrete at time of
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressed prestress transfer
reinforcement
fci = compressive strength of concrete at time of
Es = modulus of elasticity of non-prestressed prestress transfer
reinforcement
fco = concrete compressive stress at centroid of
e = eccentricity of design load or prestress tendon at critical section immediately after
force parallel to axis measured from the transfer
centroid of the section
fcp = compressive stress in concrete (after
e = distance between centroid of prestress allowance for all prestress losses) at the
force at end and centroid of prestress force centroid of the cross section
at lowest point = ec ee
fc1 = concrete stress at centroid of tendon at the
ec = eccentricity of prestress force from the critical section caused by sustained loads
centroid of the section at the centre of the not included in the calculation of fco (tension
span negative)
ee = eccentricity of prestress force from the fl = calculated stress due to live load
centroid of the section at the end of the
span fpe = effective stress in prestressed
reinforcement after allowance for all
ej = initial lateral eccentricity of the C. G. of prestress losses
beam
fpi = stress in tendon after transfer
etr = eccentricity of prestress force in uncracked
fpo = stress in pretensioned tendon immediately
transformed section
before transfer
ex = eccentricity of prestress force from x axis
fpp = stress in tendon at a distance y from the
ey = eccentricity of prestress force from y axis jacking end
F = force as defined in section used (with fpr = stress in prestressed reinforcement at
subscripts) factored resistance
Feq = equilibrium forces in anchorage zone fpu = tensile strength of tendon
Fit = required tensile force in longitudinal fpx = stress in tendon at a distance x from the
reinforcement on flexural tension side of jacking end
member
fpy = yield strength of tendon
FS = factor of safety against cracking
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete
FS = factor of safety against failure or roll-over
fr = allowable flexural tension stress computed
Fsp = spalling force on the basis of gross concrete section
fall = allowable compressive stress fre = intrinsic relaxation loss in prestressing steel
fb = stress in the bottom fibre of the cross fs = stress in the non-prestressed tension
section reinforcement due to specified loads

fs = increase in stress in the prestressed and Kec = flexural stiffness of equivalent column
non-prestressed reinforcement beyond KO = sum of rotational spring constants of
state of decompression supports
fs = stress in the non-prestressed compression
Kr = moment coefficient
reinforcement due to specified loads
Ks = flexural stiffness of slab
fsd = stress due to service dead load
Kt = torsional stiffness of torsion element
ft = stress in the top fibre of the cross section
k = effective length factor for compression
ftl = final total stress in the element
elements
fy, fy = specified yield strength of non-prestressed k = ratio of depth to the neutral axis to the
reinforcement depth, d, for a cracked section at service
h = overall height or thickness of a member moment
hc = centre to centre column height kc = stiffness coefficient
hf = thickness of compression flange of an k1, kp, = factors for type of prestressing steel
element kr
hr = height of axis above road kp = coefficient used in calculating critical load,
hu = unsupported height of wall Pc
h1 = distance from centroid of tensile kp = coefficient accounting for the shape of
reinforcement to neutral axis tendon stress-strain curve
h2 = distance from extreme tensile fibre to L = live load due to intended use
neutral axis l = overall length
I = moment of inertia about centroidal axis
l = span length
Ic = moment of inertia of concrete section l = length of tendon
Icr = moment of inertia of the cracked trans- l1 = span in direction moments considered
formed section
l2 = span in direction perpendicular to moments
Ie = effective moment of inertia
considered
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section lb = length of bar,
Iminor = moment of inertia about the minor axis lb = length of bearing
Imajor = moment of inertia about the major axis lc = vertical distance between supports
Is = moment of inertia of reinforcement ld = development length
Itr = moment of inertia of uncracked transformed le = length of tendon between anchors divided
section by the number of plastic hinges required to
Ix = moment of inertia about x axis develop a failure mechanism in the span
under consideration
Iy = moment of inertia about y axis
ln = length of clear span of element
Ixy = Ag (x xL) (y yb)
lo = overall length of tendon between anchors
J = polar moment of inertia
lt = transfer length of tendons
j = ratio of distance between centroid of
compression and centroid of tension to the lu = unsupported length of a compression
depth, d, for a cracked section at service element
moment lv = horizontal shear length as defined in Fig.
K = wobble coefficient for a post-tensioning 3.6.6
tendon M = moment due to specified loads
Kc = flexural stiffness of column M = secondary moment

Ma = total moment at the section M2ns = factored end moment on a compression
Mbal = balance load moment in post-tensioned member at the end at which M2 acts, due to
element loads that cause no appreciable sway,
calculated using a fist-order elastic frame
Mc = moment used for design of compression analysis
elements
M2s = factored end moment on a compression
Mcr = cracking moment member at the end at which M2 acts, due to
MCS = moment in column strip loads that cause appreciable sway,
calculated using a fist-order elastic frame
Md = moment due to specified dead load analysis
Mdc = decompression moment
m = unfactored mass
MDS = moment in design strip N = unfactored axial load
Mf = moment due to factored loads N = allowable axial load
Ml = moment due to specified live loads
Nf = factored axial load occurring with Vf
Mlat = lateral bending moment at cracking Nv = equivalent factored axial load caused by
Mn = net moment at a section shear and torsion
Mnl = net load moment in post-tensioned element n = modular ratio
Mns = moments from a first order analysis due to n = number of bars
gravity loads, which do not contribute to
no = Ep/Eco
sway
Mocr = pure flexural cracking moment Ms Ep
n =
bd2 Ec
Mr = factored flexural resistance
Mro = factored flexural resistance of a ApEp + A sEs
n =
compression element with zero axial load Ec bd
Mrb = factored flexural resistance under balanced n1 = Ep / Ec1
conditions
Pbu = final force in upper layer of bottom
Ms = factored sway moment prestressed reinforcement
Ms = moment due to all specified loads, including Pbl = final force in lower layer of bottom
P- effects. prestressed reinforcement
Msd = moment due to superimposed dead load Pc = critical axial load
Msl = moment due to all sustained load except Pc = shrinkage coefficient to account for cement
element mass content
Msw = moment due to self weight Pc = compression force in concrete
Mv = moment transferred by eccentricity of shear Pdc = decompression force
Mvcr = total moment due to factored loads plus Pe = prestress force after all losses
eccentric shear
Pf = shrinkage coefficient to account for fine to
Mx, My = service or stripping load moments about x, total aggregate ratio
Mz y and z axes
Pf = factored axial load
M1 = smaller factored end moment on a
Ph = shrinkage coefficient to account for relative
compression element, positive if bent in
humidity
single curvature, negative if double
curvature Pi = prestress force immediately after transfer
M2 = larger factored end moment, always Po = initial prestress force immediately before
positive transfer

PR = anchorage zone equilibrium force reaction Sb = section modulus with respect to the bottom
Pr = factored axial load resistance fibre of a cross section
St = section modulus with respect to the top
Pr = shrinkage coefficient to account for volume
to surface ratio fibre of a cross section
Prb = factored axial resistance under balanced s = shear or torsion reinforcement spacing in a
conditions direction parallel to the longitudinal
reinforcement
Pro = factored axial resistance of a compression
element with zero eccentricity T = tensile force
Ps = force in non-prestressed reinforcement due T = cumulative effects of temperature, creep,

to time dependent strain shrinkage and differential settlement
Psh = long term shrinkage modification factor Tcr = pure torsional cracking resistance
Psl = shrinkage coefficient to account for slump Tf = factored torsional moment on a section
Pt = final force in top prestressed reinforcement t = thickness
Pv = shrinkage coefficient to account for air t = time
content V/S = volume to surface ratio
p = Pdc dp/Ms Vc = factored shear resistance of the concrete
pc = outside perimeter of cross section
Vcw = factored shear resistance provided by
ph = perimeter of stirrup centreline concrete when diagonal cracking results
po = perimeter of shear flow path from excessive principal tensile stress in
web
Q = stability index of a storey
Vf = factored shear force
Qa = creep coefficient to account for concrete
age at time of loading and curing conditions vf = factored shear stress
Qcp = creep modification factor for non-standard Vfl = factored longitudinal shear force
conditions Vp = factored component in the direction of the
Qf = creep coefficient to account for the fine to applied shear of the effective prestressing
total aggregate ratio force factored by p or, for variable depth
members, the sum of the component of the
Qh = creep coefficient to account for relative
prestressing force and the components of
humidity
flexural compression and tension in the
Qr = creep coefficient to account for the volume direction of the applied shear, positive if
to surface ratio resisting applied shear, factored by p
Qsl = creep coefficient to account for concrete Vr = factored shear resistance
slump
Vrl = factored longitudinal shear resistance
Qv = creep coefficient to account for concrete air
content Vs = factored shear resistance provided by shear
reinforcement
r = radius of gyration
vs = factored shear stress resisted by shear
r = radius of stability = KO / W
reinforcement
sz = crack spacing parameter, can be taken as
Vse = shear due to specified loads
equal to du
sze = equivalent sz allowing for aggregate size W = live load due to wind or internal moment or
forces
S = section modulus
W = total weight of beam
S = time dependent factor to calculate long term
deflection W = weight per unit length of beam

w = specified load per unit length of beam or f = angle between shear friction reinforcement
per unit area of slab and shear plane
w = maximum crack width at extreme tension 1 = ratio of average stress in rectangular
fibre compression block to the specified concrete
strength
wd = specified dead load per unit length
wl = specified live load per unit of length b = bw/b
wnl = net service load per unit of length f = hf/h

(unfactored) r = relaxation reduction coefficient (Fig. 3.4.4)
wp = vertical distributed load exerted on an = angle used in post-tensioning friction
element by a post-tensioning tendon calculations
wsd = specified superimposed dead load = fpi / fpu
x = anchorage length of a tension tie of torsion = fp / fpi
resisting cross section
= factor accounting for shear resistance of
xL = distance from left edge to y axis cracked concrete
Y = height of the C.G. of beam above the roll 1 = ratio of depth of rectangular compression
axis (adjusted for camber) block to depth to the neutral axis
Yr = height of the roll axis above the C.G. of d = ratio of factored dead load moment to total
beam (adjusted for camber) load moment
y = larger overall dimension of rectangular part d = ratio of the maximum factored sustained
of torsion resisting cross section shear within a storey to the maximum
y = distance from top to centroid of Acomp factored shear in that storey
yb = distance from bottom fibre to centroid of the = importance factor

section = deflection (with subscripts)
ycr = distance to tension fibre being considered = post-tensioning anchorage set
from centroid of cracked section fp = change in prestress due to creep, shrinkage
yt = distance from top fibre to centroid of and relaxation
cracked section fpo = change in prestress due to elastic loss
ytr = distance to extreme tension fibre from
fs = change in stress in reinforcement due to
centroid of uncracked transformed section
creep and shrinkage
Z = total bursting force isu = initial deflection due to sustained load
Z = lateral deflection of C.G. of beam su = time dependent deflection due to sustained
t
Zmax = horizontal distance from centre of vehicle to load
centre of dual tire Pi = initial deflection due to prestressing
o = theoretical lateral deflection of the C.G. of Pt = time dependent deflection due to
beam with full load applied laterally prestressing
o = o adjusted for cracked section at tilt angle P = change in prestressing force in concrete
under consideration (loss)
z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural Po = force in prestressed reinforcement
reinforcement corresponding to fc due to dead load and
effective prestress
= angle change in post-tensioning tendon
Pp = force in tendon corresponding to the
= load factor (with subscripts) as defined in
concrete strength fc at the level of the
Fig. 3.2.1
tendon under dead load and effective
= superelevation of tilt angle of support prestress

Ps = force in non-prestressed reinforcement = modification factor for EI for compression
corresponding to fc due to dead load and members
effective prestress = shear friction coefficient
= strand elongation due to post-tensioning
= coefficient of curvature friction (post-
= moment magnifier (with subscripts) tensioned tendon)
c = the value of concrete strain = reinforcement ratio
ce = the strain in concrete corresponding to a p = Ap/bd = reinforcement ratio for prestressed
stress of fpe in the steel reinforcement
cp = strain due to creep A sEs
s =
i = initial elastic strain A cEp
p = strain at level of prestressed reinforcement t = top stress
= strain in prestressed reinforcement
pr, pr b = bottom stress
s, s = strain in non-prestressed reinforcement o = bursting stress in anchorage zone at x = 0
pe = strain in prestressed reinforcement after x = bursting stress in anchorage zone at x
losses
y = bursting stress in anchor zone at y
sh = shrinkage strain
= resistance factor (with subscripts) as
shu = ultimate shrinkage strain defined in Fig. 3.2.3
x = longitudinal strain of flexural tension chord m = member resistance factor used in moment
of the member magnification calculation
y = yield strain of non-prestressed = curvature
reinforcement
= modification factors for anchors in Chapter
= angle of minor axis of a section 24 of A23.3
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive = deflection multiplier for sustained load
stresses to the longitudinal axis of member
= fy / fc
i = initial roll angle of rigid beam = eI / Yr
p = p fpr / fc
max = tilt angle at which cracking begins
pu = p fpu / fc

max = tilt angle at the maximum factor of safety
against failure = f p / fpi ; (fp fp1) / fpi

= factor to account for density of concrete = superscript used to identify terms used in
the creep transformed section method (see
Sec. 3.4.7)

3.1 INTRODUCTION The flexural resistance of any section can be
determined using design procedures that take into
This chapter provides a summary of design
account equilibrium and strain compatibility. For
procedures for precast concrete elements with
many prestressed elements, the stress in the
pretensioned, post-tensioned and non-prestressed
prestressed reinforcement at factored resistance, fpr,
reinforcement. Post-tensioning is a method of
can be obtained using the equations given in A23.3.
prestressing where the tendons are tensioned after
The equilibrium equations using the rectangular
the concrete has reached a predetermined strength.
stress block are shown in Fig. 3.3.1.
Pretensioning is a method of prestressing where the
tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed. Fig. 3.2.1 Load combinations and load factors
from NBCC 2005
No attempt has been made in this chapter to
differentiate between the design of architectural and Load Combination
Factored
Case Companion
structural elements, or between the design of load Resistance Principal Loads
Loads
bearing and non-load bearing elements, as the
design approach is common to all cases. 1 R 1.4D
2 R 1.25D + 1.5L 0.5S or 0.4W

3.2 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS
3 R 1.25D + 1.5S 0.5L or 0.4W
3.2.1 Load Combinations and Load Factors
4 R 1.25D + 1.4W 0.5L or 0.5S
NBCC 2005 specifies a set of load combinations, that
takes into account a governing load called the R + effect 1.4 W or 1.5L or
5
principal load, and a secondary load known as the of 0.9 D 1.5S
companion load. 6 R 1.0 D + 1.0 E 0.5 L + 0.25 S
R + effect
3.2.2 Load Combination for Serviceability 7 1.0 E
of 1.0 D
Checks
Notes:
For load combination at service limit state refer to 1. Where the effects due to lateral earth pressure H, prestress
NBCC-2005 Commentary. P and imposed deformation T affect the structural safety,
they shall be taken into account in the calculations, H with a
3.2.3 Material Resistance Factors load factor of 1.5, P with a load factor 1.0 and T with a load
The material resistance factors are as shown in Fig. factor of 1.25.
3.2.3. Clause 16.1.3 of A23.3 states that for elements 2. The principal load factor 1.5 for live load L may be reduced
produced in manufacturing plants certified in to 1.25 for liquids in tanks.
accordance with A23.4, the concrete material 3. The companion load factor 0.5 for live load L shall be
resistance factor, c, may be taken as 0.70. increased to 1.0 for storage occupancies.
4. The load factor 1.25 for dead load D for soil, super imposed
3.3 FACTORED FLEXURAL RESISTANCE earth, plant ant trees shall be increased to 1.5.
5. Earthquake load E in load combination (6) and (7) includes
3.3.1 Design Procedures horizontal earth pressure due to earthquake.
The flexural resistance of an element must be equal 6. The dead load factors of 1.25 specified in load cases 2 to 4
to or greater than the factored load effect: and 1.0 specified in case 5 are to be reduced to 0.9 when
dead load acts to resist overturning, uplift, sliding and failure
Mr Mf due to stress reversal, and to determine anchor
requirements and factored member resistances.
Fig. 3.2.2 Importance Factors (NBCC-2005)

Importance Category Snow load factor, Is Wind load factor, IW Seismic load factor, IE
ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS
Low 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.75 0.8
Normal 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.75 1.0
High 1.15 0.9 1.15 0.75 1.3
Post Disaster 1.25 0.9 1.25 0.75 1.5

Fig. 3.2.3 Material resistance factors Fig. 3.3.1 Factored flexural resistance
Materials Factor
Cast in place concrete c = 0.65
Precast concrete non-certified c = 0.65
Precast concrete certified to A23. c = 0.70
Reinforcing steel s = 0.85
Prestressing steel p = 0.90
Structural steel a = 0.90
Stress block parameters
The depth of the rectangular stress block, a, is
related to the depth to the neutral axis, c, by the
equation:
a = 1c
1 = 0.97 0.0025fc but not less than 0.67
The ratio of average stress in the rectangular

compression stress block to the specified strength is p A p fpr + s A s fy s A s fy
a =
given by 1 1c fc b
1 = 0.85 0.0015fc but not less than 0.67 If a > hf, the force required to develop the
compressive strength of the overhanging flanges is
fc (MPa) 1 1
deducted from the total force in the tension
30 0.805 0.895 reinforcement as shown in Example 3-5.
35 0.798 0.883
40 0.790 0.870 Limitations on reinforcement
45 0.783 0.858
Minimum reinforcing is not required if Mr 1.33Mf
50 0.775 0.845
55 0.768 0.833 When minimum reinforcement is required for flexural
60 0.760 0.820 elements, the reinforcement shall be proportioned so
65 0.753 0.808 that:
70 0.745 0.795
Mr 1.2Mcr
75 0.737 0.783
80 0.730 0.770 Mcr is calculated using fr = 0.6 fc
Flanged elements P Pe
Mcr = e + e + 0.6 fc S
Clause 10.3.3, A23.3 limits the overhanging flange Ag S

width on either side of the web to be used in the
design of simply supported, symmetrical T-beams to In lieu of calculating Mcr, minimum reinforcement may
12 times the flange thickness, 1/2 the clear distance be determined as follows:
to the next web or 1/5 the span length. These 0.2 fc
empirical provisions were developed for Asmin = bth
fy
conventionally reinforced concrete and do not
necessarily apply to prestressed concrete. It is This equation need not apply to the design of slabs
common practice to use the full flange width for and footings that are covered by A23.3 Clause 7.8.
double and single tees.
The maximum reinforcement ratio for reinforced
The equations for flexural resistance given in Fig. elements shall satisfy the following expression:
3.3.1 apply only to rectangular sections and flanged c 700
sections in which the stress block lies entirely within
d 700 + fy
the depth of the flange, hf. The depth of the stress
block, a, can be found from the equations of Strain compatibility analysis must be used when the
equilibrium given in Fig. 3.3.1: c/d ratio is exceeded.

fpr
The minimum bonded reinforcement requirements in or considering that c = cu :
prestressed members depend on the concrete tensile fpu
stresses and the type of tendons as summarized in
1
Fig. 3.3.3. fpr = fpu
1 + kpcu / dp

For partially prestressed beams and one-way slabs,
the distribution of bonded tendons and reinforcement 2. For elements with unbonded tendons:
shall be such that the quantity z does not exceed 20 8000
kN/mm for interior exposure and 15 kN/mm for fpr = fpe +
lo
(dp c y ) (See Example 3-36)
exterior exposure. Every limitation mentioned above
must be satisfied separately without any additive but shall not exceed fpy and cy is determined
effect. assuming a stress of fpy in the tendons.
Critical section The term kp accounts for the shape of the tendon
stress-strain curve. Values of kp are given below:
For simply supported, uniformly loaded, prismatic,
reinforced elements, the critical section for flexural Tendon Type kp
design will occur at midspan. Provided that
reinforcement is properly developed and adequate Low relaxation strand or wire 0.28
shear reinforcement is provided, the amount of Plain prestressing bars 0.38
flexural reinforcement may be reduced in areas of
lower moment towards the support. Deformed prestressing bars 0.48
For prestressed elements, because of the limitation Example 3-2 shows the method of calculating the
on end stresses at the time of prestress transfer, flexural resistance of a prestressed element with
tendons are often draped or depressed, producing a bonded tendons using Fig. 3.3.1 and the appropriate
varying effective depth, dp along the length of the equation for fpr.
element. For draped tendons, or non-uniform
loading, it may be necessary to compare the factored For elements with only bonded prestressed
moment Mf, with the factored flexural resistance, Mr, reinforcemen, the calculations shown in Fig. 3.3.2
at points other than at midspan. For uniform loads can be simplified using the coefficients given in Fig.
with single point depressed tendons, the governing 3.3.7 and 3.3.8, as illustrated in Example 3-3.
section is usually near 0.4 l. (See Fig. 3.3.4.) Note that if c/dp > 0.5 or if fpe < 0.6 fpy, the equation
for fpr should only be used as the first iteration of a
3.3.2 Analysis Using Equations in A23.3
strain compatibility analysis. Similarly, if c/dp is
Reinforced elements greater than 0.5, the coefficients in Fig. 3.3.7 and Fig.
3.3.8 should only be used to estimate Ap or Mr.
Figs. 3.3.5 and 3.3.6 are convenient aids for the
design and analysis of rectangular sections with non- For sections with only bonded prestressed tendons,
prestressed reinforcement. Values of max the coefficients are derived using the following:
corresponding to the maximum c/d ratio are also
listed. From Fig. 3.3.1:
The use of this design aid is illustrated in Example 3-1. 1 c fc b a = p Ap fpr
Prestressed elements Dividing by b dp fc and defining the term:

The following conservative values of fpr may be used fpr A p fpr
p = p =
if fpe is not less than 0.6 fpy: fc bdp fc
1. For elements with bonded tendons, provided
c/dp is not greater than 0.5: 1c fc ba p A p fpr
= = p p
c bdp fc bdp fc
fpr = fpu 1 kp
dp
p p dp
a =
where kp = 2(1.04 fpy / fpu ) and c is determined 1c
using a stress of fpr in the tendons.

Fig. 3.3.2 Flow chart for flexural resistance calculations
Ap = 0 YES NON-PRESTRESSED
fpr = 0 REINFORCEMENT
ONLY
NO DETERMINE fpr
NO BY STRAIN
fpe 0.6fpy
COMPATIBILITY
YES
GENERAL EQ.
p A p fpy + s A s fy s A s fy 1 c fch f (b b w ) NO BONDED
cy =
1 c 1fcb w TENDONS
GENERAL EQ. YES*
c p A pfpu + s A s fs s A s fs 1 c fc (b b w )hf **
=
dp 1 c fc1b w dp + k p p A pfpu
c NO DETERMINE fpr, fs, f's

START 0.5 BY STRAIN
dp COMPATIBILITY
*
YES
8000 fpy
fpr = fpe + (dp c y ) k p = 2 104
.
lo fpu
c
fpr = fpu 1 k p
dp
GENERAL EQ.
p A p fpr + s A s fs s A s fs 1 c fch f (b b w )
a=
1 c fcb w
c = a / 1
REVISE SECTION YES

NON-PRESTRESSED
NO c 700
PROPERTIES AND/OR REINFORCEMENT
MATERIAL PROPERTIES d 700 + fy ONLY
YES
NO
Mr = p A p fpr ( dp a / 2) + s A s fs ( d a / 2) s A s fs ( d a / 2) 1 c fch f (b b w )(h f / 2 a / 2)
* Provided that the above equation is satisfied, the following approximate values of fpr may be used.
** As a first iteration, the upper bound value of c/d can be determined by assuming fpr = fpu. Also fs and fs can be taken equal to fy and
fy provided they are located at least 0.75c from the neutral axis, otherwise strain compatibility must be used.
Preferred values of c/d lie in the range 0.23 to 0.37.
Iterate until values of fpr converge.

Fig. 3.3.3 Minimum area of bonded reinforcement
Concrete stress
Tensile stress Tensile stress
Type of
0.5 fc > 0.5 fc
member
Type of tendon Type of tendon
Bonded Unbonded Bonded Unbonded
Beams 0 0.004 A 0.003 A 0.005 A
One-way slabs 0 0.003 A 0.002 A 0.004 A
Two-way slabs:
0 0.0006 h ln 0.00045 h ln 0.00075 h ln
Negative moment regions
Positive moment regions, concrete
0 0.004 A 0.003 A 0.005 A
tensile stress > 0.2 fc
Positive moment regions, concrete
tensile stress 0 0
0.2 fc
Fig. 3.3.4 Critical sections for flexural design
Mr = p A p fpr (dp a / 2) 1
p = pu
p pu
p A p fpr bdp2 fc (1 a / 2dp ) 1 + kp
1c 1
=
bdp fc
By substituting the equation for p in the equation for
p p Mr and introducing the coefficient:
= p fc bdp2 p 1 1
21c Kr = p pu
p pu
Ap 1 + kp
Multiplying the equation for fpr by : 1c 1
bdp fc
Ap fpr Ap fpu (1 kp c / dp )
=
p pu
bdp fc bdp fc 1
p pu
and defining the term pu: 21c 1 + kp
1c 1
fpu Ap fpu
pu = p =
fc bdp fc Mr = Kr fc bdp2
c 1
=
dp 1c1
+ kp

p pu

For flanged sections, the design aid only applies if the If the stress block is deeper than the flange, Example
compression stress block is confined to the flange 3-5 should be followed.
where:
p dp pu
hf
p pu
1c 1 + kp
1c 1
Fig. 3.3.5 Flexural resistance design aid for rectangular section with non-prestressed reinforcement
only - precast certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (c =0.70)
Procedure:
Design Analysis
Mf
1. Determine kr = 1. Determine = Ap/bd
fc bd2
fy
2. Calculate from the table 2. Determine =
fc
fc
3. Determine = 3. Calculate Kr from the table
fy
4. Determine As = bd 4. Determine Mr = K r fc bd2

max.
fc (MPa) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
fy (MPa) 1 0.895 0.883 0.870 0.858 0.845 0.833 0.820 0.808 0.795 0.783 0.770
1 0.805 0.798 0.790 0.783 0.775 0.768 0.760 0.753 0.745 0.738 0.730
300 0.386 0.377 0.368 0.359 0.351 0.342 0.334 0.325 0.317 0.309 0.301
400 0.351 0.342 0.334 0.327 0.319 0.311 0.303 0.296 0.288 0.281 0.274
fc Kr
30 MPa 0.568 0.3229 13370

. Kr 0.85 0.7479 2
35 0.563 0.3173 13254
. Kr 0.85 0.7545 2
40 0.558 0.3110 13121
. Kr 0.85 0.7621 2
45 0.555 0.3078 13055
. Kr 0.85 0.7660 2
50 0.547 0.2993 12872
. Kr 0.85 0.7769 2
55 0.542 0.2939 12756
. Kr 0.85 0.7840 2
60 0.536 0.2878 1.2623K r 0.85 0.7922 2
65 0.532 0.2825 12507
. Kr 0.85 0.79962
70 0.526 0.2765 12373
. Kr 0.85 0.80822
75 0.521 0.2714 12258
. Kr 0.85 0.8158 2
80 0.515 0.2655 12124
. Kr 0.85 0.8248 2

Fig. 3.3.5 Continued
Table is based on:
fc = 40 MPa
1 = 0.79
The error for other concrete strengths does not exceed 3.2%.
Values of Kr
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
0.00 0.0000 0.0008 0.0017 0.0025 0.0034 0.0042 0.0051 0.0059 0.0068 0.0076
0.01 0.0084 0.0093 0.0101 0.0109 0.0118 0.0126 0.0134 0.0142 0.0151 0.0159
0.02 0.0167 0.0175 0.0184 0.0192 0.0200 0.0208 0.0216 0.0224 0.0232 0.0241
0.03 0.0249 0.0257 0.0265 0.0273 0.0281 0.0289 0.0297 0.0305 0.0313 0.0321
0.04 0.0329 0.0337 0.0345 0.0352 0.0360 0.0368 0.0376 0.0384 0.0392 0.0400
0.05 0.0407 0.0415 0.0423 0.0431 0.0438 0.0446 0.0454 0.0462 0.0469 0.0477
0.06 0.0485 0.0492 0.0500 0.0508 0.0515 0.0523 0.0530 0.0538 0.0545 0.0553
0.07 0.0561 0.0568 0.0576 0.0583 0.0590 0.0598 0.0605 0.0613 0.0620 0.0628
0.08 0.0635 0.0642 0.0650 0.0657 0.0664 0.0672 0.0679 0.0686 0.0694 0.0701
0.09 0.0708 0.0715 0.0722 0.0730 0.0737 0.0744 0.0751 0.0758 0.0765 0.0773
0.10 0.0780 0.0787 0.0794 0.0801 0.0808 0.0815 0.0822 0.0829 0.0836 0.0843
0.11 0.0850 0.0857 0.0864 0.0871 0.0878 0.0884 0.0891 0.0898 0.0905 0.0912
0.12 0.0919 0.0925 0.0932 0.0939 0.0946 0.0953 0.0959 0.0966 0.0973 0.0979
0.13 0.0986 0.0993 0.0999 0.1006 0.1013 0.1019 0.1026 0.1032 0.1039 0.1046
0.14 0.1052 0.1059 0.1065 0.1072 0.1078 0.1085 0.1091 0.1097 0.1104 0.1110
0.15 0.1117 0.1123 0.1129 0.1136 0.1142 0.1148 0.1155 0.1161 0.1167 0.1174
0.16 0.1180 0.1186 0.1192 0.1199 0.1205 0.1211 0.1217 0.1223 0.1229 0.1236
0.17 0.1242 0.1248 0.1254 0.1260 0.1266 0.1272 0.1278 0.1284 0.1290 0.1296
0.18 0.1302 0.1308 0.1314 0.1320 0.1326 0.1332 0.1338 0.1343 0.1349 0.1355
0.19 0.1361 0.1367 0.1373 0.1378 0.1384 0.1390 0.1396 0.1401 0.1407 0.1413
0.20 0.1419 0.1424 0.1430 0.1436 0.1441 0.1447 0.1452 0.1458 0.1464 0.1469
0.21 0.1475 0.1480 0.1486 0.1491 0.1497 0.1502 0.1508 0.1513 0.1519 0.1524
0.22 0.1530 0.1535 0.1540 0.1546 0.1551 0.1556 0.1562 0.1567 0.1572 0.1578
0.23 0.1583 0.1588 0.1593 0.1599 0.1604 0.1609 0.1614 0.1619 0.1625 0.1630
0.24 0.1635 0.1640 0.1645 0.1650 0.1655 0.1660 0.1665 0.1670 0.1675 0.1680
0.25 0.1685 0.1690 0.1695 0.1700 0.1705 0.1710 0.1715 0.1720 0.1725 0.1730
0.26 0.1734 0.1739 0.1744 0.1749 0.1754 0.1758 0.1763 0.1768 0.1773 0.1777
0.27 0.1782 0.1787 0.1792 0.1796 0.1801 0.1805 0.1810 0.1815 0.1819 0.1824
0.28 0.1828 0.1833 0.1838 0.1842 0.1847 0.1851 0.1856 0.1860 0.1864 0.1869
0.29 0.1873 0.1878 0.1882 0.1887 0.1891 0.1895 0.1900 0.1904 0.1908 0.1913
0.30 0.1917 0.1921 0.1925 0.1930 0.1934 0.1938 0.1942 0.1946 0.1951 0.1955
0.31 0.1959 0.1963 0.1967 0.1971 0.1975 0.1979 0.1984 0.1988 0.1992 0.1996
0.32 0.2000 0.2004 0.2008 0.2012 0.2015 0.2019 0.2023 0.2027 0.2031 0.2035
0.33 0.2039 0.2043 0.2047 0.2050 0.2054 0.2058 0.2062 0.2066 0.2069 0.2073
0.34 0.2077 0.2080 0.2084 0.2088 0.2091 0.2095 0.2099 0.2102 0.2106 0.2110
0.35 0.2113 0.2117 0.2120 0.2124 0.2127 0.2131 0.2134 0.2138 0.2141 0.2145
0.36 0.2148 0.2152 0.2155 0.2158 0.2162 0.2165 0.2169 0.2172 0.2175 0.2179
0.37 0.2182 0.2185 0.2188 0.2192 0.2195 0.2198 0.2201 0.2205 0.2208 0.2211
0.38 0.2214 0.2217 0.2220 0.2224 0.2227 0.2230 0.2233 0.2236 0.2239 0.2242
0.39 0.2245 0.2248 0.2251 0.2254 0.2257 0.2260 0.2263 0.2266 0.2269 0.2272

Example 3-1 Determination of non-prestressed
reinforcement using Fig. 3.3.5 coefficients
Given:
300/400 1000 L-shaped beam certified in
accordance with A23.4.
Concrete: Concrete:
fc = 40 MPa fc = 45 MPa 1 = 0.78 1 = 0.86 c = 0.70
Normal Density Normal Density
Factored Moment Mf = 950 kN-m Prestressed reinforcement:
6 - 9 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation strands
Total losses = 20%
fpo = 0.7 fpu
kp = 0.28
Ap = (6) (55) = 330 mm2
Section Properties:
Ag = 138700 mm2
Sb = 6.825 106 mm3
Problem:
Problem: Find the factored flexural resistance, Mr
Find the required amount of non-prestressed Solution:
reinforcement with fy = 400 MPa. Check that the depth of compression block is less
Solution: than top flange thickness of (203 152)/2 = 25 mm:
To use Fig. 3.3.5, determine: Ap fpu (330)(1860)
pu = = = 0.0708
M (106 ) (950)(106 ) bdp fc (1220)(158)(45)
Kr = f 2 = = 0.0896
fc bd (40)(300)(9402 ) p dp pu
a =
From Fig. 3.3.5, for Kr = 0.0896: p pu
1c 1 + k p
= 0.1158 < the maximum value of 0.334 1c 1
f bd (0.9)(158)(0.0708)
As = c =
fy (0.9)(0.0708)
(0.78)(0.70) 1 + (0.28)
(0.1158)(40)(300)(940) (0.78)(0.70)(0.86)
= = 3265 mm2
(400) = 18 mm < 25
Determine Mr:
Check minimum reinforcement required:
c 1
=
0.2 fc 0.2 40 dp 1c 1
Asmin = bth = (450)(1000) + kp
fy (400) p pu

1
= 1423 mm2 < A s =
(0.78)(0.70)(0.86)
Use 7 25M Grade 400 bars, As = 3500 mm2 (0.9)(0.0708) + 0.28

Example 3-2 Determine factored flexural
= 0.131 < 0.5
resistance using the empirical equation for fpr
fpr = fpu (1 k p c / dp )
Given:
= (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.131)] = 1792 MPa
1220 203 hollow core slab certified in accordance
with A23.4.

Mr = p A p fpr (d a / 2) P Pe
1.2Mcr = 1.2 e + e + 0.6 fc Sb
= (0.9)(330)(1792)(158 18 / 2) /10 6 A g Sb

= 79.4 kN-m (344)(103 ) (344)(56.5)(103 )
= 1.2 + + (0.6)(1.0) 45
Check the ductility requirement that Mr 1.2 Mcr. 3
138700 6825 10
Assuming that the effective prestress is 0.56 fpu:
(6825 103 )
fpe = (0.56)(1860) = 1042 MPa = 76.6 kN m < 79.4 OK
106
3
Pe = fpe Ap = (1042)(330)/10 = 344 kN
Fig. 3.3.6 Flexural resistance design aid for rectangular section with non-prestressed reinforcement
only precast not certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (c = 0.65)
Procedure:
Design Analysis
Mf
1. Determine Kr = 1. Determine = A s / bd
fc bd2
fy
2. Calculate from the table 2. Determine =
fc
fc
3. Determine = 3. Calculate Kr from the table
fy
4. Determine A s = bd 4. Determine Mr = Kr fc bd2
max.
fc (MPa) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
1 0.895 0.883 0.870 0.858 0.845 0.833 0.820 0.808 0.795 0.783 0.770
fy (MPa) 1 0.805 0.798 0.790 0.783 0.775 0.768 0.760 0.753 0.745 0.738 0.730
300 0.356 0.348 0.340 0.332 0.324 0.316 0.308 0.301 0.293 0.285 0.278
400 0.324 0.317 0.308 0.302 0.294 0.287 0.280 0.273 0.266 0.259 0.252
fc Kr
30 MPa 0.568 0.3229 13370

. Kr 0.85 0.7479 2
35 0.563 0.3173 13254
. Kr 0.85 0.7545 2
40 0.558 0.3110 13121
. Kr 0.85 0.7621 2
45 0.555 0.3078 13055
. Kr 0.85 0.7660 2
50 0.547 0.2993 12872
. Kr 0.85 0.7769 2
55 0.542 0.2939 12756
. Kr 0.85 0.7840 2
60 0.536 0.2878 1.2623K r 0.85 0.7922 2
65 0.532 0.2825 12507
. Kr 0.85 0.7996 2
70 0.526 0.2765 12373
. Kr 0.85 0.80822
75 0.521 0.2714 12258
. Kr 0.85 0.8158 2
80 0.515 0.2655 12124
. Kr 0.85 0.8248 2

Table based on:
fc = 40 MPa
1 = 0.79
The error for other concrete strengths does not exceed 3.2%.
Values of Kr
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
0.00 0.0000 0.0008 0.0017 0.0025 0.0034 0.0042 0.0051 0.0059 0.0068 0.0076
0.01 0.0084 0.0093 0.0101 0.0109 0.0118 0.0126 0.0134 0.0142 0.0151 0.0159
0.02 0.0167 0.0175 0.0183 0.0191 0.0200 0.0208 0.0216 0.0224 0.0232 0.0240
0.03 0.0248 0.0256 0.0264 0.0272 0.0280 0.0288 0.0296 0.0304 0.0312 0.0320
0.04 0.0328 0.0336 0.0344 0.0351 0.0359 0.0367 0.0375 0.0383 0.0390 0.0398
0.05 0.0406 0.0414 0.0421 0.0429 0.0437 0.0444 0.0452 0.0460 0.0467 0.0475
0.06 0.0483 0.0490 0.0498 0.0505 0.0513 0.0520 0.0528 0.0535 0.0543 0.0550
0.07 0.0558 0.0565 0.0572 0.0580 0.0587 0.0595 0.0602 0.0609 0.0617 0.0624
0.08 0.0631 0.0638 0.0646 0.0653 0.0660 0.0667 0.0675 0.0682 0.0689 0.0696
0.09 0.0703 0.0710 0.0717 0.0725 0.0732 0.0739 0.0746 0.0753 0.0760 0.0767
0.10 0.0774 0.0781 0.0788 0.0795 0.0802 0.0808 0.0815 0.0822 0.0829 0.0836
0.11 0.0843 0.0850 0.0856 0.0863 0.0870 0.0877 0.0883 0.0890 0.0897 0.0904
0.12 0.0910 0.0917 0.0924 0.0930 0.0937 0.0943 0.0950 0.0957 0.0963 0.0970
0.13 0.0976 0.0983 0.0989 0.0996 0.1002 0.1009 0.1015 0.1021 0.1028 0.1034
0.14 0.1041 0.1047 0.1053 0.1060 0.1066 0.1072 0.1079 0.1085 0.1091 0.1097
0.15 0.1104 0.1110 0.1116 0.1122 0.1128 0.1134 0.1141 0.1147 0.1153 0.1159
0.16 0.1165 0.1171 0.1177 0.1183 0.1189 0.1195 0.1201 0.1207 0.1213 0.1219
0.17 0.1225 0.1231 0.1237 0.1242 0.1248 0.1254 0.1260 0.1266 0.1272 0.1277
0.18 0.1283 0.1289 0.1295 0.1300 0.1306 0.1312 0.1317 0.1323 0.1329 0.1334
0.19 0.1340 0.1345 0.1351 0.1357 0.1362 0.1368 0.1373 0.1379 0.1384 0.1390
0.20 0.1395 0.1401 0.1406 0.1411 0.1417 0.1422 0.1428 0.1433 0.1438 0.1444
0.21 0.1449 0.1454 0.1459 0.1465 0.1470 0.1475 0.1480 0.1486 0.1491 0.1496
0.22 0.1501 0.1506 0.1511 0.1516 0.1522 0.1527 0.1532 0.1537 0.1542 0.1547
0.23 0.1552 0.1557 0.1562 0.1567 0.1572 0.1577 0.1582 0.1586 0.1591 0.1596
0.24 0.1601 0.1606 0.1611 0.1615 0.1620 0.1625 0.1630 0.1635 0.1639 0.1644
0.25 0.1649 0.1653 0.1658 0.1663 0.1667 0.1672 0.1677 0.1681 0.1686 0.1690
0.26 0.1695 0.1699 0.1704 0.1708 0.1713 0.1717 0.1722 0.1726 0.1731 0.1735
0.27 0.1739 0.1744 0.1748 0.1752 0.1757 0.1761 0.1765 0.1770 0.1774 0.1778
0.28 0.1782 0.1787 0.1791 0.1795 0.1799 0.1803 0.1808 0.1812 0.1816 0.1820
0.29 0.1824 0.1828 0.1832 0.1836 0.1840 0.1844 0.1848 0.1852 0.1856 0.1860
0.30 0.1864 0.1868 0.1872 0.1876 0.1880 0.1884 0.1887 0.1891 0.1895 0.1899
0.31 0.1903 0.1906 0.1910 0.1914 0.1918 0.1921 0.1925 0.1929 0.1932 0.1936
0.32 0.1940 0.1943 0.1947 0.1950 0.1954 0.1957 0.1961 0.1965 0.1968 0.1972
0.33 0.1975 0.1979 0.1982 0.1985 0.1989 0.1992 0.1996 0.1999 0.2002 0.2006
0.34 0.2009 0.2012 0.2016 0.2019 0.2022 0.2025 0.2029 0.2032 0.2035 0.2038
0.35 0.2041 0.2045 0.2048 0.2051 0.2054 0.2057 0.2060 0.2063 0.2066 0.2069
0.36 0.2072 0.2075 0.2078 0.2081 0.2084 0.2087 0.2090 0.2093 0.2096 0.2099
0.37 0.2102 0.2104 0.2107 0.2110 0.2113 0.2116 0.2119 0.2121 0.2124 0.2127
0.38 0.2129 0.2132 0.2135 0.2138 0.2140 0.2143 0.2145 0.2148 0.2151 0.2153
0.39 0.2156 0.2158 0.2161 0.2163 0.2166 0.2168 0.2171 0.2173 0.2176 0.2178

Example 3-3 Determination of bonded Length = 10.0 m
prestressed reinforcement using Fig. 3.3.7 Span = 9.7 m
coefficients
Load:
Given: Superimposed dead load: 0.2 kN/m2 = 0.32kN/m
400 600 rectangular beam
certified in accordance with Live Load:
A23.4 Vertical 4.80 kN/m2 = 7.68 kN/m
Horizontal (0.15)(2) kN/m = 0.30 kN/m
Axial (0.3)(2)(10) kN = 6.00 kN
(Axial load acts independently of horizontal load)
Concrete: Section Properties:
fc = 35 MPa Normal Density Ag = 298500 mm2
Factored Moment: 350 kN-m Weight = 7.0 kN/m
Problem: yb = 306 mm, xL = 774 mm
Find the amount of prestressed reinforcement based Ix = 14500 106 mm4
on fpu = 1860 MPa and kp = 0.28 (low relaxation Iy = 72300 106 mm4
strand). Ixy = Ag (x xL)(y yb) = 27,720 106 mm4
Solution: 2Ixy
from tan 2 = :
Use Fig. 3.3.5, to determine: Ix Iy
Mf (350)(106 )
Kr = = = 0.0907 = 21.9 = angle of minor axis
fc bdp2 (35)(400)(525)2
Iminor = 3350 106 mm4
For Kr = 0.0907, fc = 35 MPa and kp = 0.28: Imajor = 83,400 106 mm4
pu = 0.118
Concrete:
The required area of prestressing reinforcement is: fc = 35 MPa, 1 = 0.80
Ap = pu fc b dp/fpu 1 = 0.88 c = 0.70
= (0.118)(35)(400)(525) / 1860 fci = 25 MPa
= 466 mm2 Normal density
Provide 5 13 mm 1860 MPa strands (Ap = Prestressing reinforcement:
495 mm2) 8 13 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation strands
Example 3-4 Factored flexural resistance of a kp = 0.28
stadia unit
Ap = 99 mm2/strand
Given:
1600 800 stadia unit certified in accordance with Po = 0.75 Ap fpu = 1243 kN
A23.4 Pi = 0.95 Pjacking = 1181 kN
Pe = 0.85 Pjacking = 1057 kN
Fig. 3.3.7 Flexural resistance coefficients for elements with only bonded prestressed reinforcement
precast certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (c =0.70)
Procedure:
Design Analysis
Mf
1. Determine Kr= 1. Determine p = A p / bdp
fc bdp2
2. Calculate from the table 2. Determine pu = pfpu / fc

3. Determine p = pufc / fpu 3. Calculate Kr from the table
4. Determine Ap= pbdp 4. Determine Mr = K r fcbdp2

c = 0.70
p = 0.90
kp = 0.28 kp = 0.38 kp = 0.48

f'c 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55
1 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325
1 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675
pu Kr Kr Kr
0.005 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045
0.010 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088
0.015 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131
0.020 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173
0.025 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0214
0.030 0.0259 0.0259 0.0259 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0256 0.0256 0.0256 0.0255 0.0255 0.0255
0.035 0.0300 0.0300 0.0300 0.0299 0.0299 0.0299 0.0298 0.0298 0.0298 0.0297 0.0297 0.0297 0.0296 0.0296 0.0296 0.0295 0.0295 0.0295
0.040 0.0341 0.0340 0.0340 0.0340 0.0339 0.0339 0.0338 0.0338 0.0337 0.0337 0.0337 0.0336 0.0336 0.0335 0.0335 0.0334 0.0334 0.0334
0.045 0.0380 0.0380 0.0380 0.0379 0.0379 0.0379 0.0377 0.0377 0.0377 0.0376 0.0376 0.0375 0.0374 0.0374 0.0373 0.0373 0.0372 0.0372
0.050 0.0420 0.0419 0.0419 0.0419 0.0418 0.0418 0.0416 0.0416 0.0415 0.0415 0.0414 0.0413 0.0412 0.0412 0.0411 0.0411 0.0410 0.0409
0.055 0.0459 0.0458 0.0458 0.0457 0.0457 0.0456 0.0454 0.0454 0.0453 0.0452 0.0452 0.0451 0.0450 0.0449 0.0448 0.0448 0.0447 0.0446
0.060 0.0497 0.0496 0.0496 0.0495 0.0494 0.0494 0.0492 0.0491 0.0490 0.0490 0.0489 0.0488 0.0487 0.0486 0.0485 0.0484 0.0483 0.0482
0.065 0.0535 0.0534 0.0533 0.0533 0.0532 0.0531 0.0529 0.0528 0.0527 0.0526 0.0525 0.0524 0.0523 0.0522 0.0521 0.0520 0.0519 0.0518
0.070 0.0572 0.0571 0.0570 0.0569 0.0569 0.0568 0.0565 0.0564 0.0563 0.0562 0.0561 0.0560 0.0558 0.0557 0.0556 0.0555 0.0554 0.0553
0.075 0.0609 0.0608 0.0607 0.0606 0.0605 0.0604 0.0601 0.0600 0.0599 0.0598 0.0596 0.0595 0.0593 0.0592 0.0591 0.0590 0.0588 0.0587
0.080 0.0645 0.0644 0.0643 0.0642 0.0641 0.0639 0.0636 0.0635 0.0634 0.0632 0.0631 0.0630 0.0628 0.0626 0.0625 0.0623 0.0622 0.0620
0.085 0.0680 0.0679 0.0678 0.0677 0.0676 0.0674 0.0671 0.0669 0.0668 0.0667 0.0665 0.0664 0.0661 0.0660 0.0658 0.0657 0.0655 0.0653
0.090 0.0716 0.0714 0.0713 0.0712 0.0710 0.0709 0.0705 0.0703 0.0702 0.0700 0.0699 0.0697 0.0694 0.0693 0.0691 0.0689 0.0688 0.0686
0.095 0.0750 0.0749 0.0747 0.0746 0.0744 0.0743 0.0738 0.0737 0.0735 0.0733 0.0732 0.0730 0.0727 0.0725 0.0723 0.0721 0.0719 0.0717
0.100 0.0784 0.0783 0.0781 0.0780 0.0778 0.0776 0.0772 0.0770 0.0768 0.0766 0.0764 0.0762 0.0759 0.0757 0.0755 0.0753 0.0751 0.0749
0.105 0.0818 0.0816 0.0815 0.0813 0.0811 0.0809 0.0804 0.0802 0.0800 0.0798 0.0796 0.0794 0.0791 0.0788 0.0786 0.0784 0.0782 0.0779
0.110 0.0851 0.0849 0.0848 0.0846 0.0844 0.0842 0.0836 0.0834 0.0832 0.0830 0.0827 0.0825 0.0822 0.0819 0.0817 0.0814 0.0812 0.0809
0.115 0.0884 0.0882 0.0880 0.0878 0.0876 0.0874 0.0868 0.0865 0.0863 0.0861 0.0858 0.0856 0.0852 0.0850 0.0847 0.0844 0.0842 0.0839
0.120 0.0916 0.0914 0.0912 0.0910 0.0907 0.0905 0.0899 0.0896 0.0894 0.0891 0.0889 0.0886 0.0882 0.0879 0.0877 0.0874 0.0871 0.0868
0.125 0.0948 0.0946 0.0943 0.0941 0.0939 0.0936 0.0929 0.0927 0.0924 0.0921 0.0919 0.0916 0.0911 0.0909 0.0906 0.0903 0.0899 0.0896
0.130 0.0979 0.0977 0.0974 0.0972 0.0969 0.0967 0.0959 0.0957 0.0954 0.0951 0.0948 0.0945 0.0940 0.0937 0.0934 0.0931 0.0928 0.0924
0.135 0.1010 0.1008 0.1005 0.1002 0.0999 0.0997 0.0989 0.0986 0.0983 0.0980 0.0977 0.0974 0.0969 0.0966 0.0962 0.0959 0.0955 0.0952
0.140 0.1041 0.1038 0.1035 0.1032 0.1029 0.1026 0.1018 0.1015 0.1012 0.1009 0.1005 0.1002 0.0997 0.0993 0.0990 0.0986 0.0982 0.0979
0.145 0.1071 0.1068 0.1065 0.1062 0.1058 0.1055 0.1047 0.1044 0.1040 0.1037 0.1033 0.1030 0.1024 0.1021 0.1017 0.1013 0.1009 0.1005
0.150 0.1100 0.1097 0.1094 0.1091 0.1087 0.1084 0.1075 0.1072 0.1068 0.1064 0.1061 0.1057 0.1052 0.1048 0.1044 0.1040 0.1035 0.1031
0.155 0.1129 0.1126 0.1123 0.1119 0.1116 0.1112 0.1103 0.1099 0.1096 0.1092 0.1088 0.1084 0.1078 0.1074 0.1070 0.1066 0.1061 0.1057
0.160 0.1158 0.1154 0.1151 0.1147 0.1144 0.1140 0.1130 0.1127 0.1123 0.1119 0.1114 0.1110 0.1104 0.1100 0.1096 0.1091 0.1087 0.1082
0.165 0.1186 0.1183 0.1179 0.1175 0.1171 0.1167 0.1157 0.1153 0.1149 0.1145 0.1141 0.1136 0.1130 0.1126 0.1121 0.1116 0.1111 0.1106
0.170 0.1214 0.1210 0.1206 0.1202 0.1198 0.1194 0.1184 0.1180 0.1175 0.1171 0.1166 0.1162 0.1155 0.1151 0.1146 0.1141 0.1136 0.1131
0.175 0.1241 0.1237 0.1233 0.1229 0.1225 0.1221 0.1210 0.1206 0.1201 0.1196 0.1192 0.1187 0.1180 0.1175 0.1170 0.1165 0.1160 0.1155
0.180 0.1269 0.1264 0.1260 0.1256 0.1251 0.1247 0.1236 0.1231 0.1226 0.1222 0.1216 0.1211 0.1205 0.1200 0.1194 0.1189 0.1184 0.1178
0.185 0.1295 0.1291 0.1286 0.1282 0.1277 0.1272 0.1261 0.1256 0.1251 0.1246 0.1241 0.1236 0.1229 0.1224 0.1218 0.1213 0.1207 0.1201
0.190 0.1321 0.1317 0.1312 0.1307 0.1303 0.1298 0.1286 0.1281 0.1276 0.1271 0.1265 0.1260 0.1253 0.1247 0.1241 0.1236 0.1230 0.1223
0.195 0.1347 0.1343 0.1338 0.1333 0.1328 0.1322 0.1311 0.1305 0.1300 0.1294 0.1289 0.1283 0.1276 0.1270 0.1264 0.1258 0.1252 0.1246
0.200 0.1373 0.1368 0.1363 0.1358 0.1352 0.1347 0.1335 0.1329 0.1324 0.1318 0.1312 0.1306 0.1299 0.1293 0.1287 0.1280 0.1274 0.1268
0.205 0.1398 0.1393 0.1387 0.1382 0.1377 0.1371 0.1359 0.1353 0.1347 0.1341 0.1335 0.1329 0.1322 0.1315 0.1309 0.1302 0.1296 0.1289
0.210 0.1423 0.1417 0.1412 0.1406 0.1401 0.1395 0.1382 0.1376 0.1370 0.1364 0.1358 0.1351 0.1344 0.1337 0.1331 0.1324 0.1317 0.1310
0.215 0.1447 0.1441 0.1436 0.1430 0.1424 0.1418 0.1405 0.1399 0.1393 0.1386 0.1380 0.1373 0.1366 0.1359 0.1352 0.1345 0.1338 0.1331
0.220 0.1471 0.1465 0.1459 0.1453 0.1447 0.1441 0.1428 0.1421 0.1415 0.1408 0.1402 0.1395 0.1387 0.1380 0.1373 0.1366 0.1359 0.1351
0.225 0.1495 0.1489 0.1483 0.1476 0.1470 0.1464 0.1450 0.1444 0.1437 0.1430 0.1423 0.1416 0.1408 0.1401 0.1394 0.1386 0.1379 0.1371
0.230 0.1518 0.1512 0.1505 0.1499 0.1492 0.1486 0.1472 0.1465 0.1458 0.1451 0.1444 0.1437 0.1429 0.1422 0.1414 0.1407 0.1399 0.1391
0.235 0.1541 0.1534 0.1528 0.1521 0.1515 0.1508 0.1494 0.1487 0.1480 0.1472 0.1465 0.1457 0.1449 0.1442 0.1434 0.1426 0.1418 0.1410
0.240 0.1563 0.1557 0.1550 0.1543 0.1536 0.1529 0.1515 0.1508 0.1501 0.1493 0.1485 0.1478 0.1470 0.1462 0.1454 0.1446 0.1437 0.1429
0.245 0.1585 0.1579 0.1572 0.1565 0.1558 0.1550 0.1536 0.1529 0.1521 0.1513 0.1505 0.1497 0.1489 0.1481 0.1473 0.1465 0.1456 0.1448
0.250 0.1607 0.1600 0.1593 0.1586 0.1579 0.1571 0.1557 0.1549 0.1541 0.1533 0.1525 0.1517 0.1509 0.1501 0.1492 0.1484 0.1475 0.1466
0.255 0.1629 0.1622 0.1614 0.1607 0.1599 0.1592 0.1577 0.1569 0.1561 0.1553 0.1545 0.1536 0.1528 0.1520 0.1511 0.1502 0.1493 0.1484
0.260 0.1650 0.1643 0.1635 0.1628 0.1620 0.1612 0.1597 0.1589 0.1581 0.1572 0.1564 0.1555 0.1547 0.1538 0.1529 0.1520 0.1511 0.1502
0.265 0.1671 0.1663 0.1656 0.1648 0.1640 0.1632 0.1617 0.1608 0.1600 0.1591 0.1583 0.1574 0.1566 0.1557 0.1548 0.1538 0.1529 0.1519
0.270 0.1692 0.1684 0.1676 0.1668 0.1659 0.1651 0.1636 0.1628 0.1619 0.1610 0.1601 0.1592 0.1584 0.1575 0.1565 0.1556 0.1546 0.1536
0.275 0.1712 0.1704 0.1696 0.1687 0.1679 0.1670 0.1655 0.1646 0.1638 0.1628 0.1619 0.1610 0.1602 0.1592 0.1583 0.1573 0.1563 0.1553
0.280 0.1732 0.1723 0.1715 0.1707 0.1698 0.1689 0.1674 0.1665 0.1656 0.1647 0.1637 0.1628 0.1619 0.1610 0.1600 0.1590 0.1580 0.1570
0.285 0.1751 0.1743 0.1734 0.1726 0.1717 0.1708 0.1692 0.1683 0.1674 0.1664 0.1655 0.1645 0.1637 0.1627 0.1617 0.1607 0.1597 0.1586
0.290 0.1771 0.1762 0.1753 0.1744 0.1735 0.1726 0.1711 0.1701 0.1692 0.1682 0.1672 0.1662 0.1654 0.1644 0.1634 0.1623 0.1613 0.1602
0.295 0.1790 0.1781 0.1772 0.1763 0.1753 0.1744 0.1728 0.1719 0.1709 0.1699 0.1689 0.1679 0.1671 0.1661 0.1650 0.1640 0.1629 0.1618
0.300 0.1808 0.1799 0.1790 0.1781 0.1771 0.1761 0.1746 0.1736 0.1726 0.1716 0.1706 0.1695 0.1687 0.1677 0.1666 0.1656 0.1645 0.1633
0.305 0.1827 0.1817 0.1808 0.1798 0.1789 0.1779 0.1763 0.1753 0.1743 0.1733 0.1722 0.1712 0.1704 0.1693 0.1682 0.1671 0.1660 0.1649
0.310 0.1845 0.1835 0.1826 0.1816 0.1806 0.1796 0.1780 0.1770 0.1760 0.1749 0.1738 0.1728 0.1720 0.1709 0.1698 0.1687 0.1675 0.1664
0.315 0.1863 0.1853 0.1843 0.1833 0.1823 0.1812 0.1797 0.1787 0.1776 0.1765 0.1754 0.1743 0.1736 0.1725 0.1713 0.1702 0.1690 0.1678
0.320 0.1880 0.1870 0.1860 0.1850 0.1839 0.1829 0.1814 0.1803 0.1792 0.1781 0.1770 0.1759 0.1751 0.1740 0.1728 0.1717 0.1705 0.1693
0.325 0.1897 0.1887 0.1877 0.1866 0.1856 0.1845 0.1830 0.1819 0.1808 0.1797 0.1785 0.1774 0.1766 0.1755 0.1743 0.1731 0.1719 0.1707
0.330 0.1914 0.1904 0.1893 0.1883 0.1872 0.1861 0.1846 0.1835 0.1824 0.1812 0.1801 0.1789 0.1781 0.1770 0.1758 0.1746 0.1734 0.1721
0.335 0.1931 0.1920 0.1910 0.1899 0.1888 0.1876 0.1862 0.1850 0.1839 0.1827 0.1815 0.1803 0.1796 0.1784 0.1772 0.1760 0.1748 0.1735
0.340 0.1947 0.1937 0.1926 0.1915 0.1903 0.1892 0.1877 0.1866 0.1854 0.1842 0.1830 0.1818 0.1811 0.1799 0.1786 0.1774 0.1761 0.1748
pu (max) 0.303 0.296 0.289 0.282 0.275 0.268 0.321 0.314 0.306 0.299 0.292 0.285 0.342 0.334 0.327 0.319 0.311 0.304

Problem:
Stress in prestressing steel at factored resistance:
Determine the factored flexural resistance.
Solution: 2. fpr = fpu (1 kpc / dp )
Due to the shape of the compression block and that
failure will occur in bending around the minor axis, p = 0.9
use a graphical solution to this problem. dp = (363 + 345 + 326 + 297 + 436 + 418 + 380
By trial and error, a value of c was found that +399) / 8 = 370 mm
simultaneously solved the following two equations:
By trial and error:
p A p fpr
1. c = ; and c = 181.3 mm
11c fc b
Fig. 3.3.8Flexural resistance coefficients for elements with bonded prestressed reinforcement only
precast not certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (c = 0.65)
Procedure:
Design Analysis
Mf
1. Determine Kr = 1. Determine p = A p / bdp
fc bdp2
2. Calculate from the table 2. Determine pu = p fpu / fc

3. Determine p = pu fc / fpu 3. Calculate Kr from the table
4. Determine Ap = pbdp 4. Determine Mr = Kr fc bdp2

c = 0.65
p = 0.90
kp = 0.28 kp = 0.38 kp = 0.48

f'c 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55
1 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325
1 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675
pu Kr Kr Kr
0.005 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045
0.010 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088
0.015 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131
0.020 0.0175 0.0175 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173
0.025 0.0217 0.0217 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0214 0.0214 0.0214 0.0214 0.0214
0.030 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0256 0.0256 0.0256 0.0256 0.0255 0.0255 0.0255 0.0255 0.0254 0.0254 0.0254
0.035 0.0299 0.0299 0.0298 0.0298 0.0298 0.0298 0.0297 0.0297 0.0296 0.0296 0.0296 0.0295 0.0295 0.0294 0.0294 0.0294 0.0293 0.0293
0.040 0.0339 0.0339 0.0338 0.0338 0.0338 0.0337 0.0336 0.0336 0.0336 0.0335 0.0335 0.0334 0.0334 0.0333 0.0333 0.0332 0.0332 0.0332
0.045 0.0379 0.0378 0.0378 0.0377 0.0377 0.0377 0.0375 0.0375 0.0374 0.0374 0.0373 0.0373 0.0372 0.0372 0.0371 0.0370 0.0370 0.0369
0.050 0.0417 0.0417 0.0417 0.0416 0.0416 0.0415 0.0413 0.0413 0.0412 0.0412 0.0411 0.0411 0.0410 0.0409 0.0408 0.0408 0.0407 0.0406
0.055 0.0456 0.0455 0.0455 0.0454 0.0454 0.0453 0.0451 0.0450 0.0450 0.0449 0.0448 0.0448 0.0446 0.0446 0.0445 0.0444 0.0443 0.0443
0.060 0.0494 0.0493 0.0492 0.0492 0.0491 0.0490 0.0488 0.0487 0.0486 0.0486 0.0485 0.0484 0.0483 0.0482 0.0481 0.0480 0.0479 0.0478
0.065 0.0531 0.0530 0.0529 0.0528 0.0528 0.0527 0.0524 0.0523 0.0523 0.0522 0.0521 0.0520 0.0518 0.0517 0.0516 0.0515 0.0514 0.0513
0.070 0.0567 0.0567 0.0566 0.0565 0.0564 0.0563 0.0560 0.0559 0.0558 0.0557 0.0556 0.0555 0.0553 0.0552 0.0551 0.0549 0.0548 0.0547
0.075 0.0603 0.0602 0.0601 0.0600 0.0599 0.0598 0.0595 0.0594 0.0593 0.0592 0.0590 0.0589 0.0587 0.0586 0.0585 0.0583 0.0582 0.0580
0.080 0.0639 0.0638 0.0637 0.0636 0.0634 0.0633 0.0630 0.0628 0.0627 0.0626 0.0624 0.0623 0.0621 0.0619 0.0618 0.0616 0.0615 0.0613
0.085 0.0674 0.0673 0.0671 0.0670 0.0669 0.0668 0.0664 0.0662 0.0661 0.0659 0.0658 0.0656 0.0654 0.0652 0.0650 0.0649 0.0647 0.0645
0.090 0.0708 0.0707 0.0706 0.0704 0.0703 0.0701 0.0697 0.0695 0.0694 0.0692 0.0690 0.0689 0.0686 0.0684 0.0682 0.0681 0.0679 0.0677
0.095 0.0742 0.0741 0.0739 0.0738 0.0736 0.0734 0.0730 0.0728 0.0726 0.0724 0.0723 0.0721 0.0718 0.0716 0.0714 0.0712 0.0710 0.0708
0.100 0.0776 0.0774 0.0772 0.0771 0.0769 0.0767 0.0762 0.0760 0.0758 0.0756 0.0754 0.0752 0.0749 0.0747 0.0745 0.0742 0.0740 0.0738
0.105 0.0808 0.0807 0.0805 0.0803 0.0801 0.0799 0.0794 0.0792 0.0790 0.0787 0.0785 0.0783 0.0780 0.0777 0.0775 0.0772 0.0770 0.0767
0.110 0.0841 0.0839 0.0837 0.0835 0.0833 0.0831 0.0825 0.0823 0.0820 0.0818 0.0816 0.0813 0.0810 0.0807 0.0805 0.0802 0.0799 0.0797
0.115 0.0873 0.0871 0.0868 0.0866 0.0864 0.0862 0.0856 0.0853 0.0851 0.0848 0.0846 0.0843 0.0839 0.0836 0.0834 0.0831 0.0828 0.0825
0.120 0.0904 0.0902 0.0899 0.0897 0.0895 0.0892 0.0886 0.0883 0.0880 0.0878 0.0875 0.0872 0.0868 0.0865 0.0862 0.0859 0.0856 0.0853
0.125 0.0935 0.0932 0.0930 0.0927 0.0925 0.0922 0.0915 0.0913 0.0910 0.0907 0.0904 0.0901 0.0897 0.0893 0.0890 0.0887 0.0884 0.0881
0.130 0.0965 0.0963 0.0960 0.0957 0.0955 0.0952 0.0944 0.0941 0.0938 0.0935 0.0932 0.0929 0.0924 0.0921 0.0918 0.0914 0.0911 0.0907
0.135 0.0995 0.0992 0.0990 0.0987 0.0984 0.0981 0.0973 0.0970 0.0967 0.0963 0.0960 0.0957 0.0952 0.0948 0.0945 0.0941 0.0938 0.0934
0.140 0.1024 0.1022 0.1019 0.1016 0.1012 0.1009 0.1001 0.0998 0.0994 0.0991 0.0988 0.0984 0.0979 0.0975 0.0971 0.0968 0.0964 0.0960
0.145 0.1053 0.1050 0.1047 0.1044 0.1041 0.1037 0.1029 0.1025 0.1022 0.1018 0.1014 0.1011 0.1005 0.1001 0.0998 0.0993 0.0989 0.0985
0.150 0.1082 0.1079 0.1075 0.1072 0.1068 0.1065 0.1056 0.1052 0.1049 0.1045 0.1041 0.1037 0.1031 0.1027 0.1023 0.1019 0.1014 0.1010
0.155 0.1110 0.1107 0.1103 0.1099 0.1096 0.1092 0.1083 0.1079 0.1075 0.1071 0.1067 0.1062 0.1057 0.1053 0.1048 0.1044 0.1039 0.1034
0.160 0.1138 0.1134 0.1130 0.1126 0.1123 0.1119 0.1109 0.1105 0.1101 0.1097 0.1092 0.1088 0.1082 0.1077 0.1073 0.1068 0.1063 0.1058
0.165 0.1165 0.1161 0.1157 0.1153 0.1149 0.1145 0.1135 0.1131 0.1126 0.1122 0.1117 0.1113 0.1107 0.1102 0.1097 0.1092 0.1087 0.1082
0.170 0.1191 0.1187 0.1183 0.1179 0.1175 0.1171 0.1160 0.1156 0.1151 0.1147 0.1142 0.1137 0.1131 0.1126 0.1121 0.1116 0.1110 0.1105
0.175 0.1218 0.1214 0.1209 0.1205 0.1200 0.1196 0.1185 0.1181 0.1176 0.1171 0.1166 0.1161 0.1155 0.1149 0.1144 0.1139 0.1133 0.1128
0.180 0.1244 0.1239 0.1235 0.1230 0.1226 0.1221 0.1210 0.1205 0.1200 0.1195 0.1190 0.1184 0.1178 0.1173 0.1167 0.1161 0.1156 0.1150
0.185 0.1269 0.1265 0.1260 0.1255 0.1250 0.1245 0.1234 0.1229 0.1224 0.1218 0.1213 0.1207 0.1201 0.1195 0.1190 0.1184 0.1178 0.1172
0.190 0.1294 0.1289 0.1284 0.1280 0.1274 0.1269 0.1258 0.1252 0.1247 0.1241 0.1236 0.1230 0.1223 0.1218 0.1212 0.1206 0.1199 0.1193
0.195 0.1319 0.1314 0.1309 0.1304 0.1298 0.1293 0.1281 0.1276 0.1270 0.1264 0.1258 0.1252 0.1245 0.1239 0.1233 0.1227 0.1221 0.1214
0.200 0.1343 0.1338 0.1333 0.1327 0.1322 0.1316 0.1304 0.1298 0.1292 0.1286 0.1280 0.1274 0.1267 0.1261 0.1255 0.1248 0.1241 0.1235
0.205 0.1367 0.1362 0.1356 0.1350 0.1345 0.1339 0.1327 0.1321 0.1315 0.1308 0.1302 0.1296 0.1289 0.1282 0.1275 0.1269 0.1262 0.1255
0.210 0.1390 0.1385 0.1379 0.1373 0.1367 0.1361 0.1349 0.1343 0.1336 0.1330 0.1323 0.1317 0.1310 0.1303 0.1296 0.1289 0.1282 0.1275
0.215 0.1413 0.1408 0.1402 0.1396 0.1390 0.1383 0.1371 0.1364 0.1358 0.1351 0.1344 0.1337 0.1330 0.1323 0.1316 0.1309 0.1302 0.1294
0.220 0.1436 0.1430 0.1424 0.1418 0.1411 0.1405 0.1392 0.1385 0.1379 0.1372 0.1365 0.1358 0.1350 0.1343 0.1336 0.1329 0.1321 0.1313
0.225 0.1458 0.1452 0.1446 0.1439 0.1433 0.1426 0.1413 0.1406 0.1399 0.1392 0.1385 0.1378 0.1370 0.1363 0.1355 0.1348 0.1340 0.1332
0.230 0.1480 0.1474 0.1467 0.1461 0.1454 0.1447 0.1434 0.1427 0.1420 0.1412 0.1405 0.1397 0.1390 0.1382 0.1375 0.1367 0.1359 0.1350
0.235 0.1502 0.1495 0.1489 0.1482 0.1475 0.1468 0.1454 0.1447 0.1440 0.1432 0.1424 0.1417 0.1409 0.1401 0.1393 0.1385 0.1377 0.1369
0.240 0.1523 0.1516 0.1509 0.1502 0.1495 0.1488 0.1474 0.1467 0.1459 0.1451 0.1443 0.1435 0.1428 0.1420 0.1412 0.1403 0.1395 0.1386
0.245 0.1544 0.1537 0.1530 0.1523 0.1515 0.1508 0.1494 0.1486 0.1478 0.1470 0.1462 0.1454 0.1447 0.1438 0.1430 0.1421 0.1413 0.1404
0.250 0.1565 0.1557 0.1550 0.1542 0.1535 0.1527 0.1513 0.1505 0.1497 0.1489 0.1481 0.1472 0.1465 0.1456 0.1448 0.1439 0.1430 0.1421
0.255 0.1585 0.1577 0.1570 0.1562 0.1554 0.1546 0.1532 0.1524 0.1516 0.1507 0.1499 0.1490 0.1483 0.1474 0.1465 0.1456 0.1447 0.1438
0.260 0.1605 0.1597 0.1589 0.1581 0.1573 0.1565 0.1551 0.1543 0.1534 0.1525 0.1517 0.1508 0.1500 0.1491 0.1482 0.1473 0.1464 0.1454
0.265 0.1624 0.1616 0.1608 0.1600 0.1592 0.1583 0.1569 0.1561 0.1552 0.1543 0.1534 0.1525 0.1518 0.1508 0.1499 0.1490 0.1480 0.1470
0.270 0.1643 0.1635 0.1627 0.1619 0.1610 0.1601 0.1587 0.1579 0.1570 0.1561 0.1551 0.1542 0.1535 0.1525 0.1516 0.1506 0.1496 0.1486
0.275 0.1662 0.1654 0.1645 0.1637 0.1628 0.1619 0.1605 0.1596 0.1587 0.1578 0.1568 0.1559 0.1551 0.1542 0.1532 0.1522 0.1512 0.1502
0.280 0.1681 0.1672 0.1663 0.1655 0.1646 0.1636 0.1622 0.1613 0.1604 0.1594 0.1585 0.1575 0.1568 0.1558 0.1548 0.1538 0.1528 0.1517
0.285 0.1699 0.1690 0.1681 0.1672 0.1663 0.1654 0.1640 0.1630 0.1621 0.1611 0.1601 0.1591 0.1584 0.1574 0.1564 0.1553 0.1543 0.1532
0.290 0.1717 0.1708 0.1699 0.1689 0.1680 0.1670 0.1656 0.1647 0.1637 0.1627 0.1617 0.1607 0.1600 0.1589 0.1579 0.1569 0.1558 0.1547
0.295 0.1734 0.1725 0.1716 0.1706 0.1697 0.1687 0.1673 0.1663 0.1653 0.1643 0.1633 0.1622 0.1615 0.1605 0.1594 0.1584 0.1573 0.1562
0.300 0.1751 0.1742 0.1733 0.1723 0.1713 0.1703 0.1689 0.1679 0.1669 0.1659 0.1648 0.1637 0.1631 0.1620 0.1609 0.1598 0.1587 0.1576
0.305 0.1768 0.1759 0.1749 0.1739 0.1729 0.1719 0.1705 0.1695 0.1685 0.1674 0.1663 0.1652 0.1646 0.1635 0.1624 0.1613 0.1601 0.1590
0.310 0.1785 0.1775 0.1765 0.1755 0.1745 0.1734 0.1721 0.1710 0.1700 0.1689 0.1678 0.1667 0.1660 0.1649 0.1638 0.1627 0.1615 0.1603
0.315 0.1801 0.1791 0.1781 0.1771 0.1760 0.1750 0.1736 0.1726 0.1715 0.1704 0.1693 0.1681 0.1675 0.1664 0.1652 0.1641 0.1629 0.1617
0.320 0.1817 0.1807 0.1797 0.1786 0.1776 0.1765 0.1751 0.1741 0.1730 0.1718 0.1707 0.1695 0.1689 0.1678 0.1666 0.1654 0.1642 0.1630
0.325 0.1833 0.1823 0.1812 0.1801 0.1791 0.1779 0.1766 0.1755 0.1744 0.1733 0.1721 0.1709 0.1703 0.1692 0.1680 0.1668 0.1656 0.1643
0.330 0.1849 0.1838 0.1827 0.1816 0.1805 0.1794 0.1781 0.1770 0.1758 0.1747 0.1735 0.1723 0.1717 0.1705 0.1693 0.1681 0.1669 0.1656
0.335 0.1864 0.1853 0.1842 0.1831 0.1820 0.1808 0.1795 0.1784 0.1772 0.1760 0.1748 0.1736 0.1731 0.1719 0.1706 0.1694 0.1681 0.1669
0.340 0.1879 0.1868 0.1856 0.1845 0.1834 0.1822 0.1809 0.1798 0.1786 0.1774 0.1762 0.1749 0.1744 0.1732 0.1719 0.1707 0.1694 0.1681
pu (max) 0.279 0.273 0.266 0.260 0.254 0.248 0.296 0.290 0.283 0.276 0.269 0.263 0.316 0.309 0.301 0.294 0.287 0.280

c/dp = 181.3 / 370 = 0.49 0.5
fpr = 1860[1 (0.28)(0.49)] = 1605 MPa
Required area of compression block

(0.9)(8)(99)(1605)
= = 58370 mm2
(0.80)(0.70)(35)
From the figure above, for the area of the
compression block to equal 58370 mm2:
1c = 165 mm
c = 165 / 0.88 = 181.3 mm Non-prestressed reinforcement:
The centre of the equivalent compression block is 4 - 25M bottom, fy = 400 MPa
conservatively estimated at 2/3 1c from the top fibre: As = (4)(500) = 2000 mm2
2/3 1 c = (2 / 3)(0.88)(181.3) = 106.7mm 2 20M top, fy = 400 MPa
Mr = p A p fpr (dp 2 / 31c)
As = (2)(300) = 600 mm2
3
= (0.9)(8)(99)(1605)(370 106.7) /10 Es = 200000 MPa
= 301 kN-m fpo = 0.75 fpu
(9.7)2 Section Properties:
Mf = {[(7)(1.25) + (0.32)(1.25)
8 Ag = 365000 mm2
o o
+(7.68)(1.5)]cos(21.9 ) + (0.3)(1.5)sin(21.9 )} I = 15852 106 mm4
= 228 kN - m < 301kN - m yb = 309.1 mm
The bending moment around the major axis is small Problem:
compared to the section depth and can be safely Find factored flexural resistance, Mr
ignored. Reinforcement should be added to resist the
Solution:
axial load.
C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 = T1 + T2
3.3.3 Analysis Using Strain Compatibility
C1 = 1c fc hf b
The fundamental strain compatibility approach is a
convenient method for analyzing fully and partially = (0.81)(0.65)(25)(50)(1300 300) /103
prestressed flexural elements (see Sect. 3.4.3 for
definitions). Example 3-5 demonstrates the use of = 658 kN
this method of analysis.
C2 = (0.81)(0.65)(25)(100)(300) /103 = 395 kN
Example 3-5 Strain compatibility analysis of a
C3 = (0.8)(0.7)(35)(300)(0.883c 100) /103
partially prestressed flanged section
= (5.192c 588) kN
Given:
700 550 inverted tee beam certified in accordance C4 = s A s fy = (0.85)(600)(400) /103 = 204 kN
with A23.4 with a 50 mm composite topping as fpr = fpu (1 kpc / dp )
shown:
T1 = p A p fpr
Concrete:
fc precast = 35 MPa 1 = 0.80 c = 0.70 = (0.9)(1089)(1860)(1 k p c / dp ) /103
fc topping = 25 MPa 1 = 0.81 c = 0.65 = (1823)(1 k p c / dp ) kN
Normal density T2 = s A s fy = (0.85)(2000)(400) /103 = 680 kN

Prestressed reinforcement: According to Fig. 3.3.2:
11 - 13 mm 1860 MPa strands (low relaxation) p A p fpu + s A s fs s A s fs 1c fc (b b w )hf
c/dp =
Ap = (11)(99) = 1089 mm2 1c fc1b w dp + kp p Ap fpu
Ep = 190000 MPa

1823 + 680 658 395 + 588 204 pe+ce = 0.00587 + 0.00025 = 0.00615
c/dp = = 0.545
(5.192)(550) + (1823)(0.28) pr = Total strain in tendons = 0.00615 + 0.00283
Because c/dp > 0.5, use strain compatibility analysis. = 0.00899
Use the empirical equation for fpr for the first iteration: From the stress-strain curve in Fig. 8.2.3:
fpr = (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.545)] = 1576 MPa fpr = 1640 MPa > 1575 MPa
T1 = (0.9)(1089)(1576) /103 = 1545 kN fpr = (1576 + 1646) / 2 = 1611MPa
Rearranging terms: T1 = (0.9)(1089)(1611) /103 = 1579 kN
T1 + T2 = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 2nd iteration:
1545 + 680 658 395 + 588 204 1579 + 11
C = c = = 306 mm
5.192 5.192
1545 + 11 s = (0.0035)(306 40) / 306 = 0.00304
= = 300mm
5.192
s = (0.0035)(600 306) / 306 = 0.00336 > 0.002
s = (0.0035)(300 40) / 304 = 0.00303
p = (0.0035)(550 306) / 306 = 0.00279
y = 400 / 200,000 = 0.002 (As has yielded)
pr = 0.00615 + 0.00279 = 0.00894
s = (0.0035)(300) / 300 = 0.0035 (As has
From the stress-strain curve:
yielded)
fpr = 1636 MPa > 1609 MPa
p = (0.0035)(250) / 304 = 0.00283 try:
The prestressed reinforcement has an additional fpr = 1622 MPa
prestrain corresponding to the elastic strain in the T1 = (0.9)(1089)(1622) /103 = 1590 kN
steel when the concrete stress is zero at the level of rd
the prestress. 3 iteration:
1590 + 11
Assume: c = = 308 mm
5.192
fpe = 0.6fpu = (0.6)(1860) = 1116 MPa
p = (0.0035)(550 308) / 308 = 0.00275
pe = fpe / Ep = 1116 /190000 = 0.00587
pr = 0.00615 + 0.00275 = 0.0089
Concrete stress at level of tendons: After a number of iterations, from the stress-strain
e = 309.1 100 = 209.1mm curve:
1 e2 fpr = 1629 MPa
fce = Pe +
Ag I c = 310 mm

This matches the trial value so that this is the correct
1 209.12 solution.
= (1116)(1089) +
365,000 15,852 106 a = 1c = (0.883)(310) = 274 mm

= 6.68 MPa C3 = 5.192c 588 = (5.192)(310) 588 = 1022 kN
ce = fce / Ec = 6.68 / 28165 = 0.00025 T1 = (0.9)(1089)(1629) / 103 = 1596 kN

Mr = +(658)(310 25) + (395)(310 50) Fig. 3.4.1 Values of z and corresponding crack
widths
+(1022)(310 187) + (204)(310 40)] /103
Maximum
= 1051kN-m Type of element Corresponding
value of z
and exposure value of w (mm)
(N/mm)
3.4 FLEXURAL DESIGN AT SERVICE LIMIT Reinforced elements*
STATE Exterior exposure 25,000 0.33
Interior exposure 30,000 0.40
3.4.1 Design Procedures
Prestressed elements*
For precast concrete elements, the two distinct Exterior exposure 15,000 0.20
phases requiring design consideration are: Interior exposure 20,000 0.27
1. Manufacturing conditions stripping, handling, Critical appearance**
storing shipping and erection. Exterior exposure 9,000 0.12
2. In-service conditions, defined as those Interior exposure 18,000 0.24
conditions imposed upon an element after it is * Mandatory A23.3 requirements
permanently connected to the supporting ** For elements where appearance is critical, it is
recommended that the Code requirement for crack control be
structure. extended to prevent the formation of unsightly cracks [2].
The specified in-service loads may not produce the
governing stress conditions. The forces imposed
during manufacturing to erection may control a
design. Concrete strengths at the time of stripping are
lower than when the element is in service.
The forces imposed on an element during stripping
and handling and erection are affected by:
1. The orientation of the element.
2. External restraints such as form suction and The maximum recommended values of the quantity z
impact. are shown in Fig. 3.4.1, where z is calculated from
the equation:
3. Location and number of handling inserts.
z = fs 3 dc A
4. Dead load of element and of any additional items
need to be lifted (such as forms which remain with If values of fs under service load conditions are
the element during stripping). required to be less than 0.6 fy to satisfy crack control
requirements, reinforcement provided should be
5. Location of temporary points of support during equal to:
storage.
As = M
6. Condition of the transporting vehicle, road and 0.9fs d
site.
This equation is based on working stress design
Since it is the manufacturer's choice of the principles.
production, transportation and erection methods
employed, it is also the manufacturer's responsibility The above equation is derived from the Gergely-Lutz
to verify satisfactory behaviour of the precast element expression [1]:
h
during these processes. w = 11 106 2 fs 3 dc A
h1
3.4.2 Reinforced Element Design with h2 /h1 taken equal to 1.2
Non-prestressed flexural elements are normally sized See ACI 350-02 for recommendations on the design
and reinforced on the basis of the procedures of water retaining sanitary structures.
described in Sect. 3.3.
When it is necessary for surfaces exposed to view to
Recommended values for the maximum crack width remain free from discernable cracks, the flexural
are given in Fig. 3.4.1. A larger number of closer tensile stresses during handling and under service
spaced bars will lead to smaller crack widths than loads, it is recommended the stresses do not exceed
fewer, large diameter bars with an equivalent area. two thirds of the modulus of rupture, fr.

value of the calculated tensile stresses due to the
Example 3-6 Reinforced panel design
effects of specified loads. The permissible stresses
Given: for fully prestressed elements are summarized as
A 150 mm thick architectural precast concrete panel follows:
exposed to the weather.
Permissible concrete stresses:
1. At release (transfer) of prestress, before time-
dependent losses:
a) Compression: 0.6 fci
Concrete: b) Tension (except at ends): 0.25 fci
fc = 35 MPa c) Tension at ends of simply supported
Normal Density elements: 0.5 fci
Specified load moment M = 6.0 kN-m/m 2. Due to prestress and specified loads, after all
Problem: losses:
Find the required amount of non-prestressed 400 a) Compression due to sustained loads: 0.45 fc
grade reinforcement with 40 mm cover to the centre b) Compression due to total load: 0.6 fc
of the reinforcement.
c) Tension in precompressed tensile zone
Solution:
(except corrosive environments): 0.5 fc
For a panel with critical appearance exposed to the
weather, the recommended maximum value of w d) Tension in precompressed tensile zone
from Fig. 3.4.1 is: exposed to corrosive environments:
w = 0.12 mm 0.25 fc
Assuming j = 0.9 and k = 0.3, calculate: Prestressed elements not complying with 2(c) are
defined as partially prestressed and are required to
d = 150 40= 110 mm meet the crack control criteria given in Fig. 3.4.1.
kd = (0.3)(110)= 33 mm
Calculation of stresses at critical points follows
h1 = 110 33= 77 mm classical straight line theory as illustrated in Fig.
h2 = 150 33= 117 mm 3.4.2. The calculation of these stresses is illustrated
h2 117 in Example 3-7 at the end of this Subsection. S413
= = 1.52 gives requirements for parking garages subjected to
h1 77
chloride exposure.
dc = 40 mm
Permissible stresses in prestressing tendons
Try a bar spacing of 150 mm:
1. During jacking:
A = 2dc b a) For post-tensioning tendons: 0.85 fpu but not
= (80)(150) = 12000 mm2 greater than 0.94 fpy
w b) For pretensioning tendons: 0.80 fpu
fs = 2. Tension immediately after prestress transfer:
h
(11 10 6 ) 2 3 dc A a) Except at post-tensioning anchorages and
h1
couplers: 0.82 fpy but not greater than 0.74 fpu
0.12 b) At anchorages and couplers of post-
= 6
= 92 MPa
(11 10 )(1.52)3 (40)(12000) tensioning tendons: 0.70 fpu
M (6.0)(106 ) In accordance with ASTM 416-99, A421-98a and
As = = = 658 mm2 / m
0.9fs d (0.9)(92)(110) A722-98, steel for prestressed concrete tendons, the
specified yield strength, fpy, of prestressing tendons is
Use 10M bars at 150 mm top and bottom based on the following:
(As = 666 mm2 /m)
1. Low relaxation strand or wire:................... 0.90 fpu
3.4.3 Prestressed Element Design General 2. Stress relieved strand or wire: .................. 0.85 fpu
Prestressed concrete elements are classified as 3. Plain bars:................................................. 0.85 fpu
either fully or partially prestressed depending on the 4. Deformed bars: ......................................... 0.80 fpu

Fig. 3.4.2 Calculation of concrete stresses due to specified loads
The maximum jacking stress given in 1(a) is based Composite elements

solely on the stress-strain characteristics of the
Cast-in-place composite topping is normally cast on
tendons; this maximum value should only be used
deck elements without shoring. The weight of the
after consultation with the manufacturer of the
topping must be carried by the precast element. Any
anchorages or the supplier of the post-tensioning
additional dead and live loads are carried by the
system. It is recommended that the maximum jacking
composite section.
stress in case 1(b) not exceed 0.75 fpu due to anchor
set loss and possible temperature corrections. The following example illustrates a tabular form of
superimposing the stresses caused by the prestress
Critical sections for pretensioned elements force and the dead and live load moments.
The most critical sections for stresses immediately
after transfer are usually near the end of the element. Sign convention
In elements with single-point depressed tendons, the The customary sign convention used in the design of
release stresses at midspan may also be critical and precast, prestressed concrete elements for service
should be checked. The critical end stress is at the load stresses is positive (+) for compression and
point where the prestressing force has been negative () for tension. Bending moment diagrams
completely transferred to the concrete. The transfer are drawn on the tension side of flexural elements.
length is usually assumed to be 50 strand diameters This convention is used throughout this Manual.
from the end of the member.
Example 3-7 Calculation of critical stresses
When release stresses are higher than allowed, it single point depressed strand
may be necessary to increase the specified release
strength, provide supplementary tensile Given:
reinforcement or debond some strands at the ends of 2400 600 double tee
elements. In short-span, heavily loaded, elements, Span = 21.0 m
such as beams, it is usually more practical to
reinforce for the release tension. This is illustrated in Superimposed dead load = 0.5 kN/m2 = 1.2 kN/m
Example 3-7. Superimposed live load = 1.75 kN/m2 = 4.2 kN/m
Under uniform service loads, the critical section is at
midspan for elements with straight tendons and near
0.4 l from the end ( l = span) for elements with
tendons depressed at midpoint. For unusual loading
conditions, such as concentrated loads, other
sections may be critical.
Straight tendons are normally used in flat deck
elements and beams and either straight or depressed Concrete:
tendons are used in stemmed deck elements. fc = 35 MPa
fci = 25 MPa

Normal Density
Prestressed reinforcement:
14 -13 mm 1860 MPa stress-relieved strands
Ap = (14) (99) = 1386 mm2
fpo = 0.7 fpu
Section properties: at 0.4 A
Ag = 260000 mm2 Msw = (344)(0.96) = 330 kN m
I = 8580 106 mm4 Msd = (66)(0.96) = 63 kN m
yb = 424 mm M A = (232)(0.96) = 223 kN m
yt = 176 mm
In this example, a release strength of:
Sb = 20200 103 mm3
fci = 16.1 = 26.8 MPa
St = 48800 103 mm3 0.6
m = 260 kg/m2 = 624 kg/m should be provided and, because the extreme fibre
w = 2.6 kN/m2 = 6.24 kN/m stress in the precompressed tensile zone exceeds
0.5 fc (5.4 > 3.0), the element is partially
Tendon eccentricity as shown:
prestressed (see Sect. 3.4.8).
Problem:
Find critical service load stresses. Example 3-8 Serviceability check of a stadia
unit
Solution:
Prestress force: Given:
The stadia unit and loads described in Example 3-4.
Po = (1386)(0.70)(1860)/103 = 1800 kN
Problem:
Pi = (Assume 10% initial loss) Check service limits, final stresses, release stresses
= (0.90)(1800) = 1620 kN and cracking moment.
Pe = (Assume 24% total loss) Solution:
= (0.76)(1800) = 1370 kN 9 strands at 0.75 fpu initial stressing and 15% total
losses:
Service load moments:
(9)(99)(1860)(0.75)(0.85)
at midspan: P =
1000
Msw = (6.2)(21)2 /8 = 344 kN-m
= 1057 MPa
Msd = (1.20)(21)2 /8 = 66 kN-m
M A = (4.20)(21)2 /8 = 232 kN m Final Stresses:
ey = ( 104 85 67 37 177 158 139
Support at Midspan at 0.4 A at service 121 + 112) / 9
release release load
P = Pi P = Pi P = Pe = 86 mm
ex = ( 712 665 619 + 124 + 180 + 226 + 273
fb ft fb ft fb ft
+319 + 899) / 9
P / Ag + 6.2 + 6.2 + 6.2 + 6.2 + 5.3 + 5.3
Pe / S + 8.8 3.7 + 26.9 11.1 + 19.7 + 6.8 = 3 mm
Msw / S 17.0 + 7.1 16.3 8.1 Mx = [(7 + 0.32 + 7.68)cos 21.9
Msd / S 3.1 + 1.3
Ml / S 11.0 + 4.6 +(0.3)sin 21.9](9.7)2 / 8
Stresses + 15.0 + 2.5 + 16.1 + 2.2 5.4 + 9.9 = 165.0 kN m
0.6fci 0.6fci 0.6fci 0.6fci 0.5 fc 0.6fc
Allowable My = [(7 + 0.32 + 7.68)sin21.9
stresses + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 3.0 + 21.0
+(0.3)cos 21.9](9.7)2 / 8
OK OK HIGH OK HIGH OK
= 69.1kN m

Final stress at point E: 1. anchorage seating loss
P Pe y Pe x Mx My 2. friction loss due to intended or unintended
= + +
A g Sx Sy Sx Sy curvature in post-tensioning tendons
(1057)(103 ) (1057)(103 )(86)(274) 3. elastic shortening of concrete

= +
298,500 (3350)(106 ) 4. creep of concrete
(1057)(103 )(3)(138) (165)(106 )(274) 5. shrinkage of concrete

+
(83,400)(106 ) (3350)(106 ) 6. relaxation of tendon stress
(69.1)(106 )(138) Accurate determination of losses is more important in
some prestressed concrete elements than in others.
(83,400)(106 ) Losses have little effect on the flexural resistance of
= 3.54 + 7.43 + 0.01 13.50 0.11 an element unless the tendons are unbonded and/or
= 2.63 MPa < 2.96 MPa = 0.5 fc the final stress after losses is less than 0.50 fpu.
Underestimation or overestimation of losses can
The final stresses at other points are summarized
affect service conditions such as camber, deflection
below.
and cracking.
Release Stresses:
Check stresses at 50 strand diameters from end of Anchorage seating loss and friction:
unit. Anchorage seating loss and friction losses are
Msw = (7)(0.65 / 2)(10 0.65) = 21.3 kN - m mechanical. They represent the difference between
Mx = (21.3)cos 21.9o = 19.8 kN - m the tension applied to the tendon by jacking and the
initial tension available for application to the concrete
My = (21.3)sin21.9o = 7.9 kN - m by the tendon. The magnitude of the losses can be
Release stress at point D: determined with reasonable accuracy and, in many
(1181)(103 ) (1181)(103 )(86)(260) cases, they can be fully or partially compensated for
= by increasing the jacking force.
298,500 (3350)(106 )
(1181)(103 )(3)(58) (19.8)(106 )(260) Elastic shortening of concrete:
+ 6
+ 6
(83,400)(10 ) (3350)(10 ) The concrete around the tendons immediately
shortens as the prestressing force is applied.
(7.9)(106 )(58)
+ Tendons already bonded to the concrete shorten with
(83,400)(106 ) it.
= 3.96 7.88 + 0 + 1.54 + 0.01
Shrinkage of concrete:
= 2.37 MPa < 2.5 MPa = 0.5 fc
Shrinkage of the concrete surrounding the tendon
The release stresses at other points are summarized
takes place after initial set of the concrete shortens
above
the tendon. Shrinkage continues for the life of a
fr = 0.6 fc = (0.6) 35 = 3.55 MPa member but the rate decreases with time.
fce = 3.54 + 7.43 = 10.97 MPa
Creep of concrete and relaxation of tendons:
(3350)(106 )
Mcr = (3.55 + 10.97) /106 Creep is the increase in shortening in concrete due to
274
sustained compressive stress. Relaxation is a
= 178 kN-m reduction in tendon stress without a change in tendon
Mr = 301kN - m > (1.2)(178) length. The rate of loss due to creep and relaxation
Although not part of this example, the designer change decrease with time.
should analyze deflections and vibration to complete
the serviceability check. Range of values for total prestress loss
All loss calculations in this manual are based on low
3.4.4 Prestress Loss General relaxation strands.
Sources of prestress loss The total loss of prestress in typical elements ranges
Loss of prestress is the reduction of tensile stress in from 200 to 350 MPa for normal density concrete
prestressing tendons. A23.3 identifies the following elements, and from 250 to 400 MPa for semi-low
sources of loss of prestress: density concrete.

A value of 240 MPa, corresponding to a 21% loss as Use of the equations requires the calculation of the
recommended in the 1958 ACI-ASCE committee stresses fco and fc1:
report, should only be used for preliminary design. 2
Pi Pe M e
Two methods for loss calculation are: fco = + i d
Ag I I
1. the Simplified Method
Msde
fc1 =
2. the Detailed Method [3] I
The Simplified Method takes into account the level of Example 3-9 Loss of prestress by the
concrete stress, type of prestressed reinforcement Simplified Method
and volume to surface ratio. The Detailed Method
takes into account all the major variables affecting Given:
creep and shrinkage and includes the effect of non- 2400 800 double tee with 50 mm composite topping
prestressed reinforcement located in the tension zone Span = 21.0 m
of the element. The presence of non-prestressed
reinforcement in partially prestressed elements also No superimposed dead load except topping
affects the losses in a significant way and should not
be neglected in the loss calculations.
3.4.5 Prestress Loss by Simplified Method

Recommendations for Estimating Prestress Losses,
by the PCI Committee on Prestress Losses, were
published in the PCI Journal, July/August 1975.
Reader's Comments on the Recommendations were
published in the PCI Journal, March/April 1976.
Using the Simplified Method, stress loss is
determined by computing the value of fco and fci and Section properties (untopped):
substituting them in the appropriate empirical Ag = 371000 mm2
equations. These equations are used to compute the
total loss, fp. Total loss is the sum of losses due to I = 22800 106 mm4
shrinkage, elastic shortening and creep of concrete Sb = 43700 103 mm3
plus loss due to relaxation of tendons. yb = 523 mm
For normal density concrete: V/S = 48 mm
fp = 137 MPa + 16.3 fco + 5.4 fc1 w = 3.6 kN/m2 = 8.6 kN/m
For semi-low density concrete: w of topping = 2.9 kN/m
fp = 121 MPa + 20.4 fco + 4.8 fc1 Precast concrete:
The above empirical equations apply only to fc = 35 MPa
pretensioned elements. For typical elements the only fci = 25 MPa
variable not included in the equations that could
make a difference in the net result is volume/surface Normal Density
ratio. A correction factor is applied for V/S: Topping concrete:
Normal Density
V/S ration (mm) 25 50 75 100
Adjustment (percent) +3.2 0 -3.8 -7.6 Prestressed reinforcement:
Example: For V/S = 75: reduce losses, eg. 21% x 12 - 13 mm 1860 MPa
(100 - 3.8)% = 20.2% Ap = (12)(99) = 1188 mm2
The above equations are based on the initial tension Strands depressed at mid-span:
of 0.75 fpu, after reduction for anchor slip. Use of a ee = 307 mm
higher or lower initial tension will result in an
appreciable change in net losses. ec = 441 mm

Problem: 3.4.6 Prestress Loss by Detailed Method
Determine total prestress loss and effective prestress
In this method, the creep and shrinkage of the
by the simplified method.
concrete and the relaxation of the prestressed
Solution: reinforcement have to be determined.
For depressed strand, assume the critical section is
at 0.4 l . Determine moments, eccentricity, and Creep
prestress force: If data about creep and shrinkage is not available
wx w(0.4l ) from tests or observations on structural elements, the
M @ 0.4 l = (l x) = (l 0.4l )
2 2 method of ACI Committee 209 is used to predict the
= 0.12 w l 2 time-dependent properties. In the Detailed Method,
creep is expressed in terms of the creep coefficient
Msw = (0.12)(8.6)(21)2 = 455 kN-m Ct, defined as the ratio of creep strain cp to initial
Msd = (0.12)(2.9)(21)2 = 154 kN-m elastic strain i at the time of application of prestress.
e at 0.4 l = 307 + (0.8)(441 307) The following expression is applicable to normal,
= 414 mm semi-low and low density concretes:
Po = 0.75 Ap fpu = (0.75)(1188)(1860)/103 t 0.6
Ct = CuQcp
10 + t 0.6
= 1660 kN
Pi = Po -fpo or p = 7.5% assumed value In the absence of specific creep data for local
aggregates and conditions, the value suggested for
= 0.925 Po = (0.925)(1660) = 1536 kN Cu is 2.35.
Determine fco and fci :
The above equation was developed for sustained
P Pe2 M e compressive stress not exceeding 50% of fc and
fco = i + i sw
Ag I I consists of an expression for creep under standard
conditions multiplied by the correction factor Qcp to
(1536)(103 ) (1536)(414)2 (103 )
= + adjust for non-standard conditions. The standard
371000 (22800 106 ) conditions and the correcting factor Qcp are given in
(455)(414)(106 ) Fig. 2.4.1.

(22800 106 ) For long term creep (t = ), the above equation is
= 4.1 + 11.5 8.3 = 7.3 MPa reduced to:
Msde (154)(414)(106 ) C = Cu Qcp

fc1 = = = 2.8 MPa
I (22,800 106 ) Shrinkage
For normal density concrete and low relaxation Shrinkage strains start taking place immediately after
strand: initial set of the concrete. According to ACI
fp = 137 MPa + 16.3 fco + 5.4 fc1 Committee 209, the shrinkage strain sh is determined
= 137 MPa + (16.3)(7.3) + (5.4)(2.8) using the following equation, which is applicable to
= 241 MPa normal, semi-low and low density concretes:
Adjust for V/S ratio (interpolate between 25 and 50): t
sh = shuPsh
(23) Cs + t
Adjustment factor= 3.2 (3.20 0)
25 In the absence of specific shrinkage data for local
= + 0.26% conditions, the value of sh suggested for use is 780
(+ means additional loss) 10-6. Psh is a correction factor for conditions that are
(0.26) other than the standard condition specified in Fig.
(241) = 0.6 MPa 2.4.1.
100
Final loss is 241 + 0.6 = 242 MPa or 17.3% of 1395 For long term shrinkage, the above equation is
MPa reduced to:
Final prestress force after all losses: sh = shu Psh
(242)(1188)
Pe = 1660 = 1373 kN
103

Relaxation of prestressed reinforcement Fig. 3.4.3 Relaxation of low relaxation strand
The term relaxation signifies the loss of stress under
constant strain. In lieu of detailed information from the
steel manufacturer, the relaxation of prestressing
tendons may be predicted as:
logt fpi
fre(t)= 0.55 fpi

45 fpy

Assuming 100 years as the lifetime of a precast
structure, the final value for the relaxation is:
fpi
fre = 0.101 0.55 fpi
fpy

These equations are valid for temperatures up to
20C. At higher temperatures, the relaxation
increases. (See Fig. 3.4.3.) There is also a loss of
prestress due to relaxation before transfer of
prestress. This loss may be high because of the
elevated temperature during accelerated curing, even
though the duration may be only about one day. Fig.
3.4.3 may be useful in estimating the relaxation loss
at higher temperatures. The modular ratio n is determined by the modulus of
elasticity of concrete at the time of application of M.
Elastic loss
The moment Msd due to superimposed dead load
At the time of transfer, the concrete stress in any fibre increases the stress in the prestressed reinforcement
at a distance ytr from the centroid of the transformed by:
section, is determined by: M
fpr = n sd etr
P P e Md Itr
fco = o + o tr y tr
A tr Itr Time-dependent loss
At the level of the tendons, ytr is equal to etr, and the The loss of prestress for an element with one layer of
change in stress in the prestressed reinforcement at tendons and non-prestressed reinforcement at
transfer is determined by: approximately the same level can be estimated from:
P P e Md no fco Ct + shEp + fre
fpo = no o + o tr etr fp =
A tr Itr 1 + no (p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8Ct )
For most pretensioned elements, unless additional The 0.8 factor, applied to Ct in the denominator, is an
non-prestressed reinforcement is present, the use of assumed ageing coefficient.
the gross section properties is sufficiently accurate in
the above equations. In the above equations, the concrete area is the net
concrete area not including the reinforcement area.
The prestressing force after prestress transfer is: The gross concrete area is normally used due to the
Pi = Po fpo Ap variations in concrete properties.
The flexural stress in the concrete after the transfer of If a moment Msd due to a superimposed load is
prestress due to the moments, M, as a result of applied at a later stage, the additional time-
applied loads and prestressing effects, is: dependent change in the prestressed or non-
M prestressed reinforcement stress is:
fc = y tr
Itr fp1 = {n1fc1Ct1}/{1+n1(p+s)(1+e2 / r2)(1+0.8Ct1)}
and in the prestressed or non-prestressed The time-dependent stress fp1 is a tensile stress
reinforcement: reducing the loss fp. The modulus of elasticity of the
M concrete at age t1 may be considerably higher than
fs = n etr the value at transfer of prestress. Therefore the creep
Itr

Fig. 3.4.4 Relaxation reduction coefficient r Example 3-10 Loss of prestress for an element
without non-prestressed reinforcement - detailed
method
Given:
The 2400 800 double tee of Example 3-9
Concrete:
1.5
2400
Eco = (3300 fci + 6900)
2300
= 24900 MPa at transfer
1.5
2400
Ec1 = (3300 fc + 6900)
2300
= 28200 MPa at 40 days
Section Properties:
Ic 228000 106
r = = = 248 mm
Ac 371000
Problem:
Determine the total loss of prestress by the Detailed
coefficient will be smaller than the value Ct Method.
determined at transfer. Solution:
The creep and shrinkage of the concrete reduces the It is assumed that the tendons are pretensioned to
stress in the prestress reinforcement resulting in 0.75 fpu = 1395 MPa and that the topping does not
lower intrinsic relaxation losses. This effect may be contribute to the section properties. A relaxation loss
included in the calculations by replacing the intrinsic prior to transfer of prestress is calculated assuming
loss fre by a reduced value of r fre. The coefficient r an average temperature of 60C during accelerated
is determined from Fig. 3.4.4 using the parameters curing for a period of 24 hours. According to Fig.
= fpi /fpu and = fp / fpi. The stress fpi is the initial 3.4.3, fre = (0.025)(1395) = 35 MPa.
stress applied to the tendon, fpu is the tensile strength Prestress immediately before transfer:
and fs is the loss of prestress due to creep and
shrinkage only: fpo = 1395 35 = 1360 MPa
nfc Ct + shEp Elastic loss (using transformed section properties):
fp =
1 + n(p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8Ct ) P P e Md
fpo = no fco = no o + o tr etr
A tr Itr
If a superimposed dead load is present, the stress
fp1 is subtracted from fp. Ep 190000
no = = = 7.6
Eco 24900
When the centroid of the non-prestressed
reinforcement is coincident with that of the Po = fpo Ap = (1360)(1188)/103 = 1616 kN
prestressed reinforcement the value fp is also the
time-dependent stress in the non-prestressed At 0.4 l , the transformed section properties are:
reinforcement. The total time-dependent change in Atr = Ag + (no 1) Ap
the prestressing force in the concrete is: = 371000 + (7.6 1)(1188)
P = fp Ap + fs As + fs1 (Ap + As) = 379000 mm2
In this equation, fp and fs are compressive stresses From Example 3-9:
while fs1 is a tensile stress being less than fs in
magnitude. The result of this stress change will be a e = 414 mm
reduction of the tensile stress in the prestressed dp = h yb + e
reinforcement and a compressive stress in the non- = 800 523 + 414 = 691 mm
prestressed reinforcement.

A g yb + (no 1)A p (h dp ) 1 day at prestress transfer Qa = 1.00
ytr =
A tr 40 days when topping is applied Qs1 = 0.80
(371000)(523) + (7.6 1)(1188)(800 691) Cement content = 410 kg/m Pc = 1.00
=
379000 Relative humidity 70% Qh = 0.80
= 514 mm Ph = 0.70
etr = ytr (h dp) Ratio of fine to total aggregates Qf = 0.98
= 514 (800 691) = 0.40 Pf = 0.86
= 405 mm V/S = 48 mm Qr = 0.95
Itr = Ig + Ag (y ytr)2 + (no 1) Ap e2tr Pr = 0.96
= (22800 106) + (371000)(523 514)2 Slump 50 mm Qsl = 0.95
+ (7.6 1)(1188)(405) 2 Psl = 0.97
= 24100 106 mm4 Air 7% Qv = 1.09
Concrete stress at level of prestressed reinforcement Pv = 1.01
after transfer: Long term creep due to dead load and prestressing:
P P e Md Qcp = Qa Qh Qf Qr Qsl Qv
fco = o + o tr etr
A tr Itr = (1.0)(0.80)(0.98)(0.95)(0.95)(1.09) = 0.77
(1616)(103 )
= With the ultimate creep coefficient, Cu = 2.35
379,000
C = Cu Qcp = (2.35)(0.77) = 1.81
(1616)(405)(103 ) (455)(106 )
+ (405) Long term creep due to superimposed dead load:
24,00 106
Qcp1 = (0.80)(0.80)(0.98)(0.95)(0.95)(1.09)
= 7.6 MPa = 0.62
Elastic prestress loss: C1 = Cu Qcp1 = (2.35)(0.62) = 1.45
fpo = no fco Long term shrinkage:
= (7.6)(7.6) = 58 MPa Psh = Pc Ph Pf Pr Ps Pv
Prestress after transfer: = (1.0)(0.70)(0.86)(0.96)(0.97)(1.01)
fpi = fpo fpo = 0.566
= 1360 58 = 1302 MPa With the ultimate shrinkage strain, shu = 780 106
Pi = Ap fpi shu = shu Psh = (78010-6)(0.566)
= (1188)(1302)/103 = 1547 kN = 442 10-6
The value of Pi is slightly higher than that obtained by Time-dependent loss not including relaxation, precast
assuming a 7.5% loss in Example 3-9. section:
no fco C + shEp
Concrete stress at level of prestressed reinforcement fp =
due to Msd: 1 + n(p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C )
M e (154)(405)(106 ) Ap 1188
fc1 = sd tr = p = = = 0.0032
Itr (24100 106 ) Ac 371,000
= 2.6 MPa (tension) nfc Ct + shEp
fp =
Corresponding change in tendon stress: 1 + n(p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8Ct )
Ep 190000
n1 = = = 6.7 = (7.6)(7.6)(1.81) + (442 10 6 )(190000)
Ec1 28200
414 2
n1fc1= (6.4)(2.6) = 17 MPa (tension) 1 + (7.6)(0.0032 + 0) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.81)]
248
Creep and shrinkage coefficients from Fig. 2.4.1:

188.5 Total prestress loss: 231MPa - or 16.6% of 1395 MPa
= = 154 MPa
1.225 This value is 11 MPa (5% of 231) less than that
Reduction in time-dependent loss due to application obtained by the simplified method.
of Msd: Final effective prestress after all losses:
n1fc1Ct1 fpe = 1395 231 = 1164 MPa
fp1 =
1 + n1(p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8Ct1 )
which corresponds to a final stress of 0.62 fpu, and:
(6.7)(2.6)(1.45)
= Pe = (1164)(1188)/103 = 1382 kN
414 2
1 + (6.7)(0.0032 + 0) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.45)] Example 3-11 Loss of prestress for element with
248 non-prestressed reinforcement detailed method
25.3 Given:
= = 22 MPa (tension)
1.175 Same as Example 3-9, except that two of the 13 mm
strands are replaced by 2 25M bars (partially
Intrinsic relaxation:
prestressed element).
fpi
fre = 0.125 0.55 fpi Concrete:
fpy
Eco = 24900 MPa at transfer
fpi = 1360 58 + 17 = 1319 MPa Ec1 = 28200 MPa at 40 days
1319 Prestressed reinforcement:
fre = (0.125) 0.55 (1319)
(0.9)(1860) Ap = (10)(99) = 990 mm2
= 39 MPa Ep = 190000 MPa
Reduced relaxation taking into account creep and dp = 691 mm (at 0.4 l )
shrinkage:
fp fp1 154 22 Non-prestressed reinforcement:
= = = 0.10 As = (2)(500) = 1000 mm2
fpi 1319
Es = 200000 MPa
fpi 1319
= = = 0.71 ds = 750 mm
fpu 1860
Section Properties (including all reinforcement at
from Fig. 3.4.4: 0.4 l ):
r = 0.73 Atr = 385000 mm2

tr = 25400 106 mm4
rfre = (0.73)(39) = 29 MPa
Therefore, loss due to relaxation only: etrps = 398 mm (prestressed reinforcement)
r fre etrs = 457 mm (non-prestressed reinforcement)
fp =
1 + no (p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C ) etr = 428 mm (both reinforcements)
29 ytr = 507 mm
= = 23 MPa
1.225 228000 106
r = = 248 mm
Prestress loss summary (MPa): 371000
Relaxation prior to transfer: 35 MPa Problem:
Determine the total prestress loss and effective
Elastic losses: prestress by Detailed Method.
precast section only fpo = 58 Solution:
due to Msd n1fc1 = 17 Elastic loss:
Time-dependent losses: From Example 3-10, the relaxation loss prior to
transfer is 35 MPa.
creep and shrinkage fp = 154
Hence:
due to Msd fp1 = 22
fpo = 1360 MPa
relaxation fp = 23
Po = (1360)(990)/103 = 1346 kN

Concrete stress after transfer at level of centroid of 25.3
both prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement: 1.301
P Po e trp Md For strands, the intrinsic relaxation:
fco = o + etr
A tr Itr For simplicity in the calculation of the relaxation loss it
3 is assumed that the superimposed dead load is
(1346)(10 )
= applied at the time of transfer. This means that the
385000
tendon stress due to Msd is included in fpi
(1346)(398)(103 ) (455)(106 )
+ (428) fpi = 1360 37 + 17 = 1340 MPa
25400 106 fpi
fre = 0.125 0.55 fpi
= 3.5+1.4 = 4.9 MPa fpy

Elastic prestress loss: 1340
= 0.125 0.55 (1340)
fpo = no fco = (7.6)(4.9) = 37 MPa (0.9)(1860)
Prestress after transfer: = 42 MPa
fpi = fpo fpo Reduced relaxation taking into account creep and
shrinkage:
= 1360 37 = 1323 MPa
fp fp1 109 19
Concrete stress at level of centroid of steel due to = = = 0.067
fpi 1340
Msd:
M fpi 1340
fc1 = sd e tr = = = 0.72
Itr fpu 1860
6 from Fig. 3.4.4:
(154)(10 )
= 6
(428) = 2.6 MPa (tension)
25400 10 r = 0.80
Corresponding change in reinforcement stress:
r fre= (0.80)(42) = 34 MPa
n1fc1= (6.7)(2.6) = 17 MPa (tension)
Therefore, loss due to relaxation only:
Time-dependent change in stress at centroid of both
r fre
prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement fp =
(without relaxation): 1 + no (p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C )
1000 200 10
3
990 34
p + s = + = 0.0055 = = 24 MPa
371000 371000 190 103 1.387
151 Prestress loss summary (MPa):
fp = = 109 MPa
1.387
Relaxation prior to transfer: 35 MPa
no fco C + shEp
= Elastic losses:
1 + no (p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C )
precast section only fpo = 37
(7.6)(4.9)(1.81) + (442 10 6 )(190000)
= due to Msd n1fc1 = 17
414 2
1 + (7.6)(0.0055) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.81)] Time-dependent losses:
248
creep and shrinkage fp = 109
151
= = 109 MPa due to Msd fp1 = 19
1.387
relaxation fp = 24
n1fc1Ct1
fp1 = Prestress loss in strand 169 MPa
1 + n1(p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8Ct1 )
Final forces:
(6.7)(2.6)(1.45)
=
414 2 In the prestressed reinforcement without the effect of
1 + (6.7)(0.0055) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.45)] the non-prestressed reinforcement:
248

Pe = (1395 169)(990)/103 b) Creep coefficient of deck concrete Cdeck(t, tca
tcc) where tcc is the time at casting of topping
= 1214 kN (tension) applied to the (days).
transformed section
For unshored construction, tca tcc is usually 1 to 3
In the non-prestressed reinforcement: days.
Ps = (37 17 + 90)(1000)/103 c) Shrinkage of girder concrete:
= 110 kN (compression) sh (t , to ) = ultimate shrinkage
In the concrete: sh (tca, to) = shrinkage occurring between time,
to and tca
Pc = Pe Ps = 1214 110
= 1104 kN (compression) d) Shrinkage of deck concrete:
shdeck (t, tca t) = ultimate shrinkage of deck
3.4.7 Prestress Losses and Deflection in concrete
Composite Elements
e) Intrinsic relaxation of prestressing steel, fre
Analysis of time-dependent effects in composite
members involves the time-dependent properties of f) Ec(to), Ec(tca), Ecdeck (tca tcc)
the two different concretes and the relaxation of the Calculate:
prestressing steel. In addition, non-prestressed
reinforcement may be present. The problem can be E1* = Ec(t1 )/[1 + 0.8C(t, tca)]
solved by the Creep Transformed Section Method E*2 = Ecdeck(tca)/[1 + 0.7Cdeck(t, tca )]
developed by Dilger. [4] For simplicity in the
calculation of the relaxation loss, it is assumed that Step 3: Calculate prestress loss at time tca when
the superimposed dead load is applied at the time of composite action begins (see Sect. 3.4.6), neglecting
transfer. This means that the tendon stress due to relaxation of the steel:
Msd is included in fpi. The method (see Fig. 3.4.5) no fco C(tca , to ) + sh (t ca , t o )Ep
involves the following steps: fp(tca) =
1 + no (p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )[1 + 0.8C(tca , t o )]
Step 1: Determine concrete stresses fci (see Fig.
3.4.5(b)) in the precast girder (Sect. 1) after transfer Loss of prestressing force:
of the prestressing force. (see Sect. 3.4.6.) At level i: Pca= fp (tca) Ap
P M + Pe
fci = i + d i tr
y tr Step 4: Calculate stress in precast section due to
A tr Itr Pca. Referring to Fig. 3.4.5(c), stress at level i (i = 2,
(For elements without non-prestressed reinforcement, ... 5):
the gross properties of the section may be used.) P P e
fci = ca ca 3 yi
Ag I
The following sign convention is used in this analysis:
compression and shortening are positive, eccentricity Use properties of concrete section (not including Ap),
e and ordinate y above the centroid are positive. or gross section properties.
Step 2: Determine the creep, shrinkage and Ec of the Step 5: Calculate stresses due to weight of deck (or
precast girder (Section 1) and the deck (Section 2). topping) in fibres i (i = 2, ... 5):
The following data is required: a) For unshored construction, the stresses are:
a) Creep coefficients of girder concrete C(t ,to), M
fsdi = sd yi
C(tca, to) and C(t ,tca) where: I
t = time at infinity (days) b) For shored construction the stresses are:
tc = time at transfer of prestress (days) M
= sd yi
fsdi
tca = time at the beginning of the composite I
action (days) The prime indicates properties of the transformed
composite section, determined by multiplying the
width of the deck by the ratio Ecdeck(tca tcc)/Ec(tca).

Fig. 3.4.5 Prestress loss in composite elements
Step 6: Calculate strains In fibre 2: Step 7: Determine properties of creep-transformed

fc2 section. Multipliers for the calculation of the
*2 = [C(t ,t o ) C(tca ,t o )] properties of the creep-transformed section are:
Ec (t o )
fsd2 For the steel:
+ C(t ,t ca ) + sh (t ,t o )
Ec (t ca ) (n* 1) where n* = Ep / E1*
sh (t ca ,to ) shdeck (t ,t ca t cc ) For the deck concrete:
where fc2 is the sum of the stress components of E*2 / E*1
steps 1 and 4 at level 2. Step 8: Calculate normal forces and bending
*
The strain 2 represents the difference in free strain moments:
between the precast and deck concrete at level of N*2 = *2 E2* A deck M*2 = N*2 y*2
fibre 2. For shored construction the term:
Adeck = Area of concrete deck (Section 2)
fsd2
C(t ,t ca ) is replaced by: N3* = (*3E*p + fre)Ap * *
M3* = N3 y3
Ec (t o )
N*4 = *4EsAs4 M*4 = N*4 y*4

fsd2
[C(t ,t ca ) Cdeck (t ,t ca t cc )] N5* = *5EsAs5 M5* = N5* y5*
Ec (t ca )
In fibre 3: N* = N*1 M* = N1y1*
fc3 The distances y* are the distances from the centroid

3* = [C(t ,t o ) C(tca ,t o )] of the creep-transformed section.
Ec (t o )
Note: The reduced relaxation may be determined as
fsd3 shown in Example 3-10.
+ C(t ,t o )+ sh (t ,t ca ) sh (t ca ,to )
Ec (t ca )
Step 9: Calculate stress due to N* and M*: Concrete
For fibres 4 and 5, fc3 and fsd3 are replaced, stress in the top fibre of the deck for unshored
respectively, by fc4 and fsd4, and fc5 and fsd5 . construction:

N* M* E* = elastic curvature due to superimposed load
N*2
ft* = + y *t 2 + for unshored construction.
A * I* E* A deck
1 or:
* * *
A , I and y are properties of the creep transformed Msd
(tca) =
section (see Example 3-10). EI
For shored construction: = elastic curvature due to superimposed load
f = fsd + f* for shored construction.
where fsd is the flexural stress in the top fibre due to To calculate the deflection, curvature should be
the weight of the deck (see Step 4). established at 0.4l for draped tendons and at the
supports. An appropriate distribution is assumed for
Time dependent stress in the bottom fibre: integration between these points.
N* M*
fb* = * + * yb* Example 3-12 Prestress loss in a composite
A I
element using the detailed method
This stress is to be added to the stresses due to Given:

prestressing force at the time tca, and moments Md The 2400 800 double tee of Example 3-9 but
and Msd at the bottom fibre. assume that the topping acts compositely.
fc precast = 35 MPa
The time-dependent change due to composite action
in the prestressed reinforcement: fc topping = 25 MPa
N* M* The topping is applied on a precast double tee at 40
f3* = * + * y3* n* + 3* Ep + fre
A I days. Assume that composite action begins at 43

days and that the concrete strength of the topping
and in the non-prestressed reinforcement, if any: after moist curing has reached 17.5 MPa at the
N* M* beginning of the composite action.
f4* = * + * y *4 n* + *4Es
A I Problem:

Determine the total loss of prestress using the
The stresses f* have to be added to the stresses detailed method.
present at the beginning of composite action (time
tca). Solution:
Step 1: Concrete stress after transfer:
Step 10: Calculation of deformations:
At the centre of gravity of the topping (fibre 2):
Initial plus time-dependent curvature (starting from
fc2 = 1.7 MPa
age to):
At level of prestressing steel (fibre 3):
= (t o )[1 + C(t ,to )] + p
fc3 = 7.6 MPa
*
M At other fibres: see Fig. 3.4.6(b).
+(t ca )[1 + C(t ,t ca )]
I*E1* Step 2: Creep and shrinkage properties:
M + Po e3
(to)= d Precast section:
EItr
C(t ,1) = 1.81 (see Example 3-9)
= elastic curvature of the precast girder at C(t ,43) = 1.45 (see Example 3-9)
transfer t 0.6
Pca e3 C(43,1) = C
p = 10 + t 0.6
EI
(43 1)0.6
= elastic curvature due to prestress loss = 0.6
(1.81) = 0.88
before composite action begins. 10 + (43 1)
M sh(t, 1) = 442 106 (see Example 3-9)

(tca) = sd t
EItr sh(43, 1) = sh
Cs + t

(43 1) 6 = 0.3 MPa
= (442 10 )
55 + (43 1) At the level of prestressing steel (fibre 3):
= 191 106 fc3 = 0.9 MPa (tension)
Cast-in-place topping: For other fibres: see Fig. 3.4.6(c)
Cdeck(t, 43) = 2.40 Step 5: Stress due to superimposed dead load of
shdeck(t, 43) = 600 106 topping:
Moduli of elasticity: M
fsdi = sd yi
Ec(to) = 24900 MPa for fci = 25 MPa I
(154)(106 )
Ec(tca) = 28200 MPa for fc = 35 MPa fsd2 = (287 + 25) = 2.0 MPa
9
Ecdeck(tca tcc) = 22100 MPa for fc = 17.5 MPa 24.1 10
(154)(106 )
and c = 2400 kg / m3 fsd3 = ( 405) = 2.6 MPa (tension)
9
Age adjusted moduli: 24.1 10
Ec (t ca ) Increase in steel stress:
E1* =
1 + 0.8C(t ,tca ) = n1 fsd3 = (6.7)(2.6) = 17 MPa (tension)
28 200
= = 13100 MPa Steel stress at the beginning of composite action:
1 + (0.8)(1.45)
fpr = 1360 (7.6)(7.6) 75 + 17 = 1244 MPa
Ecdeck (tca tcc )
E*2 =
1 + 0.7Cdeck (t ,t ca ) Step 6: Strain:
fc2
22,100 *2 = [C(t ,to ) C(t ca ,t o )]
= = 8200 MPa Ec (t o )
1 + (0.7)(2.40)
fsd2
E*2 + C(t ,t ca ) + sh (t ,t o )
= 8200/13100 = 0.63 Ec (t ca )
E1*
sh (t ca ,to ) shdeck (t ,t ca t cc )
n* = 190000/13100 = 14.5 1.7 + 0.3
= (1.81 0.88)
no = 190000/24900 = 7.6 (at transfer) 24900
n = 190000/28200 = 6.7 (at time tca) 2.0
+ (1.45)
Step 3: Loss of prestress at time tca (neglecting 28200
relaxation): +(442 191 600)(106 )
no fc3 C(tca ,to )+ sh (t ca ,t o )Ep
fp(tca)= = 171 106
1 + no (p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )[1 + 0.8C(t ca ,t o )] fc3
*3 = [C(t ,to ) C(t ca ,t o )]
6 Ec (t o )
(7.6)(7.6)(0.88) + (191 10 )(190000)
=
414 2 fsd3
1 + (7.6)(0.0032) 1 + + C(t ,tca ) + sh (t ,to ) sh (tca ,t o )
[1 + (0.8)(0.88)] Ec (t ca )
248
7.6 0.9
= 75 MPa = (1.81 0.88)
24900
Pca = fp (tca) Ap 2.6 6
+ (1.45) + (442 191)(10 )
= (75)(1188)/103 = 89 kN 28200
Step 4: Stresses due to Pca = 89 kN: = 368 106
P P e
fci = ca ca 3 yi Step 7: Properties of creep-transformed section:
Ag I
From Step 2, the multiplier for the deck concrete at
At the centre of gravity of the topping (fibre 2): fibre 2 is:
( 89)(103 ) ( 89)(103 )( 414) E*2
fc2 = + 9 (287 + 25) = = 0.63
371000 (22.8)(10 ) E1*

* *
Area A Ay y =yy
*
A*(y*)2 I I*
Level Multiplier y
(mm 10 ) (mm2103) (mm 10 ) (mm 10 ) (mm 109) (mm 10 )
2 3 3 6 4 9 4 4 9
(mm)
1 371 1.0 371.0 0 0 35 0.45 22.8 23.25
2 120 0.63 75.6 303 22.91 268 5.43 5.43
3 1.188 13.5 16.0 414 6.62 449 3.23 3.23
Total 462.6 16.29 9.11 22.8 31.9
and the multiplier for the prestressing steel at fibre 3 1244

= (0.125) 0.55 (1244)
is: (0.9)(1860)
= n1* 1 = 14.5 1 = 13.5
= 30.0 MPa
A* = 463 103 mm2 56
= = 0.045
16.29 106 1244
y = = 35 mm
463 103 1244
= = 0.67
I* = (9.11 + 22.8)(109) = 31.9 109 mm4 1860
Step 8: Normal force and bending moments: From Fig. 3.4.4:

N*2 = *2E*2 A 2 r = 0.86
= (171 106)(8200)(120 103 )/103 r fre = (0.86)(30) = 26 MPa
= 168.3 kN Add forces due to reduced relaxation to above values

of N* and M*. The new values are:
N3 = *
(3* Ep + fre )A p
N* = 85.2 + (26)(1188)/103 = 54.3 kN
-6 3
= (368 10 )(190000)(1188)/10 * 6
M = 82.4 + (26)(1188)(449)/10 = 96 kN-m
= 83.1 kN
Step 9: Stresses:
N* = N*i = 168.3 + 83.1 = 85.2 kN
Final concrete stress in top and bottom fibres of
M*2 = N*2 y*2
composite section:
= (168.3)(268)/103 = 45.1 kN-m N* M* E* N*
M*3 = N*3 y*3 ft = f*t = + y* 2 + 2
A * I* t E* A c2
= (83.1)(449)/103 = 37.3 kN-m 1
( 54.3)(103 ) ( 96)(106 )
M* = M*2 + M*3 = 45.1 37.3 = + (293) (0.63)
3 9
= 82.4 kN-m (463 10 ) (31.9 10 )
Reduced relaxation: ( 168.3)(103 )

+ = 0.8 MPa (tension)
(120 103 )
Time-dependent change in prestress due to
composite action without relaxation: and from Fig 3.4.6:
N* M* fb = f*b
f*3 = + y3* n1* + 3*Ep
A * I* ( 54.3)(103 ) ( 96)(106 )
= 3
+ 9
( 557) (0.63)
( 85.2)(103 ) ( 82.4)(106 ) (463 10 ) (31.9 10 )
= + ( 449) (14.5)
3
31.9 109 +8.5 1.1 3.3 = 3.1MPa (compression)
463 10
Effective prestress:
+(368 10 6 )(190000)
N* M*
= 56 MPa f3* = + y3* n1 + 3*Ep + r fre
A * I*

Intrinsic relaxation with:
( 54.3)(103 ) ( 96)(106 )
fpi = 1244 MPa = + ( 449) (14.5)
3 9
fpi (463 10 ) (31.9 10 )
fre = 0.125 0.55 fpi
fpy +(368 10 6 )(190000) + 26

= 78 MPa

Pe = (1244 78)(1188)/103 = 1385 kN z = fs 3 dc A
The distribution of the final concrete stresses is fs = the increase in steel stress in the non-
shown in Fig. 3.4.6(f). prestressed reinforcement beyond the state of
decompression
3.4.8 Partially Prestressed Element Design dc = concrete cover to the centre of the
In many prestressed concrete structures it is not likely reinforcement (mm)
that the full specified load will be applied during the A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding
lifetime of the structure. It is therefore possible to the flexural tension reinforcement and having
design the structural elements such that some the same centroid as that reinforcement,
cracking may occur under full specified load should it divided by the number of bars or wires (mm2).
ever be applied. Within the range of specified dead When the flexural reinforcement consists of
and live loads found in most structures, elements different bar or wire sizes, the number of bars
should be proportioned such that: or wires used to compute A is taken as the total
Mcr > ( Msw + Msd ) area of reinforcement divided by the area of the
largest bar or wire used.
This is not a Code requirement but is good design
practice; it also assists the designer in the selection Note: This definition was developed for elements with
of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement. a rectangular tension zone. For elements with a large
tension flange (e.g. a box section) this definition may
The advantages of partial prestressing are: not be applicable and wmax should be calculated as
1. A reduction in camber. shown in Step 5 of the Detailed Method.
2. A reduction in prestress force, which may allow The value of fs may be determined by either a
an increase in tendon eccentricity. simplified or a detailed method. The first method is
conservative, particularly for elements with a small
3. A reduction in prestress losses due to creep and reinforcement ratio. A second, more rigorous method,
relaxation (where partial prestressing is is given here, together with research results
achieved using lower tendon stresses). concerning maximum crack widths in partially
4. A reduction of cracking in the end zones of post- prestressed elements with different types of
tensioned elements. prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement. The
detailed method follows Steel Stresses in Partially
Partial prestressing may be achieved in two ways: Prestressed Concrete Members, Suri, K. M., Dilger,
1. By providing non-prestressed reinforcement in Walter H., PCI Journal, May/June 1986. Design aids
addition to the prestressing tendons. This may to calculate fs presented in this paper are used here.
provide greater economy in long pretensioning The CONCISE Beam computer software program
fabrication beds when it is desirable to produce uses the detailed method and calculates crack widths
elements of dissimilar capacity. directly.
2. By reducing the effective prestress below the
maximum limit and relying on the increase in Simplified method
tendon stress after decompression and cracking The stress, fs, may be calculated as the stress
to resist the increase in moment. This is a useful corresponding to the difference between the moment
option in pretensioned construction where there due to specified loads, Ms, and the decompression
may be difficulties in placing the non-prestressed moment, Mdc, according to:
reinforcement. Ms Mdc
fs =
The crack control criteria for partially prestressed (A p + A s )d
elements, given in Fig. 3.4.1, are more conservative
than for reinforced elements, due to the potential The decompression moment, Mdc, is the moment
effects of corrosion on small diameter tendons. producing zero stress at the extreme concrete fibre of
the precompressed tensile zone. The moment does
For the calculation of z, the same equation for not result in complete decompression of the whole
reinforced concrete elements is used: section as this would require the removal of the

Fig. 3.4.6 Stress distributions for Example 3-12
bending moment due to applied loads and the = force in tendons corresponding to the
application of a fictitious decompression force. The concrete stress fc at the level of the tendon
above equation eliminates the complicated under dead load and effective prestress
calculations required to compute the decompression
Ps = As fs
force Pdc and facilitates a quick determination of the
stresses due to specified loads = force in the non-prestressed reinforcement
due to time-dependent strain
Detailed method f
Ps = c Es A s
The reference point for the calculation of the Ec
incremental steel stress corresponds to zero stress = force in non-prestressed reinforcement
throughout the concrete section. The state of zero corresponding to the concrete stress fc at
concrete stress is achieved by applying a so-called the level of the non-prestressed
decompression force Pdc to the concrete section. reinforcement under dead load and
The step-by-step procedure is summarized as effective prestress.
follows:
The forces Pp and Ps are normally small and are
Step 1: often neglected.
Determine the effective prestress Pe and the time-
Step 3:
dependent change in stress in the non-prestressed
Determine parameters:
reinforcement, fs according to the procedure given in
Sect. 3.4.6. Note that fs = fp. Ep Ap dp + Es A s ds
d =
Ep Ap + Es A s
Step 2:
Determine the decompression force Pdc: Pdc dp
p =
Pdc = Pe + Pp Ps + Ps Ms
ApEp + A sEs
Pe = effective prestress (after all losses) n =
bdEc
fc
Pp = Ep Ap bw
Ec b =
b

Fig. 3.4.7(a)T-beam design coefficients

Fig. 3.4.7(b)T-beam design coefficients

Fig. 3.4.7(c)T-beam design coefficients

hf
f =
h
For rectangular sections b = f = 1.0
Step 4:
From the charts in Fig. 3.4.7, find the coefficient for
the appropriate parameters and use it to calculate the
incremental steel stress:
fs = n notation from chart
Ep Ms
n = Prestressed reinforcement:
Ec bd2
12 13 mm 1860 MPa, bonded strands
The charts also provide the neutral axis depth Ap = 1188 mm2
coefficient k. (See Example 3-12)
Ep = 190000 MPa
Step 5:
Calculate the crack control parameter z and compare Non-prestressed reinforcement:
with allowable values. A designer may determine the 4 25M Grade 400 bars
maximum crack width using the methods given below
As = (4)(500) = 2000 mm2
for comparison to recommended values in Fig. 3.4.1.
wmax= k1fs dc Ar / A st Es = 200000 MPa
Section Properties at Midspan:
k1 = 3 106 for a combination of deformed bars
and strands and for strands only Ac = 492000 mm2
Ig = 66300 106 mm4
k1 = 4 106 for a combination of deformed bars
and wires yb = 882 mm
k1 = 5 10 -6
for wires only ec = 731 mm
Atr = 513900 mm2
dc = concrete cover to centre of the
reinforcement (mm) Itr = 79150 106 mm4
Ar = concrete area in tension below the neutral etrp = 699 mm (prestressed reinforcement)
axis etrs = 749 mm (non-prestressed reinforcement)
Ast = Ap + As Es/Ep etr = 731 mm (both reinforcements)
Unbonded tendons are not considered when ytr = 849 mm
calculating z. r = 367 mm
Step 6: Creep, shrinkage and relaxation:
Calculate compressive stress in top fibre:
1 kd Creep Coefficient Ct = 1.76
fc = fs
n d kd Shrinkage sh = 430 106
Example 3-13 Crack width analysis of a partially Intrinsic Relaxation fre = 50 MPa
prestressed element using the detailed method Service Moments:
Given: Msw = 1066 kN-m
3000 1200 single tee. Span = 27.0 m
Msd = 410 kN-m
Concrete: Ml = 546 kN-m
fci = 25 MPa
Ms = Msw + Msd + Ml
fc = 35 MPa
= 1066 + 410 + 546 = 2022 kN-m
Eci = 24900 MPa at transfer
Problem:
Ec = 28200 MPa at 40 days Calculate z and check the crack width at midspan for
Normal Density exterior exposure conditions.

Solution: The time dependent change in stress at centroid of
Step 1(a): Elastic loss: reinforcement (without relaxation):
Concrete stress after transfer at level of centroid of no fco C + shEp
fp =
both prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement: 1 + no (p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C )
P Po e trp Msw
fco = o + (7.6)(4.1)(1.76) + (430 106 )(190000)
A tr Itr e tr =
731 2
1 + (7.6)(0.0067) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.76)]
Po = fpo Ap 367
fpo = (0.75)(fpu)
136.5
= (0.75)(1860) = 1395 MPa = = 85 MPa
1.609
Po = (1395)(1188)/103 = 1657 kN
Assuming the superimposed dead load is applied at
(1657)(103 ) 40 days, then from Fig. 2.4.1:
fco =
513 900
Qa1 = 0.80
(1657)(699)(103 ) (1066)(106 )
+ (731) Ct1 = 0.80 C
79 150 106 = (0.80)(1.76) = 1.41
= 3.2 + 0.9 = 4.1 MPa n1fc1Ct1
fp1 =
1 + n1(p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8Ct1 )
Elastic prestress loss:
Ep 190 000 (6.7)(3.8)(1.41)
no = = = 7.6 =
Eci 24 900 731 2
1 + (6.7)(0.0067) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.41)]
fpo = no fco = (7.6)(4.1) = 31MPa 367
Prestress after transfer: 35.9
fpi = fpo fpo 1.475
= 1395 31 = 1364 MPa Reduced relaxation taking into account creep and
shrinkage:
Concrete stress at level of centroid of steel due to
Msd: For simplicity in the calculation of the relaxation loss,
M it is assumed that the superimposed dead load is
fc1 = sd etr applied at the time of transfer. The tendon stress due
Itr to Msd is included in fpi.
(410)(106 ) fpi = 1395 31 + 25 = 1389 MPa
= 6
(731) = 3.8 MPa (tension)
79150 10 fp fp1 85 24
= = = 0.044
Corresponding change in reinforcement stress: fpi 1389
Ep 190000 fpi 1389
n1 = = = 6.7 = = = 0.75
Ec1 28200 fpu 1860
n1fc1= (6.7)(3.8) = 25 MPa (tension) From Fig. 3.4.4:
Step 1(b): Time dependent losses: r = 0.90
Ap A s Es Therefore, loss due to relaxation only:
p+s = + r fre
Ac A c Ep fp =
1 + no (p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C )
1188 (2000)(200000)
= +
492 10 3
(492 103 )(190000) (0.90)(50)
= = 28 MPa
1.609
= 0.0024 + 0.0043 = 0.0067

Step 2: Decompression force: Steel stress at the level of the centroid of
reinforcement:
Pdc = Pe Ps + Pp + Ps
47n1Ms (47)(6.7)(2022)(106 )
fp = 25 + 85 24 + 28 = 64 MPa fs = = = 181MPa
bd2 (3000)(1082)2
Pe = (fpi fp) Ap
= (1364 64)(1188)/103 = 1544 kN Step 5: Crack control parameter and crack width:
Disregarding the bundled prestressed reinforcement
fs = 31 25 + 85 24 = 67 MPa
for the calculation of A, the effective concrete area
Ps = fs As surrounding each bar:
= (67)(2000)/103 = 134 kN (200)(2)(100)
A = = 10000 mm2
fc = fco fc1 = 4.1 3.8 = 0.3 MPa 4
f dc = 50 mm
Pp = c Ep A p
Ec1 z = fs 3 dc A = (181)3 (50)(10000)
(0.3)(190000)(1188) = 14400 N / mm
= = 2 kN
(28200)(103 )
For exterior exposure, z 15000 N/mm (Fig. 3.4.1).
fc
Ps = Es A s Hence, 12 - 13 mm diameter strands plus 4 - 25M
Ec1 bars satisfy crack control under the specified loads.
(0.3)(200000)(2000)
= = 4 kN With concrete cover, dc = 32 mm and using the
(28200)(103 ) parameters calculated in step 3 and Fig. 3.4.7, by
Pdc = 1544 134 + 2 + 4 = 1416 kN interpolation k = 0.25.
It is apparent that the terms Pp and Ps could be The area of concrete in tension is:
neglected. At = (h kd) bw = [1200 (0.25)(1082)](200)
Step 3: = 185900 mm2
Parameters to find fs: E (2000)(200000)
Ast = A p + A s s = 1188 +
A sEs ds + A pEp dp Ep 190000
d =
A sEs + A pEp
= 3300 mm2
(2000)(200,000)(1100)
= The maximum crack width is:
(2000)(200000) + (1188)(190000)
Wmax = k1fs dc A r / A st
(1188)(190000)(1050)
+ 185900
(2000)(200000) + (1188)(190000) = (3.0 106 )(181)(32) = 0.13 mm
3300
= 1082 mm
This is less than 0.20 mm which is recommended for
A pEp + A sEs exterior exposure of prestressed concrete elements.
n =
Ec1bd see Fig. 3.4.1
(1188)(190000) + (2000)(200000) Step 6: Check concrete stress in top fibre
=
(28200)(3000)(1082) (compression):
f kd
= 0.00684 fc = s
Pdc dp (1416)(1050)(103 ) n1 d kd
p = = = 0.735 181 (0.25)(1082)
Ms (2022)(106 ) =
6.7 1082 (0.25)(1082)

bw 200
b = = = 0.0667 = 9.0 MPa < 0.6fc = 21MPa OK
b 3000
h 90 Buckling of Non-Prestressed Reinforcement
f = f = = 0.0832
d 1082 In Example 3-13, a compressive stress of 67 MPa is
Step 4: introduced in the non-prestressed reinforcement by
With these parameters, by interpolation from creep and shrinkage. At this low stress, buckling of
Fig.3.4.7: bars will not occur.
fs /n = 47

Fig. 3.4.8 Variation of strand stress with the section should be reduced to account for this
distance from free end lower prestress.
When a portion of the strands is debonded, zones are
created where sections through the member will
contain strands with unequal strains. In that case,
calculation of nominal strength in the development
region should be based on strain compatibility, or
conservatively, the contribution of the debonded
strands neglected until they are fully developed.
Failure due to slip is brittle, therefore a value of p =
0.7 is recommended to determine flexural capacity
when this mode of failure is possible.
Recent industry research has raised questions as to
whether prestressing strands located near the as-cast
upper surfaces of precast concrete elements may
exhibit greater transfer and development lengths than
may have been assumed in design calculations. The
For compressive stresses exceeding 100 MPa, the effect was observed primarility with high flow
use of transverse reinforcement should be concrete mixes (such as SCC) and with strands
considered. located within eight inches of the as-cast upper
surfaces.
The minimum shear reinforcement is considered
adequate to prevent buckling of non-prestressed Example 3-14a Debonding strands
reinforcement up to a compressive stress of 200 Given:
MPa. Experiments by Hutton and Loov [6] on beams 400 600 rectangular beam, normal density concrete
without transverse reinforcement showed no sign of with:
buckling after a compressive stress of about 200 MPa tendons jacked to 0.75 fpu
initial prestress losses 5 %
had been reached in the non-prestressed
long term prestress losses 14.5 %
reinforcement.
Span = 6 m plus a 2 m cantilever
3.4.9 Prestress Transfer and Strand
Development
In a pretensioned element, the prestress force is
transferred to the concrete by bond. The length
required to accomplish this transfer is called the
transfer length, and is approximately 50 times the
nominal diameter of the strand.
The development length required to develop the full
design strength of the strand fpr is much longer, and is
specified by the Code as:
l d = 0.145(fpr 0.67fpe )db
The approximate variation of strand stress along the
transfer length and the maximum stress that can be
developed near the end of a strand is shown in Fig. Prestress:
3.4.8. The development length shown in the above 4 13 mm 1860 MPa strands in top
equation should be doubled where bonding of strand 7 13 mm 1860 MPa strands in bottom
does not extend to the end of a member, and the Pi = (99)(0.75)(0.95)(1860) /103
design includes tension in precompressed zones at = 131.2 kN/strand
specified loads.
Pe = (131.2)(0.855)= 112.2 kN/strand
In short span flexural members, strands may not be Section Properties:
developed at sections of high moment. In such cases,
Ag = 240,000 mm2
it is possible that premature failure may occur in the
concrete due to slip. If this is the case, the capacity of I = 7200 106 mm4

Fig. 3.4.9 Variation of prestress force Debonded strands require a development length as
well as a transfer length twice the calculated value.
Top strands are necessary along the length of the
cantilever, but increase the bottom fibre tensile
stresses at midspan. To alleviate this condition, some
of the top strands should be debonded over most of
the span. The full flexural resistance of these strands
may be needed to resist the factored negative
moment over the right support.
In this example, 2 of the 4 top strands have been
debonded over a length of 3.4 m from the left end of
the beam. A length of 2.7 m is therefore available for
development of fpr of these strands at the right
support.
The variation of prestress force in each layer of
yt = 300 mm strands is shown in Fig. 3.4.9. These forces have
yb = 300 mm been labeled as Pt, Pbu and Pbl to designate their
St = 24000 103 mm3 location in the beam. A transfer length of 650 mm is
Sb = 24000 103 mm3 used for bonded strands.
et = (300 100)= 200 mm Solution:
(for 4 top strands) To show the variation of stresses along the beam
under different loads, the stresses at the top and
ebu = 300 150= 150 mm
bottom of the beam at transfer and the stresses in the
(for 3 upper strands in bottom) beam under service loads have been plotted. To
ebl = 300 100= 200 mm compute the stresses at transfer the beam is
(for 4 lower strands in bottom) assumed to be supported at the ends. The stresses
Loading: at service load are based on Pe and two loading
w = (24) (400)(600)(106) = 5.76 kN/m cases: (a) with no live load on the cantilever and (b)
wd = 35 kN/m (not including self weight of beam) with no live load on the 6 m span. The following
equations with appropriate variations in P and M have
wl = 26 kN/m
been used to determine the stresses:
Problem: 1 et 1 ebu
Choose appropriate lengths of debonding and find t = Pt + Pbu
A g St A g St
stresses at critical sections to determine the required
concrete strength, at transfer and the required 1 ebl M
concrete strength at service load. +P +
bl A
g St St
Discussion:
In a cantilever beam, some of the bottom strands will 1 e 1 ebu
b = Pt + t +P +
usually be debonded because they produce tension A g Sb bu A g Sb

in the top concrete fibre and increase the deflection of
1 ebl M
the cantilever. A few strands should continue through +PbL +
to the end for reinforcement and crack control during A g Sb Sb

transfer, stripping, storage, transportation, erection
and construction. From Figs. 3.4.10 and 3.4.11, it is apparent that the
sections that require checking include:
In this example, the 4 strands in the bottom layer are
(a) The transfer point, 650 mm from each end.
debonded over the full 2 m length of the cantilever.
The development length of these strands needs to be (b) The transfer point, 1300 mm from the end of the
adequate so they can provide their full flexural debonded length
resistance near mid span. (c) The location of maximum positive moment near
Based on A23.3, a development length of mid span
approximately 2 m is required for 13 mm strands. (d) The right support

Fig. 3.4.10 Stresses at release
Other locations that may require checking are the The required concrete strength for service conditions
lifting and support points used during stripping, will therefore be based on the stresses from the
storage, transportation and erection. positive moment:
Stresses: fc 11.11 / 0.45 = 24.7 MPa
At the transfer point, 650 mm from the left support, and
Pti = 257.8 kN, Pbui = 386.7 kN, and Pbli = 515.6 kN. fc [2.70 / (0.5)]2 = 29.1 MPa
The moment at this point, assuming the beam is
simply supported 100 mm from each end, A transfer strength of fci = 20 MPa and an
M = 11.6 kN-m. fc = 30 MPa will be adequate.
The compressive stress at transfer: Example 3-14b Moment capacity of a member
b = 8.91 MPa with debonded strands.
The required concrete strength at transfer is: Given:
3000 mm wide double tee with 10-13 mm diameter
fci 8.91 / 0.60 = 14.9 MPa
strands, five strands per stem.
The maximum positive moment occurs with no live
fc = 35 MPa
load on the cantilever. The left reaction under this
condition is 186.7 kN so that zero shear and the Ec = 28,165 MPa
corresponding maximum moment occur at 2.80 m
from the left support. The maximum service load 1 = 0.80
moment at this section is 261.0 kN-m. (The use of the fpu = 1860 MPa
centre span moment would have introduced only
negligible error). The forces in the different layers of fpe = 1170 MPa
prestressed steel are: Pt = 224.4 kN, Pbu = 336.6 kN, Ep = 190000 MPa
and Pbl = 448.8 kN.
The maximum stresses at this section are:
t = 11.11 MPa and b = 2.70 MPa.
The maximum negative moment, M = 133.5 kN-m,
occurs at the right support with the cantilever fully
loaded. The forces in the prestressed steel at this
section are: Pt = 448.8 kN, Pbu = 336.6 kN, and Pbl = 0.
The maximum stresses at this section are:
t = 0.65 MPa and b = 7.20 MPa.

Fig. 3.4.11 Final stresses
Problem: Development length for debonded strand:

Strand No. 3 is debonded for 1500 mm from the end.
Find Mr at 3500 mm from the end. l d = (2)(1914) = 3828 mm
Solution: The maximum strength the strand can develop at
Assume fpr for fully bonded strands = 0.98 fpu 3500 mm from the end, 2000 mm from the point of
debonding is:
= 1823 MPa
Transfer Length (200 1436)(1823 1170)
fp = 1170 +
fpe (3828 1436)
l t = 0.145 db
3 = 1324 MPa
1170 And the corresponding strain:

= 0.145 (13)
3 fp 1324
p = = = 0.00697
= 718 mm Ep 190 000

Development Length Effective strain from transfer point to fp:
l d = 0.145(fpr 0.67fpe )db
pa = p - pe
= 0.145(1823 (0.67)(1170))(13)
fp
= 1914 mm = p -
For the debonded strand, double the transfer and Ep
development lengths per A23.3, Clause 12.9.2. (1170)
= 0.00697
Transfer length for debonded strand: (190000)
l t = (2)(718) = 1436 mm = 0.00697 0.00616 = 0.00081

(138.4 100)(8.73)
=
(138.4)
= 2.42 MPa
The spacing of strands in this example is such that Compression in the flange
the variation in the strains is inconsequential, thus the
strains and the stresses in all the strands may be = c fc A c
assumed to be equal, and the centroid of the tensile
(0.7)(8.73 + 2.42)(3000)(100)
force (Tr) may be assumed to be at the centroid of the =
strand group. (1000)(2)
Tr = p fp A p = 1170.8 kN
Compression in the stems
(0.9)(1324)(10)(99)
=
(1000) 138.4 100
(0.7)(155) (2.42)(2)
2
= 1179.7 kN =
1000
Use the iteration process, varying the value of
concrete strain (c), until the compression force, Cr, = 10.1 kN
reasonably approximates the tensile force, Tr. At the Total Compression = 1170.8 + 10.1
final iteration: = 1180.9 kN 1179.7 kN
(1170.8)(459.4) + (10.0)(387.2)
c = 0.000310 0.0035 OK Mr =
(1000)
c = 541.8 kN-m
C = (dp )
(c ) + (pa )
(0.000310)(500)
=
(0.000310) + (0.00081)
= 138.4 mm
Compressive stress at the top of the flange
= c Ec
= (0.000310)(28165)
= 8.73 MPa
Compressive stress at the bottom of the flange

Fig. 3.5.1 Maximum allowable computed deflections
Deflection
Type of Element Deflection to be Considered
limitation
Flat roofs not supporting or attached to ln
Immediate deflection due to specified (1)
non-structural elements likely to be 180
live load L, or snow load, S
damaged by large deflections
Floors not supporting or attached to
Immediate deflection due to specified ln
non-structural elements likely to be
live load, L 360
damaged by large deflections
Roof or floor construction supporting or ln
That part of the total deflection
attached to non-structural elements (3)
occurring after attachment of the non- 480
likely to be damaged by large
structural elements ( the sum of the
deflections
Long-Term deflection due to all
Roof or floor construction supporting or
sustained loads and the immediate ln
attached to non-structural elements (4)
deflection due to any additional live 240
likely to be damaged by large (2)
load)
deflections
(1) This limit is not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding should be checked by suitable calculations of deflection including the
added deflection due to ponded water, and considering-long time effects of all sustained loads, camber, construction tolerances, and
reliability of provisions for drainage.
(2) the Long-Term deflection shall be determined in accordance with A23.3, Clause 9.8.2.5 or 9.8.4.4, but may be reduced by the amount of
deflection which occurs before attachment of the non-structural elements.
(3) This limit may be exceeded if adequate measures are taken to prevent damage to supported or attached elements.
(4) This limit shall not be greater than the tolerance provided for the non-structural elements. This limit may be exceeded if camber is
provided so that the total deflection minus the camber does not exceed the limitation.
3.4.10 End Stresses at Transfer decrease with time, depending on the stress
distribution across the element under sustained
At the time prestress force is transferred, tensile
loads.
stresses perpendicular to the prestressing force
(sometime called bursting or splitting stresses), There are many inherent variables that affect camber
develop which may cause horizontal cracks near the and deflection, such as concrete mix, concrete
end of the member. These forces can be resisted by strength at release of prestress, method and duration
vertical reinforcement, Avt, uniformly distributed over of storage, placement of superimposed loads, relative
a length =h/5 and calculated by the following equation. humidity, etc. Calculated short and long-term
values should not be considered better than
Avt = (2.1x 105 Po h) / (fs lt)
estimates. Non-structural components attached to
3.5 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION elements that could be affected by camber variations,
such as partitions or folding doors, should be placed
The emphasis in this section is on prestressed floor with adequate allowance for these variations.
and roof elements. The same principles are Calculation of topping quantities should also
applicable to the design of non-prestressed concrete recognize the imprecision of camber calculations.
elements and wall panels. Roof slopes should be large enough to overcome the
The deflection of precast elements under the camber in roof elements.
application of dead and live loads is an important Limitations on instantaneous and time-dependent
design consideration. For floor and roof elements, deflections are specified in the code, and are
excessive deflection can lead to damage to interior referenced in Fig. 3.5.1.
finishes and equipment. Excessive deflection of roof
elements can lead to water ponding problems. 3.5.1 Initial Camber
Inadequate stiffness of wall panels may lead to
Initial camber can be calculated using conventional
sealant failure.
moment-area equations
Most precast, prestressed concrete flexural elements
Figures 8.1.3 and 8.1.4 provide deflection equations
will have a net positive (upward) camber after the
for typical loading conditions while camber equations
transfer of prestress, caused by the eccentricity of the
for common tendon profiles are given in Fig. 8.1.6.
prestressing force. This camber may increase or

Example 3-15 Calculation of initial camber (1620)(110)(21)2 (109 )
=
Given: (8)(24900)(8580 106 )
2400 600 double tee of Example 3-7
(1620)(225)(21)2 (109 )
+
(12)(24900)(8580 106 )
= 46 + 63 = 109 mm
Deduct the deflection caused by the self weight of the

element:
5wl 4
=
384Eci I
(5)(6.2)(21)4 (1012 )
= = 73 mm
(384)(24900)(8580 106 )
Net camber at release = 109 73 = 36 mm
3.5.2 Elastic Deflections
Calculation of instantaneous deflections caused by
Section properties: superimposed service loads follows classical
methods of mechanics. Design equations for various
Ag = 260000 mm2
load conditions are given in Chapter 8 of this Manual.
I = 8580 106 mm4 If the bottom tension in a simple span element does
yb = 424 mm not exceed the modulus of rupture, the deflection is
calculated using the uncracked moment of inertia of
yt = 176 mm
the section. The modulus of rupture of concrete is
Sb = 20200 103 mm3 defined in the code as:
St = 48800 103 mm3 fr = 0.6 fc
w = 2.6 kN/m2 = 6.2 kN/m Bilinear behaviour
Concrete: It is normal practice to use bilinear moment-deflection
fc = 35 MPa relationships to calculate instantaneous deflections
Normal Density when the bottom tension exceeds the modulus of
1.5 rupture, fr. The deflection before the element has
cracked is calculated using the gross moment of
Ec = (3300 fc + 6900) c
2300 inertia, Ig, and the additional deflection after cracking
1.5 is calculated using the moment of inertia of the
2400
= (3300 35 + 6900) = 28200 MPa cracked section, Icr. This is illustrated graphically in
2300 Fig. 3.5.2.
fci = 25 MPa
The following equations are exact for rectangular
1.5
2400 sections and approximate for other cross sections.
Eci = (3300 25 + 6900) = 24900 MPa
2300 Icr = n bd3 (1 k)(1 k/3)
Problem: = C bd3
Find the initial camber at time of transfer of prestress. A sEs d + A pEp dp
d =
Solution: A sEs + A pEp
The prestress force immediately after transfer and
strand eccentricities is calculated in Example 3-7. k = (n)2 + 2n n
A sEs + A pEp
Calculate the upward component: n =
2 Ec bd
Pe
i el Pe l 2
= + i c
8EciI 12EciI

Fig. 3.5.2 Bilinear and effective moment of The difference between the bilinear method and the Ie
inertia moment-deflection relationship method is illustrated in Fig. 3.5.2.
The use of Ie with prestressed concrete elements is
described in a paper by Branson [7]. The value of
Mcr/Ma for use in determining live load deflections can
be expressed as:
Mcr f f
= 1 tl r
Ma fl
ftl = final calculated total stress in the element
fl = calculated stress due to live load
A more accurate application of the Ie method is
described in a paper by Branson and Trost [8].
Example 3-16 - Deflection calculation using
bilinear moment-deflection relationships
Given:
2400 600 double tee of Example 3-7.
Problem:
Determine the total instantaneous deflection caused
by the specified uniform live load.
Solution:
fr = 0.6 fc = 3.6 MPa
From Example 3-7, the final tensile stress is 5.4 MPa,

which is more than 3.6 MPa, so bilinear behaviour
must be considered.
Icr = n bd3 (1 k)(1 k/3)
= C bd3
For elements in which there is only prestressed Ap = 1386 mm2
reinforcement and the concrete tensile stress is less
dp at midspan = ec + yt = 335 + 176 = 511 mm
than 1.0 fc , the above expression may be A pEp
simplified to: n =
Ec bdp
Icr = nA p dp2 (1 1.67 np )
(1386)(190000)
= = 0.0076
Another procedure for calculating Icr, that includes the (28200)(2400)(511)
effect of the prestressing force, is given in Sect. 3.5.6. k = (n)2 + 2n n
= (0.0076)2 + 2(0.0076) 0.0076

Effective moment of inertia
= 0.1159
An effective moment of inertia, Ie, can be determined
C = (0.0076)(1 0.1159)(1 0.1159/3)
and the deflection calculated by substituting Ie for I in
the deflection calculation. = 0.0065
lcr = Cbdp3
M
3 M 3
le = cr Ig + 1 cr Icr = (0.0065)(2400)(511)3 = 2082 106 mm4
Ma Ma

Determine the portion of the live load that would
3
M result in a bottom tension of 3.6 MPa:
= Icr + (Ig Icr ) cr Ig
Ma 5.4 3.6 = 1.8 MPa

The tension caused by live load alone is 11.0 MPa, where is As/bd at midspan for simple and
therefore, the portion of the live load that would result continuous spans and at the support for cantilevers.
in a bottom tension of 3.6 MPa is:
The time-dependent factor, S, may be taken equal to:
11.0 1.8
(4.2) = 3.5 kN/ m 5 years or more: 2.0
11.0
5wl 4 12 months: 1.4
g =
384EcIg 6 months: 1.2
(5)(3.5)(21)4 (1012 ) 3 months: 1.0
= 6
= 37 mm
(384)(28200)(8580 10 ) The determination of long-term cambers and
4
(5)(0.7)(21) (10 ) 12 deflections in precast, prestressed elements is
cr = = 30 mm somewhat more complex due to:
(384)(28200)(2082 106 )
(1) effects of prestress and the loss of prestress
Total instantaneous deflection, l = 37 + 30 = 67 mm over time,
Example 3-17 - Deflection calculation using (2) strength gain of concrete after release of
effective moment of inertia prestress,
Given: (3) camber or deflection is important not only at the
Same section and loading conditions of Example 3-7 initial and final stages, but also at erection, and
Problem: (4) deflection, camber and bowing due to thermal
Determine the instantaneous deflection caused by effects, see Section 2.4.3. See Section 3.5.4
live load using the Ie method. regarding use of multipliers for determining long-
term camber and deflection.
Solution:
From the table of stresses in Example 3-7: 3.5.4 Use of Multipliers for Determining
ftl = 5.4 MPa (tension) Long-Term Camber and Deflection
fl = 11.0 MPa (tension) It has been customary in the design of precast,
fr = 0.6 fc = 3.6 MPa prestressed concrete elements to estimate the
camber after a period of time by multiplying the initial
Mcr 5.4 3.6
= 1 = 0.83 calculated camber by factors, usually based on the
Ma 11.0 experience of designers. To properly use these
Mcr
3 multipliers, the upward and downward components of
3
= (0.83) = 0.57 the initial calculated camber should be separated to
M
a take into account the effects of loss of prestress, that
From example 3-7, Icr = 2082 106 mm4 only affect the upward component.
3
M Figure 3.5.3 provides suggested multipliers to be
le = Icr + (Ig Icr ) cr
Ma used for estimating long-term cambers and
deflections for typical elements, i.e., elements within
= [2082 + (8580 2082)(0.57)(106 ) the span-depth ratios recommended in this Manual.
= 5786 106 mm4 The derivation of these multipliers is explained in a
paper by Martin. [9]
5wl 4
l = Long-term effects can be reduced by adding non-
384EcIe
prestressed reinforcement to prestressed concrete
(5)(4.2)(21)4 (1012 ) elements. An equation to account for non-prestressed
= = 65 mm
(384)(28200)(5786 106 ) reinforcement as proposed by Shaikh and Branson
[10] can be applied as follows:
3.5.3 Long-Term Camber/Deflection C1 + A s / A p
The code provides a convenient multiplier for C2 =
1 + A s / Ap
estimating the additional long-term deflection of
reinforced concrete elements due to sustained loads: C1 = multiplier from Fig. 3.5.4
S C2 = revised multiplier
= 1 +
1 + 50

Fig. 3.5.3 Suggested multipliers to be used for typical precast elements, C1
Without With
composite composite
topping topping
At erection member assumed to be 40 days old:

(1) Deflection (downward) component - apply to the elastic deflection due to the
element weight at release of prestress 1.85 1.85
(2) Camber (upward) component - apply to the elastic camber due to prestress at the
time of release of prestress 1.80 1.80
Final:
(3) Deflection (downward) component - apply to the elastic deflection due to the
element mass at release of prestress 2.70 2.40
(4) Camber (upward) component - apply to the elastic camber due to prestress at the
time of release of prestress 2.45 2.20
(5) Deflection (downward) - apply to elastic deflection due to superimposed dead load
only 3.00 3.00
(6) Deflection (downward) - apply to elastic deflection caused by the composite topping) 2.30
Example 3-18 Use of multipliers for l = 65 mm - see Example 3-17

determination of long-term cambers and
deflections For convenience, a tabular format is shown below.
The estimated cambers are:
Given:
2400 600 double tee of Example 3-7, and At erection of the element = 60 mm
Examples 3-15, 3-16 and 3-17. After superimposed dead load is applied = 48 mm
Non-structural elements are attached, but are
not likely to be damaged by deflections (light Final long-term camber = 32 mm
fixtures, etc.). The deflection limitation of Fig. 3.5.1 for the above
Problem: condition is l/240:
Estimate the camber and deflection and determine if
(21)(1000)/240 = 88 mm
they meet the requirements of NBCC.
Total deflection occurring after the attachment of non-
Solution:
structural elements:
Calculate the instantaneous deflections caused by
the superimposed dead and live loads: tl = (48 32) + 65 = 81 mm < 88 OK
(5)(1.2)(21)4 (1012 )
sd = = 13 mm
(384)(28200)(8580 106 )
Example - Use of multipliers for determining Long-Term cambers and deflections

(1) Release Multiplier (2) Erection Multiplier (3) Final
Prestress 108 1.80 (1) 195 2.45 (1) 265
Self weight 73 1.85 (1) 135 2.70 (1) 197
Resultant 35 60 68
Superimposed dead load 12 3.00 (2) 36
Resultant 48 32
Live load 65
Resultant 33

Fig. 3.5.4 Moment of inertia of cracked 3.5.6 Detailed Calculation of Live Load
transformed section Deflection of Partially Prestressed
Elements
As discussed in Section 3.5.2, the deflection of
partially prestressed (cracked) elements may be
calculated using an effective moment of inertia, Ie, or
bilinear moment-deflection relationships.
The cracked section properties for a given section are
dependent on the decompression load, Pdc, and the
moment due to specified loads, Ms.
The calculation of the cracked section properties
involves the determination of the depth to the neutral
axis, c, the centroidal depth, ycr, the area, Acr, and the
moment of inertia, Icr.
The following parameters are required to determine
the neutral axis depth, c:
b = bw /b
f = hf /d
p = Pdc dp/Ms
A sEs + A pEp
n =
Ec bd
A sEs ds + A pEp dp
d =
A sEs + ApEp
Having determined k from Fig. 3.4.7:
3.5.5 Detailed Method for Determining Long-
Term Camber and Deflection Fully c = kd
Prestressed Elements The properties of the cracked section can be
As discussed in Sects. 3.5.1 and 3.5.2, the elastic calculated using the following equations:
cambers and deflections for uncracked elements are
Centroidal depth:
calculated by conventional methods of analysis; the
downward deflection due to gravity load is reduced by 0.5bh2f + 0.5b w (c 2 h2f ) + np A p dp + ns A s ds
the upward deflection due to prestressing. The initial ycr =
bhf + b w (c hf ) + np A p + ns A s
deflection due to prestressing is calculated with P =
Po, the initial prestressing force.
Transformed area:
The time-dependent deflections of uncracked
Acr = bhf + b w (c hf ) + np A p + ns A s
elements due to prestressing can be determined by:
P Moment of inertia:
pt = pi Ct (1 + 0.8Ct )
Po 2
1 3 h 1
The factor 0.8 is the aging coefficient [11] which can lcr = bhf + bhf ycr f + b w (c hf )3
12 2 12
be used for practical creep computations.
2
c + hf
The time-dependent deflections of uncracked +b w (c hf ) ycr + np A p (dp ycr )2
elements due to sustained loads can be obtained 2
from the following expression: +ns A s (d ycr )2
su su
t = i C t
Alternatively, Icr and ycr may be determined according
isu = Initial deflection to Tadros et al. [13] from Figs. 3.5.4 and 3.5.5,
The values obtained from the above expressions are respectively.
additive to the elastic values.

Fig. 3.5.5 Centroidal axis depth of cracked Example 3-19 Deflection calculation using
transformed section Detailed Method
Given:
Same section and loading condition as in Example 3-
16
Problem:
Determine instantaneous deflection caused by live
load using the detailed method.
Solution:
Determine Icr and ycr using Figs. 3.5.5 and 3.5.6 (or
using Equations):
At x = 0.4 l :
As =0
Pdc = Pe = 1370 kN
d = dp = e 0.4l + yt = 290 + 176 = 466 mm
Pdc dp (1370)(466)(103 )
p = = = 1.04
Ms (616)(106 )
A s Es + A p Ep (1386)(190000)
n = =
Ec bd (28200)(2400)(466)
= 0.00835
100 + 155
bw /b = = 0.11
2400
ht /d = 50/466 = 0.107
With these parameters:
According to a study presented in [14], the most
reliable predictions for live load deflections of partially kcr = 0.085, kpr = 1.21 from Fig. 3.5.5
prestressed members are obtained by the method kc = 0.125, kp = 1.39 from Fig. 3.5.6
proposed by Tadros et al. [13] which takes into 1
account the eccentricity of the tendons relative to the Icr = k cr k pr bd3
12
centroid of the cracked section. 1
= (0.085)(1.21)(2400)(466)3
For calculating deflections, determine curvatures at 12
selected locations (normally at midspan for beams = 2082 106 mm4
with straight strands and an additional location of 0.4l
for draped strands). The effective moment of inertia ycr = kc kp d = (0.125)(1.39)(466) = 81 mm
for calculating curvatures is: frIg (3.6)(8580 106 )
4
Mcr = = = 72 kN m
Mcr y (424)(106 )
Ic = Icr + (Ig Icr )
Ms Mdc fpeIg (24.9)(8580 106 )
Mdc = = = 504 kN - m
yt 424
After cracking, the effective eccentricity of the
tendons is (dp ye), where: Pe Pe e
fce = + y
4 A I
Mcr
y e = ycr + (y t ycr ) (1370)(103 ) (1370)(103 )(290)
M
s Mdc = + (424)
260000 8580 106
In this equation, yt and ycr are the distance between = 24.9 MPa
the centroid and the top fibre of the uncracked
section and the cracked section respectively. Effective I for curvature:
4
Mcr
le = Icr + (Ig Icr )
Ms Mdc

= (2082 106 ) methods, the choice of which is determined by the
4
depth of the member, the magnitude of axial tension
72 and the degree of accuracy desired.
+(8580 2082)(106 )
616 504 In regions near discontinuities, where the
= 3192 106 mm4 assumptions of the above approach are not satisfied,
the strut-and-tie model in A23.3, Clause 11.4 is used.
Effective distance of centroid from top fibre: The strut-and-tie model, which considers the flow of
4
72 forces in a structural element, can also be used in the
ye = 81 + (176 81) = 97 mm
616 504 flexural regions of a member. The strut-and-tie model
is discussed in Chap. 4 of this Manual.
Curvature due to live load at 0.4l:
Ms Pe (dp y e ) 3.6.2 Determination of the Factored Shear
e = Resistance
EcIe
(616)(106 ) (1370)(466 97)(103 ) The shear resistance of structural concrete elements
= must meet the requirement:
(28200)(3192 106 ) Vr Vf
= 1.23 106 m1 Vr = Vc + Vs + Vp but shall not be greater than
M + Msd Pe e
l = e sw 0.25c fcb w dv + Vp
EcIg
Sections located within a distance, dv, from the face
= 1.23 106 of the support may be designed for the same shear,
Vf, as computed at distance, dv, provided that:
(330 + 63)(106 ) (1370)(103 )(290)
(a) the reaction force in the direction of the applied
(28200)(8580 106 )
shear introduces compression into the member;
= 1.25 106 m1 and
Repeating the same procedure for midspan: (b) no concentrated load that causes a shear force
l = 0.96 10-6 m1 greater than 0.03c fc b w dv is applied within
the distance dv from the face of support.
Deflection due to live load:
5 0.5 l
+ 0.4 l 3.6.2.1 Determination of the Factored Shear
l = l l
l2 Resistance of the Concrete
48 2

The shear resistance, Vc, shall be computed as
5 0.96 + 1.25 6 2
= (10 )(21000) = 51mm Vc = c fc b w dv , where the term fc shall
48 2
not be taken greater than 8 MPa.
3.5.7 Camber and Deflection of Composite
The distance, dv is the effective shear depth taken as
Elements
the greater of 0.9d or 0.72h.
For camber and deflection of composite elements,
refer to Sect. 3.4.7 (Step 10). Clause 11.3.6 provides two methods for the
determination of .
3.6 SHEAR A. The Simplified Method:
3.6.1 Design Procedures 1. if the section has at least minimum transverse
reinforcement in accordance with Clause
A23.3, Clause 11 contains a single approach for the
11.2.8.2, shall be taken as 0.18.
design of structural concrete elements for both shear
and torsion. This approach is a sectional procedure 2. if the section contains no transverse
used in flexural regions where it is reasonable to reinforcement, and maximum aggregate size is
assume that plane sections remain plane and that the not less than 20mm,
shear stresses are uniform over the depth of the
230
member. =
1000 + dv
Using this approach, the shear resistance of a
member can be determined using one of two

can be calculated for any aggregate size by 1. In regions of flexural members where the
replacing dv above with sze where factored shear force, Vf, exceeds Vc + Vp
35sz 2. In regions of beams with an overall thickness
sze = 0.85sz
15 + ag greater than 750 mm
sz is dependant on the longitudinal reinforcement. If 3. In regions of flexural members where the
one layer of bottom steel is used, sz = dv. If multiple factored torsion, Tf, exceeds 0.25 Tcr, and
layers are used, sz shall be taken as the
reinforcement spacing. 4. Unless shown not to be required by test
B. The General Method: For stirrups, normal to the axis of reinforced and
prestressed elements, the minimum area Av required
0.40 1300
= is:
1 + 1500 x 1000 + sze
b s
Av = 0.06 fc w
Mf / dv + Vf Vp + 0.5Nf A p fpo fy
x =
2(Es A s + Ep A p )
3.6.2.3.2 Spacing
3.6.2.2 Determination of the Factored Shear The maximum spacing of stirrups permitted is:
Resistance due to Prestressing
600 mm or 0.7dv
The shear resistance, Vp, shall be computed as the
vertical component of the effective prestress force Spacing is reduced to on-half this amount if:
multiplied by the performance factor p. Vf > 0.125c fc b w dv
3.6.2.3 Determination of the Factored Shear 3.6.3 Shear Resistance Calculations and
Resistance of the Shear Reinforcement Shear Diagrams
The nominal shear resistance, Vs, shall be computed It is helpful to construct a shear resistance and
as: factored shear force diagram in order to determine
Vs = [ s Avfydv (cot +cot) sin] / s the amount and location of shear reinforcement. This
is described below and illustrated in Fig. 3.6.1.
For shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of
an element: Steps for constructing the diagram using the General
s A v fy dv cot Method are as follows:
Vs =
s 1. Calculate the factored shear and moment, Vf
and Mf.
where can be determined using the following two
methods: 2. Use these values to calculate the longitudinal
strain, x.
A. Simplified Method:
= 42 as per conditions outlined in Clause 3. Use x and calculate and at different points
11.3.6.2, or; along the member.
= 35 as per conditions outlined in Clause 4. Calculate the shear resistance of the concrete.
11.3.6.3
5. Add any resistance provided by prestressing to
B. General Method: determine the amount of shear reinforcement
= 29 + 7000 x required.
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be proportioned so Example 3-20 Construction of a shear diagram
that at all sections the factored resistance of the following the above steps
tension reinforcement, taking account of the stress Given:
that can be developed in that reinforcement, shall be 2400 1000 single tee with 50 mm composite
greater than or equal to: topping
Flt = Mf / dv + (Vf Vp 0.5Vs )cot
Span = 24.0 m
3.6.2.3.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement Self weight and topping = 11.7 kN/m
A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be Superimposed dead load = 4.3 kN/m
provided: Superimposed live load = 12.0 kN/m

4. Determine Vp = p Pe (e1 e2) / (0.5 l )
961 622
Vp = (0.9) (1994)
12000
= 50.7 kN
5. Determine shear stress at dv:

Vf Vp (427 50.7)(103 )
vf = = = 2.5 MPa
b w dv (200)(756)
Section properties:
vf 2.5
(a) without topping =
c fc (0.7)(35)
Ag = 376000 mm2 = 0.102 < 0.25 the concrete cross-
Ig = 36300 106 mm4 sectional area is adequate.
yb = 714 mm 6. Determine x at all designated locations
(b) with topping Example at x = 8 m:
Ig = 44200 10 mm6 4 Mf / dv + Vf Vp + .5Nf A p fpo
x =
yb = 782 mm 2(Es A s + Ep A p )
Concrete: 2432(106 )
+ (152 50.7)103 + (0.5)(0) (1939)(.7)(1860)
Precast: fc = 35 MPa, normal density = 756
2(190000)(1939)
Maximum aggregate size, ag = 19 mm.
Topping: fc = 30 MPa, normal density = 0.0010036 less than 0.003, therefore OK
If the value, x, calculated above, is negative, it
shall be recalculated with a revised denominator
18 -13 mm ( Super) 1860 MPa strands stressed to of 2(EsAs + EpAp + EcAct) or taken as zero if
70% further calculations are not warranted. In any
Ap = (18)(107.7) = 1939 mm2 case x shall not be taken less than 0.0002, or
(18)(107.7)(0.79)(0.70)(1860) greater than 0.003.
Pe = = 1994 kN
103 7. Determine and
= 29 + 7000( x )
(Assuming 21% total prestress losses)
= 29 + 7000(0.001077)
Single point depression.
= 36.5o
Shear reinforcement:
0.40 1300
fy = 400 MPa =
1 + 1500 x 1000 + sze
Solution: 35S z
1. Determine factored loads: sze = = (35)(756)/(15+19) = 778
15 + ag
Uniform dead = (1.25)(4.3 + 11.7) = 20.0 kN/m
= 300 mm with minimum stirrups
Uniform live = (1.5)(12.0) = 18.0 kN/m 0.40 1300
=
2. Determine Vf and Mf 1 + (1500)(0.0010036) 1000 + 300

(Shown in Table) = 0.159

Example calculations shown below are for a 8. Determine Vc
section 8 m from the support Vc = c fc b w dv
3. Determine dv = 0.72 h = (0.7)(1.0)(0.159)( 35 )(200)(763)
dv = 0.72(1050)
= 100 kN
= 756 mm See Fig 3.6.1.

Fig. 3.6.1 Solution of Example 3-20
X Vf Mf x x Sze 0.72h 0.9d dv Vp Vc Vc+Vp Required
(m) (kN) (kN*m) as per Eq. Used (deg.) (m) (m) (m) (kN) (kN) (kN) Vs
11-13 (kN)
0 427 0 -0.00031 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 559 756 0 358 358 69
0.05 427 223 -0.00028 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 573 756 50.7 358 408 19
0.750 427 334 -0.00026 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 579 756 50.7 358 408 19
1 418 437 -0.00024 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 585 756 50.7 358 408 10
2 380 836 -0.00016 -0.00016 27.9 300 0.526 756 611 756 50.7 329 379 1.0
4 304 1520 -0.000035 -0.000035 28.8 300 0.424 756 661 756 50.7 265 315 0
6 228 2052 0.00049 0.00049 32.5 300 0.23 756 712 756 50.7 144 195 33
8 152 2432 0.0010036 0.0010036 36.3 300 0.159 756 763 763 50.7 100 151 1.0
10 76 2660 0.001042 0.001042 36.3 300 0.156 756 814 814 50.7 105 155 0
12 0 2737 0.00087 0.00087 35.1 300 0.173 756 865 856 0 122 122 0
Fig. 3.6.2 Solution of Example 3-20
Example 3-21a Design of shear reinforcement Av 69 103

Given: s (0.85)(400)(756)(cot 27.6o )
Single tee of Example 3-20. 0.140 mm2 / mm
Stirrups:
For double legged stirrups
10M, 2 legs 200 mm2
Av = (2)(100) = 200 mm 2 s
0.234 mm2 / mm
fy = 400 MPa
1429 mm - the area provided is adequate.
Problem: Determine maximum spacing
Determine the required shear reinforcement spacing.
s 600 mm
Solution:
0.7(dv ) = 0.7(756) = 529 mm Governs
From Fig. 3.6.1, Vsmax is 69 kN,
A Space stirrups at 500 mm.
Vs = s v fy dv cot
s Check longitudinal reinforcement for additional
= 27.6 o tension force caused by shear such that Fr > Fit

Fr = A p fpu = 3245 kN . Total factored load = 35.2 kN/m
Fit = Mf / dv + (Vf Vp 0.5Vs )cot Solution:
o 3 1. Determine bw
(0.85)(200)(400)(763)(cot 36.3 )(10 )
Vs provided =
500 Average additional width per core = 2% of radius
= 141.3 kN of core = 0.02 x 76 = 1.5 mm
The calculations shown are for a section 8 m from the bw = (58)(2) + 5(35 + 2(1.5)) = 306 mm
support.
Fit = 2432 106 / 763.2
+(152 50.7 (0.5)(141.3)) 103 (cot 36.3o )
= 3228 kN < 3245 kN
x(m) Fit (kN) Fr (kN)
0 0 3245
1 1093 3245
2 1545 3245
4 2302 3245
6 2866 3245
8 3228 3245
10 3200 3245 2. Determine dv
12 2966 3245
0.9 d = (0.9)(203 - 41) = 146 mm
No additional longitudinal steel is required.
0.72 h = (0.72)(203) = 146 mm
Example 3-21b 203 mm hollow core slab
dv = 146 mm
Problem:
Determine the shear capacity of the following hollow 3. Determine Sze
core slab. 35S z (35)(146)
Sze = =
15 + ag 15 + 14
= 176mm > 0.85 Sz O.K.

4. Formulate
(0.4) (1300)
Given: = x
(1 + 1500 x ) (1000 + Sze )
Reinforcement: 7-13 mm strands,
L = 5.0 m 0.442
=
fpu = 1860 MPa (1 + 1500 x )
fc = 35 MPa 5. Determine values of x:
c = 0.70 (Mf / dv ) + Vf Vp + 0.5 Nf A p fpo
x =
p = 0.9 2A sEs + 2A pEp + 2A ctEc
= 1.0 (Mf / dv) + Vp A p fpo
=
ag = 14 mm 2A pEp + 2A ctEc
Ep = 196 500 MPa 6. Calculate Vc
Strands pulled to 70% fpu
Vc = c fc b w dv
Total losses = 17%
Act = 67 500 mm2

Solution of Example 3-21b
Solution of Example 3-21b

x Vf Mf fP0 Vc
(m) (kN) (kN m) (MPa)
x
(kN) 3.6.4 Longitudinal Shear Transfer in
Composite Elements
0.0 88.0 0.0 52 -0.000017 0.454 84.0
In order for a precast, prestressed element with
0.170 82.0 14.45 341 -0.000017 0.454 84.0 topping to exhibit composite behaviour, transfer of the
longitudinal force carried by the topping must be
0.526 69.5 41.4 1044 -0.000095 0.515 95.4 achieved at the interface of the precast element and
the cast-in-place topping. The procedure
0.656 64.9 50.15 1302 -0.000125 0.504 100.76
recommended in this section is based on Clause 17.4
1.02 52.1 71.4 1302 -0.000091 0.512 94.83 of A23.3.
The longitudinal force, Vf1, which must be resisted, is
1.41 38.4 89.1 1302 -0.000064 0.489 90.64
the total force in the topping. This force is one of
compression in the positive moment regions and
1.64 30.3 96.9 1302 -0.000053 0.480 88.9
tension in negative moment regions, as shown in Fig.
1.94 19.7 103.1 1302 -0.000042 0.472 87.6 3.6.3.
2.23 9.5 108.7 1302 -0.000037 0.468 86.71 When the contact surfaces are clean, free of
2.50 0.0 110.0 1302 -0.000037 0.468 86.71 laitance, and intentionally roughened (but without
ties), the calculated factored longitudinal shear

Fig. 3.6.3 Longitudinal shear in composite section
resistance is Vr1 = 0.7 cbvlv, where bv is the width of A vf fy

=
the interface surface and lv is the longitudinal shear A cv
length as defined in Fig. 3.6.4.
For uniformly spaced ties:
When minimum ties are provided but the interface is A v fy
not intentionally roughened, the same limit applies. =
bv s
Where Vfl exceeds 0.7cbvlv, the design for
longitudinal shear shall be based on the interface The required tie spacing is:
shear transfer provisions of Clause 11.5 of A23.3. 2
A v fy fc 0.5c
s
For concrete placed against hardened concrete with bv vr
the surface clean and intentionally roughened to a full The shear stress is also limited to:
amplitude of at least 5 mm, the factored shear
vr 0.25c fc when fc 28 MPa
resistance may be computed using Equation 11.25
with k = 0.5. For other situations, Equation 11.24 vr 7.0c when fc > 28 MPa
must be used. In these equations:
The stirrups are almost invariably placed with f = 90 c = 0.65 (topping is cast-in-place)
therefore sin f = 1 and cos f = 0. The permanent When ties are required, their spacing must be not
load perpendicular to the shear plane is generally greater than four times the thickness of the topping
negligible. For these circumstances Equation 11-25 nor more than 600 mm, and from Equation 11-1:
simplifies to: A v fy
vr = 0.5c fc s
0.06 fc b v

Fig. 3.6.4 Longitudinal shear length
Example 3-22 - Horizontal shear design for a The shear force can be resisted by providing
composite beam sufficient ties across the interface.
Given: Maximum tie spacing:
Inverted tee beam with 50 mm composite topping, s 600 mm
100 mm over web, see Example 3-5. s 4hf = (4)(100) = 400 mm
Span length = 6.0 m A v fy (200)(400)
bv = 300 mm s = = 890 mm
0.06 fc b v (0.06) 25(300)
Concrete:
Precast: fc = 35 MPa Vfl 1257 103
vfl = = = 1.40 MPa
Topping: fc = 25 MPa bv l v (300)(3000)
Prestressed reinforcement: 2
(200)(400)(25) (0.5)(1.0)(0.65)
11 - 13 mm 1860 MPa strands
s =359 mm
300 1.40
Ap = (11)(99) = 1089 mm2 The spacing based on shear friction governs. Use
Tie reinforcement: 10M ties @ 350 mm.
10M ties (Av = 200 mm2) Check shear on a vertical plane through the flange at
fy = 400 MPa the face of the web.
Problem: bv = 50 mm
Determine the tie requirements to transfer horizontal Vfl = C1 / 2 = 658 / 2 = 329 kN
shear force. Note that this force must include the Check maximum interface shear with ties:
force in the compression steel which is located in the
Vrl 0.25c fc bv l v
topping.
Vfl = C1 + C2 + C4 = 658 + 395 + 204 = 1257 kN = (0.25)(0.65)(25)(50)(3000) /103
Solution: = 609 kN > 329kN OK
Check maximum interface shear without ties: Maximum tie spacing:
l v = l / 2 = 6000 / 2 = 3000 mm s 600 mm
Vrl = 0.7c b v l v = (0.7)(0.65)(300)(3000) /103 s 4hf = (4)(50) = 200 mm
= 410 kN (100)(400)
s = 2670 mm
This is less than the factored shear, therefore ties are (0.06) 25(50)
necessary. Vfl (329)(103 )
Check maximum interface shear with ties: vfl = = = 2.19 MPa
bv l v (50)(3000)
Vrl 0.25c fc b v l v 2
(100)(400)(25) (0.5)(1.0)(0.65)
= (0.25)(0.65)(25)(300)(3000) /103 s = 440 mm
50 2.19
= 3375 kN > 1257KN Use 10M bars @ 200 mm governed by 4 times the
topping thickness.

Fig. 3.6.5.A Fig. 3.6.5.B
Fig. 3.6.5.C
Example 3-23 Horizontal shear design for

composite inverted T-beam
Given:
Inverted T-beam produced in a certified plant with
composite topping as shown:
Span length = 10.0 m
bv = 500 mm c
= (0.9)(3168)(1860) 1 0.28
Concrete: dp

Precast: fc = 35 MPa c
Topping: fc = 35 MPa T1 = (5303) 1 0.28
dp

Prestressed reinforcement: c 5303 819 3276 1365 + 1470
=
32 - 13 mm 1860 MPa strands dp (8.62)(750) + (0.28)(5303)
Ap = (32)(99) = 3168 mm2 1313
= = 0.165
Tie reinforcement: 7950
c = (0.165)(750) = 124 mm
10 M ties (Av = 200 mm2)
fy = 400 MPa a = 1c = (0.88)(124) = 108 mm
Problem: This is slightly less than the flange thickness.

Determine the tie requirements to transfer the Redesign as a rectangular flange with the triangular
horizontal shear force. part removed:
C6 = T1 + T2
Solution:
To determine the horizontal shear force to be T2 = C1 = 819 kN
transferred, the size of the compression block must C6 = 1c fc b1c
be determined.
= (0.80)(0.65)(35)(2900)(0.88)c /103 = 46.4c
C1 + C2 + C3 +C4 = T1
c 5303 + 819
C1 = (0.80)(0.65)(35)(0.5)(900)(50)(2) /103 = = 0.169
dp (46.4)(750) + (0.28)(5303)
= 819 kN
c = (0.169)(750) = 127 mm
C2 = (0.8)(0.65)(35)(1200)(75)(2) /103 = 3276 kN a = (0.883)(127) = 112 mm
3
C3 = (0.80)(0.65)(35)(500)(150) /10 = 1365 kN fpr = (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.169)] = 1772 MPa
3
C4 = (0.80)(0.70)(35)(500)(0.88c 150) /10 T1 = (0.9)(3168)(1772) /103 = 5053 kN
= (8.62c 1470) kN
The total horizontal shear force to be transferred
c across beam topping interface:
T1 = p A p fpu 1 k p
dp = 5053 kN


Check maximum interface shear without ties: Because the concrete is monolithic across this joint,
use k = 0.6.
bv = 500 mm 2
(100)(400)(35) (0.6)(1.0)(0.65)
l v = l / 2 = 10000 / 2 = 5000 mm s
100 3.22
Vrl = 0.7c b v l v = (0.7)(0.65)(500)(5000) /103
= 205 mm
= 1138 kN < 5053 kN
Use 10M bars at 200 mm. These bars may also be
Therefore, ties are necessary. used to resist moment.
Check the maximum interface shear with ties:
3.7 DESIGN FOR SHEAR AND TORSION
Vrl 7.0c bv l v = (7.0)(0.65)(500)(5000) /103
Introduction
= 11375 kN
A23.3 contains general provisions for shear and
This is greater than Vfl , so compute tie spacing. torsion design based on the modified compression
Maximum tie spacing: field theory. The approach is based on a variable
s 600 mm angle truss model with a rational concrete
contribution. The same general procedure is used for
s (4)(150) = 600 mm prestressed and reinforced members
A v fy (200)(400)
s = = 450 mm This approach accounts for the fact that the critical
0.06 fc b v (0.06) 35(500) diagonal crack may be inclined at angles other than
3 45. For example, a member with significant
vfl = (5053)(10 ) = 2.02 MPa prestressing will usually have diagonal cracks
(500)(5000) considerably flatter than 45, while in a member
2 subjected to axial tension, or in the flexure dominated
(200)(400)(35) (0.5)(1.0)(0.65)
s regions of a beam, the diagonal cracks will tend to be
500 2.02
steeper than 45. The effect of variables influencing
= 145 mm the crack inclination such as the amount of
This spacing governs. Consideration might be given prestressing, the magnitude of the applied axial load
to the use of 15M ties at 250 mm but caution is and bending moment, and the stiffness of the
necessary because of the short anchorage length longitudinal reinforcement are quantified in terms of
available [17]. the axial strain x of the tension cord of the member
Use 10M ties @ 145 mm. as defined in 3.6.
Check the interface shear in a vertical section The concrete contribution, Vc, is the shear that can be
through the flange at the face of the web. The 25 mm transmitted across diagonal cracks by concrete
deep tooled joint at this location creates a crack stresses (e.g., shear stress transferred by aggregate
control joint and also reduces the shear area. interlock). The ability of a diagonal crack to resist
shear stress is controlled mostly by the width of the
bv = 75 + 50 25 = 100 mm
crack, and the width of the diagonal cracks is strongly
Vfl = C6 (1200 / 2900) T2 = 1610 kN influenced by the axial strain x.
Check the maximum interface shear with ties: Considerations for torsion
3
Vrl (7)(0.65)(100)(5000) /10 1. If the magnitude of the torsion, Tf, determined as
= 2275 kN > 1610 kN OK specified in an analysis using stiffness based on
uncracked sections exceeds 0.25Tcr, torsional
Maximum tie spacing: effects shall be provided. Otherwise, torsional
s 600 mm effects may be neglected. In lieu of more
s (4)(100) = 400 mm detailed calculations, Tcr may be taken as:
A v fy p fcp
s =
(100)(400)
= 1127 mm Tcr = (A c2 / pc )0.38c fc 1 +
0.38c fc
0.06 fc b v (0.06) 35(100)
(1610)(103 ) 2. For a hollow section, Ac in Equation (11-2) shall

vfl = = 3.22 MPa be replaced by Ag if the wall thickness is less
(100)(5000)
than 0.75 Ac /pc.

3. In a statically indeterminate structure where Example 3-24 Prestressed concrete spandrel
reduction of torsional moment in a member can beam
occur because of redistribution of internal forces,
Given:
the maximum factored torsion, Tf, at the face of
Typical prestressed spandrel panel beam shown in
the support may be reduced to 0.67Tcr provided
Fig. 3.7.1 supporting an 18 m span double tee
that the corresponding adjustments to torsions,
parking deck.
moments, and shears are made in the member
and in adjoining members to account for the D.L. of deck = 4.4 kN/m2
redistribution. For a spandrel beam where the L.L. of deck = 2.4 kN/m2
torsion is caused by a slab, the factored torsion Beam properties:
in the spandrel can be assumed to vary linearly
from zero at midspan to 0.67Tcr at the face of the Ac = 435000 mm2
support.
pc = 4550 mm
Reinforcement for sections subjected to wd = 10.2 kN/m
combined shear and torsion fc = 35 MPa, Normal Density
The transverse reinforcement for combined shear
fy = 400 MPa
and torsion shall be at least equal to the sum of that
required for shear and that required for the coexisting yb = 827 mm
torsion. I = 141 109 mm4
The amount of transverse reinforcement required for Sb = 170 106 mm3
torsion shall be such that Tr shall be computed from: Cover to stirrups = 25 mm
s A t fy
Tr = 2A o cot Prestressed reinforcement:
s
4 13 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation straight strands
The cross-sectional dimensions to avoid crushing
shall be as follows: Ap = (4)(99) = 396 mm2
(a) for box sections: dp = 1725 mm

e = 677 mm
Vf Vp Tf ph
+ 2
0.25c fc fpe = 1030 MPa
b w dv 1.7A oh
Non prestressed reinforcement:
If the wall thickness of the box section is less than
4 20M bars
Aoh /Ph, where t is the wall thickness at the location
where the stresses are being checked. As = (4)(300) = 1200 mm2
(b) for other sections: Compression reinforcement
2 2 2 15M bars
Vf Vp Tf ph A s = (2)(200) = 400 mm2

b d + 1.7A 2 0.25c fc
w v oh Problem:
Find the required torsion reinforcement for the
To determine x for sections subjected to shear and
spandrel.
torsion, replace the term (Vf Vp) in Equation (11-13)
in Clause 11.3.6.4 with the expression: Solution:
1. Determine factored loads on spandrel:
(0.9ph Tf )2
(Vf Vp )2 + D.L. of Beam = (1.25)(10.2)
2A o
= 12.75 kN/m
The longitudinal reinforcement shall be proportioned D.L. of deck = (1.25)(4.4)(1.2)(18)/2
to satisfy the requirements of Clause 11.3.9, except
= 59.4 kN/stem
that the term (Vf 0.5Vs Vp) shall be replaced by
the following expression: L.L. = (1.5)(2.4)(1.2)(18)/2
= 38.9 kN/stem
2 (0.45pn Tf )2
(Vf 0.5Vs Vp ) +
2A o

Fig. 3.7.1 Structural framing for Example 3-24
Concentrated load: c p A p fpu + s A s fy s A s fy

=
Pf = 59.4 + 38.9 = 98.3 kN/stem dp 1c fc 1b w dp + k p p A p fpu
The loads and the resulting values of Mf, Vf and Tf are (0.9)(396)(1860) + (0.85)(1200)(400) (0.85)(400)(400)
=
shown in Fig. 3.7.2. (0.88)(0.8)(0.70)(35)(200)(1725) + (0.28)(0.9)(396)(1860)
2. Minimum reinforcement requirements: = 0.152

fpr = fpu (1 kp c / dp )
Check minimum flexural reinforcement:
Pe = A p fpe = (396)(1030) /103 = 408 kN = (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.152)]
= 1781MPa
Pe Pe e
fce = + p A p fpr + s A s fy s A s fy
A c Sb a =
1c fc b w
(408)(103 ) (408)(677)(103 )
= + = 2.56 MPa (0.9)(396)(1781) + (0.85)(1200)(400) (0.85)(400)(400)
435000 170 106 =
(0.8)(0.70)(35)(200)
Mcr = Sb (0.6 fc + fce )
= 231mm
170 106 At centreline:
= [(0.6)(1.0) 35 + 2.56]
106 a a
= 1039 kN - m 2
( )
Mr = p A p fpr dp + s ( A s A s ) fy d
2
1.2Mcr = 1246.8 kN - m +s A s fy ( d d )
Check the flexural resistance:
= 0.9 ( 396 )(1781)(1725 231/ 2 ) 10 6
1 = 0.85 (0.0015)(35) = 0.80
+ 0.85 (1200 400 )( 400 )(1830 231/ 2 )
1 = 0.97 (0.0025)(35) = 0.88

106 + 0.85(400)(400)(1830 40) 10 6 Vf = 174.7 kN
= 1730.9 kN m > 1.2 Mcr Tf = 29.5 kN
At prestress transfer point (650 mm from end): Mf = 439.7 kN
1030 Mf 0.9ph Tf
2
Mr (1021.6) + 466.3 + 243.0
1781 + (Vf Vp )2 + A p fpo
dv 2A o
= 1300.1 kN m > 1.2 Mcr x =
2(Ep A p + Es A s )
(b) Minimum shear reinforcement:
( )
2
Av b 0.9( 4302) 29.5 106
= 0.06 fc w 439.7 10 (174.7x10 ) +
6 3 2
s fy + 2( 252500)
200 1553
= 0.06 35 = 0.177 mm2 / mm (396)(0.7)(1860)
400 =
2((190000)(396) + (200000)(1200))
Using 10M closed stirrups (A = 100 mm2), the
spacing is: = 0.000084
(2)(100) = 29+7000x
s = = 1130 mm
0.177
= 29.6
3. Determine need for torsional reinforcement: 35Sz
sze =
Tf = 49.2 kN - m 15 + ag
(408)(103 ) assume ag = 20 mm
fcp = = 0.94 MPa
435 000
(35)(1553)
sze = = 1553 mm , use sze = 300mm
pc = 1875 + 200 + 1575 + 200 + 300 + 400 15 + 20
= 4550 mm
0.4 1300
0.38A c2 c fc p fcp =
Tcr = 1+ 1 + 1500 x 1000 + sze
pc 0.38 f
c c
0.4 1300
=
(0.38)(435000)2 (1.0)(0.70) 35 1 + (1500)(0.000084) 1000 + 300
=
(4550)(106 )
= 0.355
(0.9)(0.94)
1+ = 81.2 kN - m Vc = c fc b w dv
(0.38)(1.0)(0.70) 35
0.25 Tcr = 20.3 kN - m < Tf = (0.7)(1)(0.355)( 35 )(200)(1553)x10 3
Torsion reinforcement is required in zone A. = 456.6 kN

4. Determine section parameters: = Vc > Vf
dv = 0.75 h = (0.72)(1875) = 1350 mm
Only minimum stirrups are required.
or = 0.9 d = (0.9)(1725) = 1553 mm
At Tr
dv = 1553 mm =
s 2A o s fy dv cot
Aoh = (138)[1875 (2)(31)] + (200)(238)
= 297000 mm2 (29.5)(tan 29.6)(106 )
=
ph = (138 + 1813)(2) + (200)(2) = 4302 mm (0.85)(2)(252600)(400)
Ao = 0.85A oh = 0.098 mm2/mm

= (0.85)(297000) = 252500 mm2 Use 10M closed stirrups (As = 100 mm2)
5. Design shear and torsion reinforcement: s = (100)/(0.098) = 1020 mm
Zone A, at a distance 1600 mm from face of support:
Check need to halve spacing:
Note: For precast framing, the face of the support is 0.125c fc b w dv + Vp
taken to be the centreline of the support.

= (0.125)(1.0)(0.7)(35)(200)(1553) + 0.0 Zone B: (Fig. 3.7.2) at 2675 mm from support.
= 951.2 kN > Vf OK. No torsion design is required since Tf < 0.25 Tcr.
smin = 0.7dv Check crushing:
= (0.7)(1553) Vf Vp
vf =
= 1087 mm > 600 mm b w dv
However, Tf > 0.25 Tcr, stirrup spacing must be (65)(103 )

= = 0.203 MPa
halved to 300 mm. (200)(1600)
Use 10M Stirrups at 300 mm O.C. vf 0.203
= = 0.0083 < 0.25 OK.
c fc (1.0)(0.70)(35)
Check web crushing:
Mf
2 2 + (Vf Vp ) A p fpo
Vf Vp Tf ph dv
= + 0.25c fc
2
x =
b w dv 1.7A oh 2(Es A s + Ep A p )
602 106
( )
2 2
(174.7)(103 ) ((29.5)(106 ))(4302) + 65 103 0 + 0 (396)(0.7)(1860)
= +
(200)(1553) (1.7)(297000)2 = 1553
2((190000)(396) + (190000)(1200))
= 1.016 0.25(0.7)(35) = 6.125 MPa = 0.00010 < 0.0002
Calculate actual Vs (based on stirrups provided): x = 0.0
A = 29 + 7000x
Vs = s v fy dv cot
S = 29.0
200 3 0.40 1300
= (0.85) (400)(1553)(cot 29.6)(10 ) =
300 1 + 1500 x 1000 + sze
= 620 kN
= 0.40
Longitudinal reinforcement: Vc = c fc b w dv
2
Mf 0.45ph Tf = (1.0)(0.70)(0.40) 35(200)(1553) /103
Ft = + (Vf 0.5Vs Vp )2 + cot
dv 2A o = 514 kN > Vf
(439.7)(106 ) Minimum stirrups are required for zone B, the
=
1553 requirements for hanger steel and ledge
reinforcement at point loads will govern, so that this
(174.7(103 ) - 0.5(620(103 ) - 0)2 type of member will still have transverse
2 (cot 29.6) reinforcement.
+ (0.45)(4302)(29.5)(103 )
+ With minimum shear reinforcement:
2(25200)2 s = 1130 mm for 10M stirrups.
= (283129+310410)(10-3) (cot 29.6) Use s = 600 mm o.c. Tf < 0.25 Tcr
= 593.5 kN Av
Vs = s fy dv cot
sAsfy + pApfpr = [(0.85)(1200)(400) s
(200)
+(0.9)(3.96)(1781)] 10-3 = (0.85) (400)(1553)(cot 29.0o )
600
= 1043 kN > 593.5 kN
= 317.5 kN
No additional longitudinal reinforcement is required.

Fig. 3.7.2 Force diagrams for Example 3-24

Fig. 3.7.3 Reinforcement for Example 3-24
The reinforcement required for shear and torsion is Interaction curves for typical prestressed square
summarized in Fig. 3.7.3. Additional reinforcing may columns and wall panels are provided in Chapter 7.
be required using the Strut-and-Tie modeling method
for the following: Construction of an interaction curve usually follows
these steps:
(a) end bearing reactions Step 1:
(b) end torsional equilibrium reactions Determine Pro for Mr = 0 (see Fig. 3.8.1(c)).
(c) ledge point loads Step 2:
Determine Mro for Pr = 0. This is normally done by
(d) hanger steel at ledge point loads
neglecting the reinforcement above the neutral axis
(e) longitudinal reinforcement and determining the moment capacity by one of the
(f) anchorage of longitudinal bars at ends methods described in Sect. 3.3.
Step 3:
Note: In Fig. 3.7.3, the stirrup spacing of 215 mm and For reinforced columns, determine Prb and Mrb at the
600 mm would require longitudinal corner 15M bars. balance point, see Fig. 3.8.1(d). For prestressed
Some adjustment is required of either or both the columns, the yield point of the prestressed
longitudinal reinforcement and the transverse reinforcement is not well defined and the stress strain
reinforcement after reinforcement for (a) to (f) have relationship is non-linear over a broad range, see Fig.
been considered. 8.2.4.
3.8 COMPRESSION Step 4:
Proceed as follows for each additional point on the
Precast and prestressed concrete columns and load- interaction curve:
bearing wall panels are proportioned to resist
factored loads. Stresses during handling, erection a) Select a value of c and calculate a = 1c.
and service conditions must be considered. This b) Determine the value and the centroid of Acomp
section is based on A23.3 and on the from the geometry of the section, that being the
recommendations of the PCI Committee on shaded portion in Fig. 3.8.1(a).
Prestressed Concrete Columns [18] referred to in this c) Determine the strain in the reinforcement
section as recommended practice. assuming that = 0.0035 at the compression
3.8.1 Factored Resistance face of the column. For prestressed
reinforcement, add the strain due to the
The factored resistance of a reinforced concrete prestress corresponding to zero strain in the
compression element with eccentric loads is usually concrete:
determined by interaction curves. Points on this curve fpe fcp
are calculated using strain compatibility and pe ce =
equations of equilibrium as prescribed in the A23.3. Ep Ec
The solution of these equations is shown in Fig.
Tensile strain is positive.
3.8.1.

Fig. 3.8.1 Design relationships for prestressed and reinforced compression elements

Fig. 3.8.2 End reinforcement in a precast, prestressed concrete column
d) Determine the stress in the reinforcement. For that is valid at a development length equal to the
non-prestressed reinforcement, fs = s Es < fy. assumed transfer length from the end of the element.
For prestressed reinforcement, the stress is The required area of end reinforcement can be
determined by stress-strain relationship, see Fig. determined by matching interaction curves, or can be
8.2.4. The prestress force adds axial load to the approximated by the following equation, if the bar
section and should not be reduced, therefore p locations approximately match the strand locations:
= 1.0. If the maximum factored moment occurs
Ap fpe
near the end of a prestressed element, where As =
the strand is not fully developed, an appropriate fy
reduction in the value of fpr can be made as
described in Sect. 3.8.2, Fig. 3.8.2. The effects of adding end reinforcement to a 600 x
600 mm prestressed concrete column to improve
e) Calculate Pr and Mr by statics. flexural resistance in the end 600 mm are shown in
Step 5: Fig. 3.8.2.
Calculate the maximum factored axial resistance, Example 3-25 Construction of interaction curve
specified by A23.3, as 0.80 Pro for tied columns and for a reinforced column produced in a plant
0.85 Pro for spiral reinforced columns. certified in accordance with A23.4.
3.8.2 Development Length Given:

300 500 column cross section as shown.
The factored flexural resistance is reduced for
prestressed elements at locations within a distance Concrete:
equal to the strand development length from each fc = 35 MPa 1 = 0.80 1 = 0.88 c =0.70
end as noted in Step 4(d) above. The factored
flexural resistance in this zone can be supplemented Normal Density
by non-prestressed reinforcement anchored to top or Reinforcement:
bottom plates, or otherwise developed.
fy = 400 MPa
The interaction curves for prestressed columns in Es = 200 000 MPa
Chap. 7 are based on a maximum value of fpr = fpe,

fs = fy = 400 MPa
Acomp = ab = 1cb = (0.88)(280)(300)
= 73920 mm2
a (0.88)(280)
y = = = 123 mm
2 2
Prb = (0.8)(0.70)(35)(73 920) /103
+[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)](1400) /103
(0.85)(1400)(400) /103
= 1421kN
Mrb = (0.8)(0.70)(35)(73 920)(250 123) /106
Problem: +[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)]

Construct an interaction curve for bending about x-x (1400)(250 60) /106
axis.
+(0.85)(1400)(400)(440 250) /106
Solution:
Determine the following parameters: = 360 kN m
d = 500 60 = 440 mm Step 4:
To determine intermediate points on the curve:
d = 60 mm
yt = 250 mm 150
a) Set a = 150 mm, c = = 170 mm
0.88
Ag = (300)(500) = 150000 mm2
b) Acomp = (150)(300) = 45000 mm2
As = A s = (2)(700) = 1400 mm2
Step 1: c) Use Fig. 3.8.1(a):
Determine Pro from Fig. 3.8.1(c): (0.0035)(170 60)
s = = 0.0023
Pro = (1c fc )(A A s A s ) + s (A s + A s )fy 170
(0.0035)(440 170)
= [(0.8)(0.70)(35)(150000 2800) s = = 0.0056
170
+(0.85)(2800)(400)] /103 d) fs = (0.0023)(200000) = 460 MPa > fy
= 3837 kN fs = (0.0056)(200000) = 1120 MPa > fy
Step 2: Use fs = fs = fy = 400 MPa
Determine Mro - use a conservative solution by
neglecting the compression reinforcement: e) Pr = (0.8)(0.70)(35)(45 000) /103
s A s f y (0.85)(1400)(400) +[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)](1400) /103
a = = = 81mm
1c fc b (0.8)(0.70)(35)(300)
(0.85)(1400)(400) /103
a
Mro = s A s fy d = 855 kN
2
Mr = (0.8)(0.70)(35)(45000)(250 75) /106
81
= (0.85)(1400)(400) 440 /106 +[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)]
2
= 190 kN - m = (1400)(250 60) /106
Step 3: +(0.85)(1400)(400)(440 250) /106
Determine Prb and Mrb from Fig. 3.8.1(d):
= 330 kN - m
(0.0035)(440)
c = = 280 mm
0.0035 + 400 / 200,000 Step 4 can be repeated for as many points as
(0.0035) desired. A plot of such points is shown in Fig. 3.8.3.
fs = (200000) (280 60) Step 5:
280
= 550 MPa > fy Maximum axial load:
= 0.8Pro = (0.8)(3837) = 3070 kN

Fig. 3.8.3 Interaction curve for Example 3-25 50
c = = 58 mm
0.87
Step 2:
From Fig. 8.3, calculate area and centroid of the
hollow core voids excluded from the compression
zone - Fig. 3.8.11 can be used:
R2 y
A = y1 R2 y12 R2 sin1 1
2 R
Example 3-26 - Calculation of interaction points
for a prestressed concrete compression element ( )(76)2 51
= 51 762 512 762 sin1
Given: 2 76
1220 203 hollow core wall panel shown. = 1950 mm2
_ 2(R2 y12 )3 / 2 (2)(762 512 )3 / 2
y = = = 61mm
3A (3)(1950)
Acomp= (1220)(50) (6)(1950) = 49300 mm2
(1220)(502 / 2) (6)(1950)(41)
y =
49300
Concrete: = 22 mm from top
fc = 40 MPa 1 = 0.79 1 = 0.87 c =0.70
Step 3:
Normal Density Prestrain at zero concrete stress:
Ag = 138700 mm2 1030 3.7
= + = 0.00555
Ec = 29600 MPa 190000 29600
Prestressed reinforcement: From Fig. 3.8.1(a):
fpu = 1860 MPa (0.0035)(58 45)
p = 0.00555 = 0.00477
58
Ep = 190000 MPa
(0.0035)(158 58)
fpe = 1030 MPa p = 0.00555 + = 0.01158
58
5-13 mm 1860 MPa strands
Step 4:
Ap = (3)(99) = 297 mm2
From Fig. 8.2.4, p is on the linear portion of the
Ap = (2)(99) = 198 mm2
curve and p is on the non-linear portion:
(1030)(297 + 198) fpr = p Ep = (0.00477)(190000) = 906 MPa
fcp =
138700
fpr = 1703 MPa
3.7 MPa (not quite uniform)
Step 5:
Problem:
Calculate a point on the interaction curve for a = 50 From Fig. 3.8.1(a):
mm. Pr = (0.79)(0.70)(40)(49 300) /103
Solution:
(198)(906) /103 (297)(1703) /103
Step 1:
= 1090 179 506 = 406 kN
a = 50 mm

The concrete area displaced by the compression-side 3. A rigorous P- approach as described in
tendons is ignored here. Chapter 2, where the first order lateral storey
Mr = (1090)(102 22) /103 deflection is computed using an elastic first order
frame analysis. Section properties are calculated
(179)(102 45) /103 taking into account the influence of axial loads,
+(506)(158 102) /103 the presence of cracked regions along the length
of the member, the member curvature and
= 88 10 + 28 = 106 kN - m effects of duration of the loads.
Since no lateral ties are used in this element, the
Moment of inertia for P- approach:
values are multiplied by 0.85:
Pr = (0.85)(410) = 349 kN Type of element Moment of inertia
Beams 0.35Ig
Mr = (0.85)(106) = 89 kN - m
Columns 0.70Ig
These values are for fully developed strands. If the Walls
capacity at a point near the end of the transfer zone - Uncracked 0.70Ig
is desired, then fpr fpe = 1030 MPa. Take fpr = 1030 - Cracked 0.35Ig
and adjust the prestress contribution accordingly: Flat plates and flat slabs 0.25Ig
Pr = (0.85)[1095 179 (297)(1030) /103 ]
3.8.3.1 Magnified moment approach
= 519 kN The principles of the magnified moment approach are
Mr = (0.85)[88 10 illustrated in Fig. 3.8.5 and are valid for compression
members with klu / r not greater than 100.
+(297)(1030)(158 102) /106 ]
The approximate evaluation of slenderness effects
= 81kN - m involves:
In prestressed wall panels, the effects of 1. The determination of the effective length factor,
unsymmetrical prestress should be investigated. k, and end moments, M1 and M2.
3.8.3 Slenderness Effects 2. The calculation of the moment magnifier, b, as
shown in the Example 3-29.
For compression elements braced against sideway,
3. The magnified moment in combination with the
effects of slenderness may be neglected when:
factored axial load is compared with the
25 10(M1 / M2 )
klu /r < resistance of the element as determined by an
Pf /(fc A g ) interaction diagram in accordance with Sect.
3.8.1.
M1/M2 is positive if the element is bent in single
curvature, negative if bent in double curvature and Hinged columns and columns in braced frames
shall not be taken less than 0.5. M2 is the larger and The magnified moment is taken as:
M1 is the smaller end moment.
CmM2
The radius of gyration, r, may be taken as: Mc = bM2 =
P
1 f
0.3 times the overall dimension in the direction that mPc
stability is being considered for rectangular elements, where m = 0.75 and CmM2 shall not be taken as less
0.25 times the diameter for circular elements, or than Pf(15 + 0.03 h) about each axis separately.
computed from the gross concrete section for other
shapes. For members without transverse loads between
supports, Cm shall be taken as:
I M
r =
Ag Cm = 0.6 + 0.4 1 0.4
M2
A23.3 contains provisions for evaluating slenderness When there are transverse loads between supports,
effects of compression elements, such as buckling, Cm = 1.0.
based on the following three approaches:
Pf is the factored axial load, and Pc is the critical
1. The approximate magnified moment approach. buckling load, calculated as:
2. Empirical design for certain rectangular load 2EI
Pc =
bearing walls. (kl u )2

Fig. 3.8.4 Slenderness effects
Notation
lu = unsupported length of compression element
r = radius of gyration
k = effective length factor
M1 = smaller factored end moment, positive if bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double
curvature
M2 = larger factored end moment always positive (if less than minimum Code values, use Code values
Mc = moment to be used in design = bM2
Ig = gross moment of inertia
Pc = critical load
Values of kp for Pc
kpIg Ec
*
For other concretes, Pc = , Ec = modulus of elasticity, MPa
k 2 28200

Fig. 3.8.5 Slenderness effects Fig. 3.8.6 Effective length factor k for different
edge conditions
M1 = value of smaller design end moment on

the compression member calculated from
a conventional elastic analysis - positive if
member is bent in single curvature,
otherwise negative
M2 = value of larger design end moment,
always positive
Mo = first order bending moment at critical
section of compression members as The value EI may be determined from the following:
obtained from elastic analysis 1. For columns or panels with a double layer of
reinforcement, the value of EI may be taken as:
The effective length factor, k, for pin connected,
0.2EcIg + EsIs
laterally restrained elements with various edge EI =
conditions can be determined from Fig. 3.8.6 as 1 + d
follows: An approximate value for lightly reinforced elements
1. For columns or panels braced against sidesway is:
and free along both vertical edges: 0.4EcIg
EI =
For all values of lu /b, k = 1.0 1 + d
2. For panels braced against sidesway and 2. For wall panels with a single layer of
restrained along both vertical edges: reinforcement centered in the panel, the value of
El may be taken as:
l u / b < 1/ 2 k = 1.0 EcIg e 0.10EcIg
1/ 2 l u / b 1 k = 1.5 l u / b EI = 0.5
d h d
l u / b > 1 k = 1.0 /[1 + (l u / b)2 ] The above equations were developed for reinforced
3. For panels braced against sidesway and concrete columns with at least 1% reinforcement.
restrained along one vertical edge: Modified equations for EI are recommended as
prestressed compression elements and precast load
l u / b < 1 k = 1.0 bearing wall panels have less than 1% reinforcement.
1/ 2 l u / b 2 k = 1.0 0.423[(l u / b) 1] Fig. 3.8.7 presents one set of such equations. Such
approximations are necessarily conservative, and
l u / b > 2 k = 1.0 / 1 + (l u / b)2 / 2 therefore second order analysis procedures are

strongly recommended for slender prestressed o is the first order relative deflection of the top and
elements. bottom of that storey due to Vf.
For non-sway frames and for stability checks of sway The moments from a first order analysis are divided
frames as defined in A23.3, d is the ratio of the into two parts:
maximum factored dead load to the total factored
axial load. 1. Mns due to gravity loads, which do not contribute
to sway, and
For sway frames, except as noted above, d is the
ratio of the maximum factored sustained shear within 2. Ms, the moments associated with sway.
a storey, to the maximum total factored shear in that Gravity load moments causing deflections greater
storey. than l u / 1500, due to lack of symmetry, should be
d is a factor that takes into account creep due to classed as Ms moments.
sustained loads. When the moment to be magnified is
caused by short-term loads, such as wind or seismic, The Ms moments are magnified by s, given by:
d may be taken as zero. However, if the more 1
s =
conservative, simplified expression for EI is used, an Pf
allowance for d is required. 1
m Pc
The maximum moment can occur at a section away Pf is the summations of all axial loads at a storey.
from the end of elements subjected to transverse
loading. The largest calculated moment occurring Pc is the summation of the critical loads at a storey
anywhere along the element is used for the value of based on the unbraced effective length.
M2. Cm is taken as 1.0 in this case. Pc shall be determined from equation (10-17) and the
If computations show that there is no moment at EI values in equation (10-18) or equation (10-19).
either end of a compression element or computed d is defined above for moments associated with
end eccentricities are less than 15 + 0.03 h (mm), M2 sway.
should be based on a minimum eccentricity of 15 +
0.03 h, where h is the thickness of the panel or If the stability index of a storey, Q, is less than 1/3,
column. The ratio M1/M2 should be determined by then s can be computed as:
either of the following: 1
s =
1. Computed end moments may be used to 1 Q
evaluate M1/M2 when computed end The final end moments are then computed from:
eccentricities are less than 15 + 0.03 h. Mns + sMs
2. The ratio M1/M2 may be taken equal to one if
and the design moment is:
computations show that there is essentially no
moment at either end of a compression element. Mc = M2
For elements with k l u/r > 100, the design of where M2 is the value of (Mns + s Ms) at the top or
compression elements shall be based on the factored bottom of the column, whichever is greater.
forces and moments from a second order analysis.
In addition to the above requirements for columns in
This should consider material nonlinearity, cracking,
sway frames, individual compression members
the effects of member curvature, lateral drift, duration
l 35
of the loads, shrinkage, creep and interaction with the having u > shall also be designed for:
supporting foundation. r Pf /(fc A g )
Columns in sway frames CmM2

Mc =
P
Storeys in structures shall be designated as sway 1 f
mPc
frames if:
Pf o Pc is calculated using d for non-sway frames and k
Q = > 0.05 1.0.
Vf l c
M2 = M2ns + sM2s
Pf is the total factored vertical load at the storey in
In addition to load cases involving lateral loads, the
question.
strength and stability of the structure as a whole
Vf is the factored storey shear in the storey in should be considered as per A23.3 Clause 10.16.5.
question.

Fig. 3.8.7 Coefficients, , for modified EI
Ec lg /
El = (For Pc Equation)
1 + d
= 3.2
1.6
= 2.5 +
Pu / Po
6 70
And is given below
(A) Compression Flange
35
= 0.09
kl u / r
(B) No Compression Flange
35
= 0.05
kl u / r

Fig. 3.8.8 Effective width of wall panels Eccentricity at base = 35 mm
l u = 4800 mm
fc = 35 MPa
Ec = 28200 MPa
Problem:
Determine non-sway moment magnifier b.
Solution:
(1200 + 600)(35)
M1 = = +63 kN - m
103
(1200 + 600)(350)
M2 = = +630 kN - m
103
M1 +63
= = 0.10
3.8.3.2 Empirical design of rectangular wall M2 +630
panels
This ratio is positive because the element is in single
If the resultant of all factored axial loads including curvature.
moment and sway effects of lateral loads is located r = (0.3)(350) = 105 mm
within the middle third of the thickness of a panel, the
strength of the wall may be approximated as: kl u (1.0)(4800)
= = 45.7
kh 2 r 105
2
Pr = 1c fc A g 1 u Slenderness may be neglected when k l u/r is less
3 32t than:
1 = 0.85 - (0.0015)fc 0.67 25 10(M1 / M2 ) 25 (10)(0.1)
=
Pf /(fc A g ) (1800)(103 ) /(35)(122,500)
k = 0.8 for walls restrained against at top,
bottom or both = 37.0
Therefore slenderness must be considered.
= 1.0 for walls retained against rotation at
both ends factored dead load 1200
d = = = 0.67
factored total load 1200 + 600
For panels with irregular cross-sections, an
equivalent t may be determined from: 0.4EcIg (0.4)(28200)(350)4 /12
El = =
12Ig 1 + d 1 + 0.67
t = 3
b = 8.45 1012 N mm2
A23.3 waives the lateral reinforcement requirement 2EI ( 2 )(8.45 1012 )
Pc = = = 3618 kN
for walls if the concrete is prestressed to at least an (kl u )2 [(1.0)(4.8)]2 (109 )
average of 1.5 MPa after all losses per Clause
Cm = 0.6 + 0.4M1 / M2 = 0.6 + (0.4)(0.1) = 0.64
18.11.2.1. In addition, PCI recommended practice
permits the elimination of lateral reinforcement in flat Cm 0.64
b = = = 1.90
walls if the factored resistance is multiplied by 0.85. P (1200 + 600)
1 f 1
Example 3-27 Magnified moment approach for a mPc (0.75)(3618)
column in a braced frame Fig. 3.8.4 could also be used for this example.
Given: 3.8.4 Effective Width of Wall Panels
Pin ended column in a braced frame in single Concentrated compressive loads shall be distributed
curvature: over an effective width of a wall panel in accordance
Column size = 350 350 mm with A23.3 Clause 14.1.3.1.
Pf dead load = 1200 kN For a wall subjected to more than one concentrated
Pf live load = 600 kN load, the design shall take into account the
overlapping of uniformly distributed loads from each
Eccentricity at top = 350 mm
of the concentrated loads.

3.8.5 Load-bearing Insulated Wall Panels Fig. 3.8.9 Typical precast concrete load-bearing
insulated wall panels
Insulated sandwich wall panels of the type shown in
Fig. 3.8.9, may be designed assuming one or both
wythes carry the vertical loads. To use both wythes
as load bearing, it must be shown by experience,
test, or calculation that the wythes are fully or partially
composite. The method of transferring superimposed
loads to the panel, e.g. corbels, should be detailed to
assure a non-structural wythe does not carry these
loads, see Section 3.11.
3.8.6 Non-uniform Moment of Inertia

An equivalent moment of inertia, Ieqiuv may be used
when analyzing non-uniform cross-sectional,
compression elements. This equivalent moment of
inertia is calculated to generate the same mid-height
deflection as the actual, non-prismatic, simply
supported element subjected to a uniformly
distributed lateral load.
Pc is calculated using Iequiv to determine the magnified
moment. The effective length factor, k, can be taken Substituting into the deflection equation for a simply
as 1 in most designs for slenderness about the weak supported beam gives:
axis. In some cases, slenderness design about the 5wl 4 (5)(1.0)(4200)4
Iequiv = =
strong axis may control. The following design 384Ec (384)(28 200)(0.09)
example illustrates a typical calculation for
slenderness effects in the centre mullion of a load- = 1596 106 mm4
bearing panel. Determine if slenderness must be considered.
Example 3-28 - Varying I for slenderness design Assume k = 1 (braced against sidesway) and
calculate the equivalent radius of gyration:
Given:
147500 + 207500
The load bearing panel as shown in Fig. 3.8.10. Aavg = = 177500 mm2
2
Concrete:
fc = 35 MPa 1596 106
r = = 94.8 mm
177500
Normal Density
25 10(M1 / M2 ) 25
Ec = 28200 MPa =
Pf /(fc A g ) 2425 103 /(35)(177500)
Problem:
Calculate magnified moment for design. = 40.0
Solution: kl u (1.0)(4200)
= = 44.3 > 40
Calculate factored loads and moments: r 94.8
Pt = (1.25)(1200 + 200) + (1.5)(400 + 50)
Therefore slenderness effects must be considered.
= 2425 kN
For d = (1.25)(1000 + 200) = 0.62
M1 = 0 2425
M2 = [(1.25)(200) + (1.5)(50)](0.3) = 97.5 kN m l u = 4.2 m , from Fig. 3.8.4, find:
emin = 15 + (0.03)(350) = 25.5 mm kp = 3.9 10 6 kN / mm4
Mmin = (2425)(0.026) = 63.0 kN - m k pIg (3.9 106 )(1596 106 )
Find an equivalent moment of inertia, Iequiv, by Pc = = = 6224 kN
k2 (1.0)2
applying a 1.0 kN/m uniform lateral load to the centre
mullion. Construct the M/EI diagram and calculate the Cm = 0.6 + (0.4)(0) = 0.6
mid-height deflection using the moment-area method: CmM2 = (0.6)(98) = 58.8 kN - m
= 0.09 mm

Fig. 3.8.10 Varying I Example 328 Pf (15 + 0.03h) = (2425 103 )[15 + (0.03)(350)](10 6 )
= 61.8 kN m > 58.8
61.8
Mf = = 129 kN - m
2425
1
(0.75)(6224)
The short column interaction diagram for this mullion
cross section should now be checked for the
following axial load and magnified moment:
Pf = 2425 kN
Mf = 129 kN - m
3.8.7 Piles
General
This section refers to the design of piles. It is
assumed that the capacity to transfer load to the soil
has been established by geotechnical engineers.
The design of piles for factored load conditions
follows the procedures outlined above for columns.
The necessary investigation of load conditions during
transporting, handling and driving follows standard
procedures based on first principles. Transportation
and handling stresses are discussed in Sect. 3.9. The
tensile stresses induced by driving can cause severe
cracking as discussed below. The seismic response
of piles can involve different conditions from other
structural elements. References are given for
complete discussion of the design procedures.
Driving stresses
As the hammer strikes a pile, a compression wave
travels down the length of the pile, moving at the
speed of sound - between 3600 m/s and 4000 m/s in
the concrete.
The length, and therefore the intensity, of this stress
wave depends upon:
1. the ratio of the hammer mass to the pile mass
2. the velocity of the hammer at impact
3. the stiffness of the cushion block
4. the stiffness of the pile
5. the driving resistance of the soil
When the compression wave reaches the tip of the
pile, it may be transmitted to the soil. If the tip has
encountered hard material, the wave may be
reflected back up the pile as a compression wave.
The reflected wave may be tensile in easy driving
conditions. In either case, the reflected wave passes

up through the trailing end of the downward traveling Example 3-29 Interaction curve for an octagonal
wave and the stresses are momentarily hollow bearing pile
superimposed. If the reflected wave is compressive
Given:
due to hard-driving conditions, the stresses are
A 500 mm octagonal pile with a 275 mm diameter
additive, and compression failure may occur near the
circular core.
pile tip. Cracking may occur further up the pile in piles
longer than about 15 m when the reflected wave
clears the end of the downward-traveling c = 2400 kg/m3
compression wave in easy-driving conditions.
fc = 50 MPa
Stress waves are dissipated by friction, damping and fpu = 1860 MPa
tip resistance. In hard-driving conditions, a significant
compression wave may travel back up to the pile 8 - 13 mm strands
head. This wave will be reflected as a tension wave
and cracking may occur near the pile head. Problem:
The most controllable parameters are the ratio of Construct the factored resistance interaction diagram.
hammer mass to pile mass, the stiffness of the Determine the service load moment capacity at a
cushion block, and the capacity of the pile to resist load of 800 kN. Limit the concrete stresses to 22.5
the imposed stresses. The parameters are selected MPa (compression) and 3.5 MPa (tension).
to increase the length of the traveling wave thereby Solution:
reducing the stress intensity. 1 = 0.85 (0.0015)(50) = 0.78
Detailed discussions of driving stresses and required 1 = 0.97 (0.0025)(50) = 0.85
prestress levels may be found in References [20] and
[21]. c = 0.70
Ec = 32200 MPa
Piles tend to rotate slightly as they are driven.
Restraint by driving leads or by tightly fitting helmets Ac = (0.8284)(500)2 ( )(275)2 / 4
may induce torsional stresses leading to additional = 147000 mm2
tensile stresses. Spalling of concrete at a pile head
may be caused by high or irregular compressive Ap = (8)(99) = 792 mm2
stress concentrations during driving. These points are
Assume fpe = 1100 MPa:
discussed in Reference [20].
(1100)(792)
fcp = = 5.9 MPa
Seismic response of piles 147000
Piles reduce the rocking motions of structures during Prestrain in strand at zero concrete strain:
earthquakes, but not the lateral motion. Battered piles 1100 5.9
have little effect in reducing lateral motion. Piles = + = 0.00597
190000 32200
follow the horizontal motion of the surrounding soil,
which undergoes horizontal shear deformation as Stress in strand at maximum concrete compression:
seismic waves travel upward from bedrock. Piles may = (190000)(0.00597 0.002) = 754 MPa
be subjected to significant curvature causing large
Pro = 1c fc (A c A p ) fpr A p
stresses. This may occur just below the pile cap, at
the interface between hard and soft-soil layers, and at = [(0.78)(0.70)(50)(147000 792)
any point within the pile length where the shear force
(754)(792)] /103
is zero. Thus, the ideal pile from the seismic point of
view is flexible and ductile. = 3620 kN
A discussion of the expected curvatures is found in Factored axial load resistance:

Reference [22]. Designing for this curvature is a = 0.85Pro = (0.85)(3620) = 3077 kN
matter of achieving the correct quantity and
distribution of spiral reinforcement as discussed in To determine points on the interaction curve, select
References [23] and [24]. values of neutral axis depth. Compute corresponding
strains, stresses, and forces. Calculations for a depth
For further information on the response of hollow of 400 mm are as follows:
piles in seismic regions. [25]
c = 400 mm

Fig. 3.8.11 Area and centroid coefficients for octagonal and circular piles
a = 1c = (0.85)(400) = 340 mm (400 322)

3. (0.0035) = 0.00068
400
a/D for the octagon = 340 / 500 = 0.680
(400 423)
a/D for the core = (340 112.5) / 275 4. (0.0035) = 0.00020
= 0.827 400
From Fig 3.8.11: Total strain of steel = prestrain minus concrete strain:
Positive concrete area of the octagon: 1. 0.00597 0.00283 = 0.00314
2 2
= (0.6)(500) = 150000 mm 2. 0.00597 0.00194 = 0.00403
Centroidal distance from mid-depth axis:
3. 0.00597 0.00068 = 0.00529
= (0.12)(500) = 60mm
4. 0.00597 (0.0002) = 0.00616
Negative concrete area circular core:
= (0.70)(275)2 = 52938 mm2 Steel stresses from Fig. 8.2.4:
Centroidal distance from mid-depth axis: 1. 597 MPa
= (0.045)(275) = 12.4 mm 2. 766 MPa
Concrete strain at steel levels:
3. 1005 MPa
(400 77) 4. 1172 MPa
1. (0.0035) = 0.00283
400 Concrete force = (0.78)(0.70)(50)(150000)
(400 178) (0.78)(0.70)(50)(52 938)/103
2. (0.0035) = 0.00194
400 = 4054 - 1435 = 2619 kN

Steel forces = fp A p : Fig. 3.8.12 Interaction curve for bearing pile
3 example
1. (597)(198)/10 = 118 kN
2. (766)(198)/103 = 152 kN
3. (1005)(198)/103 = 199 kN
4. (1172)(198)/103 = 232 kN
Total factored axial resistance:
= 2619 118 152 199 232
= 1918 kN (compression)
Concrete moment:
= (4054)(0.060) (1435)(0.0124)
= 227.8 kN-m
Steel moments:
1. (118)(0.173) = 20.5
2. (152)(0.072) = 10.9
3. (199)(0.072)= +14.3 Str = transformed section modulus (see Fig.
4. (232)(0.173)= +40.2 3.8.11)
Total factored resisting moment: ( )(275)4
= (0.05474)(500)4
= 227.8 20.5 10.9 + 14.3 + 40.2 64
= 250.9 kN-m (190000)(396) (722 + 1732 )
+ / 250
Values for other depths of neutral axis are: 32200
c Pr(kN) Mr(kNm)
= 12.9 106 mm3
509 2643 0 to 120
500 2834 145 The error introduced by using the area and section
400 1949 251 modulus of the gross concrete area may be
300 1298 296 acceptable.
250 882 285
Equate the extreme fibre stresses to the allowable
200 580 273 values and solve for the smaller value of M:
These values are plotted in Fig. 3.8.12. The value of P F M
+ + = 22.5 MPa
Mro for prestressed elements is easily found by A tr A tr Str
extending the plot or investigating further values of c
(800)(103 ) (898)(103 ) M
until values of Pr on either side of zero are obtained. + = 22.5
(152400) (152400) (12.9 106 )
To check service conditions, determine the moment
capacity, M, at a service axial load P of 800 kN: M = 146 kN - m
P F M
F = prestress force at zero concrete strain + = 3.5 MPa
= pEp A p A tr A tr Str
(800)(103 ) (898)(103 ) M
= (0.00597)(190000)(792)/103 + = 3.5
(152400) (152400) (12.9 106 )
= 898 kN
M = 189 kN - m
Atr = transformed area (see Fig. 3.8.11)
( )(275)2 The service load moment capacity at an axial load of
= (0.8284)(500)2 800 kN is 146 kNm.
4
(190000)(792) A plot of the complete curve of P vs. M at these
+ = 152400 mm2
32200 service load conditions is shown on Fig. 3.8.12.

Fig.3.9.1 Panel draft Fig. 3.9.2 Equivalent static load multipliers(1) to
determine stripping and dynamic
forces
Stripping
Finish
Exposed
Smooth form
aggregate
Element type (form oil
with
only)
retarder
Flat, with removable side
forms, no false joints or 1.2 1.3
reveals
Flat, with false joints and/or

1.3 1.4
reveals
Fixed forms with proper

1.4 1.6
draft(4)
Sculptured 1.5 1.7

(2) (3)
Yard handling and erection
All elements 1.2

(2)
3.9 HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS Transportation
Prefabrication requires careful attention to loads and All elements 1.5
stresses during all the handling stages from
(1)
fabrication to erection. The design and layout of lifting Factors used in the flexural design of elements. At
devices, handling and erection are usually the sole stripping, suction between product and form introduces
responsibility of the precast manufacturer and/or forces, that are treated here by introducing a multiplier on
erector. product weight
(2)
Unfavourable conditions due to road surface, equipment,
3.9.1 Form Suction and Impact Factors etc. may require the use of higher values. See Sect. 3.9.5.
(3)
Elements are subject to forces during stripping in Under certain circumstances may be higher.
(4)
addition to the mass of the element. These forces, For example, double tees, channels and fluted panels.
such as suction forces due to form conditions as that devices may be required to rotate the panel from the
shown in Fig. 3.9.1, depend on methods of forming, stripped and handled position to the final position in a
surface treatment, and element geometry. During structure.
handling, elements may be subjected to dynamic
forces. For purposes of determining concrete Flat panels
stresses and reinforcement, it is common practice to
Figure 3.9.3 and Fig. 3.9.4 contain methods and
factor up the panel mass and apply the resulting force
formulae for calculating stripping stresses. Ribbed
as an equivalent static dead load. Values used are
panels must be stripped by lifting vertically from the
based on the experience of the manufacturer. Fig
form.
3.9.2 provides multipliers that may be used to
determine equivalent static loads. Lift lines that are inclined to the plane of a panel will
induce in-plane compression. This can increase the
3.9.2 Flexure
flexural stresses in a panel, see Fig. 3.9.6 and Fig.
The arrangement of lifting devices is designed to suit 3.9.7. Even though the effects of non-vertical lifting
the manufacturing process, the strength of concrete lines should be accounted for, it is not recommended
at time of stripping and the erection method. Stresses that this effect be allowed to dominate design
are evaluated based on the gross section properties moments. When this condition exists, consideration
when the maximum moments at the time of stripping could be given to using spreader beams, two cranes
have been determined. Embedded devices used for or other mechanisms to reduce the lifting angle and
stripping may be used again for erection. Additional thus the effect of lateral forces.

Fig. 3.9.3 Moments developed in panels Fig. 3.9.4 Moments developed in panels
stripped flat stripped on one edge
Two point pick-up

Maximum moments (approximate)
Mx+ = Mx = 0.0107 wa2b
Mz = Mz+ = 0.0107 wab2
b
Mx acting over a section of width 15t or ,
2 Two point pick-up
whichever is less Maximum moments (approximate)
a Mx = wa2 /8 per unit width
Mz acting over a section of width
2 Mz = Mz+ = 0.0125 wab2
Four point pick-up a
Mx acting over a section of width
Maximum moments (approximate) 2
Mx+ = Mx = 0.0054 wa2b Four point pick-up

Mz = Mz+ = 0.0027 wab2 Maximum moments (approximate)
b Mx = wa2 /8 per unit width
Mx acting over a section of width 15t or ,
4 Mz = Mz+ = 0.0031 wab2
whichever is less a
Mz acting over a section of width
Mz acting over a section of width a/2 2

Fig. 3.9.5 Stripping from a tilt table Fig. 3.9.6 Pick-up points for equal stresses of a
ribbed element
When available, the use of a tilt table will significantly

reduce stripping stresses. The slight inclination of the
panel as it is lifted from the tilted position to the
vertical may be neglected when determining stripping
forces and stresses (Fig. 3.9.5).
Elements of constant cross section
The section modulii of top and bottom fibres may not
be identical. The designer must determine which face
is controlling when choosing the position and number
Fig. 3.9.7 Moments caused by eccentric lifting
of lift points.
Controlling design limitations:
1. Tensile stresses on both faces shall be less than
that causing cracking (Sect. 3.4.2),
2. Tensile stress on one face shall be less than that
causing cracking, with controlled cracking
permitted on the other face, or
3. Controlled cracking permitted on both faces.
Elements of varying cross section
The design guidelines listed under the previous
section are only applicable for elements of constant
cross section. A trial and error process will determine
the location of lift points to result in acceptable
stresses. Rolling blocks may be employed to handle
and erect long elements of varying cross section
refer to Fig. 3.9.8. The forces in the lifting lines will be
equal. The stress analysis can proceed by
considering a beam with varying load supported by
equal reactions.
The force in inclined lift lines can be determined from
Fig. 3.9.9.

Fig. 3.9.8 Arrangement for equalizing lifting Fig. 3.9.10 Swivel plate
loads
cable is used for stripping, edge lifting and erecting

panels. Precast manufacturers have developed safe
capacity values for strand and wire rope lifting loops
Fig. 3.9.9 Determination of force in inclined lift through tests. A swivel plate as shown in Fig. 3.9.10
lines can be used to ensure that an embedded insert acts
primarily in tension.
Industry practice is to design handling and erection
devices for a capacity of four times the anticipated
load.
Connection hardware should be used for lifting only
when designed for such purposes. The drawings
should clearly indicate which devices are intended to
be used for lifting and handling.
Example 3-30 - Design for handling
Given:
A window unit of exposed aggregate is to be cast
face down.
Handling and lifting devices

Lifting devices may be strand, cable loops, threaded
inserts or other proprietary devices. Lifting devices
require ductility as they are subjected to dynamic
loads. Deformed reinforcing bars should not be used
for lifting loops as the deformations result in stress
concentrations from shackle pins. Looped aircraft

Section properties:
Ag = 149000 mm2
I = 4291 106 mm4
yb = 369 mm
St = 18600 103 mm3
Sb = 11600 103 mm3
Problem:
Locate the pick-up points to minimize tension stress
in the concrete, and design handling reinforcement.
Solution:
Dead load of element assuming 1.6 multiplier (Fig. (3100 x) (11.5) 2500
2
3.9.1): M+ = (75)
103 2 103
600 2800
(42.1) 3 + 13.0
10 103
= 139 75.0x
Wd = (5.0)(11.5) + (2.19)(42.1) = 150 kN

Lifting loops are placed symmetrically about the
centre of gravity of the element. Assume critical
2
cracking stress will occur in the narrow sections of 600 (x 300) (11.5) x 600
M = (42.1) 3 +
the unit. For equal stresses on each face: 10 103 2 103
ft = fb
= 5.8x 2 + 18.4x 5.5
+
M yt M yb M = 1.60M+
=
I I
5.8x 2 + 18.4x 5.5 = (1.60)(139 75.0x)
y 369 +
M = b M+ = M = 1.60M+ 5.8x 2 + 138.4x 227.9 = 0
yt 231
x = 1540 mm
Fy 150
Fx = = = 43.3 kN use: x = 1500 mm = 1.5 m
tan 2 tan60o
M+ = 139 (75)(1.5) = 26.5 kN - m
yc = y t + 70 = 301mm
(301) M
= (5.8)(1.5)2 + (18.4)(1.5) 5.5 = 35.2 kN-m
M = (43.3) = 13.0 kN - m
103

M (35.2)(106 ) Assuming 2 top bars:
ft = = = 0.9 MPa 0.12
St (2)(18,600 103 ) fs = = 111MPa
6
+ 6 (11 10 )(1.10)3 (40)(80)(222)
M (26.5)(10 )
fb = = = 1.1MPa (17.6)(106 )
Sb (2)(11,600 103 ) Approx. As = = 315 mm2
(0.9)(560)(111)
This stress will allow stripping at fci as low as 15 MPa
without cracking the section. Reinforcing is not Use: 4 10M bars (As = 400 mm2) at the top of the
required. For illustrative purposes, determine the section.
reinforcing required for controlled cracking, assuming
a permissible crack width = 0.12 mm: 3.9.3 Lateral Stability
35.2 Consideration must be given to long elements with
M = = 18.7 kN m per mullion
2 narrow compression flanges during handling,
26.5 transportation and erection. Unlike the classical
M+ = = 13.3 kN m buckling of steel I beams, the lateral stability of long
2
precast members is dependent on the roll stiffness of
Reinforcement for M+ : the supports (i.e. lifting loops, truck, or bearing pads).
d = 560 mm The issue of lateral stability is actually an analysis of
lateral bending and equilibrium, in which lateral
Assume: stresses can be significant.
jd = 0.9d = 504 mm A theory for evaluating the lateral stability of
kd = 0.3d = 168 mm prestressed I-beams developed in [26] is summarized
h1 = 560 168 = 392 mm below.
h2 = 600 168 = 432 mm For a hanging beam or a beam supported from
below, an equilibrium diagram is used to derive a
h2/h1 = 1.10
factor of safety against cracking (FS) and a factor of
safety against failure or roll-over (FS), where in
general:
resisting moment
factor of safety =
applied moment
For a hanging beam, see Figure 3.9.11,

1
FS =
Zo / Yr + i / max

Yr max
FS=
Zo max
+ ei
For a crack width of 0.12 mm, from Section 3.4.2:
h For a beam supported from below, see Figure 3.9.12,
w = 11 10 6 2 fs 3 dc A r(max )
h1 FS =
Zo max + ei + Ymax
0.12
fs = 6
= 135 MPa
r(max )
(11 10 )(1.10)3 (40)(80)(125) FS =

Zo max + ei + Ymax
M+ (13.3)(106 )
Approx. As = = = 196 mm2 It is recommended to use FS 1.0 and FS 1.5. The
0.9dfs (0.9)(560)(135)
factor of safety against failure or roll-over, FS, is
0.2 fc 0.2 35 based on a cracked section and therefore need not
As,min = bt h = (125)(600)
fy 400 be taken less than the calculated factor of safety
against cracking, FS.
= 222 mm2 (controls)
The factor of safety is a function of beam geometry
Use: 3 - 10M bars (As = 300 mm2) at the bottom of and support location. For a beam with curvature due
the section. to lateral sweep and vertical camber the centroid is
moved away from the roll axis, see Figure 3.9.13.
Reinforcement for M :

Fig. 3.9.11 Equilibrium of hanging beam
Reducing the distance between supports will reduce ei

the offset of the beam centroid from the roll axis and =
max
2.5Zo
improve stability. The distance to the centroid can be
calculated using the midspan offset for the full for a beam supported from below:
member length multiplied by the offset factor where:
zmax hr
offset factor = (l1 / l)2 1/ 3 =
max +
r
The deflection of the centroid of a beam under its The initial stresses at the time of handling
own weight is calculated by: significantly affect the factor of safety against
w cracking. The top flange is very lightly stressed in
Zo = [0.1l51 a2 l31 + 3a 4 l1 + (6 / 5)a5 ]
12Ec I y l compression or is in tension prior to applying the
design loads. Very little lateral bending may be
This deflection can be adjusted for a cracked section tolerated before cracking begins. The factor of safety
at the tilt angle under consideration where: against cracking may need to be improved by adding
Zo = Zo (1 + 2.5max
) compression to the top flange. Similarly, if the
distance between supports is reduced to improve
The tilt angle at the maximum factor of safety against stability, the top flange compression due to self
failure or roll-over is calculated as follows: weight is reduced and additional compression may be
For a hanging beam: required.

Fig. 3.9.12 Equilibrium of beam on elastic supports
Fig. 3.9.13 Offset of centroid at a curved arc
For beams supported from below the factor of safety 3. Increase the roll stiffness of vehicles used for
can be improved by increasing the rotational stiffness transportation.
of the supports. A method of determining the stiffness 4. Attach temporary lateral stiffening in the form of
of vehicles, and guidelines for bearing pads are strongbacks, stiffening trusses or pipe frames.
detailed in Reference [26]. Sometimes two or more units can be transported
For safe handling of long elements, lateral stability together, side by side, and tied together to provide
can be improved by the following methods: the necessary lateral strength.
1. Move the support points inward. Decreasing the 5. Increase the members lateral stiffness by revising
distance between supports by a small amount can the shape to increase Iy or increase the concrete
significantly increase the factor of safety against strength and thus Ec.
failure or roll-over. Temporary post-tensioning can Example 3-31 - Lateral stability
be used to improve the factor of safety against Given:
cracking. A 40 m long CPCI 1900 girder supported 2 m from
2. Increase the distance yr for hanging beams by each end.
using a rigid yoke at the lifting points. Decrease l = 40 m
the distance y for beams supported from below by a = 2m
using lower vehicles for transportation. l1 = 36 m

Concrete: fr = 0.6 35 = 3.55 MPa
fci = 35 MPa (ftpres + ftself + fr )Iy
Mla =
Eci = 28200 MPa (bt / 2)
fc = 45 MPa
( 6.50 + 7.00 + 3.55)(14900 106 ) /106
Ec = 31000 MPa =
(900 / 2)
Loads:
w = 12.80kN/m = 134 kN - m
W = 512 kN Mlat 134
Section Properties: max = = = 0.0688 rad
Mg 1950
yb = 940 mm
yt = 960 mm 6) Tilt angle at failure
Iy = 14900 106 mm4 16

max = = 0.1312 rad
bt = 900 mm (2.5)(372)
Stresses at harp point (x = 16000 mm):
7)
Theoretical lateral deflection at tilt angle max
ftpres= 6.50 MPa (at transfer)
Zo = (372)[1 + (2.5)(0.1312)] = 494 mm
= 6.00 MPa (at 40 days)
ftself = + 7.00 MPa for gravity moment: 8) Factor of safety against cracking
Mg = 1950 kN-m 1
FS = = 1.55 > 1.0 OK
Problem: 372 / 936 + 0.0170 / 0.0688
Evaluate the lateral stability of this beam during 9) Factor of safety against failure
handling and transporting.
(936)(0.1312)
Solution: FS = = 1.52 < 1.55
(A) Handling for a hanging beam (494)(0.1312) + 16
Therefore, FS = FS = 1.55 > 1.5 OK
1) Initial eccentricity offset factor
Note: If the girder was supported 0.5 m from
= (36000/40000)2 1/3 each end then FS = 1.15 and FS = 1.15 < 1.5
= 0.477 (B) Transporting when supported from below
lateral sweep = 20 mm 1) Radius of stability
lift loop placement offset = 6 mm rotational stiffness of vehicle = KO = 4250 kN-m
ei = (20)(0.477) + 6 = 16 mm 4250 106
r = = 8300 mm
2) Height of roll axis above C.G. of beam 512 103
camber = 50 mm 2) Initial eccentricity
Yr = 960 50(0.477) = 936 mm placing offset on truck = 25 mm
3) Initial roll angle ei = (20)(0.477) + 25 = 35 mm
i = 16 / 936 = 0.0170 rad 3) Height of C.G. beam above roll axis
4) Theoretical lateral deflection camber = 50 mm
12.8 / 103 height of C.G. beam above road
Zo =
6
(12)(28200)(14900 10 )(40000) = 1800 + 100 + 940 = 2840 mm
[(0.1)(36000)5 (2000)2 (36000)3
height of roll axis above road
+(3)(2000)4 (36000) + (6 / 5)(2000)5 ]
= 600 mm
= 372 mm
Y = 2840 + (50)(0.477) 600 = 2264 mm
5) Tilt angle at cracking

Fig. 3.9.14 Bowing due to differential strain 8) Factor of safety against cracking
(8300)(0.0852 0.0800)
FS =
(338)(0.0852) + 35 + (2264)(0.0852)
= 0.17 < 1.0 NG
9) Factor of safety against rollover

(8300)(0.1827 0.0800)
FS =
(492)(0.1827) + 35 + (2264)(0.1827)
= 1.58 > 1.5 OK
Note:
If the girder was supported 0.5 m from each end then
FS = 0.37 < 1.0 and FS = 1.44 < 1.5
If the girder was supported 3.5 m from each end then
FS = 0.07 < 1.0 and FS = 1.71
The support location does not sufficiently improve the
factor of safety against cracking. Temporary post-
4) Theoretical lateral deflection
tensioning or lateral stiffening can be provided for the
12.8 /103 top flange for transporting the girder with supports at
Zo = 2m from each end. If ftpost = 2.70 MPa due to post-
(12)(31000)(14900 106 )(40000)
tension then FS = 1.13 and FS = 1.58 are OK.
[(0.1)(36000)5 (2000)2 (36000)3
+ (3)(2000)4 (36000) + (6 / 5)(2000)5 ] 3.9.4 Storage
Stored elements should be supported at two points
= 338 mm
located at or near those used for stripping and
5) Tilt angle at cracking handling. Check the member capacity when points
other than those used for stripping or handling are
fr = 0.6 45 = 4.02 MPa used for storage.
( 6.00 + 7.00 + 4.02)(14,900 106 ) /106 When more than two support points are required, the
Mlat = support system should be designed to preclude the
(900 / 2)
bridging of elements over supports. The equalization
= 166 kN - m of stresses on both faces will help to minimize
deformations in storage.
max = 166 = 0.0852 rad Storage conditions should be provided to minimize
1950 warping. Warping may result from differential
6) Tilt angle at maximum FS temperatures, differential shrinkage and creep.
roadway superelevation of vehicle Bowing due to differential strain can be calculated
using Fig. 3.9.14.
= 0.0800 rad
Warping in both directions can occur due to the
distance from centre of truck to centre of tire
support conditions shown in Fig. 3.9.15. The
= 900 mm maximum deflection, max, due to warping can be
calculated using:
max = 900 (600)(0.0800) + 0.0800 5w d sin a4 b 4
8300 max = +
384Ec Ix Iz
= 0.1827 rad
a = panel support height
7) Theoretical lateral deflection at tilt angle max
b = horizontal distance between supports
Zo = (338)[1 + (2.5)(0.1827)] = 492 mm

Fig. 3.9.15 Panel warping in storage Fig. 3.9.16 Effect of compression reinforcement
on creep
3.9.6 Erection
The stress limitations and multipliers previously
discussed for stripping and handling are applicable
during erection.
The centre of gravity of the element should be
Creep, shrinkage and amount of reinforcement will computed and the lifting points located to ensure the
affect the amount of warping. The time dependent element will hang level during erection.
displacement, , at any time can be estimated as: Walls with openings should be checked for erection
= i (1 + ) stresses and braced for handling when necessary.
i = instantaneous displacement Available erection equipment may influence the size
of precast elements, e.g. tower cranes.
= amplification due to creep and shrinkage
see Fig. 3.9.16 The designer must consider site access to ensure
= A s /b d sufficient space to allow erection to proceed as
contemplated. This may require coordination with
3.9.5 Transportation other trades to assure that there will be no
interference with crane access.
Weight and size limitations
Each element must be stable after erection and offer
Provincial and municipal governments regulate the resistance to wind, accidental impact, and loads that
size and weight of shipping loads. Additional may be imposed due to other construction
restrictions may be imposed by climatic conditions, operations.
e.g. spring load limits.
The arrangement of temporary bracing should not
The location of supports is an important factor when interfere with adjacent erection and other construction
transporting elements. Panel supports should be processes. Bracing must be maintained until
chosen such that the imposed tensile stresses do not permanent connections are complete.
exceed the value of 0.4 fci with due consideration
given to the effect of dynamic loading. If the tensile Seismic forces are considered only during prolonged
stresses exceed the above limit, auxiliary bracing, erection conditions, e.g. winter shutdown, or in high
strong-backs, space frames or rocker supports may seismic zones when member arrangement could
be used. cause progressive collapse.

Fig. 3.10.1 Assumed load distribution
3.10 SPECIAL DESIGN SITUATIONS Solution:

Each step corresponds to a line number in the table
3.10.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads in Fig. 3.10.2:
Floors and roofs may be subjected to line loads and 1. Calculate the shears and moments for the uniform
concentrated loads. loads:
The ability of hollow core systems to distribute loads wf = (1.25)(2.7 + 0.5) + (1.5)(2.0) = 7.0 kN/ m2
through grouted shear keys has been demonstrated
by tests. [27] The PCI Hollow Core Committee 2. Calculate the shears and moments for the
recommends that line and concentrated loads can be concentrated and line loads:
resisted by an effective section as described in Fig. wf = (1.25)(9.5) + (1.5)(15.2) = 34.7 kN/ m
3.10.1. If the total deck width, perpendicular to the
span, is less than the span, modification may be P1f = (1.25)(2.2) + (1.5)(4.4) = 9.4 kN
required. Contact local CPCI member producers for P2f = (1.25)(4.4) + (1.5)(13.3) = 25.4 kN
recommendations.
3. Calculate the effective width along the span:
Load distribution of stemmed elements may not
necessarily follow the same pattern, because of their At the support: width = 1220 mm
lower torsional resistance. At 0.25 l (1905 mm): width = 0.5 l = 3810 mm
Example 3-32 Load distribution Between x = 0 and x = 1905 mm:
Given: width= 1220 + (x/1905)(3810 1220)
An untopped hollow core floor with 1220 mm wide
slabs support a load bearing wall and concentrated = 1220 + 1.36x
loads as shown in Fig. 3.10.2. 4. Divide the distributable shears and moments from
Problem: step 2 by the effective widths from Step 3.
Determine the design loads for the slab supporting 5. Add the distributed shears and moments to the
the wall and concentrated loads. shears and moments from Step 1.

Fig. 3.10.2 Example 3-32 Load distribution in hollow core slabs
Shears and moments

Distance from support 0 h/2 300 600 900 1200 1500 2250 3000 3810
1. Non-distributable Vf 26.7 26.0 24.6 22.5 20.4 18.3 16.2 11.0 5.7 0
loads Mf 0 2.6 7.7 14.7 21.2 27.0 32.1 42.3 48.5 50.8
2. Distributable Vf 135.4 132.0 125.0 114.6 104.2 93.8 83.4 48.0 0 0
loads Mf 0 13.4 39.1 75.0 107.8 137.5 164.1 211.4 235.2 235.2
3. Effective width (mm) 1220 1358 1628 2036 2444 2852 3259 3810 3810 3810
4. Distributed Vf 111.0 97.2 76.8 56.3 42.6 32.9 25.6 12.6 0 0
shear & Mf 0 9.9 24.0 36.8 44.1 48.2 50.4 55.5 61.7 61.7
moments
5. Design shears Vf 137.7 123.2 101.4 78.8 63.0 51.2 41.8 23.6 5.7 0
and moments Mf 0 12.5 31.7 51.5 65.3 75.2 82.5 97.8 110.2 112.5
Vf in kN/m; Mf in kN-m/m
Once the moments and shears are determined, the openings parallel to the span, or by coring small
slabs are designed as described in Sect. 3.4.3. holes to cut the fewest strands. Angle headers can
The procedure can be simplified by investigating only frame large openings.
critical sections. For example, shear may be Smaller openings, up to about 200 mm, are usually
determined by dividing all distributable loads by 1.2 m field drilled.
and flexure at midspan can be checked by dividing Openings through the flanges of double tee elements
the distributable loads by 0.5 l . should be limited to the flat portion of the underside of
3.10.2 Effects of Openings the flange.
Guidelines for the design of hollow core slabs
Openings may be provided in precast decks by:
around openings:
(1) saw cutting after the deck is installed and grouted,
1. Openings located near the end of the span and
(2) forming, blocking out or sawing in the plant, or extending into the span less than the lesser of
(3) using short units with steel headers or other 0.125 l or 1.2 m may be neglected when
connections. designing for flexure in the midspan region.
In hollow core or solid slabs, structural capacity is 2. Strand development must be considered at both
least affected by orienting the longest dimension of ends of an opening that cuts strand. (see Sect.
an opening parallel to the span, aligning several 3.4.9)

3. Slabs adjacent to long openings ( l /4 or more), or Many producers prefer to design cantilevers as
occur near the midspan, may be considered to reinforced concrete elements using deformed
have a free edge for flexural design. reinforcing bars or short pieces of unstressed strand
4. Slabs adjacent to openings closer to the end than to provide the negative moment resistance. When
3 l /8 may be considered to have a free edge for using unstressed strand, the stress under factored
loads should be limited to 400 MPa. Pretensioned
shear design.
strands are sometimes used to improve the
Requirements for stemmed members with web performance characteristics of cantilevers.
openings:
It is suggested that concrete tensile stresses due to
1. Web openings should be located outside the specified loads be limited to 0.7 MPa when
strand development area prestressed strands are used and the cracking
2. Vertical stirrups should be placed on each side of tension limited to 0.6 fc when non-prestressed
the opening to control cracking reinforcement is used for negative moment
resistance.
3. Opening should be in areas of low shear and
below the compression block Strand development may be a problem in cantilevers;
it is suggested that when prestressed strand is used,
4. Member should be subjected to primarily uniformly
the design stress, fps, be limited to one-half that
distributed loading. If concentrated loads exist
indicated by Fig. 3.4.8.
they have to be acting at solid sections outside the
opening 3.11 SANDWICH PANEL DESIGN
5. Minimum distance between openings should be at 3.11.1 General
least equal to the opening height or 250 mm
Non-composite sandwich panels carry loads on the
whichever is greater
interior wythe. Composite sandwich panels are
6. Member should be designed such that the tensile usually prestressed with loads carried by both
stresses do not exceed the modulus of rupture wythes. See Chapter 5 for more information.
3.10.3 Composite Topping with Hollow Core The flexural design of two wythe sandwich panels for
and Double Tee Slabs stripping, handling and service loads follows the
same principles as those for single wythe panels as
Many precast floor and roof systems are untopped. A
described in Sects. 3.3 and 3.4. The flexural
composite, cast-in-place concrete topping is
resistance, flexural stiffness and axial resistance will
sometimes used for floor construction to add stiffness
depend upon the degree of interaction between the
and strength for gravity loads and as a diaphragm to
two wythes.
transfer lateral loads.
If the wythes are connected so full shear transfer can
Tests have shown that the normal finished surface of be achieved, the resistance and stiffness can be
hollow core and double tee decks will develop the calculated using the composite section and gross
0.42 MPa on the interface surface specified in A23.3 moment of inertia.
when the precast surface is thoroughly cleaned
before topping is placed. Sect. 3.6.6 describes design In a non-composite panel, the resistance and
procedures for horizontal shear transfer. In most stiffness are computed as a single structural wythe
cases, the allowable 0.42 MPa is enough to develop with the structural wythe designed to carry the loads
the full strength of the topping on precast decks. from the non-structural wythe.
The strength of the topping may be determined from Semi-composite panels, with partial shear transfer
the design requirements for the deck. between wythes, behave between the above types.
The effective moment of inertia should be determined
3.10.4 Cantilevers by test or experience.
The most effective way to design cantilevered 3.11.2 Reinforcement
elements will depend on the type of member, method
of production, span conditions and section properties Minimum reinforcement shall comply with the
of the element. The designer is advised to consult requirements of A23.3 Clause 16.4.3.
with CPCI members to determine the most effective
method.

Fig. 3.11.1 Effective beam widths for panel 3.11.4 Load Bearing Panel Design
design Load bearing panels are those elements that, in
addition to their own weight, support or transfer loads
originating at other locations of a structure. Panels
continuously supported along their bottom edge will
uniformly transfer the superimposed loads to the
foundation or other components. Shear walls and
bearing walls can be designed to provide lateral load
resistance for a structure.
The vertical load resistance of load bearing panels
can be determined using the design methods in Sect.
2.7. Connection design for vertical and lateral load
transfer is covered in Chap. 4.
Example 3-33 Non-composite, reinforced, non-
load bearing panel
Given:
3500 2500 non-composite flat panel
Concrete:
fc = 35 MPa
Prestressed reinforcement should provide an average fci = 15 MPa
prestress after all losses of not less than 1.0 MPa.
Prestressing can be located and stressed to minimize Normal Density
undesirable bowing.
Section properties of structural wythe:
3.11.3 Non-load Bearing Panel Design Ag = 100000 mm2 / m
Non-load bearing panels are wall elements resisting I = 83 106 mm4 / m

only their self weight and lateral forces from wind and S = 1667 103 mm3 / m
earthquake loads.
Wind service load = 1.0 kN/m2
Unintended load transfer from or to adjacent panels
Problem:
should be avoided. Joints should be detailed with
Determine the flexural stresses and required
sufficient space to accommodate anticipated
reinforcement for stripping and for service conditions.
deformations of the supporting structure and the
panel. Solution:
1. Determine the moments during stripping:
The effect of the eccentricity of the non-load bearing Calculate the weight of the panel per unit area:
wythe upon the forces and moments developed in the
structural wythe should be considered for non- Exterior wythe: (0.065)(2400)(9.8)/103= 1.5
composite sandwich panels. If the total load of the Interior wythe: (0.100)(2400)(9.8)/103= 2.4
non-load bearing wythe, W, is transferred through a Insulation: (7)(9.8)/103 = 0.1
series of shear connectors, a beam portion equal to Total = 4.0 (kN/m2)
the spacing between connectors, but not greater than
8t, may be assumed, see Fig. 3.11.1(b).

Assuming that the exterior non-load bearing wythe
has a retarded exposed aggregate finish cast face
down, the load multiplier from Fig. 3.9.1 is 1.2.
(1.0)(1.75)(0.45)2
Mx = = 0.19 kN - m / m
(2)(0.95)
For bending about the x-x axis, the tributary width is (1.0)(1.75)(1.9)2
half the total panel width = 1750 mm. Extrapolating M+x = = 0.83 kN - m / m
(8)(0.95)
from Fig. 3.9.3, the effective flexural width is the
lesser of: For bending about the z-z axis, the tributary width is
(2500 700)/2 = 900 mm (controls) 1450 mm and the effective width is 1000 mm:
10t = (10)(100) = 1000 mm (1.0)(1.45)(0.75)2
Mz = = 0.41kN - m / m
3500/2 = 1750 mm (2)(1.0)
(4.0)(1.75)(1.2)(0.7)2 (1.0)(1.45)(1.0)2
Mx = = 2.29 kN - m / m M+z = = 0.73 kN - m / m
(2)(0.9) (8)(1.0)
(4.0)(1.75)(1.2)(1.8)2 2.29 3. Determine moments due to the eccentricity of the
M+x = 2.64 kN - m / m
(8)(0.9) 2 loads:
For bending about the z-z axis, the tributary width for From Fig. 3.11.1, assuming that the outside wythe is
loading on the stripping inserts is determined from supported by two shear connectors spaced equally
statics to be 1450 mm and the effective flexural width on the panel:
is the lesser of: W1 = (1.5)(3.5)(2.5) = 13.2 kN
2000/2 = 1000 mm (controls) W2 = (2.5)(3.5)(2.5) = 21.9 kN
10t = 1000 mm Assuming the support points for the panel
(700)(2) = 1400 mm connections are 50 mm from the inside face of the
panel:
(4.0)(1.45)(1.2)(0.75)2
Mz = = 1.96 kN - m / m e1 = 208 mm
(2)(1.0)
2
(4.0)(1.45)(1.2)(2.0) e2 = 100 mm
M+z = 1.96 = 1.53 kN - m / m (13.2)(0.208) + (21.9)(0.1)
(8.0)(1.0) T =C= = 2.6 kN
1.9
The maximum moment at stripping is M+x = 2.64
8t = (8)(100) = 800 mm
kNm/m.
Ta (2.6)(1.9)
M+x = = = 3.09 kN - m / m
2. Determine moments due to wind: 2 (2)(0.8)
For bending about the x-x axis, the tributary width is Tb (2.6)(2.0)
M+z = = = 1.63 kN - m / m
1750 mm and the effective width is 950 mm: 4 (4)(0.8)

4. Determine the combined moments due to wind If tension ties are provided on 600 mm centres in
and load eccentricity: each direction:
M+x = 0.83 + 3.09 = 3.92 kN - m / m (controls) Tf = (1.25)(1.2)(1.5)(0.6)(0.6) = 0.8 kN
M+z = 0.73 + 1.63 = 2.36 kN - m / m See Sect. 5.6.8 for further information on wythe
connector design.
5. Calculate flexural stresses:
Example 3-34 Composite, prestressed, non-load
At stripping: bearing flat panel
(2.64)(106 )
f = = 1.6 MPa Given:
(1667 103 ) 2400 6000 composite prestressed flat panel
0.4 fci = (0.4)(1.0) 15 = 1.5 MPa < 1.6
At service load:
(3.92)(106 )
f = = 2.4 MPa
(1667 103 )
0.4 fc = (0.4)(1.0) 35 = 2.3 MPa < 2.4
6. Determine reinforcement requirements:

Assume a single layer of mesh with a wire spacing of
100 mm at mid-depth of the structural wythe:
d = 50 mm
jd = (0.9)(50) = 45 mm
k d = (0.3)(50) = 15 mm Concrete:
fci = 35 MPa
h1 = 50 15 = 35 mm
fci = 25 MPa
h2 = 100 15 = 85 mm
h2 85 Normal Density
= = 2.42
h1 35 Section properties of composite section:
Ag = 420000 mm2
Since the interior structural wythe is not exposed to
view or to the weather, use the maximum w = 0.40 I = 2230 106 mm4
mm: yb = 116 mm
w
fs = yt = 109mm
6 h2 3
(11 10 ) dA c Sb = 19200 103 mm3
h1
St = 20500 103 mm3
0.40
= = 213 MPa m = 1020 kg/m
(11 106 )(2.42)3 (50)(100)(70)
w = 10.0 kN/m
The controlling moment is M+x under combined
service wind load and eccentricity of the dead loads: Wind service load = 1.2 kN/m2
M (3.92)(106 )
As = = = 410 mm2 / m
0.9dfs (0.9)(50)(213)
For the non-structural wythe, use the minimum
reinforcement of (0.001)(65)(1000) = 65 mm2/m with
a maximum wire spacing of 150 mm.
7. Shear connector and tie design: Problem:
The shear connectors are designed to carry the entire Determine the required prestressed reinforcement
weight of the non-structural wythe: and check the horizontal shear capacity between
wythes.
Vf = (1.25)(1.5)(2.5)(3.5) = 16.4 kN

Solution: P = (1.5)(100)(2400)/103 = 360 kN
1. Stripping stresses:
Stress in 75 mm wythe:
(360)(103 )
f = = 2.0 MPa
(75)(2400)
Use 5 11 mm 1860 MPa strands in each wythe.
From Fig. 3.9.1, use a load multiplier of 1.2 at
stripping. Stresses due to dead load of element are:
(10.0)(1.2)(5.7)2
M = = 48.7 kN - m
8
(48.7)(106 )
fb = = 2.5 MPa
(19200 103 ) 6. Check total stresses at stripping:
(48.7)(106 ) Wythe Stripping Prestress Total

ft = 3
= 2.4 MPa 100 mm + 2.4 + 1.5 + 3.9 OK
(20500 10 )
75 mm 2.5 + 2.0 0.5 OK
2. Storage stresses: 7. Check the horizontal shear resistance:
Factored moment at stripping:
Mf = (1.25)(48.7) = 60.9 kN-m
Assume a moment arm of 130 m between tension
By inspection, stresses are not critical. and compression forces:
60.9
3. Transportation stresses: T =C= = 468 kN
0.13
Assume that the element is supported as shown
Or, alternatively, calculate the shear flow per unit
during transportation. Use a load multiplier of 1.5:
width at a section right at the underside of the top
wythe
qu/mm = ( Vu Q)/ Ix
Y = { (100)(175) + (75)(75)/2}/ (100+75)
2
(10.0)(1.5)(1.2) = 116 mm
M = = 10.8 kN - m
2 Ix = (100)3/12 + (100)(59)2 + (75)3/12 + (75)(78.5)2
(10.0)(1.5)(4.5)2 10.8 = 928758 mm4/mm
M+ = 32.6 kN - m
8 2
Vu = (1.0)(1.2)(5.7)/2 = 34.2 kN
4. Service wind stresses: Q = (100)(59) = 5900 mm2/mm
(1.2)(2.4)(1.0)2 qu = (34.2)(5900)(2400) / (928758)
M = = 1.5 kN - m
2
= 521.4 KN > 468 kN
(1.2)(2.4)(5.0)2
M+ = = 9.0 kN - m The shear ties must be designed to resist this force.
8
Total shear force in half span to be resisted by shear
5. Select prestressed reinforcement:
ties = (qu)(l)/ 4
The critical loading condition is stripping. qu (per half span) = (521)(5.7)/4 = 742 KN
It is good practice to increase the stress in the Area of shear ties in half a span
exterior wythe above that in the interior wythe to
As = (qu)/ ( fy)
counteract the usual tendency of a panel to bow
outward. By applying the same prestress force to = (742)(1000)/ ((.85)(400))
both the interior and the thinner exterior wythe, the = 2182 mm2
desired effect will be achieved. Try providing 1.5 MPa
prestress in the 100 mm wythe:

3.12 DESIGN OF POST-TENSIONED shown in Fig. 3.12.1(b) that will causes a theoretical
ELEMENTS upward deflection at the centre support of
2
3.12.1 General Pe l /(2E). The reactions required to restrain the
Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing where beam on the supports A, B and C are shown in Fig.
tendons are stressed after the concrete has reached 3.12.1(c). Note that the algebraic sum of the
a predetermined strength. Post-tensioning is used secondary reactions is zero and that, the secondary
primarily in continuous cast-in-place construction, but moment at the interior support for this case is 150
has useful application in precast structures for percent of the primary moment and of opposite sign.
continuity connections in segmental construction and The secondary moment always varies linearly
in heavily loaded members such as transfer girders. between the supports since the secondary moment is
This section applies to post-tensioned flexural caused by the induced reactions.
elements used in buildings. Any method of elastic analysis may be applied to
The use of post-tensioning allows designers to indeterminate post-tensioned structures. Many simple
control the behaviour of a structure within a broad structures can be analyzed with a hand calculator
range of loading conditions. Post-tensioning forces using the equivalent load method or the load
can be applied at various stages during construction balancing method.
to offset permanent loads and can be applied in Equivalent load method of analysis
increments. Both bonded or unbonded post- The effect of a prestressing force on an element can
tensioning tendons may be used. be determined by considering the prestressing force
3.12.2 Methods of Analysis to be replaced by equivalent external loads. In the
It is necessary in a post-tensioned design to simple-span beam shown in Fig. 3.12.2(a), the
determine the required prestressing force and the horizontal forces P1 and P2, are exerted at the ends
number, size, and profile of the tendons required to of the element along with a vertical force equal to P2
resist the service loads. The flexural resistance of an tan, that may be neglected in the design of the
element must be checked at all the critical points. beam for flexure because the force occurs directly
over the support. In addition to these loads, the
Elastic analysis procedures are used to determine curved tendon (assumed parabolic) exerts a
both the strength and serviceability characteristics of continuous upward force on the beam along its entire
indeterminate post-tensioned structures. The length. If friction between the tendon and the
serviceability of a structure is assessed by concrete is neglected, the force exerted on the
determining the stresses and deflections, both initial concrete by the tendon is normal to the plane of
elastic and long term. contact and the tension in the tendon is constant. The
In simple span post-tensioned beams, the moments normal force, wp, exerted by the tendon is equal to
induced by the post-tensioning are directly the tension in the tendon divided by its radius of
proportional to the eccentricity of the tendons in the curvature, as shown in Fig. 3.12.2(b).
beam cross-section. Most post-tensioned beams are shallow, therefore
The moments due to post-tensioning are not directly the horizontal component of the tension in the tendon
proportional to the tendon eccentricity in continuous may be assumed equal to the tension. Given this
or indeterminate post-tensioned structures. assumption, the horizontal component of the tendon
Deformations imposed by post-tensioning a force may be assumed constant. This maintains the
continuous element are resisted at points of restraint tendon in equilibrium with the uniform vertical load,
by other elements in a structure. The restraint to post- wp, as shown in Fig. 3.12.2(c).
tensioning deformations modifies the reactions and,
The magnitude of the vertical load exerted by the
affects the elastic moments and shears resulting from
element to hold the tendon in equilibrium may be
the post-tensioning. The moments resulting from the
derived in various ways. Taking one-half of the
restraints to the prestressing deformations are called
tendon as a free body, the forces are as shown in
secondary moments, a term used because moments
Fig. 3.12.2(d). Summing moments about the support
are induced by the primary post-tensioning moment,
A and solving for the load, wp, provides:
Pe, and not because the secondary moments are
negligible nor smaller than the primary moment. 8P2 e
wp =
l2
Primary and secondary moments due to post-
The load exerted by the tendon on the element is
tensioning are illustrated for a two-span continuous
equal but opposite to this load:
beam in Fig. 3.12.1. This beam has a post-tensioning
8P2 e
force, P, acting at a constant eccentricity, e. The wp =
primary moment in the beam has a magnitude, Pe, as l2

Fig. 3.12.1 Primary and secondary moments Fig. 3.12.2 Equivalent load analysis
The sign convention considers wp to be positive when

it acts downward.
Summing the loads exerted by the tendons on the
simple span beam of Fig. 3.12.2(a) results in the
loads shown in Fig. 3.12.2(e). Calculating equivalent
loads is probably not justified for simple span beams
superimposing the simple beam moment diagram
where the moments induced by the tendons are
due to the post-tensioning loads on the base line
directly proportional to the tendon eccentricity.
provided by connecting the total post-tensioning
However, for continuous beams, the use of
moments at the supports.
equivalent load method permits analysis for the total
moment effects of post-tensioning by considering a It is simpler to obtain interior post-tensioning
single additional loading case. moments using the tendon profile. The interior
moments may be expressed as:
Equivalent load equations are given in Fig. 8.1.6.
x x
Various combinations of equivalent loads may be M = Pe + MAB + (M BA MAB ) P e A +(eB e A )
superimposed. For example, the moments due to end l l
eccentricity can be added to the equivalent load where MAB and MBA are the total post-tensioning
moments caused by the tendon profile. moments at two adjacent supports, P is the tendon
Using the equivalent load procedure, the total post- force, and eA, eB, and e are the eccentricities of the
tensioning moments at supports may be obtained tendon at A, B and x, respectively. Eccentricity is
using methods of indeterminate structural analysis. taken as negative when the tendon is below the
Determine the post-tensioning moments at the centroid and positive when above the centroid of the
supports. Post-tensioning moments between cross-section. For the tendon profile in Fig. 3.12.3,
supports may be obtained as shown in Fig. 3.12.3 by the moment at x is the algebraic sum of the end

Fig. 3.12.3 Interior post-tensioning moments Fig. 3.12.4 Load balancing
1. It is not practical to install tendons with a sharp

break in curvature at the supports due to the
stiffness of the tendons. Therefore it is not
possible to duplicate the exact moment curve
resulting in some unbalanced moments.
2. The load-balancing technique should be
moments at the point and the moment of the tendon adjusted to consider friction losses and the
force, P, times the distance from the tendon to the resulting variation of the force in a tendon along
straight line connecting the ends of the tendon over its length.
the supports 3. Load-balancing does not account directly for
Load balancing method of analysis: moments induced by tendons anchored
eccentrically at ends free to rotate.
The prestressing force and eccentricity are selected
to balance or counteract the dead load of the 3.12.3 Design for Service Loads
structure and often some portion of the live load. Fig.
Flexural design for service loads is covered in Sect.
3.12.4 illustrates the load-balancing method. The
3.4, as well as in Examples 3-35, 3-36, and 3-37 of
moment diagram of the prestressing effects is chosen
this section. These examples illustrate a continuous
to be similar to that of the applied loads but opposite
beam, a one way slab, and a flat plate respectively.
in sign. The goal is to have the net stress in the beam
Calculation of camber and deflection is given in Sect.
equal to the axial compressive stress from the post-
3.5.
tensioning, P/Ag since the moment induced by the
tendon and the load offset one another. This concept Preliminary sizing of elements
allows a designer to visualize the behaviour of There are no code recommendations for the span-
statically indeterminate structures. It simplifies design depth ratios of post-tensioned elements. The values
calculations since only the total prestressing moment shown in Fig. 3.12.5 are provided as a guide for
induced by the post-tensioning needs to be preliminary sizing of elements. These ratios may be
considered rather than separate considerations of increased if calculations verify that deflection,
primary and secondary moments. camber, vibrations are acceptable.
The net moment in a structure at any point is that Concrete cover must also be considered when sizing
resulting from the load not balanced by the post- elements. A23.1 gives the required cover to
tensioning. The net stress on the section may be reinforcement.
calculated from P/Ag + Mnl /S where Mnl is the net
(unbalanced) bending moment on the section. For Type and Placement of Tendons
continuous designs, the tendon geometry can be as Post-tensioned tendons may consist of high-strength
shown in Fig. 3.12.4(b). strand, wire or bars. Sizes and capacities are listed in
Section 8.2 Tendon profiles are usually parabolic.
Some qualifications are necessary when using this
Straight-line profiles are used in segmental
technique:
construction and for strengthening existing structures.

Fig. 3.12.5 Typical span-depth ratios* = total angular change in radians between
One way slab 48 the tangents to the tendon at the jacking
Two way slab 45 end at a distance x from the jacking end
Two way slab with drop panel For values of (Kx + ) less than 0.3, the above
(minimum drop panel L/6 each way) 50 expression can be written in the form:
Two way slab with 2-way beams 55 fpx = fpo /(1 + Kx + )
Waffle slab (1500 1500 grid) 35
Beams b h/3 20 Approximate values of the coefficients, K and , are
Beams b 3h 30 given in Fig. 3.12.6. Actual values may be obtained
* These values are appropriate for elements whose live load is from the tendon manufacturer.
less than the dead load.
Anchorage set loss is due to the slip that occurs in
In two way post-tensioned cast-in-place slabs, it is
the anchor at the jacking end. Fig. 3.12.7 shows the
common practice to band post-tensioning tendons
variation in the tendon force near the jacking end
over the supports in one direction, while evenly
after the anchorage has been set. The value fpi is the
distributing the tendons in the other direction. This
stress at the jacking end of the tendon after the
reduces the expense of placing the tendons by
anchorage set loss. The length, y, of the tendon
removing the need to weave tendons over and under
affected by the anchorage set is given by:
each other to achieve draped profiles in both
directions. This method is useful in applications with Ep
irregular column spacings. Experience has shown y =

that a post-tensioned flat plate behaves as a flat plate
regardless of where the tendons are placed. The load = anchorage set
balancing concept, described above, is useful in = slope shown in Fig. 3.12.7
understanding the banding and distribution of
tendons. The quantity, , is characteristic of a post-tensioning
system and has a minimum value of 6 mm for
In the banded direction, the high points of the banded prestressing strands.
tendons are placed at the column locations. In the
distributed direction, the high points of the tendons If is known, y and fpp, the tendon stress at a
are placed at the column gridlines. The drape of the distance y, can be computed and the level of
tendons provides an upward force along the column prestress along the tendon can be determined.
gridline, except for a small area on either side of the Alternatively, the anchorage set loss can be
column caused by the reversed curvature of the calculated from the shaded area in Fig. 3.12.7 divided
tendon. This can be ignored. Low points are placed at by Ep.
or near midspan of the slab in both directions. The maximum values shown in Figure 3.12.7 for fpo,
The distributed tendons carry the loads to the column fpi and fpp are given in A23.3, Clause 18.5.
gridlines that, in turn, carry loads to the columns. The fpo may not be greater than:
balanced portion of the gravity loads is carried to the
columns. 0.85 fpu
3.12.4 Prestress Losses maximum value specified by strand manufacturer
Post-tensioned elements are subject to a loss of 0.94fpy

prestress due to elastic shortening, creep, shrinkage, fpi may not be greater than:
and stress relaxation as described in Sect. 3.4.4. In
0.82fpy
addition, post-tensioned tendons are subject to
losses caused by friction and anchorage set. 0.74fpu.
Friction losses These values apply immediately after transfer and
before long term losses. The values of jacking stress,
The stress loss due to friction is equal to fpo - fpx and
fpo, can be adjusted to ensure that these constraints
may be determined using the following:
are met.
fpx = fp e(Kx + )
e = base of natural logarithm

Fig. 3.12.6 Approximate friction coefficients for post-tensioned tendons
Wobble coefficient, K Curvature coefficient,
Type of tendon and sheath
per metre of length per radian
Tendons in flexible metal sheathing

Wire tendons (3.3 to 5.0) 10-3 0.15 to 0.25
7 wire strand (1.6 to 6.5) 10-3 0.15 to 0.25
High strength bars (0.3 to 2.0) 10-3 0.08 to 0.30
Tendons in rigid metal sheath

7 wire strand 0.7 10-3 0.15 to 0.25
Pre-greased tendons in extruded plastic sheath

Wire tendons and 7 wire strand (1.0 to 6.5) 10-3 0.05 to 0.15
Mastic coated tendons in waxed paper

Wire tendons and 7 wire strand (3.3 to 6.6) 10-3 0.05 to 0.15
Fig. 3.12.7 Anchorage set prestress loss Fig. 3.12.8 Shear in post-tensioned element with
reverse curvature in tendon
A value fpp is determined from the design

requirements and fpi is calculated as shown in Fig.
3.12.7.
Anchorage set loss can have a significant effect in a
short tendon. In practice, the loss is usually
compensated for by temporary overtensioning or
shimming of the anchor head.
Long term losses
The elongation of the tendon during jacking is given
by: The calculation of losses in post-tensioned tendons
lf
px
due to shrinkage, creep and relaxation are an
= dx . important part of the design process. Long term
E
0 p losses reduce the effective stress in a tendon that
The computed elongation must be compared with affects the service load stresses in structural
elongations measured during the actual jacking elements. Refer to Sect. 3.4.4 for information on
operation. calculating these values.

3.12.5 Design for Factored Loads Section properties:
Factored resistance Conservatively the provisions of Clause 10.3.3 of
A23.3 were used to determine the effective flange
The applicable load factors should be applied to the
width even though not strictly required by Clause
moments and shears obtained by elastic service load
18.1.3. The overall prestress level of the beam and
analysis when checking the critical sections for
the slab are checked to ensure they meet code
flexural and shear resistance. A load factor of 1.0 is
minimums at the end of this example.
applied to secondary moments. Designs for flexure
and shear for factored loads are outlined in Sect. 3.3 In accordance with Clause 10.3.3, the overhang width
and Sect. 3.6 and are illustrated in examples 3-35, 3- on either side of the web is calculated as the lesser
36 and 3-37. of:
In continuous post-tensioned elements, attention 1. 1/5 the span length for simply supported beams,
should be paid to the distribution of shear imposed by 2. 1/10 the span length for continuous beams
the post-tensioned tendons. This is illustrated in Fig.
3. 12 times the slab thickness
3.12.8. Shear resulting from secondary reactions
should also be included for statically indeterminate 4. One-half the clear distance to the next web.
structures. For this beam, the effective flange width is the lesser
of:
Example 3-35 Two span continuous T-beam
1. Not applicable
Given:
Two span cast-in-place post-tensioned T-beams, 2. 1/10 l 1 + bw = 1/10 (17000)(2) + 350 = 3750 mm
spaced 8 m on centres and supported by 500 600 (governs)
mm columns, 3000 mm long, at 17 m spacing as
3. (2)(12)t + bw = (2)(12)(150) +350 = 3950 mm
shown.
4. 0.5 l 2 = (0.5)(8000) = 4000 mm
Loads:
Dead Load (including full slab) = 35.1 kN/m
Live Load = (2.5)(8.0) = 20.0 kN/m
Problem:
Concrete: Design bonded post-tensioned flexural reinforcement.
fci = 25 MPa Service load moments:
fc = 35 MPa1 = 0.7981 = 0.883 The dead and live load moments, with two live load
Normal Density patterns considered, namely: full live load covering
two spans and line load covering only one span, are
Prestressed reinforcement: determined by any analytical method to solve
15 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation strands statically indeterminate structures such as moment
distribution, and are shown in the table on page 3-
Ap = 140 mm2/strand 120.
fpy = 1675 MPa
Tendon profile:
The effects of the post-tensioning are treated
separately from the effects of the loads, and are
dependent on frame action and the magnitude and
positioning of the post-tensioning tendons.

Assume one end stressing and bonded strands. A
parabolic tendon profile is selected as shown:
Friction losses:
Calculate friction losses using:
fpx = fpo e(Kx + )
K = 0.0023 / m
= 0.18 / rad
Assume a prestress loss of 230 MPa in addition to
the loss due to the anchor set of 14 mm, with one end
stressing at support . To find the point of
contraflexure, equate the slopes of two parabolas at
distance x:
(2)(113) (2)(612) (1860)(0.800 0.705)
= =
x 8500 x (17)(1000)
x = 1325mm
= 10.39 103 MPa / mm
Ep
y =

(190000)(14)
= = 16000 mm
10.39 10 3
The angles 1 and 2 are determined to be: and the prestress at sections and can be
(2)(612) determined assuming equal but opposite slopes for
1 = tan1 = 0.143 rad curves A and B.
8500
(2)(612) Section Properties
2 = tan1 = 0.169 rad
7180 Ag = 800760 mm2
Assuming a maximum temporary jacking stress of Sb = 69.1 106 mm3
0.80 fpu in the tendon at point , the jacking stresses, St = 224.9 106 mm3
expressed as a fraction of fpu, are determined to be:
Location
1. = 0.800 Md (kN - m) 495 + 524 1021
[(0.0023)(8.5)+(0.18)(0.143)] 331 + 349 581
2. 0.800e = 0.765 Ml (kN - m)
[(0.0023)(8.5)+(0.18)(2)(0.169)] Mtotal (kN - m) 826 + 873 1062
3. 0.765e = 0.705 e (mm) 0 612 113
[(0.0023)(8.5)+(0.18)(2)(0.169)]
4. 0.705e = 0.651 e (mm) 280 320 360
e + e (mm) 280 + 292 473
[(0.0023)(8.5)+(0.18)(0.143)]
5. 0.651e = 0.622 % initial prestress 62.2 65.1 70.5
fpi (MPa) 1157 1211 1311
The variation of prestress along the beam at jacking
fpe (MPa) 927 981 1081
is shown in curve A. After anchor set, the reduction in
Pi (kN) 2106 2204 2386
the prestress at the jacking end is shown by curve B.
Note that the prestress at locations and Pe (kN) 1687 1785 1967
approximately equals the prestress at locations The anchorage set loss can be checked using the
and , respectively. anchorage set area approach. The displacement of
The length, y, over which the anchorage set is the jacking end of the tendon is given by:
effective is determined as follows, assuming a linear (fpu )(anchorage set area)
variation in prestress between supports and : =
Ep

(1860) (8500)
= [(0.8 + 0.765)
190,000 2
(7500)
(0.624 + 0.659)] + (0.765 0.659)
2
= 15.6 mm 14 mm specified
The elongation of the strand during jacking is equal to

the area under the curve A divided by Ep, and is given
by: The unrestrained end rotations in the span are found
= (0.5)[0.8 + (2)(0.765 + 0.705 + 0.651) by any statical method, such as the moment area
method, as follows:
(1860)(8500)
+0.622] = 236 mm 1 2 23
190000 1 = + (0.113)(1.32)
(EI)(17.0) 3 8
Initial and final tendon stress:
2 3
fpi = (fpu)(% prestress) (0.612)(7.18) 8.5 (7.18)
3 8
fpe = fpi 230 MPa
2 3
(0.612)(8.5) 8.5 (8.5)
The initial and final tendon stresses are calculated as 3 8
shown in the table on this page.
3.38
=
Secondary moments: EI
Secondary moments induced by post-tensioning are 1 2 25
3 = (0.612)(8.5)
accounted for by considering the effects of restraint at (EI)(17.0) 3 8
the supports.
2 3
(0.612)(7.18) 8.5 + (7.18)
For simplicity, a virtual post tensioned force of 1 kN is 3
8

used, giving the following primary moments:
2 3
M2 = (612)(1)/103 = 0.612 kN-m + (0.113)(1.32) 17.0 (1.32)
3 8
M3 = (113)(1)/103 = 0.113 kN-m
2.92
=
EI
Prestress Load
fb ft fb ft fb ft
P / Ag + 2.63 +2.63 + 2.73 + 2.73 + 2.94 + 2.94
P (e + e) / S 8.53 + 2.63 + .9.26 2.84 16.2 + 5.05
Md / S + 7.16 2.2 7.58 + 2.31 + 14.7 4.52
Initial Ml / S
Stresses + 1.26 + 3.05 + 4.4 + 2.2 + 1.47 + 3.47
Permissible 0.6 fci 0.6 fci 0.6 fci 0.6 fci 0.6 fci 0.6 fci
stresses + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0
OK OK OK OK OK OK
Pe / Ag + 2.1 + 2.1 + 2.2 + 2.2 + 2.42 + 2.42
Pe (e + e) / S 6.84 + 2.1 + 7.58 2.31 13.5 + 4.1
Md / S + 7.16 2.2 7.58 + 2.31 + 14.7 4.52
Final Ml / S + 4.74 1.47 5.05 + 1.58 + 8.42 2.63
Stresses + 7.1 + 0.52 2.8 + 3.8 + 12.3 0.63
Permissible 0.6fc 0.6fc 0.5 fc 0.6fc 0.6fc 0.5 fc
stresses + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0 + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0
OK OK OK OK OK OK

Fixed end moments for 1 kN of virtual post-tensioning 1761 103
force are: n = = 12.8
(981)(140)
2EI
F.E.M. @ = (3 21 )
l Use 13 strands (Ap = 1820 mm2)
2EI 2.92 3.38 Determine initial and final prestress forces based on
= (2) = 0.45 kN - m
17.0 EI EI previously calculated stresses:
2EI Po = A p fpo
F.E.M. @ = (3 21 )
l Pe = A p fpe
2EI 3.38 2.92 Values for the various locations are given in the table.
= (2) = 0.29 kN - m
17.0 EI EI All stresses are within permissible values.
Secondary moments are derived from these fixed end Factored flexural resistance:
moments by analysis such as moment distribution. At exterior supports and .
These secondary moments may be considered as Mf = DMd + LMl + 1.0M *
effective changes in the tendon profile in accordance = (1.25)( 495) + (1.5)( 331) + (1.0)(1687)(0.280)
with the equation:
= 643 kN-m
M = Pe * According to Table 3.2.1, Case 1 should also be
with the resulting values of e of 280 mm at supports considered.
and , 360 mm at and 320 mm at and , as Determine if strain compatibility must be used to
shown in the table. calculate the value of fpr:
kp = 2(1.04 fpy / fpu )
Required post-tensioning force:
= (2)(1.04 1675 /1860) = 0.28
Use an allowable tensile stress of:
c p A p fpu
0.5 fc = 3.0 MPa =
dp 1c fc 1bdp + k p p A p fpu
The required final prestress force, P, is determined (0.9)(1820)(1860)
from the equation: =
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(0.883)(350)(687) + (0.28)(0.9)(1820)(1860)
M + Ml P P(e + e)
0.5 fc = d = 0.647 > 0.5 per Clause 18.6.2 (a)
S Ag S
Md + Ml Therefore, use strain compatibility. The following
0.5 fc values were calculated: fpr = 1398 MPa and c = 407
P = S mm.
1 e + e
+ a = 1c = (0.883)(407) = 359 mm
Ag S
Determine flexural resistance:
826 103 3.0 Mr = p A p fpr (d a / 2)
3

= 223765 10 103 = 278 kN
P = (0.9)(1820)(1398)(687 359 / 2) /106
1 280
+ = 1162kN - m > 643 kN - m OK
811708 223765 103
At midspan and :
873 103 3.0
3
Mr = DMd + LMl + 1.0M
P = 69398 10 103 = 1761kN
1 292 = (125)(524) + (1.5)(349) + (1.0)(1785)(0.320)
+
811708 69398 103 = 1750 kN - m
1602 10 3
3.0 Check that the rectangular stress block lies within the
3
flange of the T-Beam:
P = 223765 10 103 = 1243 kN
1 473 kp = (2)(1.04 fpy / fpu )
+
811708 223765 103 = (2)(1.04 1675 /1860) = 0.28
Therefore, the prestress force at location governs. p A p fpu

c =
11c fc b + k p p A p fpu / dp
Determine number of strands required in the tendon:

(0.9)(1820)(1860) Mr = p A p fpr (d a / 2)
=
(0.28)(0.9)(1820)(1860) = (0.9)(1820)(1581)(800 407 / 2)
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(3750) +
825
= 47.1mm < 150 mm flange thickness is OK = 1546 kN-m > 1278 kN-m OK
Check the stress on the gross concrete area:
Treat as a rectangular section with b = 3750 mm:
c 47 Average value of Pe in bay and is 1785 kN.
= = 0.057 < 0.5 OK
dp 825 Stress on the gross area of the concrete:
fpr = fpu (1 k p c / dp ) Pe (1785)(103 )
=
(0.28)(47) Ag 855000
= (1860) 1 = 1830 MPa
825 = 2.09 MPa > 0.8 MPa (Clause 18.12.2.3)
a = 1c = (0.883)(47) = 41.5 mm
To complete this design, check the midspan
Mr = p A p fpr (d a / 2) deflection, and design the shear reinforcement.
= (0.9)(1820)(1830)(825 41.5 / 2) /106 Example 3-36 One way slab
= 2410 kN-m > 1750 kN-m OK Given:
150 mm thick slab spanning one way over five spans
At interior support :
between beams on 8000 mm centres.
The code allows moments calculated at the face of
supports to be used in the design of beams.
Calculate the shear force at the centreline of column:
wf = D w d + L w1
= (1.25)(35.1) + (1.5)(20.0) = 73.9 kN / m
(1021 495)(1.25)
VfCL = (73.9)(8.5) +
17
(581 331)(1.5) Concrete:
+ = 689 kN
17 fc = 35 MPa1 = 0.7981 = 0.883
Shear force at the face of the column: Normal Density
VfCF = 689 (73.9)(0.25) = 670 kN
Prestressed reinforcement
Moment at the column face: 15.2 mm - 1860 MPa low relaxation unbonded
V + VfCF strand tendons
Mf = DMd + LM + 1.0M fCL (0.25)
2 Ap = 140 mm2 / strand
= (1.25)( 1021) + (1.5)( 581) fpy = (0.9)(1860) = 1675 MPa
689 + 670
+(1.0)(1945)(0.36) + (0.25) Section properties:
2
Ag = 150000 mm2 / m
= 1278 kN m
p A p fpu I = 281 106 mm4 / m
c
=
dp 11c fc bdp + k p p A p fpu S = 3750 103 mm3 / m
(0.9)(1820)(1860) Loads:
=
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(350)(800) + (0.28)(0.9)(1820)(1860) Dead load = 3.6 kN/m2
= 0.570 > 0.5 (Clause 18.6.2 (a))
Live load = 2.5 kN/m2
Therefore, use strain compatibility. The following Problem:
values were calculated: fpr = 1581 MPa and c = 460 Design post-tensioned and non-prestressed
mm. reinforcement and check the shear resistance.
a = 1c = (0.883)(460) = 407 mm

Solution: Assume a bottom cover of 20 mm, a top cover of 25
Use the load balance concept that offers a simple mm and a 20 mm duct diameter.
approach to analyze statically indeterminate
structures:
Dead and live load moments:

From the above, dead and live load moments, Md and
Ml, are calculated by the moment distribution method,
wp = uniformly distributed upward load applied to using two live load configurations to give maximum
the concrete by the post-tensioning tendon positive and negative live load moments respectively.
Experience shows that the required prestress The dead and live load moments are summarized in
balance load, wp, is between 80 and 100% of the slab the table below.
weight when the total superimposed loads are less Load balance moments:
than the slab weight. The load balance moments, Mbal, due to the post-
Hence wp = 2.9 to 3.6 kN/m2, use wp = 3.3 kN/m2 tensioning are directly proportional to the dead load
(0.92wd). moments.
The net service load causing flexural stress is: Since: wp = 0.92 wd, the values for Mbal are shown
3.6 + 2.5 3.3 = 2.8 kN/ m 2 in the table below.
Location
Md (kN - m/m) + 17.8 24.7 + 7.6 17.8 + 10.2 19.2
Ml (kN - m/m) + 15.8 18.6 + 12.4 16.9 + 12.4 16.9
Mbal (kN - m/m) 16.3 + 22.6 7.0 + 16.3 9.4 + 17.6
Mnl (kN - m/m) + 17.3 20.7 + 13.0 18.4 + 13.2 18.5
e (mm) + 45 40 + 45 45 + 45 40
wp (kN/m2) 3.3 3.3 3.3
e (mm) 65 85 85
wp l 2
Pe = (kN/ m) 406 311 311
8e
Pe
(MPa) 2.7 2.1 2.1
Ag
Mbal (kN - m/m) + 22.6 + 16.3 + 17.6
Pee (kN - m/m) + 16.3 + 12.2 + 12.2
M (kN - m/m) + 3.2 + 6.3 + 5.2 + 4.1 + 4.7 + 5.4
Load Pe = 406 kN/m Pe = 406 kN/m Pe = 311 kN/m Pe = 311 kN/m

fb ft fb ft fb ft fb ft
Pe/Ag + 2.7 + 2.7 + 2.7 + 2.7 + 2.1 + 2.1 + 2.1 + 2.1
Mnl/S 4.6 + 4.6 + 5.5 5.5 3.5 + 3.5 + 4.9 4.9
Total 1.9 + 7.3 + 8.2 2.8 1.4 + 5.6 + 7.0 2.8
0.5 fc 0.6 fc 0.6 fc 0.5 fc 0.5 fc 0.6 fc 0.6 fc 0.5 fc
Permissible 3.0 + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0 3.0 + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0
stresses
OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK

Net load moments:
The net load moments, Mnl, that cause flexure in the
slab, are calculated from the equation:
Mnl= Md + Ml + Mbal
Service load stresses: Factored moments:

Check the service load stresses on the basis of the Mf = 1.25 Md + 1.5 Mf + 1.0 M
effective prestress, Pe, required to achieve the Mf = (1.25)(17.8) + (1.5)(15.8) + (1.0)(3.2)
assumed balance load, wp:
= 49.2 kN - m/m
w p l2
Pe = Mf = (1.25)(24.7) + (1.5)(18.6) + (1.0)(6.3)
8e
= 52.5 kN - m/m
The effective prestress force, Pe, required is shown in
Mf = (1.25)(7.6) + (1.5)(12.4) + (1.0)(5.2)
the table above.
= 33.3 kN - m/m
The service flexural stresses can now be calculated
from the equation: Mf = (1.25)(17.8) + (1.5)(16.9) + (1.0)(4.1)
P M = 43.5 kN - m/m
f = e + nl as shown in the table.
Ag S Mf = (1.25)(10.2) + (1.5)(12.4) + (1.0)(4.7)
= 36.1 kN - m/m
The permissible tensile stresses are dependent upon
the amount of additional non-prestressed Mf = (1.25)(19.2) + (1.5)(16.9) + (1.0)(5.4)
reinforcement see Clause 18.8. = 44.0 kN-m/m
The value of the assumed effective prestress force The minimum area of non-prestressed reinforcement
Pe, is adequate as all service load stresses are within required by Clause 18.8 is:
the permissible limits.
As = 0.003A
Required number of strands: h
= 0.003b
Friction and anchor stress losses have to be 2
determined as shown in Example 3-35. = (0.003)(1000)(150 / 2) = 225 mm2 / m
An average initial stress in the tendons after friction Use a minimum of 10M Grade 400 bars at 400 mm
losses of 0.71 fpu is assumed: c/c - As = 250 mm2/m
Factored flexural resistance:
fpo= (1860)(0.71) = 1321 MPa
For location :
Long term losses = 230 MPa
As = 250 mm2 / m
fpe = 1091 MPa
3 Ap = (2.66)(140) = 373 mm2 / m
Pe= (1091)(140)/10 = 153 kN/strand
Determine the value of fpr:
The required number of strands is: s A s fy + p A p fpy
cy =
End spans: 406/153 = 2.66 strands/m width 11c fc b
Interior spans:311/153 = 2.04 strands/m width (0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1675)
=
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(1000)
Secondary moments:
= 40 mm
The load balance moment, Mbal, is equal to the sum
From Clause 18.6.2(b):
of primary and secondary moments. The secondary
8000
moment is the difference between the load balance fpr = fpe +
lo
(dp c y )
moment and the primary moment:
(8000)
M = Mbal Pe e = 1091 + ((120 40) + (115 40))
40,000
Values of M are given in the table: = 1122 MPa < 1675 MPa (fpy ) OK

s A s fy + p A p fpr Using the minimum value of Vc specified in Clause
a = 11.3.4 and from Clause 11.3.6.2:
1c fc b
(0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1121) Vr = 107.7 kN > 31.8 kN OK
=
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(1000) = (0.21)(1.0)(0.65) 35(1000)(0.8)(150) /103
= 25.4mm = c fc b w d
Determine the factored flexural resistance:
To complete the design, check the flexural resistance
Mr = (s A s fy + p A p fpr )(d a / 2) at other locations and check the midspan deflection.
= [(0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1122)] Example 3-37 Two way flat slab
6
(120 25.4 / 2) /10 Given:
= 49.5 kN - m > 49.2 kN - m OK Flat plate floor slab supported by columns with a
For location : 2600 mm storey height.
8000
fpr = fpe +
lo
(dp c y )
(8000)
= 1091 + ((115 40)
40,000
+(120 40) + (115 40))
= 1138MPa < 1584 MPa (fpy ) OK
s A s fy + p A p fpr
A =
1c fc b
(0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1138)
=
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(1000)
= 26 mm
Mr = (s A s fy + p A p fpr )(d a / 2)
= [(0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1138)] Concrete:
(115 26 / 2) /10 6 fci = 25 MPa
= 47.7 kN - m < 52.5 kN - m fc = 35 MPa
Provide 10M bars at 200 mm c/c over the first interior Normal Density
support, location : Prestressed reinforcement:
15.2 mm - 1860 MPa unbonded, low relaxation
As = 500 mm2 / m
strands
s A s fy + p A p fpr
A = Ap = 140 mm2 / strand
1c fc b
fpy = 1675 MPa
(0.85)(500)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1138) Non-prestressed reinforcement:
=
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(1000) fy = 400 MPa
= 30 mm Loads:
Mr = (s A s fy + p A p fpr )(d a / 2) wsd = 1.0 kN / m2
= [(0.85)(500)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1138)] w l = 1.9 kN / m2
(115 30 / 2) /106 A cladding load of 6 kN/m, acting along grid lines 1
and 9, at an eccentricity of 75 mm from the centreline
= 55.1 kN-m > 52.5 kN-m OK of the exterior column.
Check the shear resistance:
Problem:
l(D w d + L w l ) Design the post-tensioning tendons and non-
Vf =
2 prestressed reinforcement, and check the shear
8.0 resistance.
= [(1.25)(3.6) + (1.5)(2.3)] = 31.8 kN / m
2

Solution:
Determine the slab thickness: Location
e (mm) 0 32 +52 +52 32
From Fig. 3.12.5: h = l / 45
7500 e (mm) 58 85
Longitudinal: h = = 167 mm (governs) 2
45 w (kN/m )
6.8 6.8
6100
Transverse: h = = 136 mm
45 8Pe e
wp = (kN/m2) 2.8 1.9
Try h = 165 mm l 2
Loads: wn (kN/m2) 4.0 4.9

Dead loads:
165 mm slab: (2.4)(9.81)(0.165)= 3.9 kN/m2
Partitions: (wsd):=1.0 kN/m2
Total dead load:=4.9 kN/m2
Live loads:
Occupancy:=1.9 kN/m2
Live load 1.9
= = 0.38 < 0.75
Dead load 4.9
Pe = (1.0)(165)(1000) /103 = 165 kN / m
Per Clause 13.9.4.2, load all panels with full live load.
With an average initial prestress level after friction
Load balancing: losses of 0.7 fpu and an assumed long term loss of
230 MPa:
Assume 20 mm cover from the top of slab to the
tendon and 40 mm cover from the underside of the Pe = (0.7fpu 230)A p
slab to the tendon for fire protection. = [(0.7)(1860) 230](140) /103
= 150 kN / strand
For a 6.1 m bay, require:

(6.1)(165)
= 6.7, use 7 tendons
150
Pe = (7)(140) = 161kN / m
6.1
Pe (161)(103 )
= = 0.98 MPa
Ag (165)(103 )
If the upward uniformly distributed load due to the

prestress, wp, and the service load, downward
uniformly distributed load, w, the net service load
causing flexural stress is:
w nl = w w p
Equivalent frame properties:

Moments in the slab due to net loading are
Assume a parabolic tendon profile with a force
determined by the equivalent frame method outlined
corresponding to an average compressive stress of
in Clause 13.8.2:
1.0 MPa:
Pe At the exterior column , 300 350:
= 1.0 MPa
Ag
c 2c13 (350)(300)3
Ic = = = 787 106 mm4
12 12

Floor to floor, h = 2600 mm. Clear height of column, x x3 y
hc = 2600 165 = 2435 mm: C = 1 0.63
y 3
k c EcIc (4)(787 106 )Ec 3
Kc = = = 1.29 106 Ec (0.63)(165) (165) (500)
hc 2435 = 1
500 3
The stiffness coefficient, kc, is taken as 4.0. For two = 588 106 mm4
way flat plate construction, this is a reasonable
9Ec C
assumption although not strictly true, as the portions Kt = 3
l t 1
of the columns within the floors are infinitely stiff. c2
Actual values of kc can be found in texts on structural 2
analysis.
(2)(9)Ec (588 106 )
There are columns above and below, therefore: = 3
= 2.02 106 Ec
300
Kc = (2)(1.29 106 )Ec = 2.58 106 Ec (6100) 1
6100
Torsional element:
Equivalent column stiffness:
c1 = 300 h = 165 l t = 6100 1 1 1
= +
y = 300 x = 165 c2 = 350 K ec K t K c
3
xx y 1 1
C = 1 0.63 = +
y 3 2.02 10 Ec 6
11.97 106 Ec
3
(0.63)(165) (165) (300) Kec = 1.73 106 Ec
= 1
300 3
Moment distribution:
= 293 106 mm4
1. Relative stiffnesses:
9Ec C
Kt = 3 At exterior column :
c2
l t 1
l t Column:Kec = 0.74 106 Ec
4EcIs (4)(6100)(165)2 Ec
(2)(9)Ec (293 106 ) Span:Ks = =
= 3
= 1.03 106 Ec l (12)(5200)
350 6
= 1.76 10 Ec
(6100) 1
6100
Equivalent column stiffness: Relative stiffness, column:
1 1 1 0.74 106 Ec
= + = = 0.3
K ec K t K c (0.74Ec + 1.76Ec )(106 )
1 1
= 6
+ Relative stiffness, slab:
1.03 10 Ec 2.58 106 Ec
1.76 106 Ec
Kec = 0.74 10 Ec 6 = = 0.7
(0.74Ec + 1.76Ec )(106 )
At interior columns and , 500 350:
At interior column :
c 2c13
(350)(500)3
Ic = = = 3646 106 mm4 Column:Kec = 1.74 106 Ec
12 12
Exterior span:
h = 2600 mm and hc = 2435 mm
4Ec Ic (4)(3646)Ec (106 ) 4EcIs (4)(6100)(165)3 Ec
Kc = = = 5.99 106 Ec Kse = =
hc 2435 l (12)(5200)
Kc = (2)(5.99 106 )Ec = 11.97 106 Ec = 1.76 106 Ec

Torsional element: (4)(6100)(165)3 Ec
4EcIs
Interior span:Ksi = =
c1 = 500 h = 165 l t = 6100 l (12)(7500)
6
y = 500 x = 165 c2 = 300 = 1.22 10 Ec

Moment distribution of net loads
Joint
Span Col. 1-3 3-1 Col. 4-6 6-4 Col. 7-9 9-7 Col.
Rel. Stiff. 0.3 0.7 0.37 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.37 0.37 0.7 0.3
FEM 9.0 9.0 23.0 23.0 9.0 9.0
2.7 6.3 3.1
2.0 4.0 4.0 2.8 1.4
0.6 1.4 0.7 2.0 4.0 5.7 5.7 2.8
0.5 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.7 2.2 4.3 1.9
0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7
Mnl 1.9 1.9 16.3 5.0 21.4 21.4 5.0 16.3 1.9 1.9
Moment at : M4 = 21.4 kN - m / m
Relative stiffness, column:
Moment at : M6 = 21.4 kN - m / m
1.74 106 Ec
= = 0.37 Moment at midspan:
(1.74 + 1.76 + 1.22)(106 )Ec 2
M + M6 w ll
= 4 +
Relative stiffness, exterior span: 2 8
1.76 106 Ec 21.4 21.4 (4.9)(7.5)
2
= = 0.37 =
(1.74 + 1.76 + 1.22)(106 )Ec 2 + 8

Relative stiffness, interior span: = 13.1kN - m / m
1.22 106 Ec The service load moment diagram is as follows:

= 6
= 0.26
(1.74 + 1.76 + 1.22)(10 )Ec
2. Fixed end moments:

Exterior span:
w nl l2 (4.0)(5.2)2
FEM= = = 9.0 kN - m / m
12 12
Interior span:
w nl l2 (4.9)(7.5)2
FEM= = = 23.0 kN - m / m Service load stresses:
12 12
3. Carry over factors: all carry over factors = 0.5 Flexural stresses are computed from the equation:
P M
4. Moment distribution (see table above). f = e
Ag S
Determine the midspan moments:
Exterior span: The moment at the face of the support is used.
Moment at : M1 = 1.9 kN-m/m Calculations for the interior span are shown below.
Calculations are typical for all spans.
Moment at : M3 = 16.3 kN-m/m
1. Determine moment and stress at :
Moment at midspan:
w l (4.9)(7.5)
M + M3 w nl l
2 VCL = nl 1 = = 18.4 kN / m
= 1 + 2 2
2 8 3500
2 VCF = VCL = (18.4)(0.933) = 17.2 kN / m
1.9 16.3 (4.0)(5.2) 3750
= + = 4.4 kN-m/m
2 8
Interior span:

Moment at column face: = 6.6 MPa
V + VCF c1 Permissible compressive stress, from Clause
MCF = MCL CL
2 2 18.3.2(b) is:
(18.4 + 17.2)(0.5) 0.6fc = (0.6)(35) = 21MPa OK
= 21.4 + = 17.0 kN - m / m
4 2. Determine stresses at :
Total moment in design strip: Total moment in design strip:
MDS = ( 17.0)(6.1) = 104.0 kN-m/m MDS = (13.1)(6.1) = 79.9 kN-m
Moment in column strip: Positive moment in column strip:
Width of column strip = (2)(0.25)l1
= (2)(0.25)(6100) = 3050 mm Pe/Ag is acting on the entire section, whereas Mcs is
60% of the total moment distributed over the column
Pe/Ag is acting on the entire section, whereas Mcs is strip from Clause 18.12.2.1.
75% of the total moment distributed over the column
(79.9)(0.60)
strip from Clause 18.12.2.1. MCS = = 15.7 kN - m / m
( 104.0)(0.75) 3.05
MCS = = 25.6 kN - m / m
3.05 Tensile stress in column strip:
Stress in column strip: P M (15.7)(106 )(6)
ft = e cs = 0.98
P M Ag S (1000)(165)2
ft = e cs
Ag S = 2.5 MPa
(25.6)(106 )(6) From Clause 18.8.1, permissible stress without
= 0.98 2
= 4.7 MPa
(1000)(165) bonded reinforcement:
The permissible tensile stress, per Clause 18.3.2(c) 0.2 fc = 0.5 35 = 3.0 MPa > 2.3 MPa
is: As = 0.004A = (0.004)(1000)(165) / 2
0.5 fc = 0.5 35 = 3.0 MPa < 4.7 MPa
= 330 mm2
Therefore the section is partially prestressed and
Provide 5 15M bars in the positive moment area of
non-prestressed reinforcement must be provided
the column strip, spaced evenly throughout:
according to Clause 18.8.1:
3050
As = (1.25)(0.0006)hl n Spacing = = 610 - use 600 mm
5
= (1.25)(0.0006)(165)(7500) = 928 mm2
From Clause 18.9.3, the length of bar:
Provide 5 15M bars as reinforcement over a width lb = l1 / 2 = 7500 / 2 = 3750 mm
equal to the column width, c2, plus 1.5 times the slab
thickness beyond each side of the column per Clause Provide 5 15M bars, 3750 mm long, spaced at 600
13.10.3: mm in the column strip.
c 2 + (2)(1.5)h = 350 + (3)(165) = 845 mm Compressive stress:
The spacing is: P M (15.7)(106 )(6)
fc = e + cs = 0.98 +
845 Ag S (1000)(165)2
= = 169 say 150 mm
5 = 4.4 MPa
The minimum length of non-prestressed From Clause 18.3.2(b), permissible stress is:
reinforcement, according to Clause 18.9.4: 0.6fc = 15.8 MPa OK
The results of service load analysis are shown in the
l = 2l1 / 6 = (2)(7500) / 6 = 2500 mm
table below:
Provide 5 15M bars, 2500 + 500 wide column = Check the stresses for the middle strip and the non-
3000 mm long, spaced at 150 mm c/c about the prestressed reinforcement requirements to complete
column centreline. service load analysis.
Compressive stress:
P M (25.6)(106 )(6)
fc = e + cs = 0.98 +
Ag S (1000)(165)2

Factored flexural resistance: Fixed end moment:
Determine the secondary moments, M, by w p l2 (2.8)(5.2)2
FEM = = = 6.3 kN - m / m
subtracting the primary moments from the load 12 12
balance moments:
wp for interior span is = 1.9 kN/m2, therefore:
Mbal = Pe + M w p l2(1.9)(7.5)2
FEM = = = 8.9 kN - m / m
M = Mbal Pe 12 12
Determine the factored dead and live loads:
The load balance or uplift moments due to the post-
tensioning forces are calculated by moment Factored dead load: (1.25)(3.9+1.0) = 6.1kN/m
distribution as were the net load moments. Factored live load: (1.5)(1.9) = 2.9 kN/m
2
From the table, wp for the exterior span is = 2.8 kN/m Total factored load: = 9.0 kN/m
Location
Mn CL (kN-m/m) 1.9 4.1 16.3 21.4 13.1
Mn CF (kN-m/m) 0.4 13.8 17.0
Mn CS (kN-m/m) 1.0 6.2 24.3 25.6 15.7
ft (MPa) 0.8 0.4 4.4 4.7 2.5
fc (MPa) 1.2 2.3 6.3 6.6 4.4
Moment distribution of prestress (uplift loads)

Joint
Rel. Stiff. 0.3 0.7 0.37 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.37 0.37 0.7 0.3
FEM 6.3 6.3 8.9 8.9 6.3 6.3 3.0
1.9 4.4 2.2
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.4 0.7 1.0 1.0 0.5
2.0 4.1 1.7
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.7
0 0 0
Mbal 1.8 1.8 8.7 0.2 8.8 8.8 0.2 8.7 1.8 1.8
Moment distribution of net loads
Joint
Rel. Stiff. 0.3 0.7 0.37 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.37 0.37 0.7 0.3
FEM 20.3 20.3 42.2 42.2 20.3 20.3

6.1 14.2 7.1 7.1 14.2 6.1
2.8 5.5 5.5 3.8 1.9
0.8 2.0 1.0 2.2 4.3 6.2 6.2 3.1
0.6 1.2 1.2 0.8 0.4 1.1 2.2 0.9
0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.3

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
Mbal 5.1 5.1 32.9 6.8 39.8 39.8 6.8 33.1 5.1 5.1

Fixed end moments: s A s fy + p A p fpr
a =
w l2 (9)(5.2)2 1c fc b
Exterior span FEMf = 1 =
12 12
= 20.3 kN - m (0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1217)
=
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(6100)
w1l2 (9)(7.5)2
Interior span FEMf = = = 12.7mm
12 12
= 42.2 kN - m Mr = (s A s fy + p A p fpr )(dp a / 2)
Combine the moments due to factored loads with the
secondary moments to determine the total factored = [(0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1217)]
moments, Mf, as shown in table on page 3-132.
(135 12.7 / 2) /106
1. Negative factored moment at :
= 182 kN - m < Mf = 244 kN - m
The design strip may be analyzed in its entirety for
factored load conditions, see Clause 18.13.1. Add non-prestressed reinforcement to increase the
Moments at the centreline of supports should be used flexural resistance - use 8 15M bars:
as the column accounts for less than 10% of the
design strip: As = 2600 mm2
Total factored moment on the design strip: s A s fy + p A p fpy
cy =
Mf = (40.0)(6.1) = 244 kN-m 11c fc b
Since there are 7 tendons located within the design (0.85)(2600)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1675)
=
strip: (0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(6100)
Ap = (7)(140) = 980 mm2 = 24 mm
As non-prestressed reinforcement is provided for 8000
service load conditions, it may be used in the factored fpr = 1072 + ((135 24)
18200
load calculations. The length of the bars must be
increased from the minimum allowed by Clause + (115 24) + (135 24))
18.9.1 to comply with Clause 18.9.4: = 1210 MPa
As = 1000 mm2 s A s fy + p A p fpr
a =
Calculate fpr from Clause 18.6.2(b): 1c fc b
fpr = 0.7fpu 230 (0.85)(2600)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1210)
=
= (0.7)(1860) 230 = 1072 MPa (0.798)(0.65)(35)(6100)
fpe = 0.7fpu 230 = 17.6 mm
= (0.7)(1860) 230 = 1072 MPa Mr = (s A s fy + p A p fpr )(dp a / 2)
dp = 165 30 = 135 mm = [(0.85)(2600)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1210)]
1 = 0.85 (0.0015)(35) = 0.798 (135 17.6 / 2) /106
1 = 0.97 (0.0025)(35) = 0.883 = 246 kN m > Mf = 244 kN m OK
s A s fy + p A p fpy
cy = Use 13 15M reinforcing bars to provide the required
11c fc b factored flexural resistance.
(0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1675) 2. Positive factored moment at :
=
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(6100)
Total factored moment on design strip:
= 18.6 mm
8000 Mf = 147 kN - m
fpr = 1072 + ((135 18.6) + (115 18.6)
18,200 Ap = 980 mm2
+(135 18.6)) As = 1000 mm2
= 1217 MPa dp = 165 50 = 115 mm

Factored moment calculations
Location
Mbal (kN-m/m) 1.8 4.2 8.7 8.8 4.6
Pe (kN-m/m) 0 5.2 9.0 9.0 5.2
M (kN-m/m) 1.8 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.6
Mf (kN-m/m) 5.1 11.4 32.9 39.8 23.5
MfCL (kN-m/m) 3.3 12.4 33.2 40.0 24.1
Mf per strip (kN-m) 20.1 75.6 202.5 244.0 147.0
s A s fy + p A p fpy = [(0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1217)

cy =
11c fc b (115 12.7 / 2) /106
(0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1675) = 153kN - m > Mf = 147 kN - m OK
=
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(6100)
The post tensioning and non-prestressed
= 18.6 mm
reinforcement are sufficient to resist the applied
8000 factored moment.
fpr = fpe +
lo (dp cy )
Shear considerations:
8000
= 1072+ ((115 18.6) +(135 18.6) +(115 18.6)) The calculation of shear and moment transfer
18200
capacities in two way flat plates is an essential part of
= 1217 MPa the design. Shear capacity is checked for factored
s A s fy + p A p fpr resistance to punching shear at the supports.
a =
1c fc b Calculate the shear force:
(0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1217) wf = D w d + L w l
=
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(6100) = (1.25)(4.9) + (1.5)(1.9) = 9.0 kN / m2
= 12.7 mm As shown in the diagram below, the reactions due to
Mr = (s A s fy + p A p fpr )(dp a / 2) factored dead load and the live load and prestress

are calculated. The factored shear forces at the
centreline of supports are determined from these
reactions. Upward reactions are positive.
At location :
w l (9.0)(5.2)
Rwf = 1 = = 23.4 kN / m
2 2
M Mf1 32.5 4.0
Rmf = f 3 = = 5.5 kN / m
l 5.2
Shear at exterior column :
Shear from diagram above: (17.9)(6.1)= 109 kN

Shear due to cladding: (1.25)(6)(6.1)= 46 kN
Total Shear Vf: 155 kN
Critical section properties: +(350 + 132)(132)(110)2 + (2)(132)(366)
2
From the diagram: 366
110
d 2
c1 = 300 mm d = 132 mm = 66 mm
2 = 2.5 109 mm4
c2 = 350 mm
Moment transferred by shear eccentricity:
(c1 + d / 2)2
e1 = The total moment due to the factored loads plus the
2c1 + c 2 + 2d eccentric shear about centreline of the critical section
(300 + 66)2 is:
= = 110 mm
(2)(300) + 350 + (2)(132) Mvcr = Mf + Ve3
1 = ( 4.0)(6.1) + (109)(106) /103 = 12.8 kN - m
e2 = (c1 + d) = (0.5)(300 + 132) = 216 mm
2 From Clauses 13.3.3 and 13.3.5.3:
e3 = e2 e1 = 216 110 = 106 mm 1
f =
AVT = d(2c1 + c 2 + 2d) 2 c1 + d
1+
= (132)[(2)(300) + 350 + (2)(132)] 3 c2 + d
= 160 248 mm2 1
= = 0.613
2 300 + 132
1 d
3
d 1+
J1 = c1 + d3 + c1 + d 3 350 + 132
6 2 2
The moment due to eccentricity of the shear force:
d
2
Mv = f Mvcr = (0.613)(12.8) = 7.8 kN m
c +
2 d 1 2
Maximum factored shear stress:
+(c 2 + d)de1 + 2 c1 + d e1
2 2 Vf M e
vf = + v 1
A VT J1
1 3 3
= [(300 + 66)(132) + (300 + 66) (132)] (155)(103 ) (7.8)(106 )(110)
6 = + = 1.1MPa
160,248 2.5 109

From A23.3, Equation 18.5: Specified live load= 1.9 kN/m2
p fcp p Vp (1.9)
vc = 0.38c fc 1 + + Live load moment at = (39.8) = 8.4 kN - m / m
0.38c fc bo d 9.0
If the term pVp is ignored: (1.9)

Live load moment at = (+24.1) = 5.0 kN - m / m
(0.9)(0.98) 9.0
vc = (0.38)(1.0)(0.65) 35 1 +
(0.38)(1.0)(0.65) 35
= 1.65 MPa > 1.06 MPa = v f OK
Check the shear capacity of the critical section for the
interior column. Provide column capitals if necessary.
Check the shear capacity in the span. The column
strip section should be checked to verify the capacity
to carry the factored design strip moment at the
column.
Deflection:
Calculate the live load deflection of a 1 m wide strip in
the centre span of the design strip.
Use the effective moment of inertia according to Sect.
3.5.2 since the tensile stress at under service load
is greater than 0.5 fc :
(1000)(165)3
Itr Ig = = 374 106 mm4
12
dp = 135 mm
Ap = (7)(140) /(6.1) = 161mm2 / m
(190 000)(161)
n = = 0.0080 Deflection:
(28 200)(1000)(135)
Using the moment area method, the deflection at
C = 0.0068 from Fig. 3.5.5 midspan due to live loads is:
lcr = Cbdp3 = (0.0068)(1000)(135)3 1 2 5
ll = (5.0 + 8.4)(3750) (3750)
EI 3 8
= 16.7 106 mm4
3750 6
(0.6) 35(374)(106 ) (8.4)(3750) (10 )
Mcr = = 16.1 kN - m / m 2
(82.5)(106 )
19.5 1012
(161)(103 ) (161)(103 )(52.5)(82.5) = = 2 mm
fce = 3
+ 6
(28 200)(300 106 )
(165)(10 ) (374)(10 )
= 2.84 MPa Deflection at midspan due to the net dead load:
(2)(4.9)
(2.84)(374)(106 ) dr = = 5 mm
Mdc = = 12.9 kN - m / m 1.9
(82.5)(106 )
Long-term deflection should also be computed
( 39.8)(6.8)
Ms = 0.2 = 30.3 kN - m / m according to Clause 9.8.4.4. This must be compared
9.0 with permissible deflections specified in Table 9.3.
le = 16.7 106 + (374 16.7)
3 3.12.6 Other Considerations
6 16.1
10 Detailing considerations
30.3 12.9
= 300 106 mm4 < Ig Use Ie The following items need to be considered when
detailing concrete elements, post-tensioning
Since the tensile stress at is less than 0.5 fc , use anchorages and tendons, and anchorage zone
the gross moment of inertia throughout the span. reinforcing:

1. The ends of concrete elements should be large decrease as the forces spread through the anchorage
enough to comfortably contain all of the required zone to the full cross section of the element.
post-tensioning anchorages. Standard bending theory does not apply and the work
2. Anchors should be adequately spaced and of Guyon and Leonhardt should be consulted for
anchorage blockouts should be of sufficient size classical theories on anchorage zone stresses. Strut
to allow the unimpeded operation of stressing and tie models may also be used.
jacks. Steps for designing anchorage zones:
3. Protruding rebar dowels and obstructions in the 1. Determine the size of the primary prism around
stressing face should be carefully detailed to individual anchorages.
maintain adequate clearance for stressing
operations. 2. Provide primary bursting reinforcement within
each primary prism.
4. Provide adequate cover for bearing plates and
other anchorage hardware at the ends of 3. Provide reinforcement close to the loaded face
elements. Concrete cover to the centre of gravity of the anchorage zone to resist the spalling
of the prestressing steel should take into stresses.
consideration the diameter of the tendon ducts
4. Check bearing stresses behind the anchorages.
as well as the clear cover required at high and
low points of a tendon within the length of an 5. Consider the overall equilibrium of the
element. Individual tendons should be spaced to anchorage zone and provide secondary
allow effective placement and vibration of reinforcement as required.
concrete.
Fig. 3.12.9 illustrates the areas to be considered.
5. Post-tensioning tendons should take precedence
over conflicts with non-prestressed See Fig. 3.12.9 for determining tensile bursting and
reinforcement, electrical conduits or other items splitting stresses in anchorage zones. Typical
included in the element. calculations are given in Example 3-38.
6. Anchorage zone areas should be adequately Determination of primary prisms:
designed and detailed for the placement of The primary prism is the area in a particular plane
concrete and reinforcement. where the bursting stresses are greatest. See Fig.
7. Anchorage blockouts located within a column, 3.12.10 for the distribution in a particular plane.
may reduce the gross area of the concrete.
The depth of the primary prism, d, is taken as the
Column capacity should be verified at these
lesser of:
locations.
1. The distance between centrelines of adjacent
Volume change restraints
anchors.
The relative stiffness of post-tensioned beams and
2. Twice the distance from the centreline of an
columns must be carefully analyzed. Restraining
anchorage to the edge of the concrete.
items such as walls that frame into columns, should
be given special attention, and if necessary, properly The stress distribution on each axis must be
designed control joints should be provided. determined when the dimensions of a prism are
different on the two axes, or when the anchorage
When a post-tensioned beam is framed into the top of
plate is rectangular.
a relatively stiff column, the elastic, shrinkage, and
creep shortening of the beam and slab will cause Bursting stresses:
high moments and shears in the column. The
Bursting stresses vary with the ratio of a/d as shown
prestress force is reduced by the amount that is
in Fig. 3.12.11. The area under each curve yields the
diverted to column bending. In multi-story and multi-
total bursting force. This may be represented by the
bay frames, these effects are distributed throughout
equation:
the frame.
Anchorage zone reinforcement Z = 0.3 P (1 a/d)
General: a = width of bearing plate
The post-tensioning force is applied through relatively
small anchorages, causing high local stresses that d = depth of primary prism

Fig. 3.12.9 Splitting stress in anchorage zones
Fig. 3.12.10 Determination of primary prisms

Fig. 3.12.11 Transverse tensile bursting stresses The area of secondary reinforcement should not be
in anchorage zones less than 0.003 of the area of the horizontal cross-
section calculated for the full length of the anchorage
zone.
Checks should be carried out to determine the worst
combination of loads since tendons are stressed
sequentially.
Example 3-38 Anchorage reinforcement design
Given:
A 400 1600 rectangular beam subjected to two
2500 kN post tensioning jacking forces, each on 300
300 anchorage plates.
Problem:
Determine the stresses in the end zone and design
Reinforcement acting at a stress of 0.5 fy should be
the anchorage reinforcement for anchorages 1200
distributed through the depth of the primary prisms.
mm apart, and 400 mm apart.
Widely spaced anchorages in large concrete sections
or small low stressed anchors in slabs may not Solution:
require any bonded reinforcement as the concrete Determination of primary prisms:
can resist the tensile forces.
Spiral reinforcement is commonly used for bursting
reinforcement. The reinforcement should be detailed
to allow for proper placement of the concrete.
Spalling reinforcement:
Anchored reinforcement to resist a total transverse
force of 0.04P, acting at a stress of 0.5 fy should be
placed in both directions as close to the end face of
the element as possible.
Bearing stresses behind anchors
Proprietary anchorage designs have been developed
to accommodate bearing stresses. Consult with post-
tensioning suppliers for dimensions, capacities,
recommended reinforcing and concrete strengths.
Equilibrium of the anchorage zone:
The overall equilibrium of the anchorage zone should
be verified. The prestress force is further distributed
behind the primary prisms until the stresses become
fully distributed over the entire cross section of the
element. The end zone is shown in Fig. 3.12.12. The
forces acting on opposite faces of the element
produce moment and shear forces on planes parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the element.
Anchored reinforcement should be provided to resist
The primary prisms are determined by comparing, for
the moment developed by the force couple given in
each of the horizontal and vertical planes, the lesser
Fig. 3.12.13. The reinforcement should be distributed
of:
over a distance of 0.5h from the loaded surface of the
anchorage block or over a distance of 0.25h from the 1. The distance between the centrelines of adjacent
opposite end of the block. anchors, or,

Fig. 3.12.12 Freebody diagram of end zone 2. Twice the distance from the centreline of an
anchor to the edge of concrete.
For case , in the vertical plane, the depth of the
primary prism may be:
1. d1 = 1200 mm , or
2. d2 = (2)(200) = 400 mm
Since d2 < d1, the primary prism in this plane is 400
400.
Similarly, in the horizontal plane, the primary prism is
found to be d = 400 mm, as there are no adjacent
anchors in this plane.
Fig. 3.12.13 Equilibrium forces in anchorage zone
The same procedure for case also gives a primary

prism of 400 400 400.
Bursting reinforcement, cases & :
a 300
= = 0.75
d 400
P (2500)(103 )
o = = = 15.6 MPa
(d)(d) (400)(400)
From Fig. 3.12.11:
y = 0 at 0.25 d = (0.25)(400) = 100 mm from
the bearing plate.
The maximum value of y is:
ymax = (0.12)(15.6) = 1.9 MPa

This value occurs at a distance from the bearing plate Case :
equal to:
Provide 4 15M @ 100 mm c/c vertical plane.
0.47 d = (0.47)(400) = 188 mm Because spalling occurs outside anchors, 4 15M @
100 should be placed in this location.
Required reinforcement - equilibrium:
Case :
At the horizontal plane of the top anchorage, the out
of balance moment is found as follows:
The total bursting force:

2Pyb (2)(2500)(200)(400)
a PR = = = 625 kN
Z = 0.3P 1 bh (400)(1600)
d
M = PR (0.5y) = (625)(0.5)(200) = 63 kN - m
= (0.3)(2500)(1 0.75) = 188 kN
Z 188 103 At the horizontal plane at the mid depth of the beam:
As = = = 940 mm2
0.5fy (0.5)(400)
For a 10M spiral, 5 turns are required between x =

100 mm and x = 400 mm. Use a 10M spiral with 7
turns at a 50 mm pitch from the anchor plate to x =
400 mm:
A s (0.5fy )
y provided =
bd
2Pyb (2)(2500)(800)(400)
(7)(2)(100)(0.5)(400) PR = = = 2500 kN
= bh (400)(1600)
(350)(400) M = 0.4PR + 0.6P
= 2.0 MPa > 1.9 MPa OK = (0.4)(2500) + (0.6)(2500) = 500 kN - m
In this example, the lengths of the primary prisms in
the vertical and horizontal planes are both equal to Since the beam is symmetrical about the mid-depth,
400 mm. If they had been different, the longer the out of balance moment for the bottom anchor is
dimension would have been used for the length of the the same as for the top anchor. The maximum out of
spiral. balance moment is 500 kN-m.
Required reinforcement - spalling stresses,
Case & :
The spalling force at the end face of the beam:
Fsp = 0.04P = (0.04)(2500) = 100 kN
Fsp (100)(103 )
As = = = 500 mm2
0.5fy (0.5)(400)
Case :
Provide 4 15M distributed evenly in both the vertical
and horizontal planes:
As provided = (4)(200) = 800 mm2 > 500 OK

M (2)(500) PR = 2Pyb (2)(2500)(800)(400)
= = 2500 kN
Feq = = = 625 kN bh (400)(1600)
h/2 1.6
M = 0.2P 0.4PR
Refer to Fig. 3.12.14
Feq (625)(103 )
= (0.2)(2500) (0.4)(2500) = 500 kN - m
As = = = 3125 mm2
(0.5)(fy ) (0.5)(400)
The maximum moment is -562 kNm:
Use 5 double 15M stirrups at 100 mm c/c. As = 4000
mm2
Case :
At the horizontal plane of the top anchor:
2Pyb (2)(2500)(600)(400)
PR = = = 1875 kN
bh (400)(1600) M (2)(563)
Feq = = = 704 kN
M = 0 (1875)(0.3) = 562 kN - m h/2 1.6
At the mid-height of the beam: Feq 704 103

As = = = 3520 mm
0.5fy (0.5)(400)
Provide 5 double 15M stirrups @ 100 mm c/c The

required anchorage zone reinforcement for both
cases and is summarized in Fig. 3.12.14. As =
4000 mm2

Fig. 3.12.14 Anchorage zone reinforcement for Example 3-38

3.13 REFERENCES: [11] Neville, A.M. Dilger, W.H. Brooks, J.J., Creep
of Plain and Structural Concrete, Longman,
[1] Gergely, P. and Lutz, L.A., Maximum Crack
1983
Width in Reinforced Concrete Flexural
Members, Causes, Mechanism, and Control [12] Bazant, Z., Prediction of Concrete Creep
of Cracking in Concrete, SP-20, pp. 1-17, Using Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1968 Method, ACI Journal 69, 1972, pp. 212-17
[2] Papers by Nawy, E.G. and Huang, P.T., [13] Tadros et al., Prestress Loss and Deflection
Crack and Deflection Control of Pretensioned of Precast Concrete Members, PCI
Prestressed Beams, PCI JOURNAL, May- JOURNAL, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 114-141, Jan -
Jun 1977, pp. 30-47, and Nawy, E.G. and Feb 1985
Chiang, J.Y., Serviceability Behaviour of
[14] Suri, U.V.M., Service Load Analysis and
Post-Tensioned Beam, PCI JOURNAL, pp.
Design of Partially Prestressed Members,
74-95, Jan-Feb 1980
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Calgary, May
[3] Neville, A.M., Dilger, W.H., and Brooks, J.J., 1986
Creep of Plain and Structural Concrete,
[15] Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
Construction Press, London, New York 1983
Structures, Collins, M. P., Mitchell, D.,
[4] Dilger, W.H., Creep Analysis of Prestressed Routledge ; ISBN: 0419249206, 2005
Concrete Members Using Creep-
[16] Loov, Robert E. and Patnaik, Anil K.,
Transformed Section Properties, PCI
Horizontal Shear Strength of Composite
JOURNAL, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 98-118, Jan -
Concrete Beams With a Rough Interface, PCI
Feb 1982
JOURNAL, Vol. 39. No. 1, pp. 48-69, Jan-
[5] Suri, V., Dilger, W.H. Crack Width in Partially Feb, 1994
Prestressed Members, Journal of the
[17] Mattock, Alan H., Anchorage of Stirrups in a
American Concrete Institute, Sep-Oct 1986.
thin Cast-in-Place Topping, PCI JOURNAL,
Note: As the coefficients k1 have been
Vol. 32, No. 6, pp. 70-85, Nov/Dec, 1987
established from tests on relatively small
beams, the above value k1 are somewhat [18] Recommended Practice for the Design of
higher than those listed in the paper. Prestressed Concrete Columns and Walls,
PCI Committee on Prestressed Concrete
[6] Hutton, S.G., Loov, R.E., Flexural Behaviour
Columns, PCI JOURNAL, July - Aug 1988
of Prestressed, Partially Prestressed and
Reinforced Concrete Beams, ACI Journal, [19] MacGregor, J.G., Oelhofen, V. and Hage, S.,
pp. 1401-1410, Dec 1966 A Re-examination of the EI value for Slender
Columns, Draft Paper for ACI Column
[7] Branson, D.E., The Deformation of
Symposium, Ottawa, Canada, 1974
Noncomposite and Composite Prestressed
Concrete Members, Deflection of Concrete [20] Recommended Practice for Design,
Structures, SP-43, American Concrete Manufacture and Installation of Prestressed
Institute Concrete Piling, PCI Committee on
Prestressed Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL,
[8] Branson D.E. and Trost H., Application of the
Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 14-41, Mar - Apr 1993
I-Effective Method in Calculating Deflections
of Partially Prestressed Members, PCI. [21] Anderson, A.R., and Moustafa, S.E.,
JOURNAL, Vol. 27, No. 5, pp 62-77, Sept- Dynamic Driving Stresses in Prestressed
Oct 1982 Concrete Piles, Civil Engineering, ASCE, NY,
Vol. 41, No. 8, pp. 55-58, Aug 1971
[9] Martin L.D., A Rational Method for Estimating
Camber and Deflection of Precast, [22] Margason, E., and Holloway, D.M., Pile
Prestressed Concrete Members, PCI Bending During Earthquakes, Proceedings of
JOURNAL, Vol. 22, No. 1, Jan-Feb 1977 the Sixth World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Vol. II, pp. 1690-1695, New
[10] Shaikh, A.F., and Branson D.E., Non-
Delhi, India, 1977
tensioned Steel in Prestressed Concrete
Beams, PCI JOURNAL, Feb. 1970

[23] Sheppard, D.A., Seismic Design of [36] Martin, L., and Korkosz, W., Strength of
Prestressed Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL, Prestressed Concrete Members at Sections
Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 20-49, Mar - Apr 1983 Where Strands Are Not Fully Developed, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 40, No. 5, Sept - Oct 1995
[24] Park, R., and Falconer, T.J., Ductility of
Prestressed Concrete Piles Subjected to [37] Logan, Donald R., Acceptance Criteria for
Simulated Seismic Loading, PCI JOURNAL, Bond Quality of Strand for Pretensioned
Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 112-143, Sep Oct 1983 Prestressed Concrete Applications, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 42, No. 2, Mar - Apr 1997
[25] Pizzano, B. A., Behaviour of Prestressed
Concrete Piles Under Seismic Loading, [38] Marshal, W. T., and Mattock, A. H., Control of
MSCE Thesis, University of Washington, Horizontal Cracking in the Ends of
1984 Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Girders,
PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 7, No. 5, October 1962
[26] Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long
Prestressed Concrete Beams Part 2, PCI [39] Kelly, John B., and Pike, Kenneth J., Design
JOURNAL, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp 70 88, Jan and Production of Prestressed L-Shaped
Feb 1993 Bleacher Seat Units, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 18,
No. 5, Sept - Oct 1973
[27] LaGue, D.J., Load Distribution Tests on
Precast Prestressed Hollow-Core Slab [40] Shaikh, A. F., Proposed Revisions to Shear-
Construction, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 16, No. 6, Friction Provisions, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 23,
Nov-Dec 1971 No. 2, Mar - Apr 1978
[28] Johnson, T. and Ghadiali, Z., Load [41] Zia, Paul and McGee, W. D., Torsion Design
Distribution Test on Precast Hollow-Core of Prestressed Concrete, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
Slabs with Openings, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 19, No. 2, Mar - Apr 1974
17, No. 5, Sep-Oct 1972
[42] Zia, Paul and Hsu, T.C., Design for Torsion
[29] Pfeifer, D.W., and Nelson, T.A., Tests to and Shear in Prestressed Concrete, Preprint
Determine the Lateral Distribution of Vertical 3424, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Loads in a Long-Span Hollow-Core Floor October, 1978. Reprinted in revised form in
Assembly, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 28, No. 6, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 49, No. 3, May-June
Nov-Dec 1983 2004
[30] Lateral Distribution of Loads on Prestressed [43] Mirza, S. A., and Furlong, R. W.,
Concrete Decks, PCI sponsored research Serviceability Behavior and Failure
project at the University of Washington Mechanisms of Concrete Inverted T-Beam
Bridge Bentcaps, Journal of the American
[31] PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition, 2005
Concrete Institute, Vol. 80, No.4, July - Aug
[32] ACI Committee 318, Building Code 1983
Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI
[44] Mirza, S. A., and Furlong, R. W., Strength
318-02, and Commentary, ACI 318R-02,
Criteria for Concrete Inverted T-Girders,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.
Hills, Ml, 1995
109, No. 8, August 1983
[33] Naaman, A. E., Ultimate Analysis of
[45] Raths, Charles H., Spandrel Beam Behavior
Prestressed and Partially Prestressed
and Design, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 29, No. 2,
Sections by Strain Compatibility, PCI
March-April 1984
JOURNAL, Vol. 22, No. 1, Jan - Feb 1977
[46] Klein, G. J., Design of Spandrel Beams,
[34] Noppakunwijai, P., Tadros, M., Ma, Z., and
Research Project No. 5, Precast/Prestressed
Mast, R., Strength Design of Pretensioned
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1986;
Flexural Concrete Members at Prestress
Summary Paper in PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 31,
Transfer, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 46, No. 1, Jan
No. 5, September-October 1986
- Feb 2001
[47] Design and Typical Details of Connections
[35] Mattock, Alan H., Anchorage of Stirrups in a
for Precast and Prestressed Concrete,
Thin Cast-in-Place Topping, PCI JOURNAL,
Second Edition, MNL-123-88,
Vol. 32, No. 6, Nov - Dec 1987

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
[58] Pfeifer, Donald W., and Nelson, Theodore A.,
Chicago, IL, 1988
Tests to Determine the Lateral Distribution of
[48] Mattock, A. H., and Chan, T. C., Design and Vertical Loads in a Long-Span Hollow-Core
Behavior of Dapped-End Beams, PCI Floor Assembly, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 28, No.
JOURNAL, Vol. 24, No. 6, Nov - Dec 1979 6, Nov - Dec 1983
[49] Mattock, A. H., and Theryo, T. S., Strength of [59] PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow-Core
Precast Prestressed Concrete Members with Slabs, MNL-126-85, Precast/Prestressed
Dapped Ends, Research Project No. 6, Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1985
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
[60] Savage, J. M., Tadros, M. K.,
Chicago, IL, 1986; Summary Paper in PCI
Arumugasaamy, P., and Fisher, L. G.,
JOURNAL, Vol. 31, No. 5, Sept - Oct 1986
Behavior and Design of Double Tees with
[50] Zia, Paul, Preston, H. K., Scott, N. L, and Web Openings, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 41, No.
Workman, E. B., Estimating Prestress 1, Jan - Feb 1996
Losses, Concrete International, Vol. 1, No. 6,
[61] Saleh, M. A., Optimization of Prefabricated
June 1979
Joists, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
[51] Mast, Robert F., Analysis of Cracked Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, December 1996
Prestressed Sections: A Practical Approach,
[62] Saleh, M. A., Brady, P. A., Einea, A., and
PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 43, No. 4, Jul - Aug
Tadros, M. K., Design and Performance of
1998
Prestressed Precast Reinforced Concrete
[52] Martin, L. D., A Rational Method for Double-Tee Beams with Web Openings, U.S.
Estimating Camber and Deflection of Precast Army Corps of Engineers, USACERL
Prestressed Members, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. Technical Report 97, April 1997
22, No. 1, Jan - Feb 1977
[63] Aswad, Alex and Burnley, George, Point
[53] Shaikh, A. F., and Branson, D. E., Non- Load Tests of Double Tee Flanges, PCI
Tensioned Steel in Prestressed Concrete JOURNAL, Vol. 36, No. 4, Jul - Aug 1991
Beams, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 15, No. 1,
[64] ACI Committe 543, Design, Manufacture and
February 1970
Installation of Concrete Piles (ACI 543R-00),
[54] Recommended Practice for the Design of Farmington Hills, Ml
Prestressed Concrete Columns and Walls,
[65] Recommended Practice for Design,
PCI Committee on Prestressed Concrete
Manufacture and Installation of Prestressed
Columns, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 33, No. 4, Jul -
Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 38, No.
Aug 1988
2, Mar - Apr 1993 + Prestressed Concrete
[55] Nathan, Noel D., Rational Analysis and Piling Interaction Diagrams - Available from
Design of Prestressed Concrete Beam Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Columns and Wall Panels, PCI JOURNAL, Chicago, IL
Vol. 30, No. 3, May - June 1985
[66] Bridge Design Manual, Second Edition, MNL-
[56] LaGue, David J., Load Distribution Tests for 133-97, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Precast Prestressed Hollow-Core Slab Institute, Chicago, IL, 1997
Construction, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 16, No. 6,
[67] Wan, B, Harries, K. A., and Petrou, M. F.,
Nov - Dec 1971
Transfer Length of Strands in Prestressed
[57] Johnson, Ted, and Ghadiali, Zohair, Load Concrete Piles, ACI Structural Journal, Vol.
Distribution Test on Precast Hollow-Core 99, No. 5, Sept - Oct 2002
Slabs with Openings, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
17, No. 5, Sept - Oct 1972

CHAPTER 4
DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
4.0 NOTATION ...................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 4-6
4.2 LOADS, LOAD FACTORS AND RESISTANCE FACTORS ........................................... 4-7
4.3 BEARING PADS.............................................................................................................. 4-7
4.4 FRICTION........................................................................................................................ 4-9
4.5 SHEAR-FRICTION ........................................................................................................ 4-10
4.6 CONCRETE BEARING ................................................................................................. 4-10
4.6.1 Plain Concrete Bearing..................................................................................... 4-10
4.6.2 Reinforced Concrete Bearing ........................................................................... 4-12
4.7 COMPRESSION STRUT AND TIE MODEL ................................................................. 4-13
4.8 CORBELS...................................................................................................................... 4-14
4.8.1 Alternate Method for the Design of Corbels ..................................................... 4-16
4.9 DAPPED END CONNECTIONS.................................................................................... 4-18
4.10 BEAM LEDGES ............................................................................................................. 4-23
4.11 WELDED HEADED STUDS .......................................................................................... 4-25
4.11.1 Tension ............................................................................................................. 4-25
4.11.2 Shear Resistance ............................................................................................. 4-34
4.11.3 Interaction of Tension and Shear ..................................................................... 4-40
4.12 DEFORMED BAR ANCHORS....................................................................................... 4-46
4.13 STRUCTURAL STEEL BRACKETS ............................................................................. 4-46
4.13.1 Steel Haunches ................................................................................................ 4-46
4.13.2 Cazaly Hanger.................................................................................................. 4-49
4.13.3 Loov Hanger ..................................................................................................... 4-50
4.14 CONNECTION ANGLES............................................................................................... 4-52
4.14.1 Triangular Stiffener Design............................................................................... 4-52
4.14.2 Non-Triangular Stiffener Design ....................................................................... 4-53
4.15 COLUMN BASE CONNECTIONS................................................................................. 4-54
4.15.1 Base Plates ...................................................................................................... 4-54
4.15.2 Anchor Rods..................................................................................................... 4-56
4.16 WELDING ...................................................................................................................... 4-57
4.16.1 Welding of Steel Plates .................................................................................... 4-57
4.16.2 Welding of Reinforcing Bars ............................................................................. 4-57
4.17 MOMENT CONNECTIONS ........................................................................................... 4-59
4.18 DOWEL CONNECTIONS.............................................................................................. 4-59
4.19 BOLTS AND THREADED CONNECTORS................................................................... 4-60
4.20 CONNECTIONS FOR WALL PANELS ......................................................................... 4-61
4.21 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 4-65

4.0 NOTATION A sh = diagonal tension reinforcement in re-entrant
corner
a = distance from centre of strap to centre of
Av = diagonal tension reinforcement in extended
load
end
= depth of equivalent concrete stress block
A vf = area of shear friction reinforcement
= length of cantilever from applied load to
centre of Ash steel b = width of corbel
= distance from centre of load to face of = length of bearing pad perpendicular to span
column = effective width
= height of stiffener = width of angle
A = bearing area = width of cantilever bar or tube
= area of gusset = average element width
A1 = loaded area = effective width of compression block
A2 = the area of the lower base of the largest = projection of stiffener
frustum of a pyramid, cone or tapered
b1 = width of member
wedge contained wholly within the support
and having for its upper base, the loaded BED = distance from back row of studs to front
area, and having side slopes of 1 vertical to edge
2 horizontal
c = cover distance to hanger
Ab = area of bar or stud
= cohesion stress
A bh = the bearing area of the head of the stud or
= distance from centre of anchor to the
anchor bolt
concrete edge
A cr = area of crack face
c1 = distance from the centre of an anchor to the
A cv = area of concrete section resisting shear concrete edge in one direction. Where
transfer shear force is applied, c1 is in the direction
Af = area of flexural reinforcement in corbel of the force.
= area of gross section c2 = distance to edge of concrete perpendicular

Ag
to c1
Ah = area of crack control reinforcement
c3 = distance from the centre of an anchor to
An = area of reinforcement required to resist the opposite concrete edge from c1
axial tension
Cc3 = coefficient for corner influence for a de3 type
= tensile stress area of anchor rod anchorage
AN = projected failure surface area of the anchor
Cev1 = coefficient for in-plane, eccentric shear load
or group of anchors
for a de1 type anchorage
ANo = projected failure of a single anchor not
affected by edge distance Cev3 = coefficient for eccentric shear force
As = effective area of welded reinforcement influences for a de3 type anchorage
nearest to the applied load
Cf = compressive force
= area of reinforcement
Ch3 = coefficient for member thickness (h) for de3
A s = area of vertical reinforcement near end of type anchorage
steel haunch and welded to the steel
Cvcr = coefficient for cracking in a member, loaded
haunch
in shear
A se = effective stress area of anchor Cx1 = coefficient for overall X spacing of a
A sh = area of reinforcement for horizontal or connection with two or more X rows for a
diagonal cracks, hanger reinforcement de1 type anchorage

Cx3 = coefficient for overall X spacing of a fmax = maximum stress
connection with two or more X rows for a fr = modulus of rupture of concrete = 0.6 fc
de3 type anchorage
fs = stress at service load
CY1 = coefficient for overall Y spacing of a
connection with two or more Y rows for a fut = specified ultimate tensile strength of steel
used in headed studs
de1 type anchorage
fy = minimum specified yield strength of non
C.E. = carbon equivalent
prestressed reinforcement or structural
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to steel
centroid of reinforcement FAt = tension force in longitudinal reinforcement
= height of steel section on flexural tension side of member
db = bar or stud diameter FN = maximum friction force
de1 = distance from side stud to side edge Fu = ultimate strength of anchor bolt
de2 = distance from side stud to the other side g = width of joint
edge from de1 = distance from centre of bolt to loaded face
de3 = distance from front stud to front edge of angle
de4 = distance from back stud to back edge h = height of dap or corbel
do = outside diameter of anchor, or shaft area of = thickness of a concrete member parallel to
headed stud, headed anchor, or hooked the anchor direction
bolt = height of strap
dv = effective shear depth, taken as the greater = depth and thickness of steel web
of 0.9D or 0.72H
ha = depth or length of nodal zone
D = diameter of bolt
hef = effective anchor embedment depth
= distance from extreme compression fibre to
H = overall height of member
centroid of main reinforcement
I = moment of inertia
= durometer of bearing pad
IEFaSa(0.2) = seismic coefficient (see NBCC)
DBA = deformed bar anchors
k = coefficient for factored concrete breakout
e = eccentricity of resultant of vertical loads
resistance in tension
from center of embedment length
kcp = factor for pryout resistance
= eccentricity of load
A = length
eh = distance from the inner surface of the shaft
of a J-bolt or L-bolt to the outer tip of the A b = compressed bearing length
bolt A = development length of reinforcement
d
ei = distance from centre of bolt to horizontal A = embedment length
e
reaction
A hb = development length of hooked bar
eN = eccentricity of a normal force on a group of
anchors A p = length of bearing
ev = eccentricity of shear force on a group of A w = length of weld
anchors Mf = factored moment
= eccentricity of vertical load Mr = factored moment resistance
Es = modulus of elasticity n = number of threads per inch
fbu = factored bearing stress = number of anchors
fc = specified compressive strength of concrete nx = number of rows of studs parallel to load
fcu = limiting compressive stress in concrete strut ny = number of rows of studs perpendicular to
= crushing strength loads

N = unfactored permanent force perpendicular = thickness of base plate
to shear plane, positive for compression, = thickness of plate
negative for tension
= thickness of angle
Nbr = factored concrete breakout resistance for a
single anchor in cracked concrete = thickness of stiffener
Ncbgr = the factored breakout resistance in tension ths = thickness of head of stud
of a group of anchors tw = effective throat thickness of weld
Ncbr = factored breakout resistance in tension of a Tf = factored tensile load
single anchor
Tr = factored tensile resistance
Ncpr = the factored pullout resistance in tension of
a single anchor UDL = uniformly distributed load
Nf = factored horizontal or axial force v f = factored shear stress
Npr = factored pullout resistance of a single = shear transmitted by anchor bolt by bearing
anchor in cracked concrete on concrete
Nr = factored tension resistance vr = factored shear stress resistance of shear

plane
Nsbgr = factored side face blowout resistance of a
group of anchors Vc = factored shear capacity of embedded steel
haunch connection without additional
Nsbr = factored side face blowout resistance of an reinforcement
anchor
= shear resistance attributed to the concrete
Nsf = factored sustained load force normal to factored by c
friction face
Vco1 = concrete breakout strength for a single stud
Nsr = factored tension resistance of anchors connection unaffected by connection or
governed by steel strength member geometry
N = perpendicular vector component of Nf Vco3 = concrete breakout strength for a single stud
P = the pitch of the thread connection unaffected by connection or
Pf = factored tension force member geometry
Vcp = factored pryout shear strength
R = resistance modification factor
s = width of hanger steel Vf = factored shear force at section
= width of strap Vp = component in the direction of the applied

shear of the effective prestressing force
= distance from edge to load point factored by p
= distance between A s and A s when placed Vr = factored shear resistance
symmetrically about centre of embedment
length (if reinforcement is not placed Vs = additional factored resistance provided by
symmetrically, s equals twice the distance reinforcement welded to embedded steel
from centre of embedment to nearest haunch
reinforcement)
Vsr = factored shear resistance of anchors
s1,s2 = centre to centre of anchors governed by steel strength
so = spacing of the outer anchors along the V = parallel vector component of Vf
edge in a group
w = width of bearing pad parallel to span
S = stirrup spacing
= dimension (see specific application)
= shape factor
= width of bearing
SED = side edge distance
w1 = distance from end of beam to assumed
t = thickness of bearing pad crack plane
= thickness of steel web x,y = surface dimensions

xc = distance from centre line of bolt to face of = angle between strut and tie
column
= coefficient for use with low density concrete
xo = base plate projection
= shear-friction coefficient
xt = distance from centre line of bolt to centre
line of reinforcement s = static coefficient of friction
x1,y1 = stud spacing v = ratio of shear friction reinforcement
X = overall out to out dimension of outer most = effective normal stress
studs in back row of anchorage
(perpendicular to load) = concrete strength reduction factor
Y = total out to out dimension of outer most a = resistance factor for structural steel, 0.90
studs (parallel to load) ar = resistance factor for anchor bolts, 0.67
z = ratio of average stress to maximum stress
b = resistance factor for bolts, 0.80
Zs = plastic section modulus of structural steel
c = resistance factor for concrete, 0.70 for
= angle of hanger reinforcement precast concrete certified in accordance
1 = ratio of average stress in rectangular with A23.4 and 0.65 for all other concrete
compression block to the specified concrete
p = resistance factor for plates when welded to
stress (see chapter 3)
reinforcing bars, 0.63
f = the angle between the shear friction
s = resistance factor for reinforcing bars, 0.85
reinforcement and the shear plane
= horizontal deformation of bearing pad w = resistance factor for welds
= design horizontal movement at end of c,N = modification factor for resistance in tension
member to account for cracking
F = greatest sum of anchor bolt factored forces c,P = modification factor for pullout resistance to
on one side of a column account for cracking
1 = principal tensile strain cp,N = modification factor for concrete breakout
resistance to account for premature splitting
s = strain in tension reinforcement failure
= angle of assumed crack plane or angle of ec,N = modification factor for resistance in tension
diagonal compression to account for anchor groups loaded
= angle of gusset plate eccentrically
= angle between weld and direction of load ed,N = modification factor for resistance in tension
s = smallest angle between compressive strut to account for edge distances smaller than
and adjoining tension ties 1.5hef

4.1 INTRODUCTION weather should be made of, or coated with, corrosion
resistive materials. All exposed connections should
This chapter outlines the analysis and design of
be periodically inspected and maintained.
precast concrete connections. Design equations have
been developed using structural analysis, laboratory Fire Resistance
tests, and field experience. These recommendations Many precast concrete connections are not
take into consideration current design practices and vulnerable to the effects of fire and require no special
are guidelines for the analysis and design of treatment. Combustible pads supporting slabs or
connections. double tees do not require fire protection as failure
Practical and economical connection design should will not result in collapse. Protection is required for
consider production and construction practice and the exposed steel brackets supporting beams, as
performance of the connections for both serviceability collapse may occur when the steel is weakened by
and ultimate limit states. fire. All gravity connections should be assessed for
their fire performance. Fire protection may be
Resistance provided by protecting connections with gypsum
Connections must resist the applicable forces due to wallboard, coating with intumescent mastic or
dead and live loads, wind loads, seismic loads, soil spraying with fire protective materials.
and water pressures. Forces caused by restraint of Production and Erection Considerations
volume changes and forces required to maintain
stability must be considered. The following items should be considered during the
selection and also the design and detailing of
Volume changes are caused by temperature connections to facilitate efficient manufacturing, safe
variations as well as creep and shrinkage of the and rapid erection:
concrete.
1. Additional reinforcing around inserts and
Connection types can be categorized by the forces embedded plates may cause congestion.
they can resist: compression, tension, flexure, shear Reinforcing bar bend radii must be considered
and torsion. when locating connections. If congestion is
suspected, it is helpful to draw large scale
Ductility details of the area in question. In some cases, it
The performance of a precast building is greatly may be economical to increase the element size
enhanced through the use of ductile connections. to avoid congestion. Details such as dapped or
Ductility is defined as the ability to accommodate recessed ends should only be used if necessary
as they may require additional reinforcement in
large deformations without failure. In structural
confined areas.
materials, ductility is measured by the amount of
deformation that occurs between first yield and 2. Connections that require projections through the
ultimate failure. First yield occurs in the steel forms can permanently damage steel forms.
Projections should be limited to the top of the
component and final failure may be from rupture of
element as cast.
the steel or by crushing of the concrete.
3. Inserts, plates, reglets, etc require additional
Volume Change Considerations plant labour to be located precisely and attached
Connections restraining movement can cause severe securely and should be kept to a minimum. It
stresses due to the combined effects of creep and may be better to drill in connections later if
shrinkage of concrete and temperature variations. required.
Connections that allow movement will reduce these 4. A plant casting operation is most efficient when
stresses. Restraint of volume change movements in precast elements can be taken directly to the
large elements such as double tee slabs welded at storage area immediately after stripping from the
both bearing supports can develop severe stresses in form. Operations carried out after stripping, such
the members. When long elements are placed on as welding of projecting hardware should be
avoided whenever possible as these operations
elastomeric bearing pads and welded only at the top,
may require additional handling, extra work
volume changes can be adequately accommodated. space, and added labour.
Durability 5. Use recommended industry tolerances for
precast members, as specified in A23.4.
Evidence of poor durability is usually exhibited by
Connections must accommodate the
corrosion of exposed steel, or by cracking and construction tolerances of supporting members
spalling of the concrete. Connections exposed to at the jobsite.

6. Hardware items such as inserts, studs, steel as per Clause 16.1.3, for precast concrete elements
shapes, etc. should be readily available standard certified in accordance with A23.4.
items. Custom fabricated or very specialized
proprietary items can add cost and cause To ensure that the overall safety of the connection is
delays. adequate, the use of an additional load factor has
7. Inserts used for lifting should not be confused historically been used in the precast industry. The
with inserts of a lesser capacity used as tiebacks need and magnitude of additional load factors for a
or for other purposes. particular connection must depend on the engineers
8. Repeat connection details as much as possible, judgment.
even if they result in a slight over design. Flexural elements seated on properly designed
Repetition will result in improved productivity. bearing pads should be designed for not only the
9. The contract should permit the manufacturer to vertical load at that joint but also for the horizontal
use alternative methods or materials, provided load imparted to the element as a result of restraint
the design requirements are met. Allowing provided by the bearing pad. This restraint force is
alternate solutions will often result in more generally small and it is usually sufficient to design for
economical and better performing connections. a horizontal load equal to 0.2 times the factored
More flexible connections will often improve the vertical load. A higher value is required if the bearing
speed of erection. area of the element is not reinforced.
10. Connections should be designed so that the
element can be lifted, set, stabilized and 4.3 BEARING PADS
unhooked in the shortest possible time. Some Bearing pads are used to prevent concrete on
elements may require some supplemental concrete bearing and to distribute vertical loads over
shoring, guying, or fastening before the crane the bearing area.
can be unhooked.
Some pads also reduce force build-up at the
11. Field adjustments of the connections are always connection by permitting small displacements and
necessary. Adjustment in the field can be rotations.
accomplished using slots or oversized holes for There are several materials commonly available for
bolts and dowels, field welded plates, shims and use as bearing pads:
grout.
12. Worker safety and access should be considered 1. Commercial grade elastomeric (Neoprene) pads
when locating connections. Operations that exhibit wide variations in shear deformation
require working in an overhead position should characteristics and bearing strength. These pads
be avoided, especially welding. Bolted are not recommended without performance data.
connections require room to place wrenches on 2. Structural grade chloroprene (Neoprene) pads
nuts and swing them in a large arc. are those which meet the requirements of CSA
13. Materials such as grout, dry-pack, cast-in-place S6 Section 11. These pads should be specified
concrete, and epoxies require special cold where uniform bearing is necessary or when it is
weather provisions. Welding is slower when desired to reduce volume change restraints. For
ambient temperatures are low. Costly delays high compression stresses and/or large
may result if connections are designed so that horizontal displacements, laminated pads
grouting and/or welding must be completed consisting of layers of elastomer bonded
before erection can continue. between steel or fiberglass plates can be used.
14. Reinforcing bars, steel plates, dowels, and bolts Each layer behaves in compression like an
that project from precast elements may be individual pad, but the shear deformation is a
damaged if care is not taken in handling and function of the thickness of the total assembly.
shipping. Threads on projecting bolts should be 3. Laminated fabric bearing pads composed of
2
protected from damage and rust. multiple layers of 190 g/m cotton fabric with a
high quality binder are generally used where a
4.2 LOADS, LOAD FACTORS AND
higher compressive strength is desired. These
RESISTANCE FACTORS
pads do not deform as readily as elastomeric
The equations in this section are based on limit states pads, and thus provide less horizontal
design. Load factors and resistance factors are movement and rotation than do chloroprene
contained in Sect. 8.3 and 8.4 of A23.3 with c = 0.70, pads.

Fig. 4.3.1 Single layer bearing pads free to slip
wb
Shape factor = S =
2( w + b) t
D = Durometer (Shore A hardness)

= Design horizontal movement at end of member
Shore A
Allowable(1) compressive Recommended Recommended
Pad material hardness durometer
stress (MPa) minimum thickness(2) maximum rotation(2)
(D)
Unreinforced
DS 0.3 t
chloroprene or 5.5 50 through 70 1.4
36 b or w
rubber
Random fiber
0.3 t
reinforced 7 + 0.7S 10.3 80 10 1.4
b or w
elastometric
Cotton duck fabric 17 (uniform) 0.12 t

90 10 2.0
reinforced 27 (nonuniform)(3) b or w
Note:
(1) Allowable compressive stresses may be increased based on test data supplied by the bearing pad manufacturer.
(2) The values in the table are based on sliding criteria. If sliding is not critical or testing indicates more advantageous conditions, thinner
pads may be used. The minimum thickness and maximum rotation values for the cotton duck pad account for the effects of creep.
th
(3) See PCI Design Handbook, 6 Edition.
Fig. 4.3.2 Shear resistance of bearing pads

4. Pads reinforced with randomly oriented fibres Design Recommendations
have been used successfully in recent years. Research [1] has shown that most of the stress-
Vertical load capacity is higher than plain relieving characteristics of elastomeric bearing pads
chloroprene pads, but rotation and horizontal are due to slippage instead of pad deformation. The
movements are lower than chloroprene pads. No following recommendations should be followed, along
national standard specifications are available for with Figs. 4.3.1 and 4.3.2, when selecting bearing pads:
this material.
1. All design loads should be service loads. Use actual
5. Tetrafluorethylene (TFE, trade name Teflon)
contact area as bearing area for design calculations.
sliding bearing pads reduce horizontal stresses
because of their low coefficient of friction. The 2. At the maximum allowable compressive stress
TFE is normally bonded to a backing material, shown in Fig. 4.3.2, 10% to 20% instantaneous
such as steel or chloroprene pads. These strain can be expected. Non-parallel bearing
bearing pads are usually used at expansion surfaces may double the strain. Long-term creep
joints. Fig. 4.3.3 shows a typical bearing detail of the bearing material may add another 100% if
using TFE, and Fig. 4.3.4 shows the range of the sustained dead load is very high.
friction coefficients that may be used for design. 3. The length and width should be at least five
6. A multi-polymer plastic bearing strip is manufactured times the thickness to achieve adequate stability
expressly for the bearing support of hollow-core in unreinforced pads. The shape factor, S, for
slabs, and is highly suitable for this application. unreinforced pads should be greater than 2 for
The material has a compressive strength higher double tee webs and greater than 3 for beam
than the typical design range of concrete used in seats.
precast construction.
4. Bearing pads for double tee webs should be at
7. For interior applications tempered hardboard least 10 mm thick. For beam seats, a minimum
strips are sometimes used with hollow core thickness of 12 mm should be used.
slabs to prevent concrete to concrete bearing.
5. The sustained dead load on chloroprene pads
Hardboard can stain concrete surfaces and
should not be used in moist conditions. should be in the range of 2 to 3.5 MPa. If there is
insufficient load on these pads, they tend to walk
Fig. 4.3.3 Typical TFE bearing pad detail out from under the beam.
4.4 FRICTION
The coefficients of static friction, s, shown in Fig.
4.4.1 are conservative values for use in determining
the upper limit of volume change forces for elements
without hard connections. The maximum friction
force can be determined by:
FN = s Nsf
Fig. 4.4.1 Coefficients of static friction of dry

Fig. 4.3.4 TFE friction coefficients materials, s
Material s
Elastomeric to steel or concrete 0.7
Laminated cotton fabric to concrete 0.6
Concrete to concrete 0.8
Steel to steel (not rusted) 0.25
Concrete to steel 0.4
Hardboard to concrete 0.5
Multipolymer plastic (non-skid) to concrete 1.2(1)
Multipolymer plastic (smooth) to concrete 0.4(1)
(1)
Courtesy Koro Corp.

Fig. 4.5.1 Values for c and Any tension acting across the shear plane should be
Crack Interface Condition c (MPa) resisted by an additional amount of reinforcement
Concrete placed against computed by:
hardened concrete with surface Nf
0.6 0.25 An =
clean but not intentionally
s fy
roughened
Concrete placed against When reinforcement, An, is added for tension, Nf,
hardened concrete with surface across the shear plane, the force, N, becomes zero.
1.0 0.5
clean and intentionally roughened
to an amplitude of 5 mm The shear friction reinforcement, Avf, on both sides of
Concrete placed monolithically 1.4 1.0 the assumed crack plane should be properly
Concrete anchored to as-rolled anchored by development length by welding to
steel by headed studs or 0.6 0.0 angles or by welding to plates that are further
reinforcing bars anchored by headed studs or welded reinforcing. If
the normal force, Nf, goes directly into a plate or
4.5 SHEAR-FRICTION angle, the An reinforcement need only be anchored
on the side of the crack opposite the load.
The shear-friction theory described in A23.3 Clause
11.5 is applicable to situations where it is 4.6 CONCRETE BEARING
inappropriate to assume shear stresses are uniformly
distributed over the depth of an element. Cracks are It is recommended that reinforcement be provided in
assumed to occur at planes located in the most all bearing areas except where calculations show that
critical locations. Shear transfer across this plane is the stresses on the unreinforced concrete areas are
achieved by placing reinforcement across the within acceptable limits.
assumed crack, such that if the portions of concrete Some commonly encountered situations where these
on each side of the crack were to move relative to conditions may occur are as follows:
one another, a tensile strain would be created in the
reinforcement. This in turn creates a force normal to 1. horizontal joints between wall panels
the shear plane. The shear resistance is provided by
2. uniform bearing of hollow core, non-dapped flat
the friction at the crack interface increased by the
slabs and non-dapped stair units
effects of the normal force. Reinforcement inclined at
an angle greater than 90 degrees to the assumed 3. footings where the bearing is away from any
crack plane should not be included as shear friction edge
reinforcing.
4. tops of walls and columns where the precast is
Where an area of shear-friction reinforcement, Avf, is bearing near the centre and the load is relatively
placed across the shear plane, the factored resisting small
shear stress, vr is calculated by:
4.6.1 Plain Concrete Bearing
vr = c (c + ) + s v fy cos f
The design strength of plain concrete bearing may be
The term c (c + ) shall not exceed 0.25c fc . calculated as:
Values of c and are shown in Fig. 4.5.1.
A2
The ratio of shear friction reinforcement, v, is: Vr = c Cr (0.85fc A1 ) 2(0.85c fc A1 )
A1
A vf
v =
A cv Note: c = 0.65 when bearing on cast-in-place
The effective normal stress, , is calculated by: concrete. c = 0.70 when bearing on precast concrete
N certified in accordance with A23.4.
= v fy sin f +
Ag Nf
sw Vf
If N is independent of the shear, for example under a C =
shear wall, its load factors should be as per the load 129000
combinations in the NBCC. If N is just a component The product of s and w should not be taken greater
of the shear across an inclined crack plane, then N than 5800 mm.
would have the same load factors as the shear force.

Fig. 4.6.1 Bearing on plain concrete Vf = (1.3)(32) = 41.6 kN
If there was reinforcement, a crack in the bearing
area would relieve the restraint force without resulting
in a failure. In that case, a horizontal force equal to
0.2 times the factored vertical load would be
reasonable. In this case, a crack will result in a
structural failure, so a conservative upper limit value
should be used. In this case, choose 0.7 from Fig
4.4.1.
Nf = (0.7)(41.6) = 29.1 kN
An alternate method to determine Nf would be to do a
volume change analysis as described in Chapter 2.
The bearing area is:
A1 = (50)(300) = 15000 mm2

A 2 = (50 + 25 + 25)(300 + 25 + 25)
= 35000 mm2
sw = (50)(50) = 2500 mm2 < 5800
0.7
2500
Cr = = 0.0633
129000
35000
Vr = (0.70)(0.0633)(0.85)(35)(15000)
15000
= 30.2 kN < 41.6
Reinforcement will be required.
However, if it is determined that:
Nf = (0.40)(41.6) = 16.6 kN
0.4
Example 4.1 Plain concrete bearing of a flat slab 2500
Cr = 129000 = 0.207

Given:
Flat slab 1200 mm wide x 200 mm thick x 8 m long 35000
Vr = (0.7)(0.207)(0.85)(35)(15000)
carries a factored UDL of 16 kN/m, including its self 15000
weight = 98.8 kN > 41.6
fc = 35 MPa, normal density Reinforcement will not be required.
Two elastomeric bearing pads, 50 mm x 300 mm, are Alternatively, if the pad is flush with the end of the
located one at each end, centered 50 mm from the slab:
end of the slab.
sw = (25)(50) = 1250 mm2
Problem: A1 = A 2
Determine if reinforcement is required at the end of 0.4
the element. 1250
Cr = = 0.157
Solution: 129000
(16)(8) 15000
Vf = = 32 kN Vr = (0.70)(0.157)(0.85)(35)(15000)
(2)(2) 15000
= 49.0 kN > 41.6
As this area has no ductility, an additional load factor
of 1.3 will be used. Reinforcement is not required.

Note that this analysis is very sensitive to the value of Bearing pad = 100 mm x 350 mm, 75 mm from the
Nf used. end of beam to edge of pad
Also note that in all cases, Vr should be checked to Problem:
ensure it is less than 2(0.85 c fc A1 ) . Determine reinforcement required at the end of the
element.
= (2)(0.85)(0.70)(35)(15000) /103 Solution:
= 625 kN OK Vf = (120)(8)/2 = 480 kN
4.6.2 Reinforced Concrete Bearing Nf = (0.2)(480) = 96 kN
Bearing reinforcement can be designed using shear Break Vf into its vector components, parallel and
friction as discussed in Sect. 4.5. Referring to Fig. perpendicular to the cracked surface V and N
4.6.2, the reinforcement Avf+An, across the assumed respectively. The crack angle is assumed to be 20 .
crack plane is required to resist the tension force, Nf,
directly and the shear force, Vf, by shear friction. V = (480) cos 20 = 451 kN
Design of the reinforcement for concrete bearing N = (480) sin 20 = 164 kN
using shear friction is shown in Example 4.2. The area of the cracked surface Acr is:
The vertical reinforcement, Ash, across potential Ac = bw1 / sin 20
horizontal cracks can be calculated by:
= (400)(175) / sin20 = 205000 mm2
1 fy (A vf + A n )
A sh = cA cr
fy c Therefore the shear stress to be resisted is:
Example 4.2 Reinforced bearing for a v f = 451000 / 205000

rectangular beam = 2.2 MPa
Given:
Because the reinforcement is not perpendicular to the
Rectangular beam 400 mm wide 700 mm deep
crack plane, the required steel will be determined by:
8 m long carries a factored UDL of 120 kN/m,
including self weight vr = c (c + ) + s v fy cos f
fy = 400 MPa
where f is the angle between the shear friction
fc = 35 MPa, normal density reinforcement and the shear plane.
Fig. 4.6.2 Reinforced concrete bearing

Substituting for the normal stress gives: A available = 175 40 (cover) = 135 mm
N For 3-15M hairpins:
vr = c c + v fy sin f + + s v fy cos f
A g 135
As provided = (3)(2)(200) = 638 mm2 > 585
254
Note: Ag = Acr = Acv
Setting vr = v f gives: 4.7 COMPRESSION STRUT AND TIE
MODEL
451000 164
= (1.0)(0.70) 1.0 + 1.4 V (400)sin70o +
205
The strut and tie model described in A23.3 Clause
205000 11.4 utilizes truss models together with concepts from
the Compression Field Theory to determine the
+(0.85)v (400)cos70o
crushing resistance of the struts.
Solving for the required v gives: The geometry of the truss model, that consists of
v = 0.00148 concrete compression struts and reinforcing tension
Check that c (c + ) 0.25c fc : ties, is determined by following the flow of forces from
the support reaction into the body of the supported
c (c + ) = element. Once the geometry of the truss is known,
164 the forces in the struts and ties are determined by
(1.0)(0.70) 1.0 + 1.4 (0.00148)(400)sin70 +
205 statics.
The intersection of compressive struts with tension
= 2.03 MPa < 0.25c fc = 6.13 MPa OK
ties or support reactions delineates the nodal zones
The steel required is: of multidirectionally compressed concrete. Unless
Avf = (0.00148)(205000) = 303 mm2 special confinement reinforcement is provided, the
The additional steel required for the horizontal concrete compressive stresses in the nodal zones
tension force is: should not exceed the following limits:
N 96000
An = f = = 282 mm2 1. 0.85 c fc in nodal zones bounded by
s fy (0.85)(400) compression struts and bearing areas.
The total amount of reinforcement required is: 2. 0.75 c fc in nodal zones anchoring only one
Avf + An = 303 + 282 = 585 mm2 tension tie.
Use 2-20M bars (As = 600 mm2) welded to a 175 3. 0.65 c fc in nodal zones anchoring tension ties
plate. in more than one direction.
The vertical reinforcement across the potential
horizontal crack can be calculated by: The stress in a compression strut is determined by
dividing the strut force by the cross sectional area of
f (A + A n )
Ash = 1 y vf cA cr the strut and must be less than the crushing limit, fcu.
fy c If a compressive strut is intersected by a tension tie,
Acr = (A d + w1 )b then fcu must be reduced to account for the presence
of the principal tensile strain 1. This principal tensile
= (487 + 175)(400) strain may be determined from strain compatibility by
= 265000 mm2 conservatively assuming that the strain, s, in a
tension tie is fy / Es, as follows:
1 (400)(303 + 282)
Ash = (400)(1.4)
(0.70) 1 = s + (s + 0.002) cot 2 s
where s is the angle between the tie and the strut.

(1.0)(265000) = 124 mm2
The crushing strength, fcu, accounting for the
reduction of strength due to the presence of the
One 10M stirrup can be used at the end of the beam. principal tensile strain, 1 is:
In lieu of 20M bars welded to a plate, 15M hairpins fc
can be used. fcu = 0.85fc
0.8 + 1701
From A23.3 Clause 12.5:
(100)(15) Reducing s results in lower values of the crushing
A hb = = 254 mm strength, fcu.
35

Fig. 4.8.1 Corbel example
The tension tie reinforcement should be distributed
over and anchored in an area of concrete at least
equal to the tensile tie force divided by the stress limit
previously stated for compressive stresses in the
nodal zone. This area of concrete may be assumed
to be the area of concrete surrounding the tension tie
reinforcement and having the same centroid as that
reinforcement.
4.8 CORBELS
Concrete corbels must be designed in accordance
with the provisions of A23.3 Clause 11.6. The strut
and tie models as described in Sect. 4.7 can apply to
the design of corbels and are illustrated by the
following example:
Example 4.3 Design of a corbel
Given:
A 600 mm 600 mm column supports a beam with a
factored vertical load of 1000 kN
fc = 35 MPa, normal density
fy = 400 MPa, weldable
Problem:
Determine the corbel size and reinforcement required
to support the load.
Solution:
Vf = 1000 kN The forces in the truss members and the reactions
Nf = 0.2 Vf = (0.2)(1000) = 200 kN are determined from statics and are summarized
below:
Corbel dimensions:
Reaction Ax Ay D
Choose an overall corbel depth of 600 mm and a Force (kN) 219 819 1819
bearing pad size of 500 x 125 x 12. The depth of the
corbel at the outside edge of the bearing pad should Member CB BD CD BA DA
Force (kN) -669 +1057 +1097 -819 -219
be at least 300 mm. The details of the corbel are
shown in Fig. 4.8.1. Design of tension ties:
Strut and tie model: The reinforcement required in tie CB is:
The assumed compression strut, tension tie and 669000
As = = 1968 mm2
nodal zone model for the corbel is shown in Fig. (0.85)(400)
4.8.2(a). The truss model is shown in Fig. 4.8.2(b). The minimum area required for the primary
Nodes are located at the intersections of the centre reinforcement is:
lines of tension ties and compression struts. f
As,min = 0.04 c bd 0.002bh
To determine the location of node D, take the sum of fy
the moments about A for the first equation and use
(35)
the stress limit at D for the second: = (0.04) (600)(550)
(400)
a
(1000)(693) + (200)(600) = D 600 70
2 = 1155 mm2
D(103 ) (0.002)(600)(600) = 720 mm2
a =
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(600) In lieu of using As,min one third more As steel can be
Solving these equations: used per A23.3 Clause 10.5.1.3.
a = 166 mm For As = 1968 mm2
D = 1819 kN Use 4 25M bars (As = 2000 mm2)

Fig. 4.8.2 Strut-and-tie model for corbel example
The vertical reinforcement for the column should be Fig. 4.8.3 Reinforcement for corbel example
checked for the BA tie force, and if necessary the
25M reinforcement should be extended beyond a
standard hook length to develop this force.
The reinforcement required for tension tie DA is:
219000
As = = 644 mm2
(0.85)(400)
Use an additional 4 10M column ties at location DA.
Additional ties with an area equal to one half the
primary reinforcement area must be placed within
two-thirds the effective depth adjacent to As:
1968
Tie area = = 984 mm2
2
Use 5-10M ties, As = (5)(2)(100) = 1000 mm2, within
360 mm of top of corbel.
Check compression struts:
The stress limits for the struts are governed by the Fig. 11.3(a). The stress over this area of concrete
nodal limits. Therefore, fcu is not reached. must be less than the stress limits in the node
regions.
The nodal limit at D was used to get the geometry, so
there is no need to check it. To satisfy the stress limits of node C the tension tie
requires a depth of concrete equal to:
Design of nodal zones:
669000
Reinforcement at nodes A, B, C, and D is anchored = 61 mm
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(600)
around the column reinforcement. Check the anchorage
conditions at the ends of the compression strut in This depth is available.
accordance with A23.3, Clause 11.4.3.2. The other nodes are shown in Fig. 4.8.4.
The primary reinforcement will engage an area of The reinforcement configuration is shown in Fig.
concrete six times its diameter, as shown in A23.3 4.8.3.

Fig 4.8.4 Anchorage check example
4.8.1 Alternate Method for the Design of Nf

An =
Corbels s fy
A23.3 Clause 11.1.5 allows alternate methods to be For convenience, this equation can be rewritten so
used for shear design. that As is equal to:
PCI has published several reports on an alternate 1 a h
design methodology. [2][3] The equations in this As = Vf + Nf
s fy d d

section follow these recommendations and are
subject to the following limitations: The minimum required tension steel is:
1. a/d 1 fc
As,min = 0.04 bd
2. Nf Vf fy
3. Anchorage at the front face must develop the In lieu of using As,min one third more steel can be
necessary reinforcement. used per A23.3 Clause 10.5.1.3.
4. Concentrated loads on continuous corbels may Crack control reinforcement should be added:
be distributed similar to a beam ledge. Ah 0.5(As An)
The primary tension reinforcement, As, is the greater 2
Ah should be distributed within the upper
h.
of the shear friction reinforcement or Af + An (Fig. 3
4.8.5). The shear strength of a corbel is limited by the
Vf a + Nf (h d) maximum value given for shear friction across the
Af =
s fy d crack plane.

Fig. 4.8.5 Design of concrete corbels vr,max = 0.25cfc
= (0.25)(0.70)(35) = 6.13 MPa
Vr,max = vr,max Acr = (6.13)(600)(600)(10-3)
= 2207 kN > Vf OK
Design primary tension reinforcement:
V a + Nf (h d) Nf
(a) As = Ar + An = f +
s fy d s fy
Note: Since the location of Vf is sensitive to erection

tolerances, a 1.3 factor will be applied to Vf.
(1.3)(1000)(165)+(200)(600-545)
Af = 103
(0.85)(400)(545)
= 1217 mm2
As = 1217 + 588 = 1805 mm2
or:
(b) As = 2 / 3 A vf + A n
Vr = [ c (c + ) ]Acr
N
= c c + v fy sin f + Acr
Ag

Note: Since reinforcement, An, for the horizontal force
is added to the shear friction reinforcement, N = 0 for
calculation of Vr.
Vr = Vf = c(cAcr + Avffy)
= (1.0)(0.70) (1.0)A cr + (1.4)A vf fy
V -0.70A cr
Avf = f
Example 4.4 Design of a corbel using the 0.98fy
alternative method
(1000)(103 ) (0.70)(600)(600)
Problem: =
(0.98)(400)
Redesign the corbel in the strut and tie model using
the cantilever beam design method. Use the same = 1908 mm2
loads and geometry as Example 4.3. See Fig. 4.8.1. As = (2 / 3)(1908) + 588 = 1860 mm2
Check the suitability of this method using A23.3, The area of primary tension reinforcement shall be
Clauses 11.6.2, 11.6.3 and 11.6.4. the greater of (a) or (b) above. Therefore, as 1860 >
a 165 1805, provide As > 1860 mm2
= = 0.303 < 1.0 OK
d 545 Check As, min from A23.3 Clause 11.6.6
h
= 300 depth of face OK As f
2 0.04 c
bd fy
Nf = 200 kN < Vf = 1000 kN OK
Check maximum Vr of corbel: 35
As,min = (0.04) (600)(545)
From shear friction: 400
vr = c(c +) + sv cos(f ) = 1145 mm2 < 1860 mm2
where c(c+ ) 0.25c fc Provide 4 25M (As = 2000 mm2)
Since f = 90, the equation reduces to: Check the remaining detailing requirements of A23.3,
vr = c(c+ ) Clause 11.6.

Clause 11.6.5 Vf (400)(103 )
= = = 58 mm
Add closed stirrups within 2/3 of depth d, adjacent to 0.75 c fc b (0.75)(0.70)(35)(375)
As.
Use a 100 x 150 x 10 mm steel angle, so that the pad is
A h = As /2 = 1860/2 = 930 mm2 not partially bearing on the concrete.
2 2 Locate a 300 x 100 x 12 mm pad centered 95 mm
d = (545) = 363 mm
3 3 from the beam end.
Add 5 10M ties within 360 mm of As Strut and tie model:
Clauses 11.6.7 and 11.6.8 The tension tie, compression strut and nodal zone
Anchor primary tensile tie reinforcement at front face model is shown in Figs. 4.9.2 and 4.9.3.
of corbel. Check that bearing area does not project The corresponding line drawing of the truss is shown
beyond interior face of anchor. in Fig. 4.9.4. The truss can be determined in the
In this example, the only difference between the strut following manner:
and tie method and the cantilever beam method is Node A located at intersection of reaction force and
that the strut and tie method requires a tension tie at tension tie bars (20M bars assumed)
the base of the corbel. Note that the empirical
cantilever method has been tested. [2] [3] Node B located at intersection of tension hanger
bars and top longitudinal bars (15M bars
4.9 DAPPED END CONNECTIONS assumed)
Dapped end connections may be designed by the Node C located at intersection of tension hanger
strut and tie model as per A23.3, Clause 11.4. and bottom longitudinal bars (30M bars
assumed)
Example 4.5 400 mm wide beam with a dapped Node D taken to be dv/2(tan) from edge of tension
end as shown in Fig. 4.9.1 hanger so that strut CD can represent the
Given: fan
Vf = 400 kN Node E located at intersection of tension tie and
Nf = (0.2)(400) = 80 kN strut CD to represent the anchor for this
tension tie
fy = 400 MPa weldable Node F located directly below node D so that tie DF
Solution: can represent the stirrups within the fan
Assume a 375 mm long steel angle is used at the length dv/tan
support. The vertical loads on B and D are equal to the portion
The required bearing length of the uniform distributed load centered on each
node.
Fig. 4.9.1 Dapped end connection example

Fig. 4.9.2 Strut- and-tie model for dapped end connection
Fig. 4.9.3 End detail of strut-and-tie model for dapped end connection example
The forces in the truss members can be determined Use 4 - 20M bars (weldable).
by statics and are: As = (4)(300) =1200 mm2
Member AB AE DE DB CE CB CF BE DF Hanger CB:
Force 488000
(kN) +505 -388 +502 +137 +780 -488 -609 +244 -221 As = =1435 mm2
(0.85)(400)
Note: Positive is compression and negative is tension.
Design of tension ties: Use 4 - 15M closed stirrups.
Tie AE: As = (4)(2)(200) =1600 mm2

388000 Tie CF:
As = =1141 mm2 609000
(0.85)(400) As = = 1791 mm2
(0.85)(400)

Fig. 4.9.4 Truss idealization for dapped end connection example
Area of 530M bars is sufficient but anchorage must Required height of nodal zone C:
be checked. 609000
= = 120 mm
Tie DF: (0.65)(0.70)(35)(320)
221000 For this nodal zone height, provide 3 15M
As = = 650 mm2
(0.85)(400) horizontal U-bars at 50 mm spacing above the layer
The 4 10M U-stirrups in the fan region are of 30M bars.
sufficient. Also, check the anchorage of tension tie CF in nodal
Check compressive stresses in the nodal zones: zone C.
At nodal zone A, the required depth of the nodal As the 30M bars emerge from nodal zone C, they can
zone: resist a tensile force of approximately:
196s A s fy
ha = 388000 80000 FAt =
= 45 mm Ad
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(375)
Therefore, 100 mm provided by the steel angle is (196)(0.85)(3500)(400) /(103 )
adequate. = = 256 kN
910
At nodal zone B, because of a concern about spalling The 3 15M U-bars will be capable of resisting a
of the concrete cover, neglect the concrete outside tension force of (0.85)(3)(2)(200)(400)/103 = 408 kN.
the anchoring tension tie reinforcement. Hence, the total tensile resistance at face of nodal
The required length of the nodal zone: zone = 256 + 408 = 664 kN
ha = 505000
= 86 mm As 664 kN > 609 kN, anchorage is OK
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(320)
To obtain the proper lap length, extend the 15M bars
A spacing of 60 mm between the 4 15M closed at least A d (370 mm) beyond the nodal zone and far
stirrups will provide a nodal zone length of (3)(60) + enough for the 5 30M bars to be capable of carrying
16 = 196 mm (conservative). the 609 kN tie force on their own (i.e., 470+370 = 840
Nodal zone C anchors two tension ties. Hence, mm from the end of the 30M bars).
required length: Although the addition of the 15M U-bars will raise the
505000 location of node C somewhat, this secondary effect
ha = = 99 mm
(0.65)(0.70)(35)(320) will be neglected.
Thus, 196 mm is still OK.

Fig. 4.9.5 Nodal zone B The strain 1 perpendicular to the strut is:
s + 0.002
1 = s +
tan2 s
0.00186 + 0.002
= 0.00186 + = 0.00818
tan2 38o
Diagonal crushing strength is:
fc
fcu = 0.85fc
0.8 + 1701
35
=
0.8 + (170)(0.00818)
= 16.0 MPa (0.85)(35) = 29.8
Since fcu 9.18 MPa, compressive stress in strut is

OK.
As the other struts meeting at node B will have the
same compressive stress but smaller values of 1,
they will not be critical.
As the compressive strut CE-DE represents a fan To improve crack control and ductility, provide a
shaped region of radiating struts, and as the nodal minimum area of horizontal reinforcement parallel to
zone stresses at the base of the fan, that are at their the primary tensile tie reinforcement in the region
highest level, have already been checked, further above the support. If the dapped end is treated as a
checks are not required. bracket, the required area of such additional
reinforcement would be:
Check compressive stress limit in the struts that meet
at node B (Fig. 4.9.5). Ah= 0.5 As = (0.5)(1141) = 571 mm2
If this nodal zone is to be in equilibrium under a Use 2 15M horizontal U-bars distributed over 2/3 of
hydrostatic stress condition, the length of the faces the effective depth. Extend these bars A d beyond the
of the nodal zone must be proportional to the loads anchor point.
applied to these faces, and the faces must be To improve the support conditions for the highly
perpendicular to the loads. Hence, width of strut AB stressed compressive strut AB, use two 15M top
at nodal zone B: longitudinal bars in the region of node B. The final
details of the dap ended beam are shown in Fig.
(505)(196)
ha = = 172 mm 4.9.6.
488 + 86
Thus, stress in strut (again neglecting cover): Example 4.6 Alternative method for design of
dapped end connections
505000
= = 9.18 MPa A simpler calculation, based on statics, may be used
(172)(320)
as an alternate method. It is not dependent upon
As this strut is crossed by tension tie CB, its diagonal modeling assumptions (Fig. 4.9.7).
crushing strength will be reduced.
Vf 400000
The average tensile strain in tension tie CB can be Ash = = = 1176 mm2
estimated as: s fy (0.85)(400)
505000 Use 3 15M closed stirrups

s = 3
= 0.00186
(8)(200)(0.85)(200)(10 ) 1 a h
Af + An = Vf (1.3) d + Nf d
The average strain will actually be somewhat smaller s fy
than this due to tension stiffening effects.

Fig. 4.9.6 Reinforcement requirements for dapped end connection example
1 213 400 Therefore, 1120 mm2 governs: use 420M bars

= (400)(103 )(1.3) + (80)(103 ) welded to plate.
(0.85)(400) 375 375
Crack Control Reinforcement.
=1120 mm2 Ah = 0.5 (As An)
A 1.3 factor is used with Vf since the force is sensitive a 1
to misalignment of bearing pads. = 0.5Vf (1.3)
d s fy

Check shear friction:
213 1
Acr = (400)(400) = 160000 mm2 = (0.5)(400)(1.3) (1000)
375 (0.85)(400)
400000
Vf = = 2.5 MPa < 0.25c fc = 6.12 = 434 mm2 Use 2 15M U bars.
160000
vr = c (c + v fy ) Diagonal tension in the reentrant corner:
A sh = Ash
2.5 = (0.7)(1 + (1.4)v (400))
= 1176 mm2 use 3 15M U bars.
v = 0.00459
Diagonal tension in extended end:
The steel required is:
1
Avf = (0.00459)(160000) = 734 mm2 Av,min = (Vf bdc)
2c fy
The additional steel required for the horizontal
1 (400)(103 ) (400)(375)(1)
tension force is: =
(2)(0.7)(400)
80000
An = = 235 mm2 = 446 mm2
(0.85)(400)
Use 210M stirrups in dap plus 2 10M framing bars.
2/3 Avf+ An = (2/3)734 + 235
= 724 mm2 < 1120 mm2

Fig. 4.9.7 Alternate method to design dapped end connections
4.10 BEAM LEDGES Fig. 4.10.1 Beam ledge design example

The compression strut and tie model can be used in
the design of continuous beam ledges supporting
concentrated or uniformly distributed loads. The
truss model is very similar to the model used in
dapped end connection design.
Example 4.7 Design of a reinforced beam ledge
for a double tee leg
Given:
A 125 mm wide double tee leg is resting on a
L-beam as shown in Fig. 4.10.1.
Vf = 100 kN
Nf = 20 kN
fc = 35 MPa
fy = 400 MPa
The flow of compressive stresses is shown in Fig.
4.10.2. The strut and the tie model is shown in Fig. Summing vertical forces at A:
4.10.3. ABv = 100 kN
Summing moments about C: (135)(100)
(100)(135 + 510) ABh = = 64 kN
DB = = 126 kN tension (210)
510
AB = 1002 + 642 = 119 kN compression

Fig. 4.10.2 Flow of compressive stresses for Fig. 4.10.3 Force diagram for beam ledge
beam ledge design example example
Summing horizontal forces at A: V = (100) cos20 = 94 kN

AC = 20 + 64 = 84 kN tension N = (100) sin20 = 34 kN
300
Design of tension ties: A cr = (2)(200)
cos 20D
The reinforcement area required for tension tie AC
is: [125 + (2)(300) sin 20 + 125] 300
+
84000 2
As = = 247 mm2 = 128000 + 68000 = 196000 mm2
(0.85)(400)
Use 3 10M stirrups. The worst case stirrup location is assumed. The
horizontal tension force is also resisted by shear
The reinforcement area required for tension tie DB friction.
is:
126000 The shear friction reinforcement consists of 1 15M
As = = 371mm2 longitudinal bar in the top of the ledge and 1 10M
(0.85)(400)
stirrup.
Provide 4 10M closed stirrups in addition to those Note: the bottom longitudinal reinforcement in the
required for shear and torsion. If only the minimum ledge may be resisting bending moment so it is
shear reinforcement is required, Vr < Vc + Vp the ignored.
above stirrups can replace the shear reinforcement
(94)(103 ) (20)(103 )
at this location. vf = +
(196)(10 ) (128)(103 )
3
Check compressive stresses at nodal zones:
= 0.48 + 0.16 = 0.64 MPa
Depth of the nodal zone at A required to anchor Avf = (2)(200) = 400 mm (1 15M times 2)
tension tie AC is:
N
= v fy cos 20D
84000 20000 Ag
ha =
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(100)
400 (34)(103 )
= 35 mm < (2)(45) = 90 = (400)cos 20D
196000 196000
Since the compression strut AB is not crossed by a = 0.77 0.17 = 0.60 MPa
tension tie, the stresses will be OK. vr = c (c + )
Check the anchorage conditions at the end of the = (0.70)(1 + (1.4)(0.60))
compression strut in accordance with A23.3 Clause
= 1.29 MPa > 0.64 MPa
11.4.2.
Check vr 0.25c fc = 6.13 MPa OK
The reinforcement can be distributed along the
Therefore, the load cannot punch through the ledge
length of the beam if the shear along the assumed
and the reinforcement can be distributed along the
inclined cracks is checked using shear friction. See
length of the beam
Fig. 4.10.4.

Fig. 4.10.4 Punching through ledge members are prestressed and most of the
anchorages designed for precast concrete
connections are located in regions where cracking is
unlikely. If there is any possibility the region may
crack, the cracked concrete capacity must be used.
4.11.1 Tension
A23.3 Annex D checks tensile loading for four
cases: steel resistance, concrete breakout
resistance, pullout resistance, and side blowout.
4.11.1.1 Steel Resistance in Tension

The factored resistance of a single anchor or group
of anchors in tension shall be limited by:
Alternately, the amount of ledge reinforcement can Nsr = nA se s futR
be designed using simple statics:
fut smallest of 1.9fy or 860 MPa
Vf (1.3) a Ns h
A s + An = + R = 0.7 for brittle steel elements.
s f y d s fy d

The effective area of a threaded anchor may be
(100000)(1.3) 135 assumed to be 70% of the gross area.
=
(0.85)(400) 255
See Fig. 4.11.1 for typical headed stud factored
20000 300 resistance.
+
(0.85)(400) 255
Fig. 4.11.1 Factored resistance of headed studs
= 202 + 69 limited by steel strength
Min Plate
= 271 mm Use 3-10M ledge stirrups. Thickness
Nom. Thickness Diameter
As the amount of ledge reinforcement is sensitive to Area Nsr Vsr for Full
Dia. of Head of Head
the pad location, Vf is increased by 30%. (mm2) (kN) (kN) Strength
(mm) ths (mm) (mm)
Weld
The hanger reinforcement in the beam becomes: (mm)
100000 645 6 5 13 32 8 7 3.0
Ash = = 372 mm2
(0.85)(400) 510 10 7 19 71 18 16 5.0
Use 4 10M beam stirrups. 13 8 25 127 32 29 6.5
16 8 32 198 49 46 8.0
4.11 WELDED HEADED STUDS
19 10 32 285 71 66 9.5
Welded headed studs are designed to resist direct 22 10 35 388 97 90 11.0
shear, tension or a combination of both. Both the Note: Based on Nelson stud data
resistance of the concrete and the steel must be fut = 420 MPa, fy = 340 MPa, s = 0.85
checked as either may be critical. R = 0.7 for tensile loads
R = 0.65 for shear loads (multiply by 0.8/0.7 or 0.75/0.65
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) developed if the anchor is governed by strength as a ductile steel
methods for analyzing the capacity of headed stud element)
anchors. These methods were used to develop Stainless studs can have considerably less strength,
Annex D of A23.3. The Precast/Prestressed contact local stud manufacturer.
Concrete Institute (PCI) commissioned a series of
tests [4] to further investigate stud capacity in 4.11.1.2 Concrete Breakout Resistance in
situations common in the precast industry. The Tension
information presented in this section follows the The effective stress area is the projection of a
recommendations contained in the non-mandatory pyramid from the bearing edge of the anchor, shown
Annex D in A23.3 with the exception of the shear in Fig. 4.11.2, and should not include the
provisions, where the PCI design method is used. overlapping stress areas in a stud group. Reductions
The following examples assume that the majority of must be made for the intersection of pyramids with
precast member anchorages are in uncracked concrete surfaces and an adjustment is made for the
concrete. This is reasonable as many precast overall thickness of the concrete.

Fig. 4.11.2 Effective stress area for welded headed studs
In a stud group in which the centre to centre spacing ed,N = modification factor for resistance in
of anchors is less than three times the length of tension to account for edge distances
embedment, the individual effective stress areas will smaller than 1.5hef
overlap and thus reduce the factored resistance of c,N = modification factor for resistance in
the group. tension to account for cracking
= 1.25 for uncracked concrete
The concrete strength used in these equations
= 1.00 for cracked concrete
should not exceed 70 MPa as this was the maximum
strength used in the tests. cp,N = modification factor for concrete
breakout resistance to account for
The equations below contain a reduction factor to premature splitting failure, for post-
account for the difference between the assumed installed anchors only
pyramidal failure planes and the conical failure
planes observed in practice. Nbr = factored concrete breakout resistance
for a single anchor in cracked concrete
The factored breakout resistance of anchors shall
not exceed: The factored concrete breakout resistance, Nbr, can
be calculated as the greater of:
(a) for a single anchor:
AN (a) for cast-in headed studs and headed bolts,
Ncbr = ed,N c,N cp,NNbr where 275 mm < hef < 625 mm:
ANo
(b) or a group of anchors: Nbr = 3.9c fc h5ef/ 3 R
AN
Ncbgr = ec,N ed,N c,N cp,NNbr
ANo (b) Nbr = kc fc h1.5
ef R
AN = projected failure surface area of the k = 10 for cast-in headed studs, headed
anchor ANo (Fig. 4.11.3) bolts and hooked bolts
ANo = 9h2ef = 7 for post-installed anchors
ec,N = modification factor for resistance in hef = effective anchor embedment depth,
tension to account for anchor groups (mm)
loaded eccentrically

Fig. 4.11.3 Projected areas for single anchors and groups of anchors

R = 1.0 for most cases
Fig. 4.11.5 Head diameters sized so that steel
= 1.15 if confining reinforcement is located strength governs
within 0.75hef of the anchor and is fully
Nominal
developed on both sides of the pullout 6 10 13 16 19 22
diameter (mm)
plane for the total tension force Diameter of
10.2 15.3 20.5 25.6 30.7 35.8
head (mm)
= resistance modification factor for
Note: R = 0.7 for brittle steel elements
concrete that is different than for steel
R = 1 for concrete
See Fig. 4.11.4 for single stud capacities not near a c = 0.7
free edge. See Fig. 4.11.6 for a tabular approach of fc 20 MPa if concrete is uncracked
calculating concrete breakout resistance of headed fc 28 MPa if concrete is cracked
studs in tension. If a single anchor is located at a perpendicular
Fig. 4.11.4 Capacity of a single stud not near a distance c2 less than 3c from an edge, Nsbr shall be
free edge modified by multiplying it by the factor (1+c2/c)/4,
hef (mm) where 1 c 2 / c 3.
75 100 150 200 300
c,NNbr (kN) 34 52 95 146 271 For multiple headed anchors with deep embedment
Note: c = 0.7,R = 1, hef = stud length + tb ths , fc = 35 MPa close to an edge and spacing between anchors less
c,N = 1.25 (multiply by 0.8 for cracked concrete) than 6c:
Nsbgr = 1 + o Nsbr
s
4.11.1.3 Concrete Pullout Resistance in
Tension 6c
The factored pullout resistance of an anchor shall Nsbr is not modified for the perpendicular edge
not exceed: distance:
Npr = c,PNpr so = distance between the outer anchors
Npr is the pullout resistance in tension and can be along the edge in the group
calculated as: 4.11.1.5 Eccentrically loaded anchor groups
Npr = 8A bh c fcR , for single headed stud or
The modification factor for eccentrically loaded
headed bolts anchor groups shall be:
= 0.9c fc eh do R , for single J or L bolts
1
Abh = is the bearing area of the head of the stud ec,N =
2eN
or anchor bolt 1 +
do = outside diameter of anchor, or shaft area 3h ef
of headed stud, headed anchor, or hooked This equation is valid for:

bolt s
eN o
eh = 3do eh 4.5do 2
c,P = 1 for cracked concrete eN = eccentricity of a normal force on a
group of anchors
= 1.4 for uncracked concrete at service
so = the centre-to-centre spacing of the
loads (fs < fr) outer anchors in tension (mm)
Fig. 4.11.5 shows the head diameter required such If the loading on an anchor group is such that only
that this value does not govern over the steel some anchors are in tension, only those anchors
strength shown in Fig. 4.11.1. that are in tension shall be considered when
4.11.1.4 Concrete Side Blowout Resistance determining the eccentricity, eN.
This requirement applies when c is less than 0.4hef. In the case where eccentric loading exists about two
For a single headed anchor, with deep embedment, axes, the modification factor, ec,N, shall be
close to an edge: computed for each axis individually, and the product
of these factors used as ec,N.
Nsbr = c 13.3c R A bh fc

Fig. 4.11.6 Concrete breakout resistance of headed studs in tension
Assumptions Symetrically loaded
c = 0.70, for precast concrete certified in
k = 10 for cast in headed studs
accordance with A23.4. Otherwise,
multiply by 0.65/0.70 c,N = 1.25 (for cracked concrete, multiply by 0.8)
R = 1 (multiply by 1.15 if confining For the IEFaSa(0.2) 0.35 seismic requirement, multiply
reinforcement is used) by 0.75
hef = stud length + t - ths (not to exceed the If stud spacing in both directions exceeds 3hef, treat as
greater of 2/3 h or h 100) single studs. If stud spacing in one direction exceeds 3hef,
treat as two or more different group of studs.
fc
fc = 35 MPa (multiply by for other Ensure that the failure of one stud or group will not cause
35 prying on the others, resulting in a progressive type
concrete strengths) failure.
s1, s2 (mm) It is critical that the results of these tables be checked
against the sum of the individual stud capacities.
If the anchor group is eccentrically loaded, modify the
results by the ec,N factor shown in Sect. 4.11.1.5.
Case 1: Not near a free edge
Applies to rectangular stud pattern with outside dimensions s1 and s2

and c > 1.5hef
(s1 + 3hef )(s2 + 3hef )kc fc h1.5

ef R c,N ec,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef
s1 Design Tensile Strength, Ncbgr / ec,N (kN)

hef
s2 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0 41 48 56 63 70 78 85 93 100 108
50 50 59 68 77 86 95 105 114 123 132
100 59 70 80 91 102 113 124 134 145 156
75 150 68 80 93 105 118 130 143 155 168 180
200 77 91 105 119 134 148 162 176 190 204
250 86 102 118 134 149 165 181 197 212 228
300 95 113 130 148 165 183 200 217 235 252
0 60 69 77 86 94 103 112 120 129 138
50 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 161
100 80 92 103 115 126 138 149 161 172 184
100 150 90 103 116 129 142 155 168 181 194 207
200 100 115 129 143 158 172 186 201 215 230
250 110 126 142 158 173 189 205 221 237 253
300 120 138 155 172 189 207 224 241 258 276
0 105 116 126 137 147 158 169 179 190 200
50 117 129 140 152 164 176 187 199 211 223
100 129 142 154 167 180 193 206 219 232 245
150 150 140 154 169 183 197 211 225 239 253 267
200 152 167 183 198 213 228 244 259 274 289
250 164 180 197 213 230 246 262 279 295 312
300 176 193 211 228 246 264 281 299 316 334
0 158 170 183 195 207 219 231 244 256 268
50 171 185 198 211 224 237 251 264 277 290
100 185 199 213 227 241 256 270 284 298 313
200 150 198 213 228 244 259 274 289 305 320 335
200 211 227 244 260 276 292 309 325 341 357
250 224 241 259 276 293 311 328 345 362 380
300 237 256 274 292 311 329 347 366 384 402

Fig. 4.11.6 Concrete breakout resistance of headed studs in tension (Cont.)
Case 2: Near one free edge
c1 < 1.5hef c2 > 1.5hef

(s1 + c1 + 1.5hef )(s2 + 3hef )kc fc h1.5
ef R c,N ed,N ec,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef
cmin
ed,N = 0.7 + 0.3
1.5hef
Note: Table A results must be multiplied by ed,N from Table B
Table A: Design Tensile Strength, Ncbgr / ec,N / ed,N (kN)

s1+ c1
hef
s2 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
0 24 31 39 46 54 61 69 76 84 91 99 106
50 29 38 47 57 66 75 84 93 102 111 121 130
100 35 45 56 67 78 89 99 110 121 132 143 153
75 150 40 52 65 77 90 102 115 127 140 152 165 177
200 45 59 74 88 102 116 130 144 158 172 187 201
250 51 67 82 98 114 130 145 161 177 193 209 224
300 56 74 91 108 126 143 161 178 196 213 231 248
0 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103 112 120 129
50 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
100 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138 149 161 172
100 150 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155 168 181 194
200 57 71 86 100 115 129 143 158 172 186 201 215
250 63 79 94 110 126 142 158 173 189 205 221 237
300 69 86 103 120 138 155 172 189 207 224 241 258
0 58 68 79 89 100 110 121 132 142 153 163 174
50 64 76 88 99 111 123 135 146 158 170 181 193
100 71 83 96 109 122 135 148 161 174 187 200 213
150 150 77 91 105 119 133 147 162 176 190 204 218 232
200 83 99 114 129 144 160 175 190 206 221 236 251
250 90 106 123 139 156 172 189 205 221 238 254 271
300 96 114 132 149 167 184 202 220 237 255 272 290
0 85 97 109 122 134 146 158 170 183 195 207 219
50 92 105 118 132 145 158 171 185 198 211 224 237
100 99 113 128 142 156 170 185 199 213 227 241 256
200 150 106 122 137 152 167 183 198 213 228 244 259 274
200 113 130 146 162 178 195 211 227 244 260 276 292
250 120 138 155 172 190 207 224 241 259 276 293 311
300 128 146 164 183 201 219 237 256 274 292 311 329
Table B: Modification for Edge Distance ( ed,N)

c1
hef 30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
Note: (a) side blowout will govern as c1 < 0.4hef (see Section 4.11.1.4)

Case 3: Free edges on two adjacent sides
c1 < 1.5hef c2 < 1.5hef
(s1 + c1 + 1.5hef )(s2 + c 2 + 1.5hef )kc fc h1.5

ef R c,N ed,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef

s1 + c1
hef
s2 + c2 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
50 17 22 28 33 39 44 49 55 60 66 71 76
100 22 29 37 44 51 58 65 72 79 86 93 100
150 28 37 45 54 63 71 80 89 98 106 115 124
75
200 33 44 54 64 75 85 95 106 116 127 137 147
250 39 51 63 75 87 99 111 123 135 147 159 171
300 44 58 71 85 99 113 126 140 154 167 181 195
50 23 28 34 40 46 51 57 63 69 74 80 86
100 28 35 43 50 57 64 71 79 86 93 100 107
150 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103 112 120 129
100
200 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
250 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138 149 161 172
300 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155 168 181 194
50 35 41 48 54 61 67 74 80 87 93 100 106
100 41 49 57 64 72 80 87 95 103 110 118 125
150 48 57 66 74 83 92 101 110 118 127 136 145
150
200 54 64 74 84 94 104 114 124 134 144 154 164
250 61 72 83 94 105 117 128 139 150 161 172 184
300 67 80 92 104 117 129 141 154 166 178 191 203
50 49 56 64 71 78 85 92 99 106 113 120 128
100 56 65 73 81 89 97 105 113 122 130 138 146
150 64 73 82 91 100 109 118 128 137 146 155 164
200
200 71 81 91 101 111 122 132 142 152 162 172 183
250 78 89 100 111 123 134 145 156 167 178 190 201
300 85 97 109 122 134 146 158 170 183 195 207 219

cmin
hef 30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
Note: (a) side blowout will govern as cmin < 0.4hef (see Section 4.11.1.4)

Case 4: Free edges on two opposite sides
c1 < 1.5hef c3 < 1.5hef
(s1 + c1 + c 3 )(s2 + 3hef )kc fc h1.5

ef R c,N ed,N ec,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef

s1+c1+c3
hef
s2 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
0 14 22 29 37 44 52 59 67 74 82 89
50 18 27 36 45 54 63 73 82 91 100 109
100 21 32 43 53 64 75 86 97 107 118 129
75 150 24 37 49 62 74 87 99 112 124 136 149
200 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 127 141 155 169
250 31 47 63 78 94 110 126 141 157 173 189
300 34 52 69 87 104 122 139 156 174 191 209
0 17 25 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103
50 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
100 23 34 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138
100 150 25 38 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155
200 28 43 57 71 86 100 115 129 143 158 172
250 31 47 63 79 94 110 126 142 158 173 189
300 34 51 69 86 103 120 138 155 172 189 207
0 21 31 42 52 63 73 84 95 105 116 126
50 23 35 46 58 70 82 93 105 117 129 140
100 25 38 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 154
150 150 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 169
200 30 45 61 76 91 106 122 137 152 167 183
250 32 49 65 82 98 115 131 147 164 180 197
300 35 52 70 88 105 123 140 158 176 193 211
0 24 36 48 61 73 85 97 109 122 134 146
50 26 39 52 66 79 92 105 118 132 145 158
100 28 42 56 71 85 99 113 128 142 156 170
200 150 30 45 61 76 91 106 122 137 152 167 183
200 32 48 65 81 97 113 130 146 162 178 195
250 34 51 69 86 103 120 138 155 172 190 207
300 36 54 73 91 109 128 146 164 183 201 219

cmin
hef 30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95

Case 5: Free edges on three sides
c1 < 1.5hef c2 < 1.5hef c3 < 1.5hef

where hef shall be limited to cmax/1.5 or 1/3 of the maximum spacing of the
anchors whatever is greater
(c1 + s1 + c 3 )(c 2 + s2 + 1.5hef )kc fc h1.5
ef R c,N ed,N ec,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef
Note Table A results must be multiplied by ed,N from Table B

c1+s1+c3
hef
c2+s2 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
100 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
150 8 17 26 34 43 52 61 69 78 87 95 104
75 200 10 20 31 41 51 62 72 83 93 103 114 124
250 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144
300 13 27 41 54 68 82 95 109 123 136 150 164
100 7 14 21 28 35 43 50 57 64 71 79 86
150 8 17 25 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103
100 200 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
250 11 23 34 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138
300 12 25 38 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155
100 7 15 22 30 38 45 53 61 68 76 83 91
150 8 17 26 35 44 52 61 70 79 88 96 105
150 200 9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 109 119
250 11 22 33 44 55 66 78 89 100 111 122 133
300 12 24 36 49 61 73 86 98 110 123 135 147
100 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 65 73 81 89 97
150 9 18 27 36 45 54 64 73 82 91 100 109
200 200 10 20 30 40 50 61 71 81 91 101 111 122
250 11 22 33 44 55 67 78 89 100 111 123 134
300 12 24 36 48 61 73 85 97 109 122 134 146

cmin
hef 30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95

4.11.2 Shear Resistance Vco3 = concrete breakout strength for a single
stud connection unaffected by connection
The factored shear resistance limited by steel
or member geometry (N)
strength, Vsr, is shown in Sect. 4.11.1.1.
Cx3 = coefficient for overall X spacing of a
The factored shear resistance, governed by concrete connection with two or more X rows for a
failure is based on PCI tests. [4] The lowest value de3 type anchorage
governs. Ch3 = coefficient for member thickness (h) for a
See Fig. 4.11.13 for a tabular approach of calculating de3 type anchorage
concrete shear breakout resistance of headed studs. Cev3 = coefficient for eccentric shear force
influences for a de3 type anchorage
4.11.2.1 Front Edge Cvcr = coefficient for cracking in a member,
This condition is typical of the majority of shear loaded in shear
loaded connections. The shear force is applied Single anchor strength
perpendicular to the front edge, as seen in Fig.
4.11.7. Vco3 = 1 1.5 fc (BED)1.33
Basic strength = lightweight concrete factor
BED = distance from back row of studs to front
Vr = Vco3 Cx3 Ch3 Cev3 Cvcr
edge
Vr = factored shear resistance for a single or = de3 + yi = de3 + Y (mm)
multiple stud connection, accounting for
member and connection geometry (N) de3 = distance from front stud to front edge
(mm)
= 0.65 without confinement reinforcement
Y = total out to out dimension of stud rows
= 0.70 with confinement reinforcement (mm)
Note that this concrete strength reduction factor is for X-spacing factor
precast concrete certified in accordance with A23.4. X
Otherwise, multiply by 0.65/0.70 Cx3 = 0.85 + nstuds-back
3BED
Fig. 4.11.7 Headed stud plate edge variables = 1.0, when X = 0
X = overall out-to-out dimension of outermost
studs in back row of anchorage = xi
(mm)
nstuds-back = number of studs in back row
Thickness factor
Ch3 = 1.0 for h > 1.75 BED
h
= 0.75 for h 1.75 BED
BED
h = member thickness (mm)
Eccentricity factor
X
for ev
2
1
Cev3 = 1.0
ev
1 + 0.67
BED
ev = eccentricity of shear force on a group of
anchors; distance between point of shear
force application and geometric centroid
of group of anchors resisting shear in
direction of applied shear (mm)

Fig. 4.11.8 Cracking factors, Cvcr for cracked concrete

Cracking factor Concrete breakout capacity:
For uncracked concrete: Vr = Vco3C x3Ch3Cev3Cvcr
Cvcr = 1.0 BED = de3 + Y = 300 + 100 = 400
For cracked concrete (Fig. 4.11.8): Vco3 = 11.5 fc (BED)1.33
Cvcr = 0.70 if no edge reinforcement or (11.5)(1.0) 35(400)1.33
= = 197 kN
reinforcement less than 15M bar 1000
= 0.85 if edge reinforcement greater than X-spacing factor:
or equal to 15M bar X 100
Cx3 = 0.85 + = 0.85 +
= 1.0 if edge reinforcement is greater than 3BED (3)(400)
or equal to 15M and confined within = 0.93 nstuds-back = 2
stirrups with a spacing less than or equal
to 100 mm Thickness factor:
Example 4.8 Headed concrete anchor front edge h 200
Ch3 = 0.75 = 0.75 = 0.53
failure mode BED 400
Given: Eccentricity factor:
A plate with headed studs is placed in a position
where cracking is unlikely. The 200 mm thick precast 1 1
Cev3 = =
concrete panel has a 28-day concrete strength of 35 e 35
1 + 0.67 v 1 + 0.67
MPa. The plate is loaded with an eccentricity of 35 BED 400
mm from the centre line of the stud group. The panel
has 15M confinement bars around the perimeter. = 0.94 < 1.0
Cracked concrete factor:
Cvcr = 1.0 (uncracked)
With confinement steel = 0.7:
Vr = Vco3 (Cx3 )(Ch3 )(Cev3 )(Cvcr )
= (0.7)(197)(0.93)(0.53)(0.94)(1.0)
= 64 kN 116 kN
Use Vr = 64 kN
Using Fig. 4.11.13 Case A:
Vr = (67)(0.93)(0.94)(1.08)
= 63 kN which is close enough to 64 kN.
Problem:
The 1.08 factor is used as confinement steel is
Determine the design shear strength of the stud
present.
group.
If higher capacity is desired, use tail bars welded to
Check for corner condition:
plate.
SED 1200 + 100
3 = 3.25 3 For example, if 2 15M tail bars are used:
BED 300 + 100
Not a corner condition. Vr = s A s fy = (0.85)(2)(200)(400) /1000 = 136 kN
Solution:
Steel capacity:
From Fig. 4.11.1
Vsr = nA se s futR = (4)(29) = 116 kN

Fig. 4.11.9 Corner transition to a front edge breakout
4.11.2.2 Corners Example 4.9 Headed concrete anchor corner

The corner is considered to be a special case of the failure mode
front edge loaded anchorage. If the shear force is Given:
applied perpendicular to the front edge, and the A plate with headed studs as shown, is placed in a
anchorage is located close to the corner, a different position where cracking is unlikely. The 200 mm thick
concrete breakout mode occurs. A corner condition panel has a 28-day concrete strength of 35 MPa. The
should be considered when: panel has 15M confinement bars around the
SED perimeter. The plate is loaded with an eccentricity of
0.2 3.0
BED 35 mm from the centre line of the stud group.
where the Side Edge Distance (SED) as shown in
Fig. 4.11.8, is defined as:
SED = de1 + x = de1 + X (mm)
Basic strength
The strength governed by concrete breakout at the
corner is thus given by:
Vr = Vco3 Cc3 Ch3 Cev3 Cvcr
Cc3 = coefficient for corner influence for a de3

type anchorage
Corner factor
SED
Cc3 = 0.7 3 1.0 Problem:
BED
Determine the nominal shear strength of the
Note that the Cx3 factor is replaced by Cc3 when connection.
computing corner capacity.
Check for corner condition:
For the special case of a large X-spacing stud SED 450 + 100
anchorage located near a corner, such that SED/BED 0.2 3 = 1.375
BED 300 + 100
> 3, a corner failure may still result if de1 2.5 BED .
Corner breakout is likely.
See Fig. 4.11.9.

Solution: If the above ratio is close to the 0.2 value, it is
recommended that a corner breakout condition be
Steel strength (Fig. 4.11.1):
investigated as it may still control for large BED
Vsr = (4)(29) = 116 kN values.
Concrete breakout strength: Basic strength
Vr = Vco3CvcrCev3Ch3Cc3 The strength governed by concrete breakout at the
Single anchor capacity (same as Example 4.8): side edge is given by:
Vco3 = 197 kN Vr = Vco1C x1CY1Cev1Cvcr

= strength reduction factor for precast
Thickness factor (same as Example 4.8):
concrete certified in accordance with
Ch3 = 0.53 A23.4. Otherwise, multiply by 0.65/0.70
Corner-spacing factor: = 0.65 without confinement reinforcement
= 0.70 with confinement reinforcement
SED 450 + 100 Vco1= nominal concrete breakout strength for a
Cc3 = 0.7 3 = 0.7 3 = 0.78
BED 300 + 100 single stud connection unaffected by
Eccentricity factor (same as Example 4.8): connection or member geometry (N)
Cx1 = coefficient for overall X spacing of a
Cev3 = 0.94 connection with two or more X rows for a
Cracked concrete factor: de1 type anchorage
CY1 = coefficient for overall Y spacing of a
Cvcr = 1.0 (uncracked) connection with two or more Y rows for a
With confinement reinforcement; de1 type anchorage
= 0.70 Cev1= coefficient for in-plane, eccentric shear
Vr = Vco3Ch3Cc3CvcrCev3 load for a de1 type anchorage
= (0.70)(197)(0.53)(0.78)(1.0)(0.94) Single anchor strength
= 53 kN
Vco1 = 5.5 fc de11.33 do0.75
Use Vr = 53 kN. = concrete unit mass factor
Using Fig. 4.11.13 Case B: de1 = distance from side stud to side edge
(mm)
Vr = (67)(0.94)(0.77)(1.08)
do = stud diameter (mm)
= 52 kN which is close enough to 53 kN
X-spacing factor
The 1.08 factor is used, as confinement
For a one edge connection condition or a single Y-
reinforcement is present.
row of studs in a two, parallel edge condition (Fig.
4.11.2.3 Side Edge 4.11.10):
nx x
A connection loaded in shear parallel to a side edge Cx1 = + 2 nsides
2.5de1
results in a concrete breakout failure different from
the front edge breakout mode. In this case, the shear 1 Cx1 nx
force is applied parallel to the side edge (de1 in Fig. Cx1 = 1.0, when x = 0
4.11.10). The anchorage will likely behave in a side nx = number of X-rows
edge mode if: x = individual X-row spacing (mm)
SED nsides= number of edges or sides that influence
0.2 the X direction (1 or 2, i.e., 2 for a
BED
column in which connection is placed
Research [4] has determined that the corner equidistant from each side)
influence can be quite large, especially in thin panels.

Fig. 4.11.10 Conditions for calculating Cx1, for side edges
For all multiple Y-row anchorages located adjacent to

two parallel edges, such as a column corbel
connection, the X-spacing factor is:
Cx1 = nx
Y-spacing factor
CY1 = 1.0 for ny = 1 (one Y-row)
19(ny Y)0.25
CY1 = + 0.15 ny for ny > 1.0
de1
ny = number of Y-row stud lines
Y = out-to-out Y-row spacing = y (mm)
Eccentricity factor
e
Cev1 = 1.0 v 1.0
4de1
ev = eccentricity from shear load to anchorage
centroid (mm)
Example 4.10 Headed concrete anchor side
edge failure mode
Given: SED 150 + 100
0.2 = 0.13 0.2
Headed stud plate as shown. The 200 mm thick BED 1800 + 100
reinforced precast concrete panel has a 28-day
Not a corner condition. Solve as side-edge condition.
concrete strength of 35 MPa. The panel has 15M
confinement bars around the perimeter. The plate is Solution:
placed in a position where cracking is unlikely.
Steel strength (Fig. 4.11.1):
Problem: Vsr = (4)(29) = 116 kN
Determine the design shear strength of the stud
group. Concrete breakout strength:
Check for corner condition: Vr = Vco1 (Cx1 )(CY1 )(Cev1 )(Cvcr )

Single anchor strength: See Fig. 4.11.11 for conditions where in-the-field
Vco1 = 5.5 fc (de1 )1.33 (do )0.75 studs are governed by pry-out failures.
(5.5)(1.0) 35(150)1.33 (12.7)0.75 Fig. 4.11.11 Pry-out resistance for single headed
= = 171kN studs away from any edges compared
1000
to shear steel strength
X-spacing factor:
Nom. Diameter (mm) 6 10 13 16 19 22
n x (2)(100)
Cx1 = x + 2 nsides = + 2 1 = 1.53 Vsr (kN) 7 16 29 46 66 90
2.5de1 (2.5)(150) Vcp (kN)
Y-spacing factor: 55 21 21 21 21 21 21
0.25 65 54 54 54 54 54 54
19(ny Y)0.25 (19)[(2)(100)] hef (mm)
CY1 = + 0.15 = + 0.15 75 68 68 68 68 68 68
de1 150 85 82 82 82 82 82 82
= 0.63 ny = 2 Note: Pryout does not govern for values left of the heavy line.
Vsr values from Fig. 4.11.1
Eccentricity factor: Ncbr = c,NNbr for this case, where c,NNbr is calculated as
Cev1 = 1.0 in Fig. 4.11.4
Cracked concrete factor:

4.11.3 Interaction of Tension and Shear
Cvcr = 1.0 (uncracked)
A23.3, requires a tri-linear interaction as shown in
Vr = Vco1Cx1CY1Cev1Cvcr
Fig. 4.11.12. This drawing shows that when both
= (0.7)(171)(1.53)(0.63)(1.0)(1.0) tension and shear are applied to a connection with
= 115 kN < 116 kN anchors:
Use Vr = 115 kN If the applied shear, Vf, is less than or equal to
20% of the shear strength, Vr, the shear can be
Using Fig. 4.11.13 Case C:
neglected, and the connection designed for
Vr = (110)(1.53)(0.63)(1.08) tension alone.
= 115 kN = 115 kN = OK If the applied tension, Nf, is less than or equal to
The 1.08 factor is used as confinement steel is 20% of the tensile strength, Nr, the tension can
present. be neglected, and the connection designed for
4.11.2.4 Back Edge shear alone.
The shear force is applied perpendicular to the back If Vf > 0.2Vr and Nf > 0.2Nr, then:
edge de4, as illustrated in Fig. 4.11.7. Under a
condition of pure shear, the back edge has been Nf Vf
+ 1.2
found through testing to have no influence on the Nr Vr
connection capacity. Minimum concrete clear cover Fig. 4.11.12 Tension-shear interaction
from the studs to the edge must be maintained.
4.11.2.5 In-the-Field
When a headed stud anchorage is sufficiently far
from all edges, termed in-the-field of the member,
the anchorage strength will normally be governed by
the steel strength.
However, if short, stocky studs are used, tests [4]
have shown that pry-out failure may occur. This
failure is governed by the tensile strength of the stud.
Annex D of A23.3 limits the shear strength of studs to
the breakout resistance in tension for hef less than
65mm and twice this amount if hef is 65mm or longer.
Vcp = kcp Ncbr or kcp Ncbgr
kcp = 1 for hef < 65mm
= 2 for hef 65mm

Fig. 4.11.13 Concrete shear breakout resistance of headed studs
Assumptions = 0.65 multiply by 0.70/0.65 = 1.08 if confinement reinforcement is provided.
Also, multiply by 0.65/0.70=0.93 if concrete is not certified in accordance with A23.4.
= 1, normal weight concrete
fc = 35 MPa (multiply by fc / 35 for other concrete strength)
Cvcr = 1, uncracked concrete
Number of studs times steel strength (Fig. 4.11.1) may govern
Case A: Front edge breakout
Vr = Vco3Ch3Cev3CvcrCx3
Vco3Ch3 is from Table A
Cx3 is from Table B
Cev3 is from Table C
Cvcr = 1
Table A (Vco3)(Ch3) (kN)
BED (distance from back row of studs to front edge (mm))
50 75 100 125 150 175 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500
75 7 10 13 15 18 20 25 28 30 32 37 41 45 49
Thickness of 100 8 11 15 18 21 24 29 32 35 37 42 47 52 57
concrete 125 8 13 16 20 23 26 33 36 39 42 47 53 59 64
parrallel to 150 8 13 18 22 25 29 36 39 42 46 52 58 64 70
175 8 13 20 24 28 31 39 42 46 49 56 63 69 76
stud (mm) 200 8 13 20 25 30 34 42 45 49 53 60 67 74 81
225 8 13 20 27 31 36 44 48 52 56 64 71 79 86
250 8 13 20 27 33 38 46 51 55 59 67 75 83 91
275 8 13 20 27 34 40 49 53 58 62 71 79 87 95
300 8 13 20 27 34 41 51 56 60 65 74 82 91 99
Table B X spacing factor Cx3
One Row 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Overall out to 50 1.18 1.07 1.02 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88
out spacing 75 1.35 1.18 1.10 1.05 1.02 0.99 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90
100 1.52 1.29 1.18 1.12 1.07 1.04 1.00 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.92
of studs in
125 1.68 1.41 1.27 1.18 1.13 1.09 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.99 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.93
back row X
150 1.85 1.52 1.35 1.25 1.18 1.14 1.07 1.05 1.03 1.02 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95
(mm) 175 2.02 1.63 1.43 1.32 1.24 1.18 1.11 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.98 0.97
200 2.18 1.74 1.52 1.38 1.29 1.23 1.15 1.12 1.09 1.07 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.98
Use above values or number of studs in back row, whichever is less
Table C Eccentricity Cev3
10 0.88 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99
20 0.79 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.97
30 0.71 0.79 0.83 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96
ev <X/2
40 0.65 0.74 0.79 0.82 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.95
(mm)
50 0.60 0.69 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94
60 0.55 0.65 0.71 0.76 0.79 0.81 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93
70 0.52 0.62 0.68 0.73 0.76 0.79 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.91
80 0.48 0.58 0.65 0.70 0.74 0.77 0.81 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90
90 0.45 0.55 0.62 0.67 0.71 0.74 0.79 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.87 0.88 0.89

Fig. 4.11.13 Concrete shear breakout resistance of headed studs (Cont.)
Case B: Corner breakout

Vr = Vco3Ch3Cev3CvcrCc3
Vco3Ch3 is from Case A, Table A
Cev3 is from Case A, Table C
Cvcr = 1
Cc3 is from the Table Below
Corner Factor Cc3
BED
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450
100 0.88 0.77 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.46 0.44 0.42
SED 200 0.97 0.88 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.53
0.94 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.66 0.64 0.61
distance 300
400 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67
to
500 0.99 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.85 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.73
furthest 600 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.77
stud from 700 0.99 0.96 0.93 0.88 0.84 0.81
side or 800 All values in this area are 1.00 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.85
corner 900 0.96 0.92 0.88
(mm) 1000 0.99 0.95 0.91
1100 0.98 0.94
1200 0.97
Case C: Side edge breakout

Vr = Vco1Cx1Cy1Cev1Cvcr
Vco1 is from Table A (below)
Cx1 is from Table B (page 4-43)
Cy1 is from Table C (page 4-44)
Cev1 is from Table D (page 4-44)
Cvcr = 1
Table A Case C Vco1 (kN)
de1 (distance from nearest stud to edge)
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 350 400
6 11 19 28 38 49 60 72 97 130 166 204 244
10 15 26 38 52 66 81 97 131 177 225 277 331
nominal
13 19 32 48 65 82 101 121 163 220 280 344 411
diameter
16 22 38 57 76 97 120 143 193 260 331 406 485
19 26 44 65 88 112 137 164 221 298 380 466 557
22 29 50 73 98 126 154 184 248 334 426 523 625

Table B Case C X spacing factor (Cx1)

de1 (mm)
number
of rows stud
spacing
parallel x , x 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 350 400
1 2
to load (mm)
(nx)
1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 50 2.00 1.67 1.50 1.40 1.33 1.29 1.25 1.20 1.16 1.13 1.11 1.10
75 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.43 1.38 1.30 1.24 1.20 1.17 1.15
100 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.80 1.67 1.57 1.50 1.40 1.32 1.27 1.23 1.20
125 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.83 1.71 1.63 1.50 1.40 1.33 1.29 1.25
150 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.86 1.75 1.60 1.48 1.40 1.34 1.30
175 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.88 1.70 1.56 1.47 1.40 1.35
200 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.80 1.64 1.53 1.46 1.40
Number
of 3 50 2.50 2.00 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.43 1.38 1.30 1.24 1.20 1.17 1.15
sides = 1 75 3.00 2.50 2.13 1.90 1.75 1.64 1.56 1.45 1.36 1.30 1.26 1.23
100 3.00 3.00 2.50 2.20 2.00 1.86 1.75 1.60 1.48 1.40 1.34 1.30
125 3.00 3.00 2.88 2.50 2.25 2.07 1.94 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.43 1.38
150 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.50 2.29 2.13 1.90 1.72 1.60 1.51 1.45
4 50 3.00 2.33 2.00 1.80 1.67 1.57 1.50 1.40 1.32 1.27 1.23 1.20
75 4.00 3.00 2.50 2.20 2.00 1.86 1.75 1.60 1.48 1.40 1.34 1.30
100 4.00 3.67 3.00 2.60 2.33 2.14 2.00 1.80 1.64 1.53 1.46 1.40
125 4.00 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.67 2.43 2.25 2.00 1.80 1.67 1.57 1.50
150 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.40 3.00 2.71 2.50 2.20 1.96 1.80 1.69 1.60
1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 50
75 1.50
100 2.00 1.33 All values to the right of line = 1.00
125 2.00 1.67 1.25
Number 150 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.20
of sides 175 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.40 1.17
=2 200 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.60 1.33 1.14
(only one
horizontal 3 50 1.50
row) 75 2.25 1.50 1.13
100 3.00 2.00 1.50 1.20
125 3.00 2.50 1.88 1.50 1.25 1.07
150 3.00 3.00 2.25 1.80 1.50 1.29 1.13
4 50 2.00 1.33
75 3.00 2.00 1.50 1.20
100 4.00 2.67 2.00 1.60 1.33 1.14
125 4.00 3.33 2.50 2.00 1.67 1.43 1.25
150 4.00 4.00 3.00 2.40 2.00 1.71 1.50 1.20
Number 1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
of sides
= 2 (with 2 all 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
more
than one 3 all 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
horizontal
row) 4 all 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00

Table C Case C Y spacing factor (CY1)

de1 (mm)
number of rows out to out
perpendicular to spacing of 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 350 400
load (ny) studs, Y (mm)
1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 50 1.65 1.15 0.90 0.75 0.65 0.58 0.53 0.45 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30
75 1.81 1.26 0.98 0.81 0.70 0.62 0.57 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32
100 1.94 1.34 1.04 0.86 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.51 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.33
150 2.13 1.47 1.14 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 0.35
200 2.27 1.57 1.21 1.00 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.57 0.49 0.43 0.39 0.36
250 2.40 1.65 1.27 1.05 0.90 0.79 0.71 0.60 0.51 0.45 0.41 0.37
300 2.50 1.72 1.33 1.09 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.39
3 50 1.81 1.26 0.98 0.81 0.70 0.62 0.57 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32
75 1.99 1.38 1.07 0.89 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.52 0.44 0.40 0.36 0.33
100 2.13 1.47 1.14 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 0.35
150 2.34 1.61 1.24 1.03 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.59 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.37
200 2.50 1.72 1.33 1.09 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.39
250 2.64 1.81 1.39 1.14 0.98 0.86 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.43 0.40
300 2.75 1.88 1.45 1.19 1.02 0.89 0.80 0.67 0.57 0.50 0.45 0.41
4 50 1.94 1.34 1.04 0.86 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.51 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.33
75 2.13 1.47 1.14 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 0.35
100 2.27 1.57 1.21 1.00 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.57 0.49 0.43 0.39 0.36
150 2.50 1.72 1.33 1.09 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.39
200 2.68 1.83 1.41 1.16 0.99 0.87 0.78 0.66 0.55 0.49 0.44 0.40
250 2.82 1.93 1.49 1.22 1.04 0.91 0.82 0.68 0.58 0.51 0.46 0.42
300 2.95 2.01 1.55 1.27 1.08 0.95 0.85 0.71 0.60 0.52 0.47 0.43
Table D Case C Eccentricity factor Cev1

de1 (mm)
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 250 300 350
10 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
distance
20 0.88 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99
from shear
load to 30 0.81 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.98
anchorage 40 0.75 0.83 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.97
centroid 60 0.63 0.75 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.89 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96
ev1 (mm)
80 0.50 0.67 0.75 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94
100 0.38 0.58 0.69 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93

Example 4.11 Design of welded headed studs
for combined loads
Given:
A 13 mm thick plate with headed studs is used for
attachment of a steel bracket to a column as shown.
= 1.0
8 13 mm diameter studs
Nominal stud length = 200 mm.
fut = 420 MPa (Fig. 4.11.1)
Vf = 100 kN (plus a horizontal load equal
to 20% of the vertical load) From Fig. 4.11.6 Case 4, free edge on two opposite
sides:
Column size: 500 mm by 500 mm s1 + c1 + c 3 = 500
s2 = 100
Ncbgr = (142)(0.87) = 124 kN
Steel:
From Fig. 4.11.1:
Nsr = (4)(32) = 128 kN > 124 kN
Nr = 124 kN
Assume the shear force is distributed equally
between the top and bottom shear groups
(engineering judgment): Vf/2 = 100/2 = 50 kN.
Evaluate the top group of studs for combined shear
and tension:
For concrete shear strength, it is apparent that side
edge breakout will be critical:
Problem: From Fig. 4.11.13 Case C:

Determine if the studs are adequate for the de1 =de2 = 175 mm; X = 150 mm
connection capacity. Y = 100 mm
Solution: Table A, Case C:
The eccentric shear force, Vf, is resolved by the force
couple shown in the sketch. Assume that the tensile Vco1 = (137)(1.08) = 148 kN
force is resisted by the top two rows of studs, with The 1.08 factor is used because the vertical bars in
breakout planes as shown. Note: assumptions for the column provide confinement for shear.
load distribution involve engineering judgment.
Table B, Case C:
For tension on the top group of studs:
Cx1 =2
Ve
Nf = f + 0.2Vf Table C, Case C:
h
(100)(150) nY =2
= + (0.2)(100) = 80 kN
250 CY1 = 0.56
Concrete: Cev1 = 1.0; Cvcr = 1.0
hef = length of stud + t ths Vr = Vco1Cx1CY1Cev1Cvcr
= 200 + 13 8 = 205 mm = (148)(2.0)(0.56)(1.0)(1.0)
use 200 mm
= 166 kN

Steel shear strength is the same as tensile strength: 4.13 STRUCTURAL STEEL BRACKETS
From Fig. 4.11.1: Structural steel shapes such as wide flange beams,
Vsr = (4)(29) = 116 kN < 166 kN double channels, angles, tubes or vertical plates
often serve as haunches or brackets as illustrated in
Use Vr = 128 kN Fig. 4.13.1, Fig. 4.13.3 and Fig. 4.14.4.
Combined loading:
4.13.1 Steel Haunches
Nf = 80 kN; Nr = 124 kN The capacity of the haunches shown in Fig. 4.13.1
Nf 80 can be calculated using the notation shown in Fig.
= = 0.645 > 0.2
Nr 124 4.13.2. [7]
Vf = 50 kN; Vr = 128 kN 1c fc bA e
Vf 50 Vc =
= = 0.431 > 0.2 e
Vr 116 1 + 3.6
Ae
Nf Vf The effective width of the compression block is as
+ = 0.645 + 0.431 = 1.08 < 1.2
Nr Vr shown in Fig. 4.13.2.
The studs have sufficient capacity. Holes through the structural section aid compaction.
Check embedded plate for bending between studs: Additional column ties provide confinement.
Where there is inadequate concrete or insufficient
superimposed axial dead load above and below the
haunch to develop the compressive forces, it will be
necessary to develop the force couple by using
reinforcing bars in tension as shown in Fig 4.13.1(b).
Additional capacity can be obtained by welding
vertical reinforcing bars to the steel section, as shown
in Fig. 4.13.1(b). When the welded reinforcement is
developed both above and below the steel section
and the weld is doubled, the effective area of
Pf A (80)(100)
Plate Mf = = = 2000 kN-mm reinforcement is doubled. In lieu of a precise analysis,
4 4 the additional capacity can be calculated as follows:
bt 2
Mr = a fy Zs = (0.9)(300) Fig. 4.13.1 Embedded structural steel shape
4

where b = 250 mm
For Mr Mf, calculate minimum plate thickness:
(250)t 2
Mf = a fy Zs = (0.9)(300)
4
= 2000 kN-mm
(2.0)(106 )(4)
t = = 11 mm
(0.9)(300)(250)
Use 13 mm thick plate.
4.12 DEFORMED BAR ANCHORS

Deformed bar anchors, DBA, are available in
standard diameters and lengths. Anchors are
automatically welded to steel plates similar to headed
studs. These bars are anchored in the concrete by
bond and their required development length can be
calculated the same way as the development length
of reinforcing bars.

Fig. 4.13.2 Effective width of embedded shapes

If As = As, bmax = 300 (2)(25) (2)(5) = 240 mm
2A s s fy s = 150
Vs =
6e / A e Effective As = 2As = (2)(600) = 1200 mm2
1+
4.8 s A e 1 fc = 35 MPa
The factored resistance governed by concrete failure: fy(reinforcement) = 400 MPa (weldable)
Vr = Vc + Vs fy(structural steel) = 350 MPa
The factored resistance of the steel section can be Problem:
determined by: Find the factored resistance of the connection.
Flexural resistance: Solution:
0.5Vf2
Mr = a Zs fy Mf = Vf a + 1c fc bA e
1c fc b Vc =
e
1 + 3.6
Shear resistance: Ae
Vr = a 0.66fy ht Vf (0.80)(0.70)(35)(240)(250)(103 )
= = 277 kN
It is recommended that hollow structural steel 1 + (3.6)(225 / 250)
sections be filled with concrete to improve the bearing 2A s s fy
condition. Vs =
6e A e
1+
For steel shapes projecting equally from each side of 4.8s A e 1
the element, with approximately symmetrical loading, (2)(1200)(0.85)(400)(10 3 )
the factored shear resistance on each side as = = 211kN
(6)(225 / 250)
governed by the capacity of the concrete can be 1+
(4.8)(150 / 250) 1
calculated by:
f bh Vr = 277 + 211 = 488 kN
Vr = 1 c c
2 Plastic section modulus of HSS:
Horizontal forces, Nf, are resisted by anchors Zs = 205000 mm3
designed for shear friction on the perimeter of the
section. Flexural resistance of HSS (neglect concrete fill):
Example 4.12 Design of structural steel haunch Mr = a Zs fy = (0.9)(205000)(350) /106
= 64.6 kN - m
0.5Vr2
Mr = Vr a +
1c fc b
0.5Vr2
(64.6)(106 ) = Vr (100) +
(0.8)(0.7)(35)(254)
Solving for Vr :
Vr = 446 kN < 488 kN
Shear resistance of HSS:

Vr = a 0.66fy ht
Given:
The structural steel haunch shown. = (0.9)(0.66)(350)(152.4)(2)(9.53) /103
e = 100 + 250 / 2 = 225 mm = 604 kN > 446 kN
b = 2.5 w = (2.5)(101.6) = 254 mm Flexural resistance of the HSS controls and Vr = 446
kN.

Fig. 4.13.3 Cazaly hanger
4.13.2 Cazaly Hanger The bar should be proportioned to carry this

moment in combination with shear and tensile
The Cazaly hanger has three basic components
forces per CISC. [6] Alternatively, if the bar is
(Fig. 4.13.3). Design assumptions are as follows: proportioned to take this moment at the yield
1. The cantilevered bar is usually proportioned so stress, but using elastic section properties (i.e.,
that the interior reaction from the concrete is Mf = afybd2/6), the shear and tensile forces can
0.33 Vf. The hanger strap should be usually be neglected.
proportioned to yield under a tension of 1.33Vf: 5. The conservative and simplifying assumption
that strap weld forces are concentrated at the
1.33Vf
As = strap centerline is implicit in the 0.5s factor.
a fy
6. Conservatively, if the width of the member in
fy = yield strength of strap material which the hanger is cast equals b1; then
a = 0.90 or 0.85 if reinforcing bar is used fbu = 0.85c fc b1 b 2c 0.85fc
2. Vf may be assumed to be applied Ap/2 from the The bearing length, A b , is then given by:
face of the seat. The remaining part of the V /3
moment arm is the width of the joint, g, and the Ab = f
bfbu
cover, c, from the end of the member to the
edge of the strap. Since the moment is sensitive 7. To maintain the conditions of equilibrium
to this dimension, it is important that this assumed, the interior cantilever must have a
dimension be kept as small as feasible and the length:
value used in analysis is not exceeded in the 3.0a = (1.5Ap + 3.0g + 3.0c + 1.5s)
field. Most hangers in practice have exterior 8. The minimum total length of bar is then:
cantilever lengths, (A p + g + c ) , of 75 to 100 mm. 0.5A p + a + 3.0a + 0.5A b
3. The bearing at the bottom of the strap should be 9. Longitudinal dowels, An, are welded to the
checked as a reinforced bearing, see Sect. cantilevered bar to transmit the axial force, Nf:
4.6.2. Nf
An =
4. The moment in the cantilevered bar is given by: s fy
Mf = Vf a = Vf (0.5A p + g + c + 0.5s) fy = yield strength of dowel
A p = bar overlap over support s = 0.85
a = 0.5A p + g + c + 0.5s 10. The lower dowel area, Avf, can be proportioned
using reinforced concrete bearing described in
Other notation is shown in Fig. 4.13.3(b).
Sect. 4.6.2.

Example 4.13 Design of a Cazaly Hanger = 25.5 MPa
Given: V / 3 (150)(103 ) / 3
Hanger is similar to that shown in Figure 4.13.3. Ab = f = = 20 mm
fbu (b) (25.5)(100)
fc = 35 MPa (both member and support)
Minimum total length:
fy(reinforcing bars) = 400 MPa
= (0.5)(100) + 120 + (3)(120) + (0.5)(20)
fy(structural steel straps) = 300 MPa
= 540 mm
fy(tubes) = 350 MPa
Vf = 150 kN Use HSS 101.6 x 101.6 x 6.35 x 550 long
Nf = 30 kN Nf (30)(103 )
b1 = 150 mm An = = = 88 mm2
s f y (0.85)(400)
c = 20 mm
g = 25 mm Use 1 10M dowel = 100 mm2
Ap = 100 mm Extend strap close to bottom of beam and design
lower dowel using Sect. 4.6.2 reinforced concrete
Problem: bearing.
Size the hanger components.
Check welding requirements for dowels.
Solution:
1.33Vf 4.13.3 Loov Hanger [5]
As(strap) =
s f y
The hanger illustrated in Fig. 4.13.4 is designed using
(1.33)(150000) the following equations:
= = 739 mm2
(0.9)(300) 1.3Vf
Ash =
Use 10 x 50 strap; s fy cos
As = 2(10)(50) Nf hd
An = 1+
s fy d a / 2
= 1000 mm2 > 739
Try 8 mm fillet weld The steel bar or tube is proportioned so that the
Check weld using CISC [6] or Fig. 4.16.1: bearing strength of the concrete is not exceeded, and
to provide sufficient weld length to develop the
(1.33)(150) diagonal bars.
Aw = = 80 mm
(2)(1.24)
fbu = 0.85c fc
Weld 50 mm across top, 25 mm down both sides =
100 mm of weld. The connection should be detailed so that the
reaction, the centre of compression and the centre of
a = 0.5 (strap width) + g + c + 0.5Ap
the diagonal bars meet at a common point, as shown
= (0.5)(50) + 25 + 20 + (0.5)(100) in Fig. 4.13.4. The compressive force, Cf, is assumed
to act at a distance a/2 from the top of the bearing
= 120 mm
plate.
Mf = Vf a = (150)(120) = 18000 kN-mm Cf
a =
Mf (18000)(103 ) bfbu
Zreqd = = = 57,143 mm
s fy (0.9)(350) Nf (h d)
Cf = 1.3Vf tan +
Try structural tube: HSS 101.6 x 101.6 x 6.35 da 2
For most designs, the horizontal reinforcement, An, is
Zs = 81300 mm4 [6] > 57143 OK
placed very close to the bottom of the steel bar. Thus,
Minimum interior cantilever = 3a = (3)(120) the term (h d) can be assumed to be equal to zero.
= 360 mm It is recommended that stirrups in the beam end be
b 150 designed to carry the total shear.
fbu = 0.85c fc 1 = (0.85)(0.7)(35)
b 100

Fig. 4.13.4 Loov Hanger
Example 4.14 Design of a Loov Hanger Problem:

Given: Size the hanger connections.
Hanger is similar to that shown in Fig. 4.13.4 Solution:
fc = 35 MPa (both member and support) 1.3Vf (1.3)(100)(103 )
Ash = = = 407 mm2
Vf = 100 kN s fy cos (0.85)(400) cos 20D
Nf = 20 kN Use 2 15M bars As = 400 mm2 (close enough)
b1 = 150 mm Minimum weld length, 15M bar, E49xx electrode, from
= 20 Fig. 4.16.4 is 84 mm on 300 MPa plate.
Detail An so it is near the bottom of the steel bar.
h d 0
N 20000
An = f = = 59 mm2
fy (0.85)(400)
Use 10M = 100 mm2

Provide end bearing plate as shown:
fbu = 0.85c fc = (0.85)(0.7)(35 MPa)
= 20.8 MPa
Cf = 1.3Vf tan = (1.3)(100) tan 20 = 47 kN
Use plate width of 32 mm. Check distance a:
Cf 47000
a = = = 71 mm
bfbu (32)(20.8)
a/2 = 71/2 = 36 mm < 40 mm

Fig. 4.14.1 Design relationships for connection angles
Fig. 4.14.2 Horizonal loads on connection angle Fig. 4.14.3 Vertical loads on connection angle
4.14.1 Triangular Stiffener Design

See Fig. 4.14.4 for typical stiffener plate details.
4.14 CONNECTION ANGLES Yielding along the free edge frequently occurs prior to
buckling and stress redistribution occurs within the
Angles used to support light precast elements can be system. [9]
designed by statics as shown in Fig. 4.14.1.
The design normal force, Nf, is assumed to be
In addition to the applied vertical and horizontal resisted by the top line of weld of the bearing seat
loads, the design should include all loads induced by and has no impact on the design of the stiffener. A
restraint of movement. ratio z has been established for triangular stiffeners
that relates average stress, Vf / bt , to the maximum
The minimum thickness of axially loaded non-
stress fmax. See Fig. 4.14.5.
gusseted angles (Fig. 4.14.2) can be calculated by: 2 3
b b b
4Nf g z = 1.39 2.2 + 1.27 0.25
t =
a
a a
a fyb
The design strength is limited when the free edge
The minimum thickness of non-gusseted angles reaches the materials yield strength:
loaded in shear, as shown in Fig. 4.14.3, may be Vr = a fy zbt
determined by:
To ensure yielding along the free edge, the following
4Vf ev
t = limits should be satisfied:
a fyb b b 650
If 0.75 1.0 , then
Design ev = specified ev + 20 mm. a t fy
The tension on the bolt may be determined by: b
650
Pf = Vf v
e b b a
If 1.0 2.0 , then
ei a t fy

Fig. 4.14.4 Triangular stiffener b 200
= = 20 < 37.5 OK
t 10
2 3
b b b
z = 1.39 2.2 + 1.27 0.25
a a a
= 1.39 2.2(0.80) + 1.27(0.80) 0.25(0.80)3
2
= 0.315
Vr = fy zbt = (0.85)(300)(0.315)(200)(10)
= 161 kN
4.14.2 Non-Triangular Stiffener Design
Fig. 4.14.5 Triangular stiffener design limits The non-triangular stiffened beam seat is designed
based on the recommendations of Reference [9].
The minimum stiffener thickness to ensure yielding
along the leading free edge shown below. [8]
b fy
t =
250
Using the minimum thickness, the nominal strength of
the stiffener may be determined using a combined
load analogy. The nominal normal force, Nf shown in
Fig. 4.14.6, is assumed to be resisted by the top line
of weld on the bearing seat and has no impact on the
design of the stiffener.
According to [8], bearing stress, fbu, at outer edge of
stiffener must satisfy:
b
Mf
Vf 2
fbu = + a 1.5 fy
A I
Example 4.15 Triangular stiffener analysis
Given: b b
Vf e
The stiffened seat Vf 2 2
connection is shown at a (1.5)fy = + 3
tb tb /12
right.
Stiffener thickness, t = Fig. 4.14.6 Non-triangular stiffener
10 mm fy = 300 MPa
Problem:
Determine the design
shear resistance of the
stiffener.
Solution:
b 200
= = 0.80
a 250
that is > 0.75 and < 1.0
b 650 650
must be = = 37.5
t fy 300

a (1.5)fy 4.15 COLUMN BASE CONNECTIONS
Vr =
bb Column base plates and anchor bolts must be
e
1 22 designed for erection and service loads. Erection
+
tb 3
tb /12 loads are often critical.
The stiffener thickness required based on an applied 4.15.1 Base Plates

load is:
Many column base plate details are used. Two typical
b base plate details are shown in Fig. 4.15.1.
1 6e 2 1
t = Vf + 2 The base plate thickness, required to satisfy bending
b b a
(1.5)fy for columns where all anchor bolts are in
compression and the base plate is not grouted, is

determined by:
Example 4.16 Non-triangular stiffener analysis
( F)4xc
t =
Given: a fy b
The stiffened beam seat shown.
Stiffener thickness, t = 10 mm The base plate thickness, for columns where the
fy = 300 MPa anchor bolts on one or both of the column faces are
in tension, is determined by:
Problem:
Determine the design ( F)4x t
t =
shear resistance of the a fy b
stiffener.
The base plate thickness for columns where the
Solution: thickness is controlled by bearing on concrete or
a (1.5)fy grout, is determined by:
Vr =
bb
2c 1fc
e
1 22 t = xo
+ a fy
b(t) t b3 /12
The factored shear resistance of a column base plate
(0.9)(1.5)(300) can be determined by:
=
150 150 Vr = a 0.66fy bt
115
1 2 2
+
(150)(10) (10)(150)3 /12 Though this seldom controls.
= 234 kN

Fig. 4.15.1 Column base connections

Fig. 4.15.2 Metric fastener thread data Fig. 4.15.4 Anchor rod materials
Diameter pitch combinations Specification fy (MPa) Fu (MPa)
Nominal diameter Thread pitch CSA G30.18 M1992 (R2002)
D (mm) P (mm)
10 1.5 400 R 400 620
12 1.75 400 W 400 620
14 2.0
CSA G40.21-04
16 2.0
20 2.5 300 W 300 450
22 2.5 350 W 350 450
24 3.0
380 W 380 480
27 3.0
30 3.5 400 W 400 520
36 4.0 480 W 480 590
42 4.5
Note: Local availability of metric sizes should be checked. 550 W 550 620
Fig. 4.15.3 Imperial fastener thread data ASTM F1554-04
Nominal bolt size, inches Threads per inch 36 248 400

D n 55 (1)
380 517
1/2 13 (2)
105 724 862
5/8 11
3/4 10 (1)Weldable grade 55 must be specified.
7/8 9 (2)Grade 105 is not weldable.
1 8 When the rod threads are intercepted by the shear
1 1/8 7 plane, the factored shear resistance shall be taken as
1 1/4 7 70% of Vr .
1 3/8 6
1 1/2 6 An anchor rod required to develop resistance to both
Note: Dimensions according to ANSI B18.2.1 tension and shear shall be proportioned [6] so that:
Thread dimensions according to ANSI B1.1
2 2
Vf Tf
4.15.2 Anchor Rods + 1
Vr Tr
The following equations are used to determine
anchor rod diameters. Vf is the portion of the total shear per rod transmitted
by bearing of the anchor rods on the concrete.
The factored tensile resistance [6] shall be taken as:
An anchor rod, required to develop resistance to both
Tr = arAnFu
tension and bending, shall be proportioned to meet
ar = 0.67 the requirement of S16 Clause 13.9(a). The tensile
An = the tensile stress area of the rods and moment resistance, Tr and Mr, shall be based on
the properties of the cross section at the critical
= (D 0.938P)2 for metric rod section:
4
Tf Mf
0.974 2 + 1.0
= (D ) for imperial rod Tr Mr
4 n
P = the pitch of thread, mm (Fig. 4.15.2) When the rods are near a free edge, the buckling of
the rods before grouting must be considered.
n = number of threads per inch (Fig. 4.15.3)
D = diameter of the rod Confinement reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 4.15.1,
should be provided. A minimum of 4-10M ties at
A list of commonly used anchor rod materials are 75mm spacing is recommended.
found in Fig. 4.15.4.
Anchor rods must be fully developed in the concrete
The factored shear resistance [6] shall be determined per A23.3 Clause 15.9.3.2. The methods shown in
by: Sect. 4.11 can be used to determine rod capacity
Vr = 0.60ararFu governed by concrete failure.

Fig. 4.15.5 Typical anchor rods Fig. 4.16.1 Factored shear resistance of equal leg
fillet welds for each mm of weld length
Fillet weld size Factored resistance
(mm) Vr (kN/mm)
5 0.78
6 0.93
8 1.24
10 1.56
12 1.87
14 2.18
16 2.49
Note: E49xx electrode
S16 Clause 13.13.2.2
Vr = 0.67wAwXu (1.0 + 0.5sin1.5)
w = 0.67
Aw = effective throat area of weld
Xu = ultimate strength as rated by the electrode
classification number
(1.0+ 0.5sin1.5) has been conservatively taken
as equal to 1
Weldability of a bar is a function of its carbon
equivalent. Carbon equivalents should be limited to:
0.55% for 20M and smaller bars,
The pullout capacity can be increased using hooks,
0.45% for 25M and larger bars
nuts or plates as shown in Fig. 4.15.5. The bottom of
anchor rods should be a minimum of 100mm above Carbon equivalent, C.E., is calculated using:
the bottom of a footing, and above the footing %Mn %Ni %Cr
reinforcement. C.E. = %C + + +
6 20 10
As Annex D of A23.3 is not mandatory, testing can Rebar should not be welded when mill reports are not
also be used to confirm pullout strength. available or when the chemical composition of the
Compression on anchor rods during erection can be bars is not known.
substantially reduced using steel shims. The required Common considerations in the design and detailing of
area of the shims can be determined by calculating welded bar connections are:
the bearing resistance of the concrete. 1. Welding should not be performed within two bar
diameters of a bent portion of a bar.
4.16 WELDING
2. Allowance should be made for the thermal
4.16.1 Welding of Steel Plates expansion of steel to avoid concrete spalling or
cracking when welding bars to structural shapes
The welding of steel plates is governed by S16. that are embedded in concrete.
Typically precast connections are welded using fillet
welds. See Fig. 4.16.1 for capacities. See CISC [6] When item 2 is a concern, adequate confinement
for more information. reinforcement should be provided in the immediate
area or a compressible material should be placed
4.16.2 Welding of Reinforcing Bars around the steel plate to allow for expansion.
Welding of reinforcement is a practical method of The size of fillet welds for full capacity of a reinforcing
developing force transfer in many connections. bar welded to a plate is shown in Fig. 4.16.3. The
Typical reinforcing bar welds are shown in Fig. required length of a flare bevel groove weld, to
4.16.2. develop the full strength of the reinforcing bar, is
shown in Fig. 4.16.4. Reference should be made to
The welding of reinforcing bars is governed by W186.
W186 for further background information on the
design and detailing of welded bar connections.

Fig. 4.16.2 Typical reinforcing bar welds

Fig 4.16.3 Fillet welds Fig. 4.18.1 Grouted tube connection
Minimum Minimum
Size of weld thickness of thickness of
Bar size
(mm) 248W plate 300W plate
(mm) (mm)
10M 6 5 4
15M 8 7 6
20M 10 8 7
25M 13 10 9
30M 15 12 10
35M 18 15 12
Note: Table is based on 400W reinforcing bar and E49xx
electrodes.
s = 0.85 (Non seismic)
w = p = 0.63
Fig 4.16.4 Flare bevel groove welds

Length of weld Length of weld
Bar size on 248 MPa plate on 300 MPa plate
(mm) (mm)
10M 72 60
15M 102 84
20M 125 103
25M 161 133
30M 191 158
Cement-based grouted dowels
35M 228 188
Note: Table is based on 400W reinforcing bar and E49xx Dowels may be placed in a hole and grouted to
electrodes. provide the necessary connection, as shown in Fig.
s = 0.85 (Non seismic) 4.18.1. For compression connections, the required
w = 0.63 embedment length can be taken as the dowel
This is based on the effective throat thickness assumed
by W186. Under Clause 6.6.2.5 the manufacturers
development length.
procedures may be qualified by the Canadian Welding Recommended construction requirements for
Bureau to increase the effective throat thickness and
reduce the weld lengths shown.
cement-based grouted connection are as follows:
1. Dowel holes should have an internal diameter of
4.17 MOMENT CONNECTIONS
no less that three bar diameters. The grout to
Moment connections are sometimes required in concrete bond strength need only be one third
building frames as discussed in Sect. 2.6. Moment the grout to rebar bond when the hole is three
resistance can be achieved using connections that times as large.
develop a force couple. Tensile capacity through the
2. Stay-in-place hole forms should be corrugated.
connection can be developed by a variety of load
transfer devices. Rebar splices can be used to 3. Non-shrink grout is recommended where dowel
replicate monolithic cast-in-place concrete. connections are subjected to tensile loads.
When designing moment resistant connections, 4. Development length will depend on the specified
restraint to creep, shrinkage and volume changes grout strength.
must be considered. Designers should specify the
5. Confinement reinforcement, consisting of a
erection sequence when moment frames are relied
spiral or ties, may be required to prevent
on for stability during the erection of precast
concrete splitting or bond failure between the
structures.
conduit and the surrounding concrete.
4.18 DOWEL CONNECTIONS 6. Adjustments after initial set of the grout may
Dowel connections can provide an efficient solution in destroy the dowel bond and reduce the
certain situations. The strength of dowels depends on connection strength.
dowel size, embedment length and the developed Smooth formed ungreased dowel holes exhibit very
bond. good bond to the concrete around the hole when

rebar dowels and non-shrink grout are used. 4.19 BOLTS AND THREADED
Typically, a rebar dowel will debond from the grout CONNECTORS
before the grout plug will debond from the smooth
Various types of bolts and other threaded connectors
hole. Additional grout strength is realized because the
are used in connections of precast concrete elements
excess water of a sand cement grout is absorbed into
to achieve rapid assembly. It should be ensured that
the surrounding concrete.
the connection can be installed without field
Epoxy grouted dowels modifications. Whenever possible, provide over-sized
or slotted openings in hardware to be fastened to
Epoxy adhesives can be used for anchoring dowels,
accommodate fabrication and construction tolerances
bolts, bars, or similar shapes into concrete. The
and to reduce volume change forces.
physical properties of epoxy compounds vary widely.
Their tensile strength is generally much larger than Designers should standardize all loose threaded
that of cement grout. Refer to manufacturers connectors to prevent accidental substitution during
specifications for specific material properties and field construction.
applications.
The generic types of threaded connectors are:
The thermal expansion coefficients of some epoxy
Standard Bolts
compounds can be seven times that of cement grout
or concrete. Standard bolts, as defined here, are those satisfying
ASTM A307.
Recommended requirements for epoxy connections
should be similar to cement grouted dowels. Design of standard bolts should be in accordance
with S16 and CISC [6]. Refer to Fig. 4.19.1 for
Mortar filled steel sleeves
factored resistance of bolts.
Steel sleeves, when filled as per the manufacturers
instruction with the specified grout, have been shown High Strength Bolts
to develop 150% or more of the yield strength of the High strength bolts, identified as ASTM A325 and
reinforcing steel being spliced. These splices are very ASTM A490, were developed for friction type
useful as seismic connections. connections between structural steel elements.
Fig. 4.19.1 Factored shear and tensile resistances (kN / bolt), b = 0.80 [6]
Bolt size Nominal Factored shear resistance(2) single shear(3) (kN/bolt)
Factored tensile resistance,
area Ab
Metric(1) (4)
Imperial Threads excluded Threads intercepted Tr (kN/bolt)
(mm2)
A325 A490 A307 A325 A490 A307 A325 A490 A307
A325M A490M A325M A490M A325M A490M
1/2 127 50.3 63.1 35.2 44.2 62.9 78.9
5/8 198 78.4 98.4 39.3 45.9 68.9 27.5 98.0 123 49.2
M16 201 80.1 100 56.1 70.2 100 125
3/4 285 113 142 56.6 79.0 99.1 39.6 141 177 70.8
M20 314 125 157 87.6 110 156 196
M22 380 151 190 106 133 189 237
7/8 388 154 193 77.1 108 135 54.0 192 241 96.4
M24 452 180 226 126 158 225 282
1 507 201 252 141 176 251 315
M27 573 228 286 160 200 285 358
1 1/8 641 223 318 156 223 279 398
M30 707 282 353 197 247 352 441
1 1/4 792 276 393 193 275 345 492
M36 1018 406 508 284 356 507 635
1 1/2 1140 397 566 278 396 496 708
(1) The number following the letter M is the nominal bolt diameter in millimeters.
(2) For long lap splices, see S16 Clause 13.12.1.1.
(3) For double shear, multiply tabulated values by 2.0.
(4) Threads are intercepted if thin material next to the nut is combined with detailing for minimum bolt sticking through the nut.

Fig. 4.19.2 Application of high-strength bolts
These bolts have more then twice the tensile
resistance of A307 bolts. Their application requires
controlled tensioning of the fastener to develop
sufficient force to prevent slipping of the connected
parts. Bolts must be tightened in accordance with
S16 to take full advantage of their high strength in
friction-type connections.
As a result of creep and minor crushing, it is unlikely
that high-strength bolts will hold their tension when
tightened against concrete. Some applications and
limitations are shown in Fig. 4.19.2.
High strength bolts are not weldable.
Threaded rods
Threaded rods of standard sizes and grades (both
mild steel and high strength steel) are sometimes
used in precast concrete connections. The most
common applications are for column base anchor
rods, beam-column connections and lateral
connections of architectural precast panels.
Coil bolts and rods
Coil bolts and rods are commonly used for precast
handling as they are less susceptible to thread
damage. Manufacturers specifications must be used
as they are not covered by standard specifications.
Due to the loose thread fit, they are not
recommended for final connections unless double
nuts are used.
4.20 CONNECTIONS FOR WALL PANELS

4. Effects of volume changes (shrinkage, creep,
The multitude of sizes and shapes of precast, wall temperature).
panels has led to a variety of connections.
5. Abnormal loads such as blast loads.
Your local CPCI member should be contacted for
more information. Vertical joint connections
The mass of the entire panel should be supported at To assure lateral force transfer between adjacent wall
one level using two connections. Lateral alignment panels, vertical joint connections must be able to
connections, as required, should also be located near transfer direct tension and compression in
the corners of the element. combination with vertical shear. Fig. 4.20.1 illustrates
forces at vertical joints for coupled and uncoupled
Requirements of connections wall panels.
Connections for load bearing wall panels are subject There are several types of connections that can
to heavier and more varied loading than those for transfer loads across vertical joints. Mechanical
non-load bearing wall panels. The connections form fasteners are the most popular type of joint
an essential part of the structural support system. connection used in precast bearing wall structures.
Panels may be required to resist one or more of the Connections may consist of cast-in steel sections or
following: inserts at panel joints fastened together by bolting or
welding, as seen in Fig. 4.20.2. These connections
1. Panel self weight. have low to moderate shear resistance, but are
2. Roof and floor loads. considerably less expensive to install than keyed
connections and are preferred for exposed walls
3. Wind, seismic or earth pressure loads. where they may be hidden in grouted recesses.

Fig. 4.20.1 Lateral force transfer in shear walls
Fig. 4.20.2 Panel to panel shear connection Horizontal joint connections

Horizontal panel joints usually occur at each floor
level and at the junction of foundations or transfer
beams. Connections at these joints will often perform
multiple functions: support of gravity loads from floor
elements, transfer of horizontal shear, and resistance
of tension/compression forces due to lateral loads.
Typical floor to wall panel arrangement in high-rise
precast construction is illustrated in Fig. 4.20.3.
Hollow core floor slabs are supported directly on the
lower wall panel unit with an end gap of 50 to 70 mm.
The gap and a portion of the core can be filled with a
flowable grout. The upper wall unit is supported by a
continuous bed of dry pack grout.
Vertical reinforcement is generally spliced at the
horizontal joints as illustrated in Figs. 4.20.8 to
4.20.10. This vertical reinforcement provides
resistance to in-plane shear and provides shear
friction reinforcement across the joint.
The vertical tension tie shown in Fig. 4.20.9 uses a
pipe sleeve that is grouted with an expansive grout
after the upper element is aligned and braced. Tests
have shown that these splices develop the full
strength of the bar.
Fig. 4.20.10 illustrates a typical post-tensioned bar
vertical tie. Bars are tensioned at the top of each
panel. Threaded couplers are used to connect bars in
the panels above.

Fig. 4.20.3 Cross sections of interior and exterior platform type wall-to-floor connections
Fig. 4.20.4 Slab to shear wall connection Fig. 4.20.5 Double tee to shear wall connection

Fig. 4.20.6 Floor to bearing wall connections
Fig. 4.20.7 Roof to bearing wall connection Fig. 4.20.8 Vertical bar splice using weld angle
Floor to wall shear connections

Other methods must be used to transfer vertical load
and horizontal diaphragm forces where floor
elements are not directly incorporated into the
horizontal joint of the wall panel. Examples of
connections used in multi storey shear wall
structures are illustrated in Figs. 4.20.4 to 4.20.7.
Wall to foundation connections
Typical wall panel to foundation connections are
often similar to the tensile connections shown in
Figs. 4.20.8 to 4.20.10.

Fig. 4.20.9 Grouted sleeve tension tie Fig. 4.20.10Post-tensioned vertical tie
4.21 REFERENCES:
[5] Loov, Robert, A Precast Beam Connection
[1] Iverson, J.K. and Pfeifer, D.W., Criteria for
Designed for Shear and Axial Load, PCI
Design of Bearing Pads, Technical Report TR4-
JOURNAL, Vol. 13, No. 3, June 1968.
85 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol.30, No.5, Sept - Oct 1985. [6] Handbook of Steel Construction, Canadian
Institute of Steel Construction, Eighth Edition.
[2] Kriz, L. B., and Raths, C. H., Connections in
Precast Concrete Structures Strength of [7] Marcakis, K., and Mitchell, D., Precast Concrete
Corbels, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 10, No. 1, February Connections with Embedded Steel Members, PCI
1965. JOURNAL, Vol. 25, No. 4, Jul - Aug 1980.
[3] Mattock, A. H., Design Proposals for Reinforced [8] Manual of Steel Construction Load and
Concrete Corbels, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 21, No. 3, Resistance Factor Design, Third Edition,
May - Jun 1976. American Institute of Steel Construction,
Chicago, IL, 2001.
[4] Anderson, Neal S., and Meinheit, Donald F.,
Design Criteria for Headed Stud Groups in Shear: [9] Salmon, Charles G., and Johnson, John E., Steel
Part 1 Steel Capacity and Back Edge Effects, Structures: Design and Behavior, Fourth Edition,
PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 45, No. 5, Sept - Oct 2000. Harper and Collins, New York, NY, 1996.

CHAPTER 5
ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 5-2
5.1.1 Checklist ............................................................................................................. 5-2
5.1.2 Design Objectives............................................................................................... 5-4
5.1.3 Structural Design and Analysis .......................................................................... 5-5
5.2 NON-LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS................................................................................ 5-5
5.2.1 General ............................................................................................................... 5-5
5.2.2 Deformation ........................................................................................................ 5-6
5.2.3 Crack Control...................................................................................................... 5-7
5.3 SPANDRELS ................................................................................................................... 5-7
5.3.1 Non-load Bearing Spandrels .............................................................................. 5-7
5.3.2 Effect of Cantilever Supports.............................................................................. 5-7
5.4 COLUMN COVERS......................................................................................................... 5-8
5.4.1 General ............................................................................................................... 5-8
5.4.2 Design Guidelines .............................................................................................. 5-9
5.5 LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS ......................................................................................... 5-9
5.5.1 General ............................................................................................................... 5-9
5.5.2 Design Considerations ..................................................................................... 5-10
5.5.3 Order of Solution .............................................................................................. 5-11
5.5.4 Load Bearing Spandrels ................................................................................... 5-11
5.6 SANDWICH PANELS.................................................................................................... 5-12
5.6.1 Non-Composite Design .................................................................................... 5-12
5.6.2 Composite Design ............................................................................................ 5-13
5.6.3 Curing ............................................................................................................... 5-13
5.6.4 Flexural Analysis .............................................................................................. 5-13
5.6.5 Insulation .......................................................................................................... 5-13
5.6.6 Bond Breakers.................................................................................................. 5-13
5.6.7 Vapour Barriers ................................................................................................ 5-13
5.6.8 Wythe Design ................................................................................................... 5-13
5.6.9 Element Size .................................................................................................... 5-14
5.6.10 Wythe Connectors ............................................................................................ 5-14
5.6.11 General Architectural Design Considerations .................................................. 5-17
5.7 AESTHETIC AND BUILDING ENVELOPE CONSIDERATIONS.................................. 5-17
5.7.1 General ............................................................................................................. 5-17
5.8 VENEER FACED ELEMENTS ...................................................................................... 5-19
5.8.1 General ............................................................................................................. 5-19
5.8.2 Reinforcement .................................................................................................. 5-20
5.8.3 Natural Stone.................................................................................................... 5-21
5.8.4 Structural Clay Products................................................................................... 5-23
5.9 PRECAST CONCRETE USED AS FORMS ................................................................. 5-28
5.9.1 General ............................................................................................................. 5-28
5.9.2 Design............................................................................................................... 5-28
5.9.3 Construction Considerations ............................................................................ 5-28
5.10 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 5-29

5.1 INTRODUCTION The following is a checklist of factors that the
designer must consider in the design, manufacture
Architectural precast concrete products are precast
and erection of architectural precast concrete
concrete units or elements that, through finish, shape,
elements.
colour and/or texture, define the architectural
aesthetics and function of a structure. Architectural and structural design considerations
Architectural precast concrete units can range from 1. Is the precast to be load bearing or non-load
simple flat panels to complex, three dimensional, bearing?
multi-textured, multifaceted shapes that can serve not
2. What finish is desired for the structure? For full
only as cladding (non-load bearing walls), but also
information on the many and varied types of
combine their attractive appearance with their ability
finishes available, contact CPCI, refer to the
to serve as structural (load bearing) elements.
CPCI Colour and Textures Guide, previous
Among the many applications for architectural projects or contact your local precast
precast concrete, a distinction can be made between manufacturers.
load bearing and non-load bearing elements:
3. Architectural features such as reveals, ribs and
1. A non-load bearing (cladding) element is one cornices should be sized to complement the
that can be removed from the structure without overall scale of the project.
any consequence to the structural integrity of the
4. What type of wall assembly is to be utilized
structure. Although non-load bearing units are
Insulated or non-insulated elements? Refer to
normally provided only for the purpose of
Sect. 5.6.
separating environments, they are subjected to
externally applied loads, such as those due to 5. What are the building science requirements in
wind and earthquake. order for the precast to function with adjacent
materials?
2. A load bearing element is one which resists and
transfers vertical and transverse loads applied Element size
from other elements in the structure. A load
bearing element cannot be removed without 1. Loading limitations of the structural frame
affecting the structural integrity or stability of the 2. Production facilities form and plant size, plant
structure as a whole or any of its parts. crane capacity, handling capabilities, finishing
capabilities
Non-load bearing architectural elements can also be
made of glass fibre reinforced concrete. These 3. Transportation load limits, seasonal load limits,
elements may consist of concrete containing alkali- overhead clearances, width restrictions, trailer
resistant glass fibres in combination with a capacity, height, width, distance from project
sand/cement slurry or standard aggregates site, and condition of roads to the site
depending on the application method. This type of 4. Erection Crane size and type, traffic control,
unit can be fabricated to be lighter in weight than access, layout and other prevailing site
conventional precast units but still accommodate the conditions
same range of shapes and face mixes with numerous
variations in colour. 5. Handling Crack control
In composite construction, precast concrete elements Supporting structure

may be used as forms for cast-in-place concrete. This 1. Type of structure, deflection criteria, acceptable
solution is especially suitable for combining magnitude and location of loadings
architectural and structural functions in load bearing
facades. 2. Overall structural stability
3. Structural stability during erection
5.1.1 Checklist
A thorough knowledge of architectural precast is Standardization
required for the precast to be utilized most efficiently Obtain maximum repetition of units to reduce overall
and successfully in the design. Knowledge of current form and production costs.
production and erection practices is an asset for the
design to be successfully implemented without major Design of connections
modifications during construction. Refer to Chap. 4 of this Manual.

Detailed design of elements 2. placement of hardware and reinforcement
Refer to Chap. 2, Chap. 3, Chap. 4, Sect. 5.5.3, and 3. inspection of forms, hardware and reinforcement
Chap. 6 of this Manual, the CMHC Best Practice
Guide for Architectural Precast Walls [1] and PCI 4. mixing, placing and consolidation of concrete
Architectural Precast Concrete [2] for: 5. curing
1. concrete mix design and concrete design 6. stripping
strength
7. finishing
2. reinforcement: (prestressed or non-prestressed)
8. storage methods and space
a) for structural performance in final position
Quality control
b) for stripping, storage, transportation and
Refer to A23.4 for complete information on the
erection
requirements of quality control throughout the entire
3. design of connections, inserts, internal production sequence.
hardware, lifting hardware, etc. for stripping,
Transportation
storage, transportation and erection
The transportation of the precast may be the limiting
4. thermal performance
factor when determining panel sizes for a structure.
5. building science requirements - jointing, The size of panels should however, be kept as large
air/vapour barrier details, connection to adjacent as possible, in order to reduce erection costs and the
building materials number of joints.
Shop drawings Refer to Sect. 3.9.5 for:
For acceptable standards refer to the PCI 1. types of trailers
Architectural Precast Concrete Drafting
Handbook, [3] including: 2. types of frames
1. erection drawings 3. support material
2. connection details 4. transportation limitations for weight, width and

height
3. anchor layout drawings
For further detailed information on methods, materials
4. panel production drawings
and equipment used in handling and transporting all
5. hardware details types of precast concrete units, consult your local
CPCI member precast manufacturers.
6. storage diagrams
Erection
7. drawings of special erection handling
procedures and equipment The designer must clearly envision the erection
process to utilize architectural precast concrete
Formwork
successfully. The following are some of the basic
There are various types of formwork used in the requirements for consideration:
manufacture of architectural precast elements. These
1. Ensure unimpeded site access to accommodate
include steel, wood, fibreglass, concrete,
continuous erection.
polyurethane, foam and more. Ask your local CPCI
member for information on the various materials used 2. Provide a working area and adequate storage
in the manufacture of architectural precast concrete. space.
Production 3. Allow for a staging area for trailers and cranes.
For information regarding materials to be used and 4. Consider the types and capacities of erection
production methods to be followed, refer to A23.4. equipment in relation to unit weights and sizes.
The following items should be considered: 5. Allow for the lifting, turning, rotating and tilting of
units, at the pickup point, the final location on the
1. plant size, production capacity and lifting
structure and any location in between.
capabilities

6. Provide layout points for the survey of the 5.1.2 Design Objectives
structural frame, the location of cast-in hardware
The design objectives that apply to the design of
and the final position of the precast on the
each individual precast element should be consistent
structure.
with the objectives of the complete project, of which
7. Consideration of the erection requirements for the architectural precast concrete is a part.
the panels left off to accommodate the man-
Structural integrity of the completed structure is the
hoist, etc.
primary objective. Deflections must be limited to
Safety acceptable levels, and stresses limited to prevent
instability, reduced service life or premature failure of
Refer to local safety regulations. an individual element or the structure as a whole.
Economy The economics of the construction of the entire
project is another important design objective. The
When the project is in the design development designer should attempt to optimize the entire
stages, the following economic considerations should structure and consider the advantages provided by
be reviewed: multi-functional precast concrete elements. The
1. Assess the costs associated with the design designer should be aware of the major economies
complexity, production methods, transportation offered by standardization or repetition. Consideration
distances, erection complexities and timing as it must also be given to the cost of large versus small
relates to production, transportation and elements, bearing in mind, weight limitations in the
erection. production facility, during transportation, site crane
lifting capacity and location.
2. Provide for progress payments for completed
The economics of the overall operation and
units stored at the production facility to ensure
maintenance of the structure should also be factored
product is ready when needed and if project
into the costs of the project. The maintenance of the
delays are anticipated.
precast components will be low in comparison to
3. Evaluate the economic advantages of precast other materials as precast is a very durable product.
concrete in initial building costs as well as long The aim of repetition in the design is to reduce costs
term function, operation, maintenance and by increasing plant productivity. Repetition means
building envelope costs. fewer forms and a subsequent reduction in form
construction costs. Production-line manufacturing can
Tolerances
be implemented in the plant when a particular casting
For the aesthetic requirements of the design to be sequence is repeated each day, leading to
met and fully appreciated, the following tolerances improvements in efficiency through the repeated
should be carefully allowed for, reviewed and noted: operations of familiar tasks. Handling, storage and
delivery are simplified with subsequent reductions in
1. scale of design features the risk of errors. Site efficiency is also improved
2. in-situ concrete or steel support structure through the repetition of familiar erection sequences.
tolerances such as construction elevations, out These benefits can only be achieved if there is a high
of plumb and plane, straightness, sway, creep, degree of repetition in the design and production of
and differential deflection the precast elements.
Often, in the initial design stage, a high degree of
3. production tolerances with respect to
repetition appears possible, however as the design
dimensions; skew, bowing and warping
details are finalized, very strict discipline is required
4. erection tolerances: by the designer to avoid the creation of a large
number of non-repetitive elements. Any budget costs
a) the precast concrete unit clearances to the given at the initial design stage should take into
supporting structure account the possibility that the number of non-
repetitive elements may increase as the design
b) precast concrete unit to precast concrete
progresses. If non-repetitive units are unavoidable,
unit spacing and joint size - refer to A23.4.
the increase in costs can be minimized when the
The total effect of all tolerances will be seen at the elements can be cast from a master mold with simple
joints in the final structure. modifications. This eliminates the need for

completely new forms. In general, it is easier to alter 2. strain gradients across the thickness of the
a form if the variations can be contained within the element (stresses induced by the restraint of
total form envelope. This can be accomplished bowing due to thermal and moisture differentials
through the use of bulkheads or block outs. Cutting and non-uniform curing can be significant)
into the form surface should be avoided, if possible,
3. forces that may develop in the precast elements
and done only as a last resort.
and the connections due to restrained volume
The term "standard" is difficult to define, but elements changes and distortion of the structural frame
cannot truly be described as standard unless they are
4. the deflection response of the precast elements
identical in every respect. Even relatively minor
under the action of:
variations, such as the positions of connections, are
sufficient to make an element non-standard (non- a) dead and live loads
repetitive). Most manufacturers expect and allow for
b) wind and seismic loads
some variations, and will normally accept minor
changes to standard elements without an increase in c) thermal loads
price.
5. specified tolerances for the support structure
5.1.3 Structural Design and Analysis and those allowed for in the manufacturing and
installation of the precast elements for precast
Architectural precast concrete construction can be production and installation
considered in three parts:
6. acceptable crack locations and crack widths
1. the precast elements individually should be determined (while it is preferable to
have crack-free units, it is common to have
2. the support system(s) for the precast elements,
cracks in precast units)
such as beams, slabs, walls, columns, and
foundations 7. historical performance of various types of
connections
3. the connections that serve to attach the
individual precast elements to its support system The designer should recognize that loads and
behaviour cannot be established precisely,
The design of the architectural precast elements and
particularly with elements continuously subjected to
the structure involves the transfer of load,
the environment. The imprecise nature of design
considerations of stability and the potential for
loads will generally not affect the design of the
movement of the element and/or the structure.
element provided that the above factors have been
The designer should consider the potential causes of considered, and provided that reasonable values
movement of an element. These include shrinkage, have been established in accordance with the
expansion and contraction due to temperature and requirements of the relevant building codes.
moisture changes, and elastic and creep
The designer must pay close attention to the
deformations resulting from stresses within the
allowable tolerances for the structural system. This is
element.
particularly important for isolated elements forming
The potential for movement of the structure should long vertical lines, such as column covers, where any
consider the above-mentioned causes in addition to deviation from the vertical is readily noticeable.
movement due to gravity, wind and seismic loads,
All non-load bearing elements should be designed to
foundation effects, short and long term deflection and
accommodate movement freely and, whenever
differential settlement.
possible, without redundant supports, except where
The potential for movement can be determined by provisions are necessary to partially restrain bowing.
analysis, and provisions should be made to Extremely high loads may be induced if bowing is
accommodate these movements. completely restrained.
The structural design of an architectural precast 5.2 NON-LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS
concrete element requires the determination of all
loads that will act on the precast element. This 5.2.1 General
includes consideration of the following:
Non-load bearing elements are cladding elements
1. stresses induced during the stripping, handling, only. They are designed to resist wind forces, seismic
transportation, and erection processes forces generated from their self-weight, and the

forces required to transfer the weight of the element Fig. 5.2.1 Deformation of elements on flexible
to the structural support system. Although service beam
loads, wind loads and seismic forces do frequently
produce the maximum stresses, the forces imposed
during the manufacturing, handling and erection
processes will usually govern the design due to the
lower strength of the concrete. Seismic forces will
generally govern connection design, but will usually
result in element stresses less than those imposed
during unit manufacture and handling.
5.2.2 Deformation
The relationship between the deformation of the

elements and the supporting structure must be
evaluated, and care taken to prevent unintended
restraints and imposed loads due to these
deformations. Deformations of the supporting
structure that induce unintended loading of the
precast elements may be caused by deflection due to
the weight of the precast elements, volumetric
changes of the structural frame, and torsion of
spandrel beams. To prevent imposing loads on the
elements, the connections must be designed and
installed to permit unrestrained deformations.
Behaviour of a series of elements supported on a

flexible beam is shown in Fig. 5.2.1. The tendency for Bowing of elements while in a horizontal orientation
the elements with two gravity load bearing before erection can be caused by:
connections to deflect with the beam may cause
1. differential shrinkage due to evaporation from
unintended restraint forces to develop in the
the top face of the element while the lower face
longitudinal direction. Alternatively, this problem could
is maintained at 100% humidity,
be resolved by providing a single bearing connection
for each element. This illustrates the need for the 2. deflection due to self-weight and the position of
precast designer to provide for vertical deformations the support points,
of the supporting beam.
3. deflection due to a temperature gradient
The most prevalent cause of element deformation between faces (e.g., storage orientation), or
after placement on the structure is bowing due to 4. deflections due to creep of the concrete in
thermal variations or gradients within the element. incorrectly stacked elements and variations in
This will generally cause elements to bow outward. the length of time in the storage yard.
The elements will not be subjected to stresses if Non-load bearing elements should be designed and
supported in a manner that will permit deformation to installed so that they do not restrain the structural
occur unrestrained, and assuming a homogeneous frame from lateral translation. If such restraint is
material and linear temperature distribution. If an developed, significant diagonal tension and
element is restrained laterally at mid span, such compression may occur, as indicated in Fig. 5.2.2. To
restraint may induce significant element stresses. It is prevent this, precast elements that are installed
generally better to hang an element from its top than between components of the structural frame should
support it at the bottom because the moment induced be connected at the top and bottom only and left free
by the eccentricity of the load bearing connections is along the sides. The space tolerance required for
opposite to that of the predominant thermal gradient. erection will usually be sufficient to prevent contact
during lateral deformation of the frame.

Fig. 5.2.2 Element forces induced by frame precasters sometimes prestress the section
distortion eccentrically to counteract the bowing. It is
recommended that the prestress force in an element,
after all losses, be limited to the range of 1 to 6 MPa.
Transverse reinforcement may be required to prevent
longitudinal splitting of the concrete parallel to the
prestressing strands.
When short elements are pretensioned, care must be
taken to ensure that adequate bond transfer length is
provided for the strands. For a discussion on transfer
lengths, see Sect. 3.4.9.
5.3 SPANDRELS
The vertical shortening of concrete columns should
be considered in tall structures. At intermediate 5.3.1 Non-load Bearing Spandrels
levels, the differential shortening between two Spandrels are precast elements that are less than
adjacent floors will be negligible, and the element will one storey in height, made up of either a series of
follow the frame movement. At the lowest level, if the individual elements or as one element extending
element is rigidly supported at the base, the between columns. Load bearing support for
accumulated shortening of the structure above may spandrels should be located at the floor level near
induce loading of the lower element due to columns or on the actual columns. Lateral restraint
unintended stacking. The connections and horizontal for eccentric loading can be achieved using
joint widths should be designed to accommodate all connections to the floor structure (Fig. 5.3.1) or to the
column shortening. A similar situation may result columns behind at the top and bottom of the
when two adjacent columns have significantly elements.
different loads.
Spandrels are usually part of a window wall system.
Non-load bearing elements that contain openings The vertical deflections, rotations and the twisting of
may develop stress concentrations at these openings the spandrels should be limited to accommodate the
resulting from unintended loading or restrained requirements of the window system.
bowing. While these stress concentrations may be
partially controlled through the use of reinforcement, Special provisions should be made for slender
the designer should always try to eliminate imposed elements, which are defined as elements in which the
restraints. Areas of abrupt changes in cross section spacing of lateral support of the compression zone
should be well reinforced to resist these stress exceeds 50 times the compression flange thickness.
concentrations. The figure 50 is based on the criteria outlined in
A23.3 and is somewhat conservative. [4]
5.2.3 Crack Control
The factored resistance of the lateral support should
While it is desirable to manufacture and erect be a minimum of 2% of the factored force in the
elements that are crack-free, the design of non-load compression zone.
bearing elements will often be governed by the
limiting crack width. Sect. 3.4.2 discusses allowable 5.3.2 Effect of Cantilever Supports
tensile stresses and crack widths in concrete.
Consideration should also be given to spandrels that
Cracking can also be controlled by introducing pre- are hung at the ends of long cantilevered supports.
stressing, using either pretensioning or post- The designer must verify the effects of deflection and
tensioning. In either case, the prestress force should rotation of the support structure, including the effects
generally be concentric with the effective cross of creep, and design all attachments to accommodate
section to minimize out-of-plane deformations. For these effects (Fig. 5.3.2). A particularly critical
thin sections (75 mm to 100 mm thick) that may be condition can occur at the corners of buildings where
subjected to undesirable bowing, experienced a cantilever exists on one or both faces.

Fig. 5.3.1 Typical spandrel connections
Fig. 5.3.2 Effect of cantilever supports the required fire rating without resorting to further
protection of the steel (see Sect. 6.3). When used
over cast-in-place concrete columns and beams,
precast will often provide a uniform finish in
combination with special architectural shapes, all in
an economical manner. The interior surface of the
precast may be readily insulated, minimizing the
differential temperature variation through the concrete
section. Column covers can be multi-functional,
providing space for services and for the attachment of
vertical window-washing equipment. For a further
discussion of beam covers (spandrels) see Sect. 5.3.
Column covers are generally supported by the

structural column or the floor, and are usually
designed to carry no vertical load other than their own
weight. The vertical load of each length of column
cover section is usually supported at one elevation,
and tied back top and bottom to the floors for lateral
load transfer and stability. Connections must allow for
5.4 COLUMN COVERS relative horizontal movement between floors. This
may cause the column cover to apply varying loads
5.4.1 General between bearing connections. Column covers are
The use of precast concrete elements as covers over usually designed to be as long as possible. The
steel or cast-in-place concrete columns, beams, and length is dependent upon transportation and lifting
as mullions, is a common method of achieving limitations, architectural considerations, and upon the
architectural expression, special shapes, and specific ability of the structure to locally support a specific
finishes in an economical manner. When used over concentrated load (element weight).
steel columns and beams, the precast may provide

5.4.2 Design Guidelines
applied to the structural column directly. A
Column covers and mullions are usually a major focal minimum setting clearance of 20 mm between
point in a structure. The following are some items that precast and insulation, or insulation and
the designer should consider: structure is required. Connection details must be
chosen to accommodate either configuration.
1. The allowable tolerances for the structural
system: This is particularly important for column 8. Column covers or mullions may be combined
covers and mullions since, as isolated elements, with adjacent spandrels to minimize joints where
they often form a long vertical line and any possible.
deviation from a vertical plane is readily visible.
9. Where uniformity of architectural finish is
Invariably, this deviation is the result of the
required on two or three sides of a column
allowable tolerances associated with the
cover, the designer must be aware of the
structural steel and/or cast-in-place concrete
manufacturing limitations of achieving this with
frames. These deviations can be compensated
certain types of finishes, and should be guided
for by precast connections with sufficient
by a CPCI member manufacturer regarding the
adjustment. This need for adjustment must be
feasibility of these requirements. For example, to
recognized during design, and clearances
ensure uniformity of finish, it may be necessary
should be established that will reflect realistic
to stage-cast L or U-shaped elements with quirk
construction tolerances. The designer should
mitre joints. Vertical legs over 300 mm high will
anticipate a planned clearance of at least 25
generally require separate face down casting.
mm, however 40 mm is more common between
precast elements and the structure. For steel
5.5 LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS
columns, the designer should also consider the
additional clearances required around splice 5.5.1 General
plates to accommodate the projecting bolt heads
The design and structural behaviour of exterior
and nuts.
architectural precast concrete bearing wall elements
2. Support for vertical loads should be provided at is dependent upon many factors. These include the
only one level. Support for horizontal loads and shape and configuration of the elements, the
for stability should be provided at additional magnitude of applied gravity and lateral loads, and
levels as required. the manner by which loads are transferred between
elements. The capability of the individual element
3. Column covers and mullions that project from
components to resist shear, axial force and flexure
the facade will be subjected to loads imposed by
affect the element design.
shearing winds. Connections designed to
provide a horizontal moment resisting couple are The design of architectural precast elements is not
required to resist these forces. significantly different from the design of two-
dimensional frames. Once they have been isolated
4. The effects of temperature and humidity change
and taken as free bodies, elements can be designed
must be considered.
using the applicable codes and standard procedures.
5. The width of horizontal joints between stacked Design examples are included in Chap. 3.
precast column covers should be sufficient to
Architectural precast concrete elements used as
accommodate elastic shortening of the structural
exterior load bearing walls can be classified as either
frame.
flat or ribbed. Both flat and ribbed elements may have
6. The designer must clearly envision the erection window, door, or other openings.
process. Column cover connections are, by their
Fig. 5.5.1 illustrates three types of ribbed elements.
location, often difficult to reach and, once made,
The element of Fig. 5.5.1(a) is a horizontal
difficult to adjust.
Vierendeel truss window mullion element, while the
7. Insulation may be placed on the interior face of other elements are vertical window mullion elements.
the column cover or, alternatively, it may be

Fig. 5.5.1 Horizontal and vertical ribbed normal to the plane of the wall. Vertical loads are
elements usually parallel to the plane of the wall and are
applied at an eccentricity influenced by the geometry
of the wall, the location of the connections, and
erection and manufacturing tolerances.
Manufacturing tolerances are due to panel alignment
such as out of plumb or horizontal displacement
relative to the wall. These may be to accommodate
tolerances in construction of the building structure.
See A23.4 for industry tolerances.
Lateral loads due to wind are applied perpendicular to
the plane of the wall. Lateral loads due to seismic can
occur both parallel to and perpendicular to the plane
of the wall. These loads cause lateral deflections,
reducing the vertical load carrying capacity of the
wall. Horizontal loads may be resisted by shear walls
and floor diaphragms.
Fig. 5.5.2 illustrates a special framing arrangement
that provides uniform distribution of loads to elements
on all sides of a structure. The uniform loading of the
perimeter by the floor and roof construction has the
advantage of resisting tension forces caused by
lateral loadings, and thus minimizes connection and
other hold-down requirements. Uniform distribution of
floor and roof loadings around the building's
perimeter also reduces differential creep deformation
of elements as discussed in Sect. 2.4. The effect of
Whether the architectural element of the exterior wall cumulative loads on connections between elements
is placed horizontally or vertically depends primarily must be considered, as they may govern minimum
upon handling and erection requirements and the element dimensions.
methods or details selected for making connections. The transfer of gravity loads between elements or
A horizontal Vierendeel truss type element lends itself combinations of gravity and axial loads caused by
to simple handling since it is shipped in its erected lateral loading can become the major factor
orientation, requires gravity load connections at each influencing the structural dimensions of an element
floor level, and requires a minimum of erection and the required connection details.
bracing.
Often the size of the element will not be controlled by
A two-storey vertical element requires additional the required concrete area for flexural design but by
erection handling and, because of its projected height the minimum dimensions for sealing elements at the
during erection, demands more sophisticated erection joints and for placing reinforcement. The required
procedures. space for handling devices, or the space required to
Shipping and erection requirements and the design of accommodate a variety of connection conditions may
the connections are factors that will play a part in also influence the minimum element thickness.
determining the element size and configuration. An For most precast exterior bearing wall structures, the
element can only be as large as can be shipped, gravity dead and live load condition will control
handled and hoisted with the available erection structural dimensions rather than load combinations
equipment, and within the allowable design capacity that include lateral loads.
of the connections.
Unless analysis or experience indicates otherwise,
5.5.2 Design Considerations both load bearing and non-load bearing elements
should be reinforced with an amount of reinforcing
Wall elements are subjected to loads applied in the steel, as specified in the appropriate building code,
vertical and horizontal directions. Loads in the and a reinforcement ratio () at least equal to =
horizontal direction may be both parallel to and 0.001.

Fig. 5.5.2 Perimeter floor loading to exterior 3. Review the preliminary size and shape of the
element wall elements considering the desired architectural
finish and the production requirements for
stripping, general handling, storage, shipping
and erection.
4. Review the creep, shrinkage and temperature
behaviour of the building as a whole to ensure
that the structural behaviour of the elements is
not influenced adversely, and determine if non-
structural items such as partitions, glass, and
sealants will be affected.
5. Check proposed connection types and concepts
to determine their suitability and capability to
resist the various applied loads. In some cases,
local practice may suggest one type of
connection over another, for example, the use of
bolts rather than welds. Ensure that all
connections will be accessible, where required.
5.5.4 Load Bearing Spandrels

General
Load bearing spandrels are elements that support
floor or roof loads. Except for the magnitude and
location of these additional loads, the design
5.5.3 Order of Solution consideration for load bearing spandrels is the same
as for non-load bearing spandrels.
The order of solution can be divided into the following
categories: Loads
1. Determine the design loads, both gravity and Load bearing spandrels support structural loads that
lateral, applied to the elements as a whole, and are generally applied eccentrically to the shear centre
identify the areas subjected to the greatest of the element. A typical arrangement of spandrels
loading. supporting a floor is shown in Fig. 5.5.3.
2. Select the size and shape of the wall elements. Fig. 5.5.3 Load bearing spandrel
This will be influenced by the architectural
details and location of the vertical and horizontal
element to element connections.
Development of connection details must
consider such questions as:
a) Do the details lend themselves to
standardization?
b) Will volume change deformations (creep,
shrinkage, and temperature) influence the
detail or the connection design?
c) Can the details be plant-produced within
the required tolerances to provide adequate
quality and strength?
d) Can the details be maintained in the field
within the required tolerances to provide
adequate quality and strength?

Torsion due to eccentric loading must be resisted by Fig. 5.6.1 Non-composite and composite
the spandrel itself, or by a horizontal couple elements
developed by the floor construction. To take care of
torsion in the floor construction, the details must
provide for a compressive force transfer at the top of
the floor, and a tensile force transfer at the bearing of
the precast floor element. The load path of these floor
forces must be followed through the structure, and
considered in the design of other elements in the
building. Even when torsion is resisted in this manner
in the completed structure, twisting of the spandrel
during construction must be considered.
If torsion cannot be removed by floor connections, the
spandrel should be designed for the induced
stresses.
5.6 SANDWICH PANELS

Sandwich panels are comprised of two concrete
wythes separated by a layer of insulation. Depending
on the design, an air space between a pervious
exterior wythe such as stone or masonry and the
insulation may be required. The introduction of an air
space behind the face wythe of concrete is not
necessary in concrete faced panels as the face wythe
is virtually impervious to water penetration.
Sandwich panels provide a means of transferring
load while insulating a structure. Panels may be
cladding elements, where they support only their own
weight and transfer lateral loads to the supporting
structure, or they may act as beams, bearing
elements or shear walls, transferring loads applied
from other parts of the structure.
5.6.1 Non-Composite Design

Non-composite elements are panels where the outer
wythe is supported by the inner wythe using relatively
flexible ties or hangers, that accommodate differential
movement of the two wythes due to changing
temperatures and humidity conditions. The inner
wythe transfers vertical and lateral loads to the
structural framework and supports the weight of the
outer wythe. The structural inner wythe is normally
thicker and stiffer than the outer non-structural wythe.
Exceptions to this are cases, such as insulated
double tee wall panels, where the outer wythe may are elements where the exterior wythe consists of
be load bearing. The lateral tie-back connections natural stone or masonry.
require special attention in these cases.
In non-composite elements, one wythe provides the
Air gap sandwich panels are elements where an air total structural function and is analyzed assuming no
space is provided behind the veneer facing to allow structural interaction with the other parts of the
moisture penetrating the pervious exterior facing to element, although some limited amount of shear
drain to the exterior of the assembly. [5] Examples transfer may occur. See Fig. 5.6.1(a).

5.6.2 Composite Design 5.6.6 Bond Breakers
Composite elements are panels where the inner and Rigid insulation is capable of transferring shear
outer wythes are interconnected through the between the concrete wythes. The degree of shear
insulation by means of rigid ties or regions of solid transfer depends on the thickness and the properties
concrete that restrict relative movement between the of the insulation. It is not necessary to break the bond
wythes. The two wythes act together to resist between the insulation and one of the concrete
externally applied loads. Wythe interaction may be wythes of non-composite elements. The initial bond
total or partial depending on the rigidity of the between concrete and insulation may be beneficial
connector system. during stripping as concrete strengths are lower at
When a composite element has the same overall this time.
thickness as a non-composite element, the composite
5.6.7 Vapour Barriers
element will demonstrate greater stiffness. See Fig.
5.6.1(b). Deformation of the outer wythe will affect the A 50 mm thickness of concrete is normally regarded
inner wythe. Composite panels are subject to thermal as a satisfactory vapour barrier. [6]
bowing. The introduction of prestress in both wythes
of a composite element can be used to induce a 5.6.8 Wythe Design
negative bow to counteract the tendency of the
The minimum thickness of panel wythes is dependent
element to bow outwards.
upon structural requirements, finish, reinforcement,
In some designs, a solid concrete rib between the protection, handling considerations and past
wythes is required for bearing. Freedom of movement experience.
can be provided at the other three sides.
Non-structural wythe (non-composite elements)
5.6.3 Curing
The wythe should be as thin as architectural details
No special precautions are required for curing the will permit to minimize differential temperature
lower cast wythe of sandwich panels that is protected effects. The following limitations are applicable:
by the insulation and retains the heat of hydration
increasing the early strength of the concrete. The 1. At the thinnest point, thickness should not be
heat generated by large precast elements can be less than 50 mm, but preferably 65 mm.
significant. The shock effect of rapid cooling can 2. Thickness should be sufficient to provide proper
cause cracking of the lower cast wythe in extreme reinforcement cover, in accordance with the
winter temperatures. Temperature changes should be applicable codes.
kept within reasonable levels when stripping and
yarding sandwich panels. 3. Thickness should be sufficient to provide the
required anchorage of wythe connectors.
5.6.4 Flexural Analysis
A discussion of the principles of sandwich panel 4. The minimum thickness should not be less than
design can be found in Sect. 3.11. three times the maximum aggregate size.
5.6.5 Insulation Structural wythe (non-composite and composite

elements)
The thermal properties of insulation and concrete are
discussed in Sect. 6.1. Insulation with an aluminum The thickness of the structural wythe should be
foil coating should be avoided due to the reaction determined by structural analysis, and to
between aluminum and concrete. accommodate architectural details. The wythe should
not be less than 75 mm thick.
The thickness of the insulation is usually determined
by project specifications, the thermal characteristics The limitations listed above for the non-structural
of the insulating material and the design temperature wythe should also be considered. Panels require
range of the structure. A minimum insulation lateral connections at the top and bottom and may
thickness of 50 mm is recommended, with no have lateral ties at midspan and/or connections to the
limitation on maximum thickness. The deflection adjacent elements to prevent differential bowing. Top
characteristics of the inter-wythe connectors should hung elements eccentrically supported will bow
be considered in relation to the insulation thickness. outwards less than bottom supported units.

5.6.9 Element Size Fig. 5.6.2 Typical shear connectors
The size of elements will be primarily determined by
architectural considerations. Additionally, the
following restrictions are applicable:
1. The maximum dimensions and weight should be
determined based on transportation, handling
and erection limitations.
2. a) The maximum dimension for non-composite
panels should be in the order of:
L = 48 t
b) The maximum dimension for prestressed
composite elements should be in the order
of:
L = 60 t
L = maximum dimension
t = overall thickness of element
excluding any ribs
Expanded metal or a steel truss can be installed or
The above suggested lengths are empirical and
tied to the reinforcement to connect the concrete
based on experience. Where bowing can be
wythes as shown in Fig. 5.6.2(e). Cut or continuous
accommodated, these values may be exceeded by
sections may be used to provide one-dimensional
experienced CPCI member manufacturers.
shear capacity. Simple tie rods are also used as
Larger panel sizes may be accommodated using tension/compression ties to resist wind loads and
concrete with a low water to cementitious materials prevent wythe separation.
ratio.
For ribbed insulated elements, it is best to position
5.6.10 Wythe Connectors the shear connectors in the rib area of the element
(Fig. 5.6.3). This makes it easier to position and
General considerations
ensure proper embedment depths for the
For non-composite elements, the weight of the outer reinforcement connecting the two concrete wythes.
wythe must be transferred to the inner structural
In non-composite panels, it is preferable to have only
wythe. This is generally accomplished using shear
one anchoring centre due to expansion and
connectors and tension/compression ties passing
contraction. In an element with two ribs, a shear
through the insulation at regularly spaced intervals. A
connector can be positioned in either of the ribs and a
less desirable alternative to the use of shear
flat anchor can be positioned vertically in the other
connectors is to provide a solid concrete rib at the
rib. The flat anchor should have the same vertical
bottom of the element to serve as a support and allow
shear capacity as the shear connector, and should be
the wythes to move without restraint. The solid rib is
located on the same horizontal axis. The flat anchor
usually located at the foundation to minimize the
has little or no horizontal shear capacity and therefore
effects of thermal bridging.
the horizontal restraint of the exterior concrete face
Shear connectors by this anchor is minimized, (Fig. 5.6.4). In a multi-
ribbed element, the shear connector should be
The vertical shear load is carried by the inclined legs
positioned in the rib closest to the centre, with flat
of 10M reinforcing bars bent into the configurations
anchors used in the other ribs as required.
shown in Fig. 5.6.2 (a), (b), (c) and (f). The use of
stainless steel reinforcing bar is only required in Tension/compression ties
panels with an air space. Galvanized mild steel
Examples of ties are shown in Fig. 5.6.5.
reinforcing bars are adequate in all other types of
panels. These bars are usually placed parallel to the Wire tie connectors are generally 6 mm in diameter
vertical axis of the element. Sometimes, additional made from Type 304 or Type 316 stainless or
bars are placed parallel to the horizontal axis to allow galvanized steel. Stainless steel connectors are
for element rotation, torsional forces or special shear preferred in elements with porous facings such as
requirements. limestone or brick. Refer to A370 - Connectors for

Fig. 5.6.3 Shear connector for ribbed element Fig. 5.6.5 Tension/compression ties
Fig. 5.6.4 Anchorage for ribbed elements
Safe load
A (mm) B (mm) Note
(kN)
9 160 155 Use a minimum of 2,
18 320 155 6 mm diameter rods top
27 475 155 and bottom of flat sleeve
36 640 155 anchor to maintain stability.
Masonry" for further information. Plastic connectors

are also acceptable; however, consideration may
have to be given to the fire resistance of plastic ties.
Ties of welded wire fabric, conforming to G30.5, or ductile to withstand 5,000 cycles of reversal at an
reinforcing bars, conforming to G30.18 are amplitude of 3 mm.
acceptable. Shaped, crimped, or bent ties should be
cold bent. Tension/compression ties should be flexible enough
to avoid significant resistance to temperature and
Connectors intended to accommodate differential shrinkage movements in the plane of the element
movement between wythes should be sufficiently surface.

Fig. 5.6.6 Functional behaviour of connectors Fig. 5.6.7 Arrangement of connectors between
wythes
Ties should have sufficient anchorage in each wythe

to safely transfer the applied loads. This can be
accomplished by hooking around or tying to the
reinforcement, or by bending or deforming the ends
of the ties.
At the time of stripping with a non-structural wythe
cast face down, ties acting in tension will transfer the
weight of the exterior wythe and any form suction to
the structural wythe.
Ties will act in tension or compression under wind
pressure, or suction. While it is probable that the
insulation will act to transfer wind compression, it is
recommended that only the ties, acting in Arrangement
compression, be assumed effective.
Satisfactory connector layout requires an assessment
Horizontal shear ties should be provided for handling of element geometry and weight, anticipated
and racking loads, such as inertia forces developed movement of the exterior wythe, and a knowledge of
during seismic activity or earthquakes. The functional tie material strength and flexibility characteristics
behaviour of connectors is illustrated in Fig. 5.6.6. which have been established by tests.

The exterior wythe will move in response to The tendency of elements to bow is influenced
environmental changes and concrete shrinkage. To primarily by element size, the rigidity of connection
accommodate this movement without distress, the between the wythes, and daily temperature variations
connectors should be sufficiently flexible in the on the exterior face. Differential movement between
direction of movement to prevent undue restraint. adjacent elements is generally not a problem. The
effect of thermal bowing can be satisfactorily
In the erected position, the device that transfers the
accommodated through good design and detailing
weight of the non-structural wythe to the structural
practices.
wythe should ideally be a single element or a closely
spaced pair of elements located near the centre of For elements with large openings, joints in the outer
the element. This arrangement will permit the non- wythe at the corners of such openings are desirable.
structural wythe to expand and contract with the least These joints may extend through to the insulation
amount of total restraint (Fig. 5.6.7 (a)). layer and may subsequently be caulked or treated
architecturally, in the same manner as the joints
The shear centre of the connectors need not be at
between elements.
the centre of mass; however, a maximum of 3 mm
maximum differential movement between wythes is Control joints should be provided in large non-
recommended. The shear connectors can be located composite elements to divide the outer wythe into
along two lines at right angles (Fig. 5.6.7 (b)). The smaller units to provide for the possibility of cracking
tension/compression ties that are used solely to due to extreme temperature changes or from
transfer weight during stripping or direct wind forces shrinkage and creep of the concrete. The pattern for
should not unduly restrain lateral movement. these control joints becomes an important
architectural feature.
Additional forces due to torsion should be considered
when the shear centre of the connectors cannot be Corners
located near the centre of mass of the supported
wythe. Similar consideration is required when the Sandwich wall panels require special details at the
lateral (racking) force is not coincident with the shear corners of structures due to bowing. Mitred corners
centre in that direction. must be restrained for the joints to perform
satisfactorily. Joints at corners are not as easily
The tension and compression ties within the field of the sealed as bowing occurs in two different planes.
element should be approximately 600 mm on centre. Elements, even with small returns, will be stiffer than
Around the perimeter of an element and openings adjacent elements and joints on both sides of the
larger than 600 mm, ties should not be located more corner should be restrained. Restrained corners must
than 300 mm from the edge (Fig. 5.6.7). be adequately reinforced to resist the restraint forces.
5.6.11 General Architectural Design Special corner units that are not flush with the
Considerations adjacent elements can be effectively used to hide
bowing at corners, (Fig. 5.6.8).
The architectural design of sandwich panels is similar
to that of solid architectural elements, with the 5.7 AESTHETIC AND BUILDING
following special considerations: ENVELOPE CONSIDERATIONS
Bowing
5.7.1 General
A recognized characteristic of composite sandwich
panels is the tendency of elements to bow outwards The aesthetic requirements of projects vary widely
under prolonged exposure to the sun. There is, and must be determined with the scale of the
however, less tendency to develop thermal bowing in structure and site considerations in mind. Concrete is
non-composite sandwich panels. formed while in a plastic state allowing for the
creation of designs that are virtually limitless and
The inner wythe of temperature-controlled buildings is cannot be accommodated with many other materials.
kept at a constant temperature with little thermal The introduction of profiles, panel joints and reveals
variation. Although the exterior wythe experiences or false joints will change the overall appearance of a
extreme temperature variations, the temperature structure.
gradient in each of the wythes is minimal. This
minimizes thermal bowing of non-composite The architects selection of colour and texture have a
sandwich panels. dramatic effect on the aesthetics of a structure.

Fig. 5.6.8 Architectural and structural details

When the available aggregate colours and sizes are tolerances as will the precast. By setting the precast
combined with different matrix colours and finishing proud of these materials, construction tolerances and
techniques, a wide range of colours can be achieved. variations in the material behaviour will be hidden
from view.
The acceptable range of finish and texture should be
considered when the desired finish is specified and 5.8 VENEER FACED ELEMENTS
finally approved. The expected range of some
finishes is much wider than others due to variations in 5.8.1 General
the aggregate source, colour and size and the
finishing technique. A uniform finish on a light Finishes using materials such as natural cut stone,
sandblast finish is more difficult to achieve than a brick, structural tile, and architectural terra cotta
medium or heavy sandblast finish. The presence of (ceramic veneers) provide a wide variety of colours
air or bug holes in a light sandblast finish will be and textures for precast units.
much more apparent than in a medium sandblast Some advantages of using veneer faced elements
finish due to the texture of the finish and the affect of are:
light on this texture.
1. Thinner veneers can be used in precast panels
The development of samples will aid in the than those required for field set construction.
determination of an acceptable finish. Samples
should be viewed from a distance of no less than 10 2. Veneers can be readily attached to the face of
metres and on taller structures, usually at one third multi-plane units, such as column covers,
the building height for determination of colour and spandrels with integral soffit and sill sections,
texture uniformity. Once a project has been awarded, deep reveal window frames and parapet
a minimum of three (3) 1 metre square range sections, (Fig. 5.8.1). These are often
samples should be produced to determine the impractical or expensive to construct on site.
expected range of finishes. Fig. 5.8.1 Applications of veneer faced precast
It is inevitable that some damage will occur to the
precast during shipping and erection. Patching
samples may be requested to determine the
capability of the precaster to repair this damage and
the amount of damage that can be tolerated.
Mockups may also be requested to determine the
constructability and efficiency of the interfaces
between the different materials in the building
envelope.
Placement in relation to supporting structure
Precast panels should extend above or below the
surfaces of slabs to mask the variations in the cast in
place concrete or steel structure behind. The panels
should also be placed a minimum of 25 mm away
from the supporting structure to accommodate
construction tolerances in the building frame. The
tops of panels should also extend a sufficient
distance above the top surface of slabs or beams to
accommodate working from the slab without the need
for ladders or lifts
Interfacing with other wall materials
No attempt should be made to make other materials,
such as curtainwall sections, windows or doors, flush
with the precast concrete face. These materials will
not behave in the same manner as the precast when
subjected to temperature and volume changes.
These materials will also have construction

Fig. 5.8.2 Range of natural stone properties
Modulus of Coef. of thermal
Compression Tension Modulus of
Type Shear (MPa) elasticity expansion
(MPa) (MPa) rupture (MPa)
(MPa 10 ) (106mm/(mmC))
3
Granite 70 - 280 4.1 - 6.9 7.6 - 20.7 13.8 - 29.7 39 - 66 8.1 (avg.)
Limestone 28 - 70 2.1 - 2.6 4.8 - 8.3 6.2 - 12.4 21 - 37 4.3 - 5.4

(1)
41 - 105 7.6 - 17.9 11.4 - 33.1 13 - 90
Marble 2.8 - 15.9 3.8 - 22.1
52 - 115.5(2) 7.6 - 18.6 16.2 - 29.7 30 - 102
Serpentine 76 - 193 5.5 - 11.0 17.9 - 34.5 33 - 66
Sandstone 35 - 140 1.9 - 3.5 3.5 - 6.9 2.1 - 20.7 13 - 53 11
Slate 48 - 214 20.7 - 30.0 27.6 - 62.1 13.8 - 24.8 62 - 103 10

(1) Parallel with respect to the bedding / cleavage planes
(2) Perpendicular with repect to the bedding / cleavage planes
3. The erection of the precast units is faster and An air space should be provided between a porous
more economical than field set construction veneer and the backup concrete. In these elements,
because panels can incorporate a large number the veneer is subjected to a significantly reduced
of veneer pieces and may include insulation, wind load than that arising from gust effects as the air
interior finishes and windows. space is vented to the outside (rain screen).
The fabrication, handling and erection of stone-faced The strength of the facing veneer material must be
elements is similar to that of traditional precast determined and an appropriate anchor system
elements. Special handling and shipping procedures chosen to ensure the adequacy of the veneer to
are required for more complex units such as those resist flexural stresses during handling,
shown in Fig. 5.8.1. transportation, erection and final loading.
Many veneers exhibit different physical properties Bowing of veneer elements can occur. The amount of
and structural behaviour to that of the precast bowing depends upon:
concrete backup. Tensile, compressive and shear 1. size, type and colour of veneer
strength, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal
expansion, creep and shrinkage are physical 2. location and orientation on the structure
properties that must be reviewed. Other factors 3. location and method of connection of the veneer
influencing interaction are temporary and permanent to the back-up
applied loads, and thermal cycling. The behaviour of For cut stone finishes, emphasis on samples and
an assembly is also dependent upon the mock-up units is particularly important. Supplemental
configuration of the element, i.e., the relative tests of the behaviour of the unit for anticipated
thickness of the basic components, and the location temperature changes may be required. Durability of
of insulation in the wall assembly. the combined unit should be based on past
Veneers may be either bonded to or isolated from the performance.
concrete back-up, however, bonding is not Full scale mock-up units are recommended to verify
recommended for large veneer sections. the design performance for new and major
applications. Tests may be performed on sample
When isolation of the veneers is required, the
elements to confirm the suitability of the cut stone
following bond breakers are recommended:
and anchors and to determine the effects of in-
1. a polyethylene sheet service loads and bowing.
2. a polyethylene foam pad 5.8.2 Reinforcement

3. an air gap Cover depth of reinforcement in veneer faced backup
panels must be a minimum of 15 mm (A23.4).
The bond breaker will render the veneer non-
composite provided the anchor arrangement does not
limit the free movement of the veneer.

5.8.3 Natural Stone between the veneer and the concrete to allow for
independent movement.
Natural stone veneers can be cut to various sizes and
shapes. Different colour and texture combinations Stone veneer is usually supplied with holes predrilled
can provide a wide variety of aesthetic in the back surface for the attachment of mechanical
possibilities. [7] anchors. Generally, for sound, dense veneer
materials, four anchors should be used for each
Properties
square metre of veneer, with a recommended
The structural properties of natural stone veneers spacing of 500 mm between anchors and a minimum
depend on several factors; the rift and cleavage of of two anchors per piece of veneer. Four anchors
crystals, the degree of cohesion, the interlocking of should normally be used for square or approximately
crystals and the nature of the cementing materials. square pieces.
Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks will exhibit Note that for limestone veneers, a moisture barrier is
differing strengths parallel and perpendicular to their recommended at the concrete face to eliminate a
original bedding planes. The properties of a given possible chemical reaction between the limestone
type of stone will vary depending on the quarry of and the concrete that could stain the exposed face.
origin. Specific data should be obtained from stone
Anchor size and spacing in veneers of variable
suppliers. The range of properties for common
strength or with natural planes of weakness will
building stone is given in Fig. 5.8.2. These values will
require special analysis. The depth of holes, drilled at
serve as a guide for preliminary design.
an angle of 30 to 45 to the plane of the stone,
Size and thickness should be approximately one-half the thickness of the
veneer. The anchors should be bonded to the veneer
Piece size, manufacturing process, handling,
using a moisture-resistant epoxy filler compatible with
finishing, anchorage type and colour range will
the stone. Rubber or silicone sleeves slipped over the
govern the veneer thickness.
anchors adjacent to the back face of the veneer
Granite is an excellent material for exterior use. should be used to accommodate the differential
Granite veneer can be fabricated in thicknesses from coefficients of thermal expansion of the veneer and
20 mm to 50 mm. the precast concrete backup. Thicker foam bond
breakers can also be used for this purpose.
Marble and limestone, although softer than granite,
can also be used. Limestone can be fabricated in Anchors are produced in a variety of shapes and
thicknesses from 40 mm to 125 mm depending on sizes. Preformed anchors fabricated from stainless
the size, finish and material properties. steel are commonly used. Typical details for natural
stone veneers are shown in Fig. 5.8.3. Fig. 5.8.3 (a),
Codes may specify minimum thickness and maximum
(b) and (c) present anchor details for marble, granite
stone dimensions. Stone suppliers should be required
and limestone veneers respectively. Fig. 5.8.3 (d)
to provide material properties and recommended
illustrates a typical cross anchor dowel detail.
sizes and thicknesses.
Truss anchors, shown in Fig. 5.8.4, are used for fully
The length and width of veneer materials should be
insulated elements. Anchors should preferably be
sized to a tolerance of plus zero, minus 3 mm.
located at joints in the insulation. The methods shown
Flatness tolerances for finished surfaces will vary,
in Fig. 5.8.4 (a) and (b) have tended to replace the
depending on the type of finish. For example, granite
arrangement shown in Fig. 5.8.4(c) in which the
industry tolerances vary from 1.2 mm for polished
anchor is embedded in a concrete cylinder formed by
surfaces to 4.8 mm for flame (thermal finishes) when
a hole drilled in the insulation. All methods are in
measured with a 1,200 mm straightedge. Thickness
current use, although the thermal advantages of the
variations are not as important. Differences in
truss system are clear.
thickness can be accommodated in the concrete
backup. The precast manufacturer should submit test reports
on the veneer anchoring system proposed for use
Anchorage of stone facing
unless the anchoring system has been used
Connection of natural stone to the concrete should be successfully in the past. Test samples should be a
made with mechanical anchors that will accommodate typical element section of approximately 0.25 square
some movement, (Fig. 5.8.3). metres and should approximate as closely as
possible actual element anchoring conditions.
Bonding of the backup concrete to the stone veneer
should be prevented. A bond breaker should be used

Fig. 5.8.3 Typical anchor details for stone veneers for bonded and unbonded elements
Note: Recommended safety factor for galvanized deformed bar is 8.

Fig. 5.8.4 Typical anchor details for stone precast elements. A minimum width of 6 mm is
veneers for insulated sandwich panels recommended.
Caulking used for the joints in the veneer should be
non-staining to the veneer material. Panels may be
caulked in the factory where it can be carried out
efficiently and inexpensively.
5.8.4 Structural Clay Products

Clay products that are bonded directly to the precast
concrete include brick, structural facing tile, and
architectural terra cotta (ceramic veneer). These
materials have different mechanical properties
compared to the precast and must be chosen
carefully. Where required for exterior use, high
strength, low permeability brick should be used. The
manufacturer of the clay product should be consulted
to determine suitability.
Ceramic glazed units may craze from freeze-thaw
cycles or the bond may fail on exposure to the
elements. Since ceramic glazed units have very low
permeance to water vapour, it is recommended that a
vapour barrier be installed on the warm side of walls
enclosing areas in which the average relative
humidity is expected to exceed 50%.
Clay product faced precast elements may be
designed as concrete elements, neglecting, for
design purposes, the structural action of the face
veneer. The thickness of the precast elements, in this
case, is reduced by the thickness of the veneer.
Design assumptions often exclude consideration of
differential shrinkage or thermal expansion. If the
element is to be prestressed, the effect of composite
behaviour and the resulting prestress eccentricity
must be recognized and considered in design.
A bond breaker should be used during sample
manufacture to eliminate any bond between the Sizes
veneer and the backup concrete.
The selection of brick shapes and sizes depends on
Each test sample should contain at least two anchors local availability. Brick manufacturers should be
connecting the stone veneer to the concrete backup. consulted early in the design stage to determine the
If the anchoring system has not been used previously manufacturing capability for special shapes, sizes
or with less than satisfactory results, a minimum of and tolerances. In addition to standard shapes and
ten tests should be conducted on samples to sizes, brick may be available from some suppliers in
determine the ultimate pullout and shear strength of veneer thickness, and also 1/2 to 1/4 standard brick
each anchor. thickness. Brick Liners are available for holding the
bricks during casting of the elements. These liners
Veneer jointing
are available in single-use and multi-use versions.
A non-staining, chemically neutral, resilient, backer Some liners eliminate the need for brick coating prior
rod that will not adversely affect the sealant should be to use by sealing the edges, preventing the flow of
installed in the veneer joints. Backup concrete slurry to the brick face. When self sealing liners are
should be prevented from entering any portion of the used, brick size variation is important and may
joint between the veneer units. Joint width between require a tighter tolerance on brick size. Brick size
veneer units is an architectural feature and may or tolerances should be discussed with both the brick
may not be equal to the specified joint width between and brick liner manufacturer prior to ordering.

Fig. 5.8.5 Wall ties Fig. 5.8.6 Spacing and staggering of metal ties
(where required)
Architectural terra cotta (ceramic veneer) is a custom

product and, within limitations, is produced in sizes
specified for specific projects. Two sizes of units are
usually manufactured. These are 30 mm thick units, Corrosion resistance is usually provided by coating
510 mm wide x 760 mm long and include dovetail the metal with zinc or copper. To ensure adequate
slots spaced at 125 mm o/c, and 55 mm thick units, resistance to corrosion, coatings should conform to
815 mm wide x 1220 mm long and include dovetail the following ASTM specifications:
slots spaced at 180 mm o/c.
1. zinc coated ties - A 153, class B1, B2 or B3
Bond
2. zinc coated wire - A 116, class 2 or 3
The bonding surface of clay products is important for
bond. Smooth, dense, heavily sanded or glazed 3. copper coated wire - B 277, grade 30HS
surfaces are usually not satisfactory where high bond Non-corroding ties should be made of ASTM type
is required. Textures that may be specified to give 301 or 304 stainless steel, copper or bronze.
increased bond include scored finish, in which the
surface is grooved as it comes from the die; combed When ties are used, the brick joints are grouted and
finish, where the surface is altered by parallel the ties placed into the horizontal joint as the wet
scratches; and roughened finish, produced by wire grout is placed. The required concrete reinforcement
cutting or wire brushing to completely remove the is anchored in place after the brickwork grout has
smooth surface or die skin from the extrusion achieved its initial set. The concrete is then placed
process. and cured.
When die skin or heavily sanded brick must be used, The backside of terra cotta units should have
a mechanical bond is required. The ties used may be dovetails in order to develop adequate bond to the
those specified for cavity wall construction, such as concrete.
the 5 mm diameter Z-ties, rectangular shaped ties, Absorption
prefabricated truss ties, or ladder wire ties, shown in
Fig. 5.8.5. With the other brick surfaces mentioned Brick with an initial rate of absorption (suction) less
above, ties are not required. than 1 mg/mm2/min net area when tested in
accordance with CSA A82.2, "Methods of Sampling
Where ties are required, there should be one for each and Testing Brick," is not required to be wetted.
0.40 square metres of wall area. Ties in alternate However, brick with high suction or with an initial rate
courses should be staggered. The maximum vertical of absorption in excess of 1 mg/mm2/min should be
distance between ties should not exceed 600 mm, wetted to reduce the suction, and thereby improve
and the maximum horizontal distance should not bond, prior to placement of the concrete.
exceed 900 mm. (see Fig. 5.8.6.)
Terra cotta units must be soaked in water for at least
Additional bonding ties should be provided at all one hour to reduce suction. They should be damp at
openings, spaced not more than 900 mm apart the time of concrete placement.
around the perimeter and within 300 mm of the Properties
opening. Ties should be of corrosion-resistant or non-
corroding metal depending on the application. Engineering properties of brick vary considerably
Reference should be made to A370 "Connectors for depending on the source and grade of brick. Figure
Masonry" and A371 "Masonry Construction for 5.8.7 shows the classification by compressive
Buildings" for guidance as to when ties should be strength of brick manufactured in Canada. Figure
non-corrosive or corrosion-resistant. 5.8.8 shows the physical requirements of the brick.

Fig. 5.8.7 Classification of brick by compressive Clay bricks, when removed from the kiln after firing,
strength will begin to permanently increase in size as a result
of absorption of atmospheric moisture. The design
Compressive strength (MPa)
coefficient for moisture expansion of clay bricks can
Average of Individual vary between .0002 and .0005 mm/mm and must be
Designation
5 brick minimum
considered in the design of brick or tile faced
Type I
concrete elements.
(exposed)
A 18 to 30 16 Figure 5.8.9 shows the relation of compressive
B 30 to 42 27 strength of structural clay tile to absorption. For the
same tile design, this relationship might be expected
C 42 to 55 38
to be reasonably constant; however, the same
D 55 to 70 50 relationship would not be expected to hold for tile of
E Over 70 63 different designs.
Relative temperature and moisture movements of
Type II
concrete, brick, tile and mortar are shown in Fig.
(not exposed) 11 and over 10
5.8.10.
Note: This classification conforms essentially to that given in the
current National Building Code of Canada that relates The modulus of elasticity of structural tile varies from
compressive strength to the load requirements of 12,000 to 43,000 MPa and Poisson's ratio from 0.05
masonry. Type I Brick, A, B, C, D, and E are suitable for to 0.10. Tile has an average coefficient of thermal
expansion of 5.9 10 mm/(mm C).
-6
exposed masonry, and when load-bearing capacity is not
critical, the selection may be made according to colour
The compressive strength of terra cotta units usually
and texture.
ranges from 55 to 76 MPa, and the
As the temperature or length of burning period is average coefficient of thermal expansion is
increased, clays burn to darker colours, and 7.2 10-6 mm/mm/C).
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity are All clay products are subject to such local variation
increased. The modulus of elasticity of brick ranges that the designer should obtain values from all
from 10,000 to 35,000 MPa and Poisson's ratio from suppliers being considered.
0.04 to 0.11. In general, the modulus of elasticity of
brick increases with compressive strength up to a Insulated sandwich elements
strength of approximately 35 MPa. After this, there is Clay products can be combined with insulation and
little change. back-up concrete to construct fully insulated
The average coefficient of thermal expansion of brick sandwich elements similar to the stone faced
is 10 x 10 mm/(mm C). The thermal expansion of
-6
elements mentioned earlier. A suggested solution for
clay units is not the same as the thermal expansion of anchorage for gravity, seismic and lateral loads is
brick-faced precast elements due to joints. shown in Fig. 5.8.11.

Fig. 5.8.8 Physical requirements
Minimum compressive
Maximum water
strength
Designation absorption by 5-h boiling Maximum saturation coefficient
(brick flatwise) (MPa)
(per cent)
gross area
Average of 5 Average of 5 Average of 5
Individual Individual Individual
brick brick brick
Type I 18 16 22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
Brick
(Exposed)
Type II 11 10 No Limit No Limit No Limit No Limit

Brick (Not
Exposed)
Note: The saturation coefficient or C B Ratio is the ratio of absorption by 24-h submersion in cold water to that after 5-h submersion in
boiling water.
Fig. 5.8.9 Compressive strength and absorption of structural clay tile

Fig. 5.8.10 Relative temperature and moisture movements of concrete, brick, tile and mortar
Fig. 5.8.11 Anchor details for brick veneer for insulated sandwich panels

inspect the exterior finish at ground level, prior to
the cast-in-place concrete being placed. The
removal of the exterior form, the patching of form
anchor holes and the presence of these surface
imperfections is eliminated.
2. The Engineer may employ the precast concrete

form as a portion of the structural support
system. Structural continuity may be achieved
by effectively tieing the precast forms to the
cast-in-place concrete backup. Ductility can be
readily achieved in high seismic zones. [8,9]
3. The Contractor and Owner can benefit from
reduced construction time due to the savings in
the erection of complex formwork. The precast
concrete panels can be manufactured in
advance of concrete placement to permit greater
flexibility and continuity in concrete operations.
The precast units can be erected quickly as
large sections rather than small individual pieces
Toronto City Hall as in conventional construction.
Historic Project opened in 1965
East Tower (27 Storeys) and West Tower (20 Storeys)
were constructed using architectural precast panels with strips of 5.9.2 Design
Italian marble embedded in the exterior. Panels were erected as
exterior formwork for the cast-in-place office structural frames. For the design of formwork, reference should be
made to ACI Committee 347, Recommended
5.9 PRECAST CONCRETE USED AS Practice for Concrete Formwork, (ACI 347). [9]
FORMS
5.9.3 Construction Considerations
5.9.1 General
Realistic assumptions are required to implement this
Architectural precast concrete elements may be used design concept effectively. The support and bracing
as exterior formwork for cast-in-place concrete. of precast elements prior to and during the placement
Advantages include: of concrete must be determined prior to the
1. Architects are free to choose the shapes, form completion of the design. A mock-up may be
and finish of a structure, with the minimal necessary to validate the proposed construction
restrictions that apply to precast concrete. The procedures. The mock-up may also assist in
use of precast concrete ensures a uniform, high determining the appropriate element shape, size,
quality facade with the desired shapes, colours finish, joint placement and connection design.
and textures. Precasting makes it possible to

5.10 REFERENCES
[1] Architectural Precast Concrete Walls and [7] McDaniel, W. Bryant, Marble-Faced Precast
Structure Best Practice Guide, 2002, (revised Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V, 12, No. 4, August,
2006), Canada Mortgage and Housing 1967, pp 29-37.
Corporation, Ottawa, CA
Marble-Faced Precast Panels, National
[2] PCI Architectural Precast Concrete 3rd Edition Association of Marble Producers, Downsview,
2007 Precast / Prestressed Concrete Institute, Ontario. 1966.
Chicago, IL
[8] Mantell, C.L., Engineering Materials Handbook,
[3] PCI Architectural Precast Concrete Drafting McGraw-Hill Book Co., Toronto, Ontario
Handbook, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
[9] ACI Committee 347, Precast Concrete Units
Institute, Chicago, IL
Used as Forms for Cast-in-Place Concrete, ACI
[4] Speyer, Irwin J., Considerations for the Design of JOURNAL, Proceedings V.66, No. 10, October,
Precast Concrete Bearing Wall Buildings to 1969, pp 798-813.
Withstand Abnormal Loads, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
[10] Kulka, Felix, Lin, T.Y., and Yang, Y.C.
21, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1976, pp. 18-51.
Prestressed Concrete Building Construction
[5] Latta, J.K., Precast Concrete Walls - A New Using Precast Wall Panels, PCI JOURNAL,
Basis for Design, Canadian Building Digest, CBD V.20, No. 1, Jan - Feb, 1975, pp 62-72.
94, Oct. 1967.
[6] Neville, A.M. Properties of Concrete, Pitman
Publishing Limited, London, U.K.

CHAPTER 6
RELATED CONSIDERATIONS
6.1 THE BUILDING ENVELOPE ........................................................................................... 6-3
6.1.1 Notation .............................................................................................................. 6-3
6.1.2 Glossary.............................................................................................................. 6-3
6.1.3 General ............................................................................................................... 6-4
6.1.4 Heating and Cooling Energy .............................................................................. 6-6
6.1.5 Calculation of RSI-Value .................................................................................... 6-8
6.1.6 Calculation of Temperature Gradient ............................................................... 6-12
6.1.7 Temperature Index ........................................................................................... 6-13
6.2 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES ....................................................................................... 6-14
6.2.1 Notation ............................................................................................................ 6-14
6.2.2 Definitions ......................................................................................................... 6-14
6.2.3 General ............................................................................................................. 6-14
6.2.4 Architectural Acoustics ..................................................................................... 6-15
6.2.5 Airborne Sound................................................................................................. 6-15
6.2.6 Impact Sound Transmission ............................................................................. 6-18
6.2.7 Sound Insulation in Multi-unit Dwellings........................................................... 6-19
6.2.8 Insulation from Outdoor Noise.......................................................................... 6-20
6.2.9 Concrete Floors and Concrete and Masonry Walls ......................................... 6-20
6.2.10 Control of Structureborne Noise in Buildings ................................................... 6-23
6.2.11 Sound Leaks..................................................................................................... 6-23
6.2.12 Sound Absorption of Concrete ......................................................................... 6-24
6.2.13 Highway Noise Barriers .................................................................................... 6-24
6.3 FIRE RESISTANCE ...................................................................................................... 6-24
6.3.1 Notation ............................................................................................................ 6-24
6.3.2 Definitions ......................................................................................................... 6-25
6.3.3 Introduction....................................................................................................... 6-25
6.3.4 Standard Fire Tests .......................................................................................... 6-26
6.3.5 Designing for Heat Transmission ..................................................................... 6-29
6.3.6 Balanced Design .............................................................................................. 6-31
6.3.7 Designing for Structural Integrity ...................................................................... 6-33
6.3.8 CPCI Manual, Fire Resistance Ratings for Prestressed
and Precast Concrete....................................................................................... 6-42
6.4 VIBRATION IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES................................................................ 6-42
6.4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 6-42
6.4.2 Vibration Limits ................................................................................................. 6-43
6.4.3 Natural Frequency ............................................................................................ 6-43
6.4.4 Design for Walking Vibration ............................................................................ 6-44
6.4.5 Design for Vibration Due to Rhythmic Activities ............................................... 6-45
6.4.6 Stadium Seating ............................................................................................... 6-46
6.4.7 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical Equipment .................................................. 6-48
6.5 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION ........................................................ 6-48
6.5.1 Terms and Definitions....................................................................................... 6-48
6.5.2 Introduction....................................................................................................... 6-50
6.5.3 Green Building Rating Systems ....................................................................... 6-51
6.5.4 Life Cycle Cost and Assessment...................................................................... 6-51
6.5.5 Energy Use....................................................................................................... 6-52
6.5.6 Material Selection ............................................................................................. 6-54
6.5.7 Production of Precast Concrete ....................................................................... 6-56
6.5.8 Transportation and Erection ............................................................................. 6-59
6.5.9 Summary .......................................................................................................... 6-60

6.6 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND OTHER SUB-SYSTEMS COORDINATION ........ 6-61
6.6.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 6-61
6.6.2 Lighting and Power Distribution........................................................................ 6-61
6.6.3 Electrified Floors............................................................................................... 6-61
6.6.4 Underfloor Radiant Heat................................................................................... 6-62
6.6.5 Ductwork........................................................................................................... 6-62
6.6.6 Openings Through Floor and Roof Units.......................................................... 6-62
6.6.7 Other Sub-Systems .......................................................................................... 6-62
6.6.8 Total Precast Buildings..................................................................................... 6-63
6.7 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 6-66

6.1 THE BUILDING ENVELOPE UT = Where there are two or more paths of heat flow
that have different thermal resistances, a sum
6.1.1 Notation of heat flow per unit temperature difference
through each section (UA) is calculated and
A = surface area of component (m2)
divided by the total area to yield the average
I = temperature index rate of heat transfer per unit temperature.
Q = heat loss rate (W) R = thermal resistance (RSI value); The inverse of
the overall thermal transmittance. ((m2)(C)/
RSI = sum of the thermal resistance of the layers, W).
(m2)(C)/ W
RT = thermal resistance of an assembly; Parallel
T = the temperature of the indoor surface of the paths with different areas and thermal
vapour barrier, C resistances is defined as the (areal) thermal
resistance and equals:
Th = the indoor design dry-bulb temperature, C A1 A2 An
= + + +
Tc = the outside winter design temperature, C R1A T R 2 A T Rn A T
T = difference in temperature across the R1, R2, ... , Rn are the thermal resistances (RSI
assembly, C values) of individual areas of an assembly.
A1, A2, ... , An are the areas of individual sections of
6.1.2 Glossary
an assembly.
C = thermal conductance; The time rate of heat
AT = The total area of the assembly.
flow through the unit area of a layer of material
induced by a unit temperature difference M = water-vapour permeance; The time rate of
between the layer surfaces (W / (m2)(C)). water vapour flow through a layer of material
expressed in ng/((Pa)(s)(m2)) (i.e., nanograms
J = joule; Unit of energy or work, defined here as a
of water per second through unit area of the
flow of energy equivalent to the work done
layer for each pascal of water-vapour pressure
when the point of application of one Newton
difference across the layer).
moves a distance of one metre in the direction
of the force, (Nm). V = water vapour resistance; The reciprocal of M if
a single layer of material is involved, or the sum
k = thermal conductivity; The time rate of heat flow
of all the V values for all the layers if an
through a homogeneous material under steady-
assemblage of layers is involved. The unit of
state heat-flow conditions. A property of
water vapour resistance is ((Pa)(s)(m2)) / ng.
homogeneous materials with units of
W / ((m)(C)). This is termed in most = the water vapour permeability of a material
documents using SI units. expressed in terms of unit thickness with units
ng / (Pa s m). The permeability of a material
Q = total energy for heating or cooling; Expressed
will vary with barometric pressure, temperature
in joules (J) or gigajoules (109 J).
and relative humidity.
q = rate of heat flow; (J / s or watts).
National Energy Code Definitions
RH = relative humidity; The ratio of the water vapour
Adjusted energy consumption is an estimate of the
pressure present in air to the water vapour
annual sum of the energy consumption for lighting,
pressure present in saturated air at the same
service water heating and space conditioning of the
temperature and atmospheric pressure.
proposed building design.
Ts = dew point or saturation temperature; The
Building energy target is the annual adjusted energy
highest temperature at which condensation of
consumption of a mathematical replica of the
water vapour in air can occur as the air is being
proposed building, using the same energy sources for
cooled.
the same functions and having the same
U = overall thermal transmittance (U-value); A environmental requirements, occupancy, climate data
measure of the rate at which heat is transferred and operational schedules, but made to comply with
through a building assembly subject to a all the applicable prescriptive requirements of the
temperature difference W / ((m2)(C)). National Energy Code.

Fenestration is all building envelope assemblies that transport mechanisms: rain penetration, air leakage
transfer visible light, including windows, skylights, and vapour diffusion. Often serious failures involve
clerestories, glass blocks, sliding or swinging glass two or more of these mechanisms. Blown and drifted
doors and glazed inserts in doors. snow can also enter and melt inside a building
envelope.
Fenestration-to-wall ratio is calculated as the total
area of fenestration divided by the sum of all exterior Rain penetration control
wall areas including the fenestration areas.
Rain penetration control strategies for walls range
6.1.3 General from face seal designs to pressure equalized
rainscreen (PER) designs. The face seal approach
Basic information is presented here for the design
relies on the use of sealants, that need regular
and construction of precast concrete wall and roof
preventative maintenance to achieve the required
assemblies to meet energy-related performance
service life.
criteria and to assess some of the structural
implications of envelope design. The performance benefits gained by the use of a
The elements and assemblies that form a building PER wall system should more than offset any extra
capital cost.
envelope are usually required to attain a specified
thermal and structural performance. PER walls consist of three elements:
The structural performance limits specify maximum an exterior cladding or rainscreen
dimensional changes, in particular, temperature
deformations from localized daily and seasonal an air and vapour barrier system installed in
climatic variations. an interior assembly
The thermal performance limits specify the maximum a vented air space separating the two
energy flow for heating, cooling and operation of a Vented air spaces should be designed as a drained
building. The limits may be prescribed by regulations cavity to direct any water which gets through the
or in regulatory documents. The selection of a limit for cladding back to the exterior. The rain penetration
the thermal performance of a building may be forces controlled by a PER wall include the kinetic
affected by factors such as building occupancy, energy of rain drops, surface tension and capillarity,
energy budget and life cycle costing. gravity and air pressure difference. The air pressure
Except where noted, the information and design difference has a large variable, or dynamic
criteria that follow are derived from: component, because a significant amount of the air
pressure difference is generated by wind. The design
National Energy Code for Buildings - 1997,
of a PER wall must address both static and dynamic
Canadian Commission on Building and Fire
components. It must consider the size and location of
Codes / National Research Council of Canada.
the venting, volume and flexibility of the air space,
National Energy Code for Houses - 1997, location of compartment seals and loads on the
Canadian Commission on Building and Fire barrier system and on the rainscreen.
Codes / National Research Council of Canada.
A pressure equalized rainscreen wall system will
2005 ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals - SI prevent rain leakage without face sealing.
Edition, American Society of Heating, Architectural precast rainscreen wall panels can be
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, manufactured to provide rain penetration control
Inc. using the pressure equalized rainscreen design
Basic information about building envelopes is principle. An effective air barrier system is an inherent
included in this section. Consult the references for feature of such panels. A plastic spacer material has
information about comprehensive treatment of the been shown to provide a simple but effective air
mechanics of heat and moisture flow, all relevant space. Adequate venting of panels with areas of
2
performance data, or detailed design procedures 30 m can be provided with a 12 mm high opening
necessary to establish an optimum level of thermal located at the bottom of the air space and extending
resistance. the width of the panel. This design will minimize static
and dynamic pressure differences induced by wind
Moisture control across the rainscreen, minimizing one of the rain
Moisture problems in building envelopes are mainly penetration forces.
due to outside and inside moisture moving with three

Vapour diffusion control envelope, that will vary with the time of day according
The principal functions of a vapour barrier are: to the building ventilation requirements and with the
weather.
To retard the passage of moisture as it
diffuses through the assembly of materials in Air barrier system design requirements:
a building envelope. 1. There must be continuity throughout the building
To control the location of the dew point in the envelope.
assembly. 2. The air barrier system must transfer loads to the
To ensure there is a manageable flow of structure and be rigid enough to avoid
moisture across the assembly. displacement. The insulation must be in intimate
contact with the air barrier or have its own
The vapour barrier is usually placed toward the warm
convection barrier that prevents convection.
side of the insulation.
3. The air barrier system should be virtually air-
A vapour barrier is important, particularly in high
impermeable with an air flow of less than
humidity buildings such as computer centres,
0.1 L/s m2 at 50 Pa. Precast concrete,
museums, hospitals and swimming pools. While a
polyethylene, roofing membranes, gypsum
vapour barrier need not be perfectly continuous, care
board, metal and glass qualify as air-
should be taken to minimize the occurrence of
impermeable materials whereas concrete block,
imperfections such as unsealed laps, cuts and pin
acoustic insulation, open cell polystyrene
holes.
insulation and fibreboard are not.
Air leakage control
4. The air barrier assembly must be durable and
The principal function of an air barrier is to prevent air constructed of materials known to have excellent
flow from outside to inside, inside to outside, inside to fatigue resistance and long service life.
inside if near the inside, or outside to outside if near
While it is preferable that an air barrier system be
the outside of a wall assembly. Moisture-laden air
placed close to the warm side of an insulated
passing through an insulated cavity may deposit
assembly, it is not an essential requirement, as it is
much more moisture than would diffuse through the
with a vapour barrier. If the air barrier is positioned on
vapour barrier at that location in the same time
the outside of the insulation, the air barrier should be
period.
10 to 20 times more moisture permeable than the
Air leakage through openings in a building envelope vapour barrier material to allow any vapour to escape
is driven by one or more of the following forces: through the wall assembly.
Stack effect results from warmer or moister inside air A single material such as the inner wythe of a precast
having a lower density than the cooler drier outside concrete sandwich wall panel can serve as both the
air. This difference in density creates a slight outward air and vapour barrier in a building.
positive pressure at the top of a building and a slight
inward negative pressure at the base as the denser Architectural precast wall panels can provide an
air attempts to displace the less dense air. attractive, economical, long-lasting exterior cladding
for buildings. With appropriate design, insulated
Wind can cause infiltration on the windward sides precast panels can also provide a high performance
and exfiltration on the leeward side of buildings. wall system.
Pressure distribution on the windward facade will vary
from a maximum at the centre and diminish toward Condensation control
the perimeter. Pressure on walls parallel to the wind Condensation of water on the inside of inadequately
flow direction is normally negative but a slight change insulated walls is another moisture-related problem.
in direction can result in positive pressure. Flat roofs This problem can be eliminated by using the proper
will generally experience exfiltration due to negative amount of insulation for energy conservation and by
wind pressure above them. The difference in wind paying proper attention to the prevention of thermal
pressure across the building envelope will be greater bridging. Lowering humidity levels can reduce
in tall buildings since the wind velocity is dampened condensation.
near the ground.
Ventilation
Mechanical system pressurization caused by the
intake and exhaust of air from buildings may cause The provision of adequate ventilation in buildings is
significant pressure differences across the building very important, particularly in those buildings

designed to limit infiltration. Serious health, safety will vary from building to building, as will the cost of
and durability problems may result if proper insulation and the benefits derived.
ventilation is not provided. Ventilation provided by
The emphasis in the following sections is on
mechanical systems can be closely estimated with
controlling transmission heat loss. However, heat loss
conventional calculation procedures. Special
due to air leakage is often of similar significance.
calculation procedures are necessary to predict
Careful attention to prevent moisture penetration from
ventilation under limiting conditions in buildings where
the exterior is essential. The number, orientation and
natural ventilation is employed.
thermal resistance of windows must be analyzed to
Joint design save energy.
Junctions that are considered to be most critical in Heat loss due to transmission through precast
building construction are: concrete elements and assemblies will comprise only
roof / wall connection a portion of the total transmission heat loss in a
building envelope and may constitute only a small
wall / foundation connection
proportion of the total space conditioning energy
wall / window or door connection requirements over a year. Use a cost benefit analysis
soffit connections to determine the amount of insulation that can be
corner-detail connections economically justified or that is required to achieve
the desired levels of comfort and durability.
wall panel joint connections
Economic considerations
One-stage joints, usually formed using a single field-
molded sealant installed close to the exterior surface Energy costs can be a significant part of life-cycle
of precast panels, are not recommended. These costs. The owner and designer must consider the
joints have a low initial cost but must be regularly long-term impact of energy costs during the planning
maintained. Fatigue and exposure to weather and stages of a building. More than half of the true total
ultraviolet light can cause sealant failures. Even a costs incurred during the economic life of a building
small break in the sealant can allow water may be attributable to operating and energy costs.
penetration. Life-cycle costing is a sound means of assessing the
cost of all elements involved in constructing and
Two-stage joints, sometimes called ventilated or
operating a building throughout its life. It is a means
pressure equalized joints, use the PER principle. A
of analyzing and appraising alternative solutions to
typical joint consists of a rain barrier near the exterior
design questions so that rational economical choices
face and an airseal near the interior face of a panel.
can be made; comfort, rentability and what insulation
The rain barrier is designed to shed most of the water
levels to provide.
from the joint. The wind-barrier or airseal maintains
the pressure difference across the wall assembly. In Heating and cooling calculations
between is an equalization chamber which must be
Heating and cooling calculations are used to provide
ventilated and drained to the outside. The airseal, on
predictions of peak loads and annual energy usage.
or near the interior of the wall, is protected from the
elements (weathering and ultraviolet light). Peak load estimates are required to size HVAC
equipment and to design distribution systems. Energy
A building designer can greatly improve the ease of
can be saved by lowering peak loads. Increasing a
installation and effectiveness of the jointing system by
buildings thermal mass can lower and shift peak
locating the precast panel joints where they are easily
loads that can reduce equipment size. Smaller
accessible during construction.
equipment running continuously uses less energy
than large equipment run intermittently to respond to
6.1.4 Heating and Cooling Energy
peak loads. Energy is saved by lowering peak loads.
In most buildings, the main contributors to the cost of
The energy saved as a result of reduced annual
space conditioning (heating or cooling or both) are
loads is also important. Annual load calculations will
internal heat gains, transmission heat loss, air
become imperative as design standards switch from
leakage across a building enclosure and solar gains.
prescriptive to performance requirements.
Proper attention in the design of the enclosure of a
building must be made to provide comfort, durability Calculation of both peak and annual loads in all but
and the appropriate levels of thermal resistance. The the simplest of buildings are complex and require
relative significance of transmission and air leakage special expertise and computer analysis.

Factors to consider that mass and its thermal capacitance have on peak
Regulations may prescribe minimum requirements for loads and annual energy requirements is primarily
thermal insulation to limit the rate of heat flow through governed by:
a building envelope. To comply, it is usually 1. location and storage characteristics of the mass
necessary to evaluate heat flow through each 2. effectiveness of thermal coupling between the
component of a building using a steady-state
heat source and the mass
procedure. Thermal resistance values for floors, walls
and roofs may be prescribed. 3. ratio of internal heat gain to heat loss
The National Energy Code for Buildings, 1997, gives 4. hours when internal gains occur
designers the option of proposing alternative 5. solar radiation through glass or
measures provided they can demonstrate the building
will not use more energy than if the mandatory 6. number of air changes.
requirements of the code had been used. Mass and the heating season
Some factors which should be considered when For thermal mass to contribute during the heating
calculating energy loads are: season, concrete surfaces must be inside the exterior
1. Geographic location: latitude, longitude and insulation and subjected to conditions that permit the
building exposure (landscaping). construction materials to absorb solar heat or
radiation and heat from light or equipment and
2. Occupancy: demands, requirements, number, occupants. Mass inside the insulation is only effective
activities and hours of occupancy. if the temperature set point of the air is allowed to
3. Building: site, orientation, plan, configuration, vary considerably. Temperature variations can have
insulation, insulation location, envelope mass, an effect on comfort if they occur during working
mass of the construction and contents, window hours. Furnaces can be turned down at night to allow
design, shading and surface colour and texture. the absorbed heat to be released to nearby cooler
surfaces or space. This process of absorption and
4. Climate: dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb release is dependent upon the location of the mass in
temperature, wind speed and direction, solar the structure relative to the space being heated, the
conditions and cloud cover. sources of heat and the insulation. Precast sandwich
5. Heat loss mechanisms: transmission, air wall construction is an excellent way to combine
leakage and ventilation. mass and insulation in walls.
6. Heat gain: transmission, solar radiation, air Mass and the cooling season
leakage and ventilation. Mass on the outside of building envelopes can
absorb solar gain. Heat absorbed by the mass is
7. Internal heat gain: occupants, lights, appliances,
released later to the outside during cooler hours,
machines, power and equipment.
usually at night. The outdoor air temperature
8. Environmental (comfort): window area, indoor averaged over the cooling season is generally below
temperature, indoor relative humidity and indoor the indoor air temperature. With the exception of
air quality. peak periods, the net heat flow through the walls is
outward, not inward. Thermal coupling between the
9. Schedules: occupancy, lighting, ventilation,
interior mass of the building and cool night-time
equipment, changes in thermostat set points and
outside air is also important as is forced ventilation to
changes in humidity.
flush out excess heat stored within the structure
Equipment efficiency must also be considered when during the day. The mass of precast concrete building
computing energy consumption. This is particularly construction can substantially reduce the need for
important when making life-cycle cost studies mechanical cooling.
involving factors such as mass, optimum insulation,
glass area, environmental factors, energy type and Evaluation of mass effects
energy costs. Computer solutions are essential to fully evaluate the
effect of thermal mass on heating and cooling loads.
Thermal inertia effects
Computerized solutions, however, are not essential to
The mass of heavy materials like precast concrete determine what reduction can be made in insulation
wall, floor and roof construction can reduce the requirements when mass is present.
annual heating requirements of a building. The effect

Fenestration The basic equation for calculating the rate of heat
Fenestration is a term used for any light-transmitting transfer through a portion of an enclosure is:
opening in a building wall, floor or roof. Windows are A(T)
Q=
the most important form of fenestration that designers RSI
must consider. Regulatory documents, such as the Example 6.1 Sandwich wall panel
National Energy Code for Buildings, 1997, prescribe
restrictions on the amount of glass area to be Given:
provided.
Windows are a dominant source of heat gain. A
change in orientation can result in load reductions
when thermal storage is utilized. Unshaded glazing
located within 45 of South will receive maximum
heat gain.
Shading devices can reduce solar radiation in the
summer and allow solar radiation for winter heating.
Overhangs can be designed to provide shading for
windows when the summer sun is at a higher altitude
and direct sun on the windows in winter when the sun
altitude is much lower. Precast concrete is ideal for
the construction of sun shades.
Economic considerations
Designers of building-envelope assemblies must
consider the potential for providing the necessary
overall energy efficiency by insulating different
building assemblies in the most effective manner.
The design requirements and level of insulation
chosen for each assembly should be reviewed and Problem:
economically evaluated. Find the RSI-value of the wall assembly.
The cost of adding additional insulation to roofs is Solution:
usually less than for walls. Regulations generally
R-value
permit a reduction in the required thermal resistance Component (layer)
m2 C /W
of one assembly, providing that of another assembly
is increased, so that the total calculated heat loss Surface air film (exterior) 0.030
through the entire envelope is no greater than if the 75 mm normal density concrete 0.039
minimum prescribed values for each assembly were 50 mm rigid polystyrene insulation type 1.285
used. 150 mm normal density concrete 0.078
12 mm (non-vented) air space 0.160
6.1.5 Calculation of RSI-Value
10 mm gypsum board 0.062
The RSI-value is a measure of the thermal resistance
Surface air film (interior) 0.120
of a building component or assembly in a direction
normal to the surface. For an assembly, this Total RSI-value 1.774
resistance is the sum of the resistances of each layer,
Thermal bridges
including air gaps when they are present, and air
films contiguous to each outer surface. RSI-values Paths of high conductivity called thermal bridges may
are measured in units of m2 C/ W. lead to localized cold areas where surface
condensation may occur. In precast concrete
Thermal resistance values of selected construction
applications, these thermal bridges sometimes occur
materials and of air surface films and gaps are listed
in sandwich panels where connections, metal shear
in Figs. 6.1.1 and 6.1.2. Examples 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3
ties or solid concrete sections penetrate the insulation
demonstrate RSI-value calculations for walls, floors
layer. Because of thermal mass and other variables,
and roofs. These are not total wall systems. RSI-
measured values differ from calculated values of heat
values for fenestration, and joint areas also have to
flow through these thermal bridges.
be calculated.

Fig. 6.1.1 Thermal resistance and density of various building and insulating materials
Thermal Thermal
resistance Density resistance Density
m C /W m C /W
2 3 2 3
(kg/m ) (kg/m )
Material (R-value) Material (R-value)
Per For Per For
100 mm thick- 100 mm thick-
thickness thickness
ness listed ness listed
Concrete Siding (flat surface)
Density as indicated 0.35 1000 Asbestos-cement shingles 0.037 1900
0.29 1200 Wood shingles (400 mm,
0.22 1400 190 mm exposure) 0.153
0.17 1600 Asbestos-cement (6 mm,
0.13 1800 lapped) 0.037
0.091 2000 Asphalt roll siding 0.026
0.064 2200 Wood (11 mm, medium
0.052 2320 density) 0.052 640
0.045 2400
Finish flooring
Insulating concretes Carpet and fibrous pad 0.366
Density as indicated 1.03 300 Carpet and rubber pad 0.226
0.84 400 Cork tile (3 mm)
0.68 500 Tile (asphalt, linoleum,
0.61 600 vinyl, rubber, asbestos,
0.53 700 ceramic) 0.009
0.47 800 Terrazzo (25 mm) 0.014
0.40 900 Hardwood (19 mm) 0.12
Hollow core slabs(1) Acoustical tile

Concrete (normal density) Mineral fibreboard
150 mm thick 0.19 2400 Wet-felted (13 mm) 0.24
200 mm thick 0.24 2400 Wet-felted (19 mm) 0.36
250 mm thick 0.31 2400 Wet-moulded (13 mm) 0.21
300 mm thick 0.34 2400 Wet-moulded (19 mm) 0.31
Wood or cane (13 mm) 0.22
Concrete (semi-low density) Fibreboard (19 mm) 0.33
150 mm thick 0.30 1900
200 mm thick 0.35 1900 Building board
250 mm thick 0.43 1900 Asbestos-cement board 0.17 1900
300 mm thick 0.46 1900 Gypsum plasterboard 0.62 800
Particleboard (mat-formed) 0.87
Woods Plywood or wood panels 0.87 545
Hardwoods (maple, oak, etc.) 0.63 720
Softwoods (fir, pine, etc.) 0.77 500 Stucco
Stucco 0.14 1860
Roofing
Asbestos-cement shingles 0.037 1900
Asphalt roll roofing 0.026 1120
Asphalt shingles 0.078 1120
Built-up roofing (19 mm) 0.058 1120
Slate (12 mm) 0.009

Fig. 6.1.1 Thermal resistance and density of various building and insulating materials (cont.)
Thermal Thermal
resistance Density resistance Density
m C /W m C /W
2 3 2 3
(kg/m ) (kg/m )
(R-value) (R-value)
Material Material
Per For Per For
100 mm thick- 100 mm thick-
thickness thickness
ness listed ness listed
Insulation Flat glass (winter)(4)

Rigid Vertical panels (exterior)
Glass fibre 2.77 64-144 Single glass 0.16
Cane fibre 1.73 Double glass
Mineral fibre 1.82 240 6.4 mm air space,
Cork 2.57 3.2 mm glass 0.30
Perlite 1.94 280 12.7 mm air space,
Fibreboard 1.94 255 6.4 mm glass 0.36
Phenolic foam 3.04 60 Triple glass
(2)
Polystyrene (expanded) 6.4 mm air space,
Type 1 2.57 3.2 mm glass 0.45
Type 2 2.77 12.7 mm air space,
Type 3 2.98 6.4 mm glass 0.57
Type 4 3.47 Single glass w/storm sash
Polyurethane 4.20 24 25.4 mm to 101.6 mm
Wood (shredded) 1.69 350 air space,
Cellular glass 1.82 135 3.2 mm glass 0.35
Polyisocyanurate 4.20
(3)
Batt Horizontal panels (exterior)
Glass fibre 2.08 Single glass 0.14
Mineral fibre 2.08 Double glass
Loose fill 6.4 mm air space,
Cellulose 4.20 37-51 3.2 mm glass 0.27
Mineral fibre 2.91 130-240 12.7 mm air space,
Perlite (expanded) 1.94 80-130 6.4 mm glass 0.30
Vermiculite 1.44 64-96
Glass fibre (pouring wool) 2.22 190 Plastic domes
Glass fibre (blowing wool) 1.46 40 Single wall 0.15
Double wall 0.25
(1) R-value listed is for hollow core slabs with the cores empty. Consult manufacturers for R-values of insulation filled cores and for the
exact mass of concrete to be used. (Core configuration may also affect the thermal resistance values listed.)
(2) Complying with CGSB 41-GP-14a (1972) Thermal Insulation, Expanded, Polystyrene - June 1978.
(3) See Fig. 6.1.6 for adjusting R-values when batt insulation compression is anticipated.
(4) R-values include air films and gaps. Emissivity of uncoated glass surface = 0.84.

Fig. 6.1.2 Thermal resistance for air films and Example 6.2 Hollow core slab floor system
spaces
Given:
Thermal
resistance
Air
m C /W
2
(R-value)
Surface films
Internal surface:
Still air (vertical)
Heat flow horizontal 0.120
Still air (horizontal)
Heat flow up 0.110
Heat flow down 0.160
External surface:
Moving air (any position)
winter 0.030
summer 0.044
Spaces (with non-reflective
surfaces) Problem:
12 mm and greater Find the RSI-value of the floor assembly.
Vertical Solution:
Heat flow horizontal 0.160 R-value
Component
m C /W
2
Horizontal
Surface air film (exterior) 0.030
Heat flow up 0.150
10 mm stucco exterior finish 0.014
Heat flow down 0.180 100 mm urethane insulation 4.200
Non-vented air Vapour barrier 0.000
spaces (with reflective surfaces) Hollow core slab (equiv. area) 0.240
50 mm normal density concrete topping 0.026
12 mm and greater
Vertical (heat flow horizontal) Total RSI-value 4.670
1 side faced 0.330
Example 6.3 Double tee roof system
2 sides faced 0.450
Given:
Horizontal (heat flow up)
1 side faced 0.280
2 sides faced 0.360
Horizontal (heat flow down)
1 side faced 0.980
2 sides faced 1.034
Depending on the type and amount of conductive

material used in the shear ties, the reduction of
overall resistance values may be calculated but is
often ignored if the relative area of the ties is small
and the insulation is installed tight against the outline
of the penetration. The influence of metal shear ties is
negligible and usually ignored.

Problem: Fig. 6.1.3 Thermal gradient example
Find RSI-value of roof assembly.
Solution:
R-value
Component
m C /W
2
Surface air film (exterior) 0.030

Built-up roofing and gravel 0.058
100 mm ridge fibreglass insulation 2.770
Vapour barrier 0.000
50 mm normal density tee flange 0.026
(Non-reflective) air space 0.150
Acoustical tile (13 mm wet-molded mineral

0.210
fibreboard)
Total RSI-value 3.354
6.1.6 Calculation of Temperature Gradient

The calculation of the temperature gradient through a
roof or wall assembly can be used to help determine
whether there may be a problem with condensation
or differential thermal movement. The temperature
gradient alone is not sufficient to accurately locate the
dew point (condensation point) within the assembly.
However, an approximation of its location can be
made which is useful in estimating where
condensation can occur from exfiltrating air. For Example 6.4 Thermal gradient through a wall
vapour diffusion, the solution involves the calculation section
of vapour pressures within the assembly.
Given:
The calculation of heat flow through walls and roofs The wall assembly shown above, with an overall RSI-
can become very complicated. The assumed steady- value of 2.33, is subjected to indoor and outdoor
state conditions are seldom reached, due to temperatures of 22 C and 12 C, respectively, (a
fluctuations in the temperatures that a building temperature difference of 34 C).
envelope is exposed to and the heat storage
Problem:
capacities of the building components and contents.
Find the thermal gradient through the wall section.
Simplified procedures introduce inaccuracies, but the
results obtained can be a valuable guide for the Solution:
design of walls and roofs. A readily understandable record of the necessary
The ability to calculate the thermal gradient allows a computation can be provided by labeling each layer
designer to estimate the magnitude of the and each interface as shown above and by tabulating
movements caused by external temperature the calculation procedure as shown in Fig. 6.1.5.
changes, estimate the location of condensation and Given that the rate of heat flow (i.e. Q / A) is constant
freezing planes in the wall and to perform an initial and given that Q / A = T / RSI, then for the assembly
assessment of the suitability of wall and roof as a whole, Q / A = 34 / 2.33. Knowing one interface
assemblies. temperature and the RSI value for each layer, starting
from the interior, the temperature at the other
Figure 6.1.4 lists dew-point temperatures for various interface can readily be found by determining the
relative humidities and several indoor temperatures. temperature drop across the layer, i.e., (34 / 2.33)
This chart can be used once a thermal gradient is RSI.
determined.

Assuming the interior relative humidity is 40%, from where the resistance to moisture flow per unit
Fig. 6.1.4 the dew point is just above 7C. An distance increases. The extent of a problem will
examination of the temperature gradient indicates depend upon the effectiveness of the air barrier and
that there should be no condensation on the inside vapour retarder.
wall surface since the inside surface temperature of
20.2C is considerably above the dew point
temperature. 6.1.7 Temperature Index
The temperature index, I, will allow the prediction of
Without further knowledge about vapour pressures, it
the condensation resistance of a wall assembly for
is safe to predict that immediately behind the wall
other sets of operating systems; indoor relative
finish, where it is 19.0C, there should also be no
humidity, RH, and outdoor dry-bulb temperature. The
condensation problem.
wall system should be designed to provide an I value
A dew point is likely to exist within the insulation. In greater than the minimum I to control condensation.
this case, condensation would probably occur where The temperature index, I, is defined as:
there is a decrease in the rate of flow of moisture,
I = (T Tc) / (Th Tc)(100%)
Fig. 6.1.4 Dew-point temperatures (C)
Relative Indoor temperature
humidity (%) 15C/59F 18C/64.4F 21C/69.8F 24C/75.2F 27C/80.6F
10 14 12 11 8 7
20 7 4 2 0 +2
30 2 0 +3 +6 +8
40 +2 +4 +7 +9 + 12
50 +5 +8 + 11 + 13 + 16
60 +8 + 11 + 13 + 16 + 18
70 + 10 + 13 + 16 + 18 + 21
80 + 12 + 14 + 17 + 20 + 23
90 + 14 + 17 + 19 + 22 + 25
100 + 15.6 + 18.3 + 21.1 + 23.9 + 26.7
Fig. 6.1.5 Calculation of thermal gradient

Computation
Thickness R Value Temp.
Interface Layer Nature of layer (T/R)R = T
m C /W
2
(mm) (C)
(C)
A + 22.0
1 Interior surface film 0.120 (34/2.331) (0.120) = 1.8
B + 20.2
2 2 coats enamel paint 0.000 (34/2.331) (0.000) = 0
C + 20.2
3 Gypsum drywall 13 0.081 (34/2.331) (0.081) = 1.2
D + 19.0
4 Glassfibre batt insulation 89 1.851 (34/2.331) (1.851) = 27.0
E 8.0
5 Air space (non-vented & non- 25 0.171 (34/2.331) (0.171) = 2.5
F reflective) 10.5
6 Precast concrete (normal 150 0.078 (34/2.331) (0.078) = 1.1
3
G density - 2320 kg/m ) 11.6
7 Exterior surface film 0.030 (34/2.331) (0.030) = 0.4
H 12.0
Summation R= 277 2.331 T= 34.0

Fig. 6.1.6 Relationship of temperature index and (b) Move horizontally to the selected outside winter
relative humidity for different winter temperature, Tc = 15C. Interpolate linearly for
design temperatures in-between values.
(c) From the intersection of each maximum
allowable RH and Tc, move vertically downward
to find the minimum required temperature index,
I, for each case.
Here Min. I = 48%.
Fig. 6.1.7 shows the temperature index, I, for some
locations in Canada.
6.2 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES
6.2.1 Notation
TL = transmission loss (dB)
m = surface mass (kg / m2)
Example 6.5 f = frequency (Hz)
The following procedure illustrates how to select a fmam = the mass-air-mass resonance frequency (Hz)
temperature index, I, for a given assembly at a given
m1 = the surface mass of the first layer (kg/m2)
location in Canada.
m2 = the surface mass of the second layer (kg/m2)
1. Select the inside relative humidity to be
maintained without causing condensation. d = separation of first and second layers (m)
Select maximum RH = 30%.
6.2.2 Definitions
The indoor dry-bulb temperature is taken
Hertz (Hz) A measure of sound wave frequency,
as 20C.
i.e., the number of complete vibration cycles per
2. Select the outside winter design temperature, Tc, second.
for the location where the assembly will be
STC Sound Transmission Class
installed. This value can be found in the
Supplement to the National Building Code. IIC Impact Insulation Class
Assume at a location Tc = 15C.
6.2.3 General
3. Using Fig. 6.1.6:
The basic purpose of architectural acoustics is to
(a) Enter the value of relative humidity, RH = 30%, provide a satisfactory environment where desired
found in Step 1 on the vertical scale. sounds are clearly heard by the intended listeners
and unwanted sounds (noise) are isolated or
Fig. 6.1.7 Temperature Index (I) absorbed.
Outside
Inside Inside
design Under most conditions, the architect/engineer can
design design determine the acoustical needs of a space and
City temp. I (%)
conditions conditions
(2%) design a building to satisfy those needs. Good
Th (C) RH (%)
Tc (C) acoustical design utilizes absorptive and reflective
Vancouver 20 35 -7 41 surfaces, sound barriers and vibration isolators.
Saskatoon 20 35 -35 71 Some surfaces must reflect sound so that the
loudness will be adequate in all areas where listeners
Winnipeg 20 35 -33 70
are located. Other surfaces can be designed to
Toronto 20 35 -18 58 absorb sound to avoid echoes, sound distortion and
Montreal 20 35 -23 63 long reverberation times. Sound is isolated from
Halifax 20 35 -16 57 rooms where it is not wanted by selecting appropriate
St. Johns 20 35 -14 53 wall, floor and ceiling construction. Vibration
generated by mechanical equipment must be isolated
from the structural frame of a building.

Information is provided on the acoustical properties of Sound transmission loss
some of the more common precast concrete products
When sound propagates between two rooms through
used in building construction. This information can be
a common partition, the principal factor controlling the
incorporated into the acoustic design of a building to
sound pressure level in the room where the sound is
demonstrate compliance with local bylaws or other
received is the sound transmission loss (TL) through
minimum acoustic requirements. (See Fig. 6.2.6.)
the partition.
The services of a competent acoustic design
The sound transmission loss, expressed in decibels
consultant or specialist are recommended for
(dB), is a measure of the ratio of the energy striking
buildings or occupancies that require more
the partition relative to the energy that is transmitted
sophisticated acoustical analysis, such as churches,
through it. The greater the sound insulation provided
concert halls, auditoriums, recording studios, etc.
by a partition, the higher its TL. The sound
6.2.4 Architectural Acoustics transmission loss through a partition varies with
frequency, usually increasing as the frequency
The science of architectural acoustics is used to increases.
control sound propagation within buildings. The
objective is to provide environments where occupants The sound pressure level in the receiving room also
hear what they want to hear and are not seriously increases as the area of the common partition
bothered by unwanted sounds. increases, and decreases as the amount of sound
absorbing material increases. These two effects are
Sound control in buildings can be divided into two secondary. Sound transmission loss is measured in
categories: specially constructed reverberation rooms in
1. Sound distribution within an occupancy - wanted accordance with ASTM E90. [10] Measurements can
sounds are heard properly by the recipients, also be made in buildings by following
without being blurred by reverberation or ASTM E336. [11]
masked by noise. This can involve the Mass Law
appropriate shaping of the room boundaries and
the use of sound absorbing surfaces. Typical The mass law is a semi-empirical expression that can
concrete products do not provide good sound be used to predict transmission loss for thin,
absorption, and other materials may be homogeneous single-leaf panels.
necessary. This is a specialized topic and is not The mass law is expressed as:
covered here.
TL = 20 log((m)(f)) 48
2. Sound insulation between occupancies - noises
The mass law predicts that the transmission loss will
originating in one location should not intrude into
increase by 6 dB for each doubling of the surface
adjacent occupancies. This involves the
mass or frequency. To increase the TL by 3 dB
provision of adequate barriers to sound
requires an increase in the mass by a factor of 1.4. A
transmission. Typical concrete elements are
change of less than 3 dB is considered insignificant.
sufficiently massive to form an effective part of a
sound insulation design. The following Transmission loss also depends on material
information deals primarily with sound insulation. properties, such as stiffness. The transmission losses
of two single-leaf walls are illustrated in Fig. 6.2.1.
6.2.5 Airborne Sound For the 16 mm gypsum board, below about 2 kHz,
Airborne sound reaches a partition by propagating agreement with the mass law is good. At higher
from the source through the air. When sound waves frequencies, there is a dip in the TL curve, called the
strike a partition, the variation in sound pressure coincidence dip, where the wavelength of the flexural
causes the partition to vibrate. This sets the air on the vibrations in the wall coincides with the wavelength of
other side in motion, thereby generating sound. A the sound in the air.
very small fraction of the vibrational energy carried by The frequency where the minimum value of TL
the sound waves is transferred to the partition. The occurs in the coincidence dip is called the critical
amount of energy transferred depends on the frequency. The critical frequency depends on the
construction of the partition. material stiffness and thickness. The stiffer or thicker
the layer of material, the lower the critical frequency.
The mass law only applies at frequencies below
approximately one half of the critical frequency.

Fig. 6.2.1 Transmission loss curves for single- Fig. 6.2.2 Example of fitting the STC contour to
leaf partitions 15.9 mm gypsum measured data for a 150 mm thick
board and 150 mm concrete. The thick concrete slab. Deficiencies are shown
solid lines are measured data. The by the shaded area.
dotted lines are mass law predictions
for each material.
process is complete. The higher the STC rating the

For gypsum board, the critical frequency is given by
better the sound insulation provided by the partition.
fc = 39,000/t, where t is the thickness in mm. For
solid, normal density concrete, the critical frequency Sound transmission class is intended for rating
is given by fc = 18,700/t. For example, a 150 mm thick partitions for sounds, such as speech, that have most
concrete slab weighing 345 kg/m2 has a coincidence of their energy in the middle and high-frequency
frequency at 125 Hz. As shown in Fig. 6.2.1, the range. Nevertheless, it is widely used for rating the
transmission loss for the 150 mm concrete slab is airborne sound insulation of partitions, doors, and
well below that predicted by mass law over most of windows against other types of noise such as
the frequency range shown. transportation noise, music, and machinery noise.
Sound Transmission Class When the noise to be attenuated has a strong low-
frequency content, the perceived noise reduction can
To simplify acoustical design, it is convenient to
be less than the sound transmission class indicates.
replace the detailed TL data by a single-number
In such cases, it is better to estimate the loudness of
rating known as the sound transmission class
transmitted sound using the noise and transmission
(STC). [12]
loss information down to the lowest frequency where
The STC is determined by comparing the TL values data is available.
in the 16 one-third octave bands from 125 to 4000 Hz
Single-leaf walls
with a reference contour covering the same
frequency range. The reference contour is adjusted The term single-leaf partition refers to all types of
until the TL curve has an average deficiency of no solid homogeneous panels where both faces are
more than 2 dB. (A deficiency occurs when a TL rigidly connected. Examples are concrete, concrete
value lies below the STC contour). Additionally, no block, brick, plywood and gypsum board.
measured TL value may lie more than 8 dB below the
The transmission loss of a single-leaf partition
STC contour. The sound transmission class is then
depends mainly on its surface mass (mass per unit
given by the 500 Hz value for the fitted STC contour.
area). The heavier the partition, the less it vibrates in
Figure 6.2.2 shows transmission loss data and the response to sound waves and therefore less sound
position of the reference contour after the fitting radiates from the side opposite the sound source.

Two leaf walls and reduces the sound insulation
provided by the partition.
A two-leaf partition contains two single-leaf layers
with an airspace in between. Such partitions usually The position or arrangement of the sound
provide substantially higher sound insulation than absorptive material inside the cavity has
single-leaf partitions with the same total mass. The no significant effect provided the whole
resulting STC will not be as high as the sum of the area of the partition is covered. For
STCs for the individual leafs. example, in staggered stud construction,
it does not matter whether the material is
The sound insulation provided by a two-leaf partition
against one face or zigzags between the
depends on 4 main factors:
studs.
1. Mass per unit area of component leafs: In
general, the heavier the component leafs, the 4. Depth of the airspace between the two leafs:
higher the sound insulation provided by a two- One potential disadvantage of cavity wall or floor
leaf partition. systems is that air trapped in the cavity between
the two leafs can act as a spring and transfer
2. Mechanical connection between the two leafs: vibration energy from one layer to the other. This
Rigid mechanical connections between the two interaction between the leafs causes a
leafs, permit sound to travel efficiently from one resonance called the mass-air-mass resonance
leaf to the other, reducing the sound insulation of and an associated dip in the transmission loss
the construction. If possible, mechanical curve. The TL can be reduced to less than that
connections should be avoided, for example, by for a single-leaf of the same total weight that in
constructing the two leafs to stand independently turn can lower the STC rating.
of each other. Where mechanical connections
The frequency of the mass-air-mass resonance can
are required, they should be sufficiently resilient,
be calculated from:
to avoid reductions in TL.
m1 + m2
3. Sound absorptive material in airspace between fmam = K
dm1 m2
leafs: The addition of sound-absorptive material
in the cavity of a double-leaf partition can K = 60 for an empty cavity
improve the sound insulation by 10 or more
points. The two leafs must not be rigidly K = 43 for a cavity filled with sound absorbing
connected to each other to achieve this material
improvement. Where the two leafs are rigidly Adding sound absorbing material to the cavity will
connected by structural supports, the addition of lower the resonance frequency resulting in two values
sound-absorptive material within the cavity will for the constant K.
provide only a small improvements in the sound
insulation. The improvement in TL due to the double-layer
construction begins about two-thirds of an octave
Porous fibrous materials (such as glass, above fmam. Therefore, to maximize the improvement
mineral or cellulose fibre) provide due to the cavity, the mass-air-mass resonance
significant improvement. The type and frequency should be as low as practical; that implies
density of the fibrous material do not large air spaces or heavier materials. Usually,
influence the STC much. designing for a mass-air-mass resonance of 80 Hz,
Closed-cell foam materials (such as means that the presence of a cavity will improve the
foamed polystyrene), are poor absorbers TL from 125 Hz upward, thereby ensuring an
of sound and do not improve the sound increase in the STC.
insulation. For a given total weight, the mass-air-mass
The airspace between leafs should be resonance is lowest when m1 = m2. Having both
filled with about three-quarters of sound- layers with the same weight and stiffness could,
absorptive material. Using more than this however, lead to low TL values around the
will provide little additional increase in coincidence dip.
sound insulation. The fibrous material Many common partitions have the mass-air-mass
should not be so densely compressed resonance in the frequency range of common low-
that it forms a solid bridge between leafs frequency noise sources. The deficiencies in their
low-frequency transmission loss are clear when a

stereophonic sound system plays in an adjacent The IIC should be about 55 or more for reasonable
room; the melody line is barely audible, but bass protection against impact noise. Figure 6.2.3 shows
sounds are easily heard. that a bare concrete floor, that has an IIC rating
controlled by the high frequencies, can be
Fig. 6.2.3 Tapping machine data for a 150 mm
unacceptable. Adding carpet or carpet with an
bare concrete floor tested bare (IIC
underpad makes very large differences to the IIC.
25), with a carpet (IIC 68), and with a
Most of the high frequency noise is reduced and the
carpet and foam underpad (IIC 86).
IIC is controlled by the lower frequencies.
Improving IIC ratings for concrete floors
Bare concrete floors or those with hard finishes, such
as tile or hardwood, provide low impact sound
insulation. The thickness of a slab makes little
difference. The IIC ratings are usually between 25
and 35. This is an example of a construction material
that provides good insulation against airborne noise
but does not necessarily provide good insulation
against impact noise. Also, good impact noise
insulation does not necessarily mean good airborne
sound insulation.
A soft, resilient floor covering cushions impact forces
and reduces the energy transferred to the building
structure. The more resilient or soft the floor covering
is, the greater the increase in the IIC. The
improvement in IIC depends on the characteristics of
the floor structure, so different carpets and underpads
give different results. Typical soft carpets and
underpads used in a home give IIC ratings around
6.2.6 Impact Sound Transmission
80. Vinyl floor coverings and similar products improve
Noise from footsteps and other impacts is a common the IIC of the bare slab by only 5 to 10 points.
source of annoyance in buildings. Impact noise is
A ceiling supported on resilient hangers below a
more difficult to control than airborne sound because
concrete slab will also increase the IIC rating. The
energy transfer is much more efficient when the
improvement depends on the method of support, the
vibrating or impacting source touches and directly
cavity depth, the weight of the ceiling and the amount
excites the surfaces of a building.
of sound absorbing material present in the cavity.
Laboratory and field test methods give single number Test data is needed to establish ratings for such
ratings for the transmission of impact sound through floors.
floors. [14, 15] These tests use a standardized tapping
Floating floors can improve the IIC ratings for a
machine with five steel-faced hammers that strike the
concrete slab by about 30 to 40 points. The value of
floor at a rate of 10 times per second. Sound
IIC obtained depends on the properties of the resilient
pressure levels are measured in the room below the
material used to support the floating layer, the depth
floor in the frequency range 100 to 3150 Hz. The
of the cavity below the floating slab, the weight and
resulting data is fitted to a reference contour to obtain
properties of the slab and whether or not there is
a single number rating - impact insulation class
sound absorbing material present in the cavity. The
(IIC). [16] Some examples of test results are shown in
IIC ratings are not as good as those provided by a
Fig. 6.2.3.
soft carpet and underpad, but still very good for use
The higher the IIC rating, the greater the impact noise in multifamily homes.
insulation provided by the construction. The IIC value
is determined by those values lying above the Lightweight joist construction
reference IIC contour once the fitting process is Wood-joist and truss floors perform quite differently
complete. As with the STC, the average deficiency than solid concrete floors. When finished with carpet
must not exceed 2 dB and no single deficiency can and underpad, the IIC rating of lightweight wood-joist
exceed 8 dB. and truss floors can be quite high. However, such

lightweight floors may transmit enough low-frequency the airborne sound transmission and impact
noise to be judged unacceptable by many occupants. sound transmission characteristics of party
This conflict between subjective reactions and IIC walls and floors
ratings arises because the impact insulation class the noise level in the adjacent spaces
rating system does not consider low-frequency sound
below 100 Hz. The ratings for lightweight wood-joist the background noise level in the occupant's
and truss floor systems tend to be optimistic in their own dwelling
evaluation of impact sound insulation. Occupants the sensitivity of the occupant
living below such floors often complain of thumps,
creaking sounds, or rattling sounds when people walk The last three factors vary widely. The sound
on the floor above. insulation value of a floor or wall partition must be
selected to provide the desired level of insulation.
Similar low frequency problems can occur with Sound insulation requirements for multi-unit dwellings
relatively thin concrete floors supported on steel are usually based on surveys and experience.
joists. Lightweight floors vibrate more in response to
impacts and thus generate more sound. Recommended sound insulation criteria for multi-
unit dwellings
Heavy concrete floors typically generate about 10 dB
less noise at low frequencies than do lighter joist or Mandatory minimum sound insulation requirements
truss systems. For this reason, heavier construction between adjoining units are generally specified in
is usually preferable in critical locations. building codes. The National Building Code of
Canada specifies a minimum STC of 50 for party
6.2.7 Sound Insulation in Multi-unit walls and floors.
Dwellings A more detailed approach that considers the sound
Several factors determine whether noise from insulation needed between various activity spaces in
adjacent units will bother other occupants of multi-unit adjacent units is given in Fig. 6.2.4 and Fig. 6.2.5.
dwellings: These tables give recommended effective sound
insulation values for walls and floors between units in
terms of STC and IIC ratings, respectively.
Fig. 6.2.4 Recommended minimum sound transmission class (STC) requirements for airborne sound
insulation of walls and floors separating spaces.
A B C
Separated spaces Bedrooms Living, etc. Service spaces
A Bedrooms 50
B Living, dining, family rooms 55 50
Kitchen, bathroom, hallway, foyer, storage,
C 55 50 45
utility space
Service spaces common to two or more
D
dwelling units
(a) Typically quiet, e.g., corridors, stairways,
50 50 45
storage spaces
(b) Typically noisy: garages, garbage disposal
areas (including garbage chutes), mechanical
70 65 60
equipment rooms, furnace rooms, laundries,
squash courts, party rooms
Note: Values are given for separation of specific spaces. The higher requirement should be used when two or more categories are combined
in one unpartitioned space.

Fig. 6.2.5 Minimum requirements for impact insulation class (IIC) floors separating spaces. Values are
given for separation of specific spaces.
Room below
A B C
Upper room Bedrooms Living, etc. Kitchen, etc.
A Bedrooms 50 45 45
B Living, dining, family rooms 55 50 45
Kitchen, bathroom, hallway, foyer, storage, utility
C 55 50 45
space
Service spaces common to two or more dwelling
D
units
(a) Typically quiet, e.g. corridors, stairways, storage
55 50 45
spaces
(b) Typically noisy: garages, garbage disposal areas
(including garbage chutes), mechanical equipment
65 60 50
rooms, furnace rooms, laundries, squash courts,
party rooms)
Note: The higher requirement should be used when two or more of the categories are combined in one unpartitioned space.
The values given in Fig. 6.2.4 and Fig. 6.2.5 6.2.9 Concrete Floors and Concrete and
represent recommended insulation values. Flanking Masonry Walls
transmission at the junctions of the construction
Precast concrete floor and roof slabs are often
components can reduce noise insulation drastically.
supported on concrete and masonry bearing walls.
Field testing of sound insulation at an early stage
Non-load bearing masonry partition walls are often
while construction is in progress can allow changes to
installed in precast concrete structures. Information
be made before the construction is completed.
on the acoustical performance of concrete and
Therefore, selection of tested building components
masonry assemblies is given in this section.
meeting these ratings will not guarantee the
recommended insulation values will be achieved in a Single-leaf concrete walls and floors
finished building.
Figure 6.2.6 gives representative STC values for
Influence of building layout on sound insulation common concrete wall and floor assemblies. Simple
requirements concrete partitions can provide STCs from 45 to 55.
A simple means of controlling noise in buildings is to Hollow core slabs have slightly lower values than
separate noisy areas from quiet areas as much as solid slabs. For STCs much greater than 55, the
possible. For example, in a typical apartment, the weight required may be prohibitive. Surface mass
noise levels vary widely from one room to another. must be doubled for an increase of 6 dB. Multi-layer
Kitchens are often noisy; living rooms may be the partitions with a central massive wall and one or more
source of sounds from speaking, radios or TV. A leafs attached to each side are often used where high
carefully chosen layout will reduce the required noise STC ratings are required. This is discussed below.
reductions between spaces and therefore reduce the Single-leaf masonry walls
sound insulation needed for the building components.
Concrete block provides approximately the same
6.2.8 Insulation from Outdoor Noise sound insulation as a solid concrete or brick wall of
the same surface mass, provided all cracks, openings
Insulation from outdoor noise has become a major and voids are properly sealed.
consideration in building acoustics, particularly in the
vicinity of major roads, railways and airports. Detailed Solid and hollow concrete blocks are manufactured in
procedures have been prepared by Canada a variety of thicknesses, core sizes, aggregates, and
Mortgage and Housing Corporation for the site densities. Representative values of the sound
planning and design of residential buildings. Usually, transmission class (STC) for block walls are given in
the sound insulation of a building facade is largely Fig. 6.2.7. These values apply only when the wall
determined by the performance of the windows and surfaces are properly sealed and the mortar joints are
doors. The effective performance of the composite sound.
wall can be calculated.

Fig. 6.2.6 Airborne sound transmission loss (STC) and impact insulation class (IIC) ratings from tests of
precast concrete assemblies. [37]
Assembly No. Description STC IIC
Wall Systems
1 100 mm flat panel, 240 kg/m2 49 -
Assembly 2 with "Z" furring channels, 25 mm insulation and 12 mm gypsum board,
3 62 -
390 kg/m2
4 Assembly 2 with wood furring, 12 mm insulation and 12 mm gypsum board, 390 kg/m2 63 -
Assembly 2 with 12 mm space, 40 mm metal stud row, 75 mm insulation and 12 (1)
5 63 -
mm gypsum board
7 355 mm prestressed tees with 100 mm flange, 360 kg/m2 54 -
Floor-Ceiling Systems
8 203 mm hollow core prestressed units, 280 kg/m2 50 28
9 Assembly 8 with carpet and pad, 285 kg/m2 50 73
203 mm hollow core prestressed units with 12 mm wood block flooring adhered
10 51 47
directly, 290 kg/m2
Assembly 10 except 12 mm wood block flooring adhered to 12 mm sound-
11 52 55
deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete, 300 kg/m2
12 Assembly 11 with acoustical ceiling, 305 kg/m2 59 61
Assembly 8 with quarry tile, 30 mm reinforced mortar bed with 10 mm nylon and
13 60 54
carbon black spinerette matting, 400 kg/m2
Assembly 13 with suspended 16 mm gypsum board ceiling with 90 mm insulation,
14 61 62
435 kg/m2
15 355 mm prestressed tees with 50 mm concrete topping, 365 kg/m2 54 24
Assembly 15 with resiliently suspended acoustical ceiling with 40 mm mineral fiber
17 59 51
blanket above, 375 kg/m2
19 100 mm flat slabs, 240 kg/m2 49 25
20 130 mm flat slabs, 310 kg/m2 52 24
21 130 mm flat slab concrete with carpet and pad, 315 kg/m2 52(1) 68
22 150 mm flat slabs, 360 kg/m2 52(1) 34
23 200 mm flat slabs, 480 kg/m2 55 34(1)
24 250 mm flat slabs, 600 kg/m2 58 31
25 250 mm flat slab concrete with carpet and pad, 605 kg/m2 59(1) 74
(1) Estimated values.
Fig. 6.2.7 Sound transmission class (STC) The sound insulation provided by a hollow concrete
ratings for normal and lightweight block depends on both the density of the block
hollow concrete block walls sealed on material and its porosity. The more porous the block,
at least one side. The block face the more sound will leak through the block structure.
dimensions are 190 390 mm. Improvements of 5 to 10 STC points are common
after sealing using concrete paint, epoxy paint, or a
Lightweight block Normal weight block skim coat of plaster. Gypsum board attached directly
Block Weight Weight with screws or dabs of glue to the block surface is not
thickness per block, STC per block, STC an effective seal because it is able to vibrate as a
(mm) (kg) (kg) separate layer.
90 7 43 10 44
When gypsum board is used to finish a masonry wall,
140 10 44 15 46 at least one face of the block should be sealed. This
190 13 45 17 48 can be an advantage when gypsum board is added
240 15 47 21 49 on resilient supports to finish a wall. Covering a flaw
290 18 48 25 51 with gypsum board does not eliminate the detrimental
effects of the flaw.

Two-leaf masonry walls Concrete or masonry walls with added gypsum
Two-leaf concrete or masonry walls are capable of board
providing very high sound insulation because they A common method for improving the sound insulation
comprise two heavy layers separated by an airspace. of an existing concrete or masonry wall is to add a
The insulation attained can be limited by the practical layer of gypsum board on one or both sides of the
difficulties of constructing two leafs that are wall. It is essential to first seal masonry walls.
structurally isolated.
The gypsum board is best supported using:
Depending on the height, masonry walls may require
Steel or wood studs not in contact with the
metal ties for structural reasons. Ties transmit sound
wall,
energy from one leaf to the other. The detrimental
effects of mechanical ties can be minimized by the resilient metal furring attached to the wall, or
use of special ties with interlocking hooks or resilient wood furring and resilient metal channels
couplings. During construction, the airspace between attached to the wall
two leaf masonry walls can become filled with mortar
droppings or rubble. This can bridge the gap between Wood furring alone attached to the wall with nails,
the walls and reduce the sound insulation. These screws and other fasteners is often used to attach
construction defects are usually concealed and gypsum board to the wall. This practice is not
impossible to correct after the wall is complete. recommended as these types of rigid connections
provide a path for vibrational energy and the benefits
Sound energy is transmitted along floors and ceilings, of the added gypsum board may be lost.
along walls abutting the periphery of cavity walls, and
through other parts of the structure. These flanking The measured improvement in sound transmission
paths can bypass a cavity wall and reduce its class (STC) rating that can result from the attachment
effective TL. This kind of flanking is illustrated in Fig. of 16 mm gypsum board in a variety of ways to
6.2.8. Physical breaks in the floor, ceiling, and concrete and masonry walls is given in Fig. 6.2.9.
abutting walls are needed to reduce transmission The STC ratings for complete wall systems can be
along these paths. calculated by adding the improvements given in
Fig. 6.2.9 to the STC rating of the concrete walls from
In summary, two-leaf concrete walls can provide very Fig. 6.2.6 or the masonry walls from Fig. 6.2.7.
high sound insulation but great care and experience
are needed in the overall design and construction. In Multi-element partitions
most cases, it is more practical to attach gypsum Components having low values of sound insulation,
board or other lightweight panels on resilient mounts such as windows and doors, reduce the overall sound
as described below. insulation. When a partition comprises two or more
different components, for example, a wall containing
Fig. 6.2.8 Flanking paths under a cavity block
a door or window, the effective value of airborne
(or concrete) wall resting on a
sound insulation is determined by the areas and
continuous slab of concrete. Any solid
sound transmission properties of the individual
connection between the walls will
components.
reduce the sound insulation.
The STC rating for a multi-element partition can meet
the design criterion by selecting the areas and
transmission losses of the individual components. It is
usually uneconomical to require that all components
have the STC rating required for the composite
structure. Instead, sound transmission through the
weaker components, is compensated for by
improving the stronger components, usually the wall,
beyond the overall design criterion. There are limits,
however, to what can be achieved.
Calculations should be made for each of the
individual TL values at each frequency band, and
then the STC is derived for the resultant TL curve.

Fig. 6.2.9 Increase in STC ratings when a single layer of 16 mm gypsum board is added to one or both
sides of a concrete block or a concrete wall, with and without fiberglass batts filling the cavity
between gypsum board and the concrete. The same values can be used for 13 mm gypsum
board without serious error.
Without fiberglass in cavity With fiberglass in cavity
Gypsum board attachment
one side both sides one side both sides
Directly on concrete block +0 1
On 13 mm resilient steel channels +2 1 +4 1
On 40 mm wood furring +3 +4 +5 +9
On 50 mm resilient steel furring +2 +2 +9 + 14
On 65 mm steel studs +8 +7 + 10 + 22
On 75 mm resilient steel furring +7 + 11
Note: When the cavity behind the gypsum board is too small, the STC is actually lowered relative to the bare block case. Note also the very
large increases in STC when the cavity is large and filled with sound absorbing material.
6.2.10 Control of Structureborne Noise in and toilets are available but may cost more than the
Buildings standard devices.
Structureborne sound arises when a machine or 6.2.11 Sound Leaks
vibrating device is rigidly attached to a building
structure. Structureborne sound may be controlled at Common causes of sound leaks in buildings:
its source, along its transmission path, and at its point cracked or incomplete mortar joints in
of reception. Control at the point of origin is best. masonry walls
The following techniques are recommended to unsealed gaps around power outlets
effectively control structureborne noise:
gaps under gypsum board walls where
Provide vibration isolation between machines caulking has been omitted
and a structure by mounting the machines on
soft rubber or neoprene pads, on springs or openings around pipes where they penetrate
on an inertia block that rests on springs. walls
Reduce the power of a source of vibration by cracks around the edges of doors and
changing its operating conditions or by windows
selecting different models that introduce less To eliminate sound leaks:
vibration into the structure. Well-balanced
rotating machinery will generate less Inspect and repair all mortar joints in
vibration than reciprocating equipment. concrete block walls and seal the surface.
Locate the source of vibration as far as Apply non-hardening caulking to seal all
possible from areas where low noise levels holes and fissures in party walls or floors.
are required. For example: Locate elevators Apply rubber gaskets or non-hardening
and garbage chutes away from bedrooms in caulking to seal openings around pipes and
apartments. Dont place a gymnasium above conduits. This prevents the pipes forming a
a school library. solid link and an easy path for vibration
Use breaks (for example, expansion joints) in between the two sides of a wall.
an otherwise solid building construction to Apply weather-stripping to windows and
impede the transmission of structureborne doors.
noise.
Repair and seal holes made during
Plumbing noise installation of services.
The plumbing system in a building can be considered Although the area of a leak can be quite small, the TL
as an extended machine and source of vibration. The is roughly zero. The STC is determined largely by the
same considerations given above apply. Wherever leak area unless the area of the leak relative to that of
possible, pipes and appliances should not be directly the wall is very low. For example, if the leak area is
attached to the structure of a building. Resilient 0.0001 times the wall area, the STC can never
collars and supports should be used. Quiet faucets exceed 40 no matter how good the wall construction.

The higher the acoustical isolation required, the more extend 4 times as far in each direction as the
important it is to eliminate all sound leaks. distance from the receiver to the barrier.
6.2.12 Sound Absorption of Concrete Fig. 6.2.10 Barrier attenuation [38]

Degree of Difficulty
Normal density concrete is not an efficient sound Reduction in Reduction in
to Obtain
absorber. An absorptive surface such as a sprayed or Sound Level Acoustic Energy
Reduction
trowelled-on acoustical plaster can be placed over 5 dBA 70% Simple
the concrete. Layers of fibrous sound absorbing 10 dBA 90% Attainable
materials can be attached and protected by a durable 15 dBA 97% Very Difficult
covering. 20 dBA 99% Nearly Impossible
Thin layers of material attached directly to the surface Other factors that affect sound barrier noise reduction
of a wall are relatively inefficient at lower frequencies. are reflections from the ground on either side of the
To improve low-frequency absorption, thick porous barrier and the bending of sound wave paths due to
layers, resonant cavity systems, porous layers behind wind or temperature effects. Having a sound
a perforated screen, sound absorbing material absorptive face on the barrier that faces the traffic
mounted on furring or a suspension system that increases sound attenuation. Computer programs
leaves space behind. Manufacturers' trade literature [18] are used to estimate the effectiveness and
will provide sound absorption characteristics for environmental impact of busy roads, highways and
sound absorbing materials on typical mounting sound barriers.
systems.
Proposed barrier structures may be tested to
6.2.13 Highway Noise Barriers determine the sound transmission through a sound
wall. Where it is required to have a sound absorptive
Noise barriers are solid obstructions built between a face towards the traffic, measurements of the sound
highway and homes along a highway. Effective noise absorption coefficients are made. Typical values are
barriers can reduce noise levels by 10 to 15 dB, STC 20 and NRC 0.7.
cutting the loudness of traffic noise in half, see Fig.
6.2.10. Barriers can be formed from earth berms or Sound attenuation is not the only consideration.
from vertical walls that take less space. Walls are Barriers must be structurally sound to withstand wind
usually limited to 8 meters in height for structural and loads, snow plow loads, weathering, and corrosive
aesthetic reasons. Precast concrete is often used to attack. Further information about transportation noise
construct noise barriers that are visually pleasing and and highway barriers can be found in journals
blend in with their surroundings. focused on this topic. [19]
Wall material selection is based on a number of 6.3 FIRE RESISTANCE
factors: aesthetics, durability, maintenance, cost,
public comments, etc. The material chosen should be 6.3.1 Notation
rigid and of sufficient density (approximately
Note: Subscript indicates the property as affected
20 kg/sq m minimum requiring at least 2.6 mm
by elevated temperatures.
steel, 36 mm wood or 9 mm precast concrete) to
Ap = area of prestressed reinforcement
provide a transmission loss of 10 dBA greater than
the expected reduction in the noise diffracted over the As = area of non-prestressed reinforcement
top of the barrier. A s = area of reinforcement in negative moment
Noise barriers do have limitations. For a noise barrier region
to work, it must be high enough and long enough to a = depth of equivalent rectangular compression
block the view of a road. Noise barriers do little good stress block
for homes on a hillside overlooking a road or for
buildings that rise above the barrier. A noise barrier b = width of element
can achieve a 5 dB noise level reduction when it is c = neutral axis depth at nominal resistance
tall enough to break the line-of-sight from the highway
dp = distance from centroid of prestressed
to the receiver and it can achieve an approximate 1.5
reinforcement to the extreme compression
dB additional noise level reduction for each meter of
fibre
height after it breaks the line-of-sight (with a
maximum theoretical total reduction of 20 dBA). To fc = specified compressive strength of concrete
avoid undesirable end effects, the barrier should

fpr = stress in the prestressed reinforcement at per cent of the total volume of all aggregates in the
nominal resistance concrete.
fpr = stress in the prestressed reinforcement at Fire endurance A measure of the elapsed time
elevated temperature during which a material or assembly continues to
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressed exhibit fire resistance under specified conditions of
reinforcement test and performance. As applied to elements of
buildings it shall be measured by the methods and to
fpu = tensile strength of prestressed the criteria defined in ULC S-101 (defined in ULC).
reinforcement at elevated temperature
Fire resistance The property of a material or
h = total depth of an element assembly to withstand fire or to give protection from
kp = factor for type of prestressing steel it. As applied to elements of buildings, it is
characterized by the ability to confine a fire or to
l = span length
continue to perform a given structural function, or
M = service load moment both (defined in ULC S-101).
Mn = nominal flexural resistance Fire resistance rating, sometimes called fire rating,
= fire resistance classification, or hourly rating, A
Mn+ , positive and negative nominal flexural
resistance at elevated temperatures, legal term defined in building codes, usually based on
Mn fire endurances. Fire resistance ratings are assigned
respectively
by building codes or building officials for various
u = distance from prestressed reinforcement to types of construction and occupancies and are
the fire exposed surface usually given in half-hour increments.
w = uniform total load Lightweight aggregate concrete Concrete made
wd = uniform dead load with lightweight, coarse and fine aggregate
wl = uniform live load (expanded clay, shale, slag, or slate, or sintered fly
ash) and having a 28-day air-dry unit weight of 1500
x = horizontal distance to 1700 kg/m3.
1 = stress block intensity factor Sand-lightweight concrete Concrete made with
1 = stress block depth factor lightweight, coarse aggregate (expanded clay, shale,
slag, or slate, or sintered fly ash) and normal weight
s = temperature of steel reinforcement fine aggregate and having a 28-day air-dry unit
c = resistance factor for concrete weight of 1700 to 1900 kg/m3.
p = resistance factor for prestressed Note: CSA A23.3 uses the term: low-density
reinforcement concrete.
6.3.2 Definitions 6.3.3 Introduction

Type S concrete Type of concrete in which the Precast concrete elements can be provided with the
coarse aggregate is granite, quartzite, siliceous degree of fire resistance required by building codes,
gravel or other dense materials containing at least 30 insurance companies, and other authorities. The fire
per cent quartz, chert or flint. resistance of building assemblies is determined from
Type N concrete Type of concrete in which the standard fire tests defined in ULC standard CAN/ULC
coarse aggregate is cinders, broken brick, blast S101-04, Standard Methods of Fire Endurance Tests
furnace slag, limestone, calcareous gravel, trap rock, of Building Construction and Materials. [39]
sandstone or similar dense material containing not Engineers can use the tabulated information provided
more than 30 per cent of quartz, chert or flint. in Appendix D, Fire-Performance Ratings, of the
Type L concrete Type of concrete in which all the National Building Code of Canada to ensure that fire
aggregate is expanded slag, expanded clay, resistance requirements are satisfied. This
expanded shale or pumice. information is based on the results of standard fire
tests of assemblies.
Type L40S concrete Type of concrete in which the
fine portion of the aggregate is sand and low density
aggregate and in which the sand does not exceed 40

certifications are based on standard fire tests. ULC
Fig. 6.3.1 Standard time temperature curve
certification is not required by NBC.
6.3.4 Standard Fire Tests

The fire resistance of building components is
measured in standard fire tests defined by ULC S101.
During these tests, the building assembly, such as a
portion of a floor, wall, roof or column is subjected to
increasing temperatures that vary with time as shown
in Fig. 6.3.1.
This time-temperature relationship is used as a
standard to represent the combustion of about 4.5 kg
of wood with a heat potential of 200 Mj/kg/m2 of
exposed area per hour of test. The fuel consumption
to maintain the standard time-temperature
relationship during a fire test depends on the design
of the furnace and on the test specimen. When fire
tested, assemblies with exposed concrete members,
such as double tees and hollow core slabs, require
considerably more fuel than other assemblies due to
In the absence of fire test results or tabulated data, their favorable heat absorption capacity. This fact is
the fire resistance of precast concrete elements and not recognized when evaluating fire resistance by
assemblies can be determined in most cases by current standard test methods.
calculation. These calculations are based on
ULC S101 specifies the minimum size of assemblies,
engineering principles and take into account the
the magnitude of applied load, the region of the
conditions of a standard fire test. This is known as the
assembly to be exposed to the fire, and the end point
Rational Design Method of determining fire
criteria on which fire endurance is based.
resistance. It is based on extensive research
conducted by the National Research Council of The Standard, ULC S101, specifies the minimum
Canada, the Portland Cement Association and many sizes of specimens to be exposed in fire tests, see
laboratories in Europe and the U.S. Fig. 6.3.1. For floors and roofs, at least 16.8 m2 must
be exposed to fire from beneath, and neither
While every attempt has been made to present
dimension can be less than 3.66 m. For tests of walls,
information that is factual and is in usable format, the
both loadbearing and non-loadbearing, the minimum
material presented herein does not have official
specified area is 9.3 m2 with neither dimension less
status. Acceptance of designs based on this
than 2.75 m. The minimum length for columns is
information rests entirely with the authority having
specified to be 2.75 m, while for beams it is 3.66 m.
jurisdiction.
The maximum permissible superimposed load as
Fire tests and heat transmission are discussed in
required or permitted by nationally recognized
Sect. 6.3.4 and Sect. 6.3.5. Calculations using the
standards is applied during fire tests of floors, roofs,
Rational Design Method for common situations are
beams, load-bearing walls and columns. A load other
presented in Sect. 6.3.7. Brief explanations of the
than the maximum load may be applied, but the test
underlying principles are also given. For additional
results then apply only to the restricted load
examples, design charts, and a complete explanation
condition.
of the method, refer to the CPCI manual, Fire
Resistance Ratings for Prestressed and Precast Floor and roof specimens are exposed to fire from
Concrete. [45] below, beams are exposed from the bottom and
sides, walls are exposed from one side, and columns
High strength concretes with compressive strengths
are exposed on all sides.
up to 70 MPa, will perform under fire conditions as
described herein provided minimum cover and other Restrained assemblies
dimensional requirements are adhered to. ULC
ULC S101 distinguishes between restrained and
provides certification of fire resistance ratings of
unrestrained assemblies and defines them as follows:
some building assemblies for precast concrete
manufacturers that subscribe to the service. These

Floor and roof assemblies and individual beams Unrestrained and restrained assembly classifications
in buildings shall be considered thermally can be derived from fire tests of restrained
restrained when (1) the surrounding or specimens. When based on results of fire tests of
supporting structure is capable of resisting, restrained specimens, additional end point criteria for
without collapse, thermal expansion such as unrestrained floor, roof, and beam classifications are:
would be induced in an environment described
1. Structural steel elements spaced more than 1.22
by the Standard Time-Temperature Curve, or,
m on centres: temperature of the steel at any
(2) the assemblies or beams have structural
one section must not exceed an average of
continuity over supports. Constructions not
593C or a maximum of 704C.
complying with either of these two conditions or
a combination thereof are assumed to be free to 2. Structural steel elements spaced 1.22 m or less
expand and rotate and should be considered as on centres, e.g., multiple open-web steel joists:
thermally unrestrained. average temperature must not exceed 593C.
While the focus of this definition is mainly on the axial 3. Concrete structural elements: average
resistance of the supporting or surrounding structure temperature of the bottom reinforcement at any
to thermal expansion, the intent of restraint can be section must not exceed 427C for cold-drawn
expanded for concrete members, unlike other prestressing steel or 593C for reinforcing bars.
materials, to include rotational restraint and continuity
Additional end point criteria for restrained assembly
as well see the sub-section on continuous elements
classifications are:
under Sect. 6.3.7.
1. Beams more than 1.22 m on centres: the steel
ULC S101 includes a guide for classifying types of
temperatures in (1) and (3) above must not be
construction as restrained or unrestrained and is
exceeded for classifications of 1 h or less; for
reproduced in Fig. 6.3.2. The guide indicates that
classifications longer than 1 h, these
cast-in-place and many precast concrete assemblies
temperatures must not be exceeded for the first
can be considered to be restrained.
half of the classification period or 1 h, whichever
Fire endurance, fire-resistance rating, and end is longer.
point criteria
2. Concrete beams 1.22 m or less on centres and
The fire endurance of an assembly is the period of slabs are not subjected to steel temperature
time which elapses before a prescribed condition of limitations.
failure or end point is reached during a standard fire
3. Structural steel members spaced 1.22 m or less
test. A fire-resistance rating is a legal term for the fire
on centres: the steel temperature in (2) above
endurance required by a building code or authority
must not be exceeded for classifications of 1 h
having jurisdiction.
or less; for classifications longer than 1 h, that
The following end point criteria are defined by ULC temperature must not be exceeded for the first
S101: half of the classification period or 1 h, whichever
is longer.
1. Loadbearing specimens must sustain the
applied loading. Collapse is an obvious end Note that there are no limiting temperatures for
point (structural end point). reinforcing steel or prestressing steel for restrained
classifications of slabs. Also, there are no limiting
2. Holes, cracks, or fissures through which flames
steel temperatures for unrestrained assembly
or gases hot enough to ignite cotton waste must
classifications derived from fire tests of unrestrained
not form (flame passage end point).
specimens. Restrained assembly classifications
3. The temperature increase of the unexposed cannot be obtained from fire tests of unrestrained
surface of floors, roofs, or walls must not exceed specimens.
an average of 140C or a maximum of 180C at
Walls and partitions must meet the same structural,
any one point (heat transmission end point).
flame passage, and heat transmission end points
4. In alternate tests of large steel beams (not described above. In addition, they must withstand a
loaded during test), the end point occurs when hose stream test (simulating, in a specified manner, a
the steel temperature reaches an average of fire fighters hose stream).
538C or a maximum of 649C at any one point.

Fig. 6.3.2 Construction Classifications, Restrained or Unrestrained*
STEEL OR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
A) One Bay Structures:
(i) Floors, roofs or beams should be considered as THERMALLY UNRESTRAINED

unless:
(a) They have structural continuity (see Clause A1.5) with supporting members;
or
(b) The supporting members are designed and detailed to resist thermal thrust
from the floor or roof system.
B) Multi-Bay Structures:
(i) Floors, roofs or beams in interior bays should be considered as THERMALLY

RESTRAINED, provided that:
(a) Open web steel joists, steel beams, or metal decking have a positive
structural connection with the structural concrete slabs they support. Such a
connection need not develop full composite action.
(b) Cast-in-place floor and roof systems (such as beam-and-slabs, flat-slabs,

pan-joists and waffle slabs) are integral with or secured to the framing
members.
(c) All types of prefabricated floor or roof systems are secured to the framing
members so that the potential thermal expansion of the floor or roof system
is resisted by the framing system or adjoining floor or roof construction. For
example, resistance to potential thermal expansion is considered to be
achieved with either of the following:
(A) Continuous structural concrete topping is used; or
(B) The space between the ends of precast units or between the ends of
units and the vertical face of supports is filled with concrete or mortar;
or the space is the lesser of 25 mm or 0.25% of the length for normal
weight concrete members or the space is the lesser of 15 mm or
0.1% of the length for structural lightweight concrete members.
(ii) Floors, roofs or beams in exterior bays (exterior bays are defined as those having
an exterior support in the direction of the span or spans of the floor, roof or beam in
question) should be considered as THERMALLY UNRESTRAINED unless:
(a) They have structural continuity (see Clause A1.5) with supporting members,
or
(b) The supporting framing members are designed and detailed to resist thermal
thrust from the floor or roof system.
WOOD CONSTRUCTION
All types of wood construction shall be considered to be thermally unrestrained.
* Reproduced from ULC 5101

Fire tests of prestressed concrete assemblies Fire tests of walls and columns
The first fire test of a prestressed concrete assembly A test was conducted by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
in North America was conducted in 1953 at the on a double tee wall assembly for research purposes
National Bureau of Standards. Since that time, more in which fire was applied to the flat surface of the 50 mm
than 150 prestressed concrete assemblies have been thick flange. A gravity load of about 145 kN/m was
subjected to standard fire tests in North America. applied at the top of the wall. The wall withstood a 2-hour
Although many of the tests were conducted for the fire and a subsequent hose stream test followed by a
purpose of deriving specific fire ratings, most of the load test with the design load doubled. No distress was
tests were performed in conjunction with broad observed. The heat transmission requirement was
research studies whose objectives have been to exceeded for most of the test because the flange was
understand the behaviour of prestressed concrete only 50 mm thick. By providing adequate flange thickness
members subjected to fire. or insulation, the heat transmission requirement would
The knowledge gained from these tests has resulted have been met in addition to the structural requirement.
in the development of: Fire tests of reinforced concrete columns have been
conducted by PCA and the National Research
1. lists of fire resistive prestressed concrete
Council of Canada. While no tests have been
building components and
conducted for prestressed concrete columns, results
2. procedures for determining the fire endurance of from these tests are considered to be equally
prestressed concrete elements by calculation. applicable to prestressed concrete columns with
Many different types of prestressed concrete adjustments made for the difference in thermal
elements have been fire tested. These elements properties between mild reinforcing steel and
include joists, double tees, mono-wing tees, single prestressing strand as may be appropriate.
tees, solid slabs, hollow core slabs, rectangular 6.3.5 Designing for Heat Transmission
beams, ledger beams, and -shaped beams. In
addition, roofs with thermal insulation and ULC S101 imposes heat transmission criteria for
loadbearing wall panels have also been tested. floor, roof, and wall assemblies. Thus floors, roofs, or
Nearly all of these elements have been exposed walls requiring a fire-resistance rating must satisfy the
directly to fire, but a few tests have been conducted heat transmission requirements as well as the various
on specimens that received additional protection from structural criteria. The heat transmission fire endurance
the fire by spray-applied coatings, ceilings, etc. of a concrete assembly is essentially the same
whether the assembly is tested as a floor, oriented
Fire tests of flexural elements horizontally, or as a wall, tested vertically. Because of
Reports of a number of tests sponsored by the this, and unless otherwise noted, the information
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) have which follows is applicable to floors, roofs, or walls.
been issued by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL). Single course slabs or wall panels
Most of the reports have been reprinted by PCI, and
For concrete slabs and panels, the temperature rise
the results of the tests are the basis for UL's listings
and specifications for non-proprietary products such of the unexposed surface depends mainly on the
as double tee and single tee floors and roofs, hollow thickness, relative density, and aggregate type of the
core and solid slabs, and prestressed concrete concrete. Other less important factors include unit
beams. weight, moisture condition, air content, and maximum
aggregate size. Within the usual ranges, water-
The Portland Cement Association (PCA) conducted cementitious materials ratio, strength, and age have
many fire tests of prestressed concrete assemblies. insignificant effects. Fig. 6.3.3 shows the fire
PCA's unique furnaces made it possible to study in endurance (heat transmission) of concrete slabs or
depth the effects of support conditions. Four series of wall panels as influenced by aggregate type and
tests dealt with simply supported slabs and beams; element thickness. For a hollow core slab, this
two series dealt with continuous slabs and beams; thickness may be obtained by dividing the net cross
and one major series dealt with the effects of sectional area by its width. The curves represent air-
restrained thermal expansion on the behavior during entrained concrete made with air-dry aggregates
fire of prestressed concrete floors and roofs. PCA has having a nominal maximum size of 20 mm and fire
also conducted a number of fire tests of prestressed tested when the concrete was at the standard
and reinforced concrete assemblies. Test results that moisture condition, 75% R.H. at mid-depth. On the
have been published as Research and Development graph, concretes are designated as Types L, L40S,
Bulletins are available from PCA. [41], [42] N, and S, see Sect. 6.3.2 Definitions.

Fig. 6.3.3 Fire endurance (heat transmission) of The fire resistance of sandwich wall panels is
concrete slabs or wall panels equivalent to the fire resistance of a solid panel with a
thickness equal to the sum of the thickness of the two
wythes. For further information, see Chapter 2 of the
Supplement to NBCC.
Window walls
NBCC limits the area of unprotected openings
(windows and doors) in exterior walls which are
required to be fire resistive. Percentages of
unprotected opening areas are tabulated for various
combinations of area of building face, height-length
ratio, and spatial separation.
The percentage of openings permitted increases:
1. as the spatial separation increases
2. as the area of the exposed building face
decreases
3. as the ratio of either height-length (H/L) or
length-height (L/H) increases, i.e., a greater
percentage is permitted for H/L or L/H of 10:1
than for H/L or L/H of 3:1
For example, an exposed face of an office building
having an area of 350 m2, an L/H = 2:1, and a limiting
Ribbed panels distance of 7 m can have a maximum of 16 percent of
unprotected openings. If the ratio of L/H or H/L were
Heat transmission through a ribbed panel is influenced 10:0 or more, the area of unprotected openings could
by the thinnest portion of the panel and by the panels be increased to 30 percent, or if the spatial
equivalent thickness. Equations for calculating the separation were 12 m and the L/H were 10:1, the
equivalent thickness are given in Appendix D of the area of unprotected openings permitted is 59 percent
NBCC. An illustrated example is shown in Sect. 1.4 of of the exposed face.
the Cement Association of Canada (CAC) Concrete
Design Handbook. NBCC also permits a higher limit on the unexposed
surface temperature if the area of unprotected
Multi-course-assemblies openings is less than the maximum allowed, and thus
Floors and roofs often consist of concrete base slabs somewhat thinner panels can be used.
with overlays or undercoatings of other types of An equivalent opening factor is applied in the
concrete or insulating materials. In addition, roofs following formula to determine the corrected area of
generally have built-up roofing. Walls may consist of openings:
more than one wythe, with or without an internal air Ac = A + Af Feo
space. Ac = corrected area of unprotected openings
The fire resistance of multi-course assemblies is including actual and equivalent openings
outlined in Chapter 2 of the Supplement to NBCC. An A = actual area of unprotected openings
illustrated example is shown in Sect. 1.4 of the CAC
Concrete Design Handbook. Af = area of exterior surface of the exposing
building face exclusive of openings, on
Sandwich panels which the temperature limitation of the
Sandwich wall panels are made by sandwiching standard fire test is exceeded
insulation material between two concrete wythes. Feo = equivalent opening factor
It should be noted that cellular plastics melt and are Figure 6.3.4 shows the relation between Feo (as
consumed at about 200 to 300C. Additional defined in NBCC and panel thickness for three types
thickness or changes in composition will have a minor of concrete.
effect on the fire endurance of sandwich panels. [43]

To illustrate the use of Fig. 6.3.4, suppose that for a Joints between adjacent precast floor or roof
particular building face, a 2 h fire-resistance rating is elements may be ignored in calculating the slab
required and the area of unprotected openings thickness provided that a concrete topping at least 40
permitted is 57 percent. Suppose also that the actual mm thick is used. Where no concrete topping is used,
area of unprotected openings is 49 percent and that joints should be grouted to a depth of at least one-
the window wall panels are made of Type N concrete. third the slab thickness at the joint, or the joints made
Determine the minimum thickness of the panel. fire-resistive in a manner acceptable to the authority
In this case, Ac = 57 percent, A = 49 percent, having jurisdiction.
Af = 100 49 = 51 percent, hence: 6.3.6 Balanced Design

A c A 57 49 A balanced design approach to fire safety is a
Feo = = = 0.16
Af 51 philosophy of fire protection based on hazard and risk
assessments applied to buildings on an individual
From Fig. 6.3.4, for Feo = 0.16 at 2 h, the minimum basis. A balanced design approach to fire safety
panel thickness is 54 mm. Thus, if the panel is 54 mm recognizes the importance of fire resistive
thick or thicker, the code requirements will be compartmentation, smoke detection and automatic
satisfied. suppression in buildings to reduce the risk of injury,
Treatment of joints loss of life and property damage from the effects of
fire. The use of the components of balanced design,
Joints between wall panels are similar to openings, singularly or in combination, is dependent upon the
and can be treated in the manner discussed for buildings occupancy, construction and type of
window walls. In many cases, joints need not be fire- hazards that may be present. Each of the protection
protected, however, in other cases, openings, components of a balanced design approach has both
including joints, must be protected. strengths and weaknesses. It is essential to
Fire tests of wall panel joints [44] have shown that the understand the building's fire protection requirements
fire endurance, as determined by a temperature rise to avoid compromising lives and property, and avoid
of 181oC over the joint, is influenced by joint type, unnecessary redundancy in fire protection features.
joint materials, joint width, and panel thickness. When This approach provides code officials and authorities
the proper thickness of insulating materials is having jurisdiction with the latitude to determine an
provided within the joint, it is possible to attain fire appropriate level of protection based on specific
endurance equal to that of the panels. conditions for particular building types and
Fig. 6.3.5 is based on results of fire tests of panels occupancies.
with butt joints. The tabulated values apply to one-
stage butt joints and are conservative for two-stage
and ship-lap joints.
Fig. 6.3.4 Equivalent opening factor Feo, for concrete wall panels*
*For use with the National Building Code of Canada.

Fig. 6.3.5 Protection of joints using ceramic fibre felt
Thickness of ceramic fibre felt (mm) required for fire resistance ratings
Panel and joints widths shown
equivalent thickness* (mm) Joint width = 10 mm Joint width = 25 mm
1h 2h 3h 4h 1h 2h 3h 4h
100 6 19
125 0 19 13 58
150 0 0 32 6 32 89
175 0 0 0 25 6 19 51 96
*
Panel equivalent thicknesses are for Type N concrete. For Type S concrete change 100, 125, 150, and 175 in column 1 to 110, 135, 165,
and 190, respectively. For Type L40S or L concrete change 100, 125, 150, and 175 in column 1 to 85, 105, 125, and 145.
The tabulated values apply to one-stage but joints and are conservative for two-stage and ship-lap joints as shown below.
Multi-unit dwellings, high-rise buildings and high may be shut off before or during a fire; water supply
hazard occupancies are examples where all of the may be insufficient; clogged piping; system may be
components of a balanced design approach may be out of service due to freezing, earthquake, explosion,
necessary. Open parking structures may not require or lack of maintenance; inadequate sprinkler
all the balanced design approach components. The protection (coverage); broken piping or fittings; and
balanced design approach applies in either case. A sprinkler head obstructions. In arson related fires,
design based on hazard and risk assessments is automatic suppression systems can be rendered
applied on an individual basis to determine the fire inoperable by simply closing a valve.
protection requirements. Compartmentation and inherent fire resistant
construction is very difficult if not impossible to
Post earthquake fires continue to be a serious threat,
disable.
particularly in densely populated urban areas.
Although earthquake resistant automatic sprinkler Permitting trade-offs between fire resistant construction
systems exist, it is probable that the public water or compartmentation or automatic suppression
supply system will fail, rendering the automatic generally leads to protection imbalances as there are
suppression systems inoperable. When no established equivalency relationships between the
compartmentation has been traded-off in favour of an elements of balanced design. Statistics show that the
automatic suppression system, fire can quickly total dollar property loss for sprinklered buildings
spread through a building destroying everything in its average about twice the dollar amount for
path. Fire resistant elements, designed to maintain unsprinklered buildings probably because of trade-
structural integrity in the event of an earthquake, can offs such as a reduction in fire resistance ratings, or
be constructed to stop or retard the spread of fire, an increase in allowable area and height of the
permit safe occupant evacuation and provide an building or permitting a larger percentage of exterior
acceptable environment for fire fighting operations. wall openings.
Automatic suppression systems are not always
effective for the following reasons: sprinkler valves

Fig. 6.3.6 Moment diagrams for simply- Unrestrained elements
supported beam or slab Expansion can occur without restriction when an
unrestrained prestressed concrete slab is exposed to
fire from below and the ends of the slab are free to
translate and rotate. With the underside of the slab
exposed to fire, the bottom will expand more than the
top, causing the slab to deflect downward. The
strength of the steel and concrete near the bottom will
decrease as the temperature rises. When the
strength of the steel diminishes below that required to
support the slab, flexural collapse will occur. The
applied moment remains constant during the fire
exposure, but the resisting moment capacity is
reduced as the steel weakens.
Figure 6.3.6 illustrates the behaviour of a simply-
supported slab exposed to fire from below. The
nominal flexural resistance is constant throughout the
span because the strands are parallel to the axis of
the slab.
Mn = Ap fpr (dp a/2)
Mn = nominal moment resistance
fpr = stress in the prestressed reinforcement at
nominal resistance
6.3.7 Designing for Structural Integrity dp = distance from the extreme compression
fibre to the centroid of the prestressed
It was noted above that many fire tests and related reinforcement
research studies have been directed toward an
understanding of the structural behaviour of a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
prestressed concrete subjected to fire. The = Ap fpr / (1 fc b), where fc is the specified
information gained from that work has led to the compressive strength of the concrete and b
development of calculation procedures which can be is the width of the compression face
used in lieu of fire tests. The purpose of this section is
to present an introduction to these calculations. The In lieu of a more accurate determination of fpr based
method of support is the most important factor on strain compatibility, the following approximate
affecting structural behaviour of flexural elements value of fpr may be used for bonded tendons if fpe is
during fire. The discussion that follows deals with not less than 0.6fpy and c/dp is not greater than 0.5:
three conditions of support: simply supported fpr = fpu (1 kp c/dp)
elements, continuous slabs and beams, and fpu = tensile strength of bonded tendons
elements in which restraint to thermal expansion
occurs. Refer to PCI MNL-124 [40] for additional kp = factor for type of prestressing steel
examples and more detailed information. = 2 (1.04 fpy /fpu)
The fire endurance of concrete walls, as determined c = neutral axis depth at nominal resistance
by fire tests, is normally governed by the ULC criteria As the material strengths diminish with elevated
for temperature rise of the unexposed surface rather temperatures, the retained nominal flexural
than by structural behavior during fire tests. This is resistance becomes:
due to low stress levels, even in concrete bearing
walls, and that reinforcement does not perform a Mn = Ap fpr (dp a/2)
primary structural function. The amount of cover fpr = fpu (1 kp c/dp)
protection required by code usually exceeds that a = A p fpr /(1fc b)
required for fire protection so there is reserve
structural fire endurance within a concrete wall.

in which signifies the effects of elevated To solve problems involving the above equations, it is
temperature. Note that Ap and dp are not affected, but necessary to use data on the strength-temperature
fpr is reduced. Similarly a is reduced, but the relationships for steel and concrete, and information
concrete strength at the top of the slab, fc, is on temperature distributions within concrete elements
generally not reduced significantly because of its during fire exposures. Fig. 6.3.7 shows strengths of
lower temperature. If, however, the compressive zone certain steels at elevated temperatures, and Fig.
of the concrete is heated above 450C, fc should also 6.3.8 shows similar data for various types of
be reduced to calculate a. concrete.
Flexural failure can be assumed to occur when Mn is Data on temperature distribution in concrete slabs
reduced to M. The material resistance factors, p and during fire tests are shown in Fig. 6.3.9. Similar data
c are not applied because a factor of safety is for concrete beams and joists are more complex
included in the required ratings. From this expression, because beams are heated from the sides as well as
it can be seen that the fire endurance depends on the from beneath. Fig. 6.3.10 shows temperature data for
applied loading and on the strength-temperature normal density concrete joists and beams at 2 h
characteristics of the reinforcement. exposure. Note that the temperatures are given for
points along the vertical centreline of rectangular
In turn, the duration of the fire before the critical steel
beams or of elements with tapered sides.
temperature is reached depends on the protection of
the reinforcement.
Fig. 6.3.7 Temperature-strength relationships for various steels

Fig. 6.3.8 Compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures
Fig. 6.3.9 Temperatures at u mm from hot face of concrete slabs during fire tests

Fig. 6.3.10 Temperature along vertical centre lines of stemmed units at 2h of exposure*
*From: FIP/CEB Report on Methods of Assessment of the Fire Resistance of Structural Members.
Example 6.6 Capacity of a hollow core slab 1. From Fig. 6.3.9, estimate strand temperature at 2
exposed to fire h for carbonate aggregate concrete with:
Given: u = 45 mm: s = 400C
A 203 mm deep hollow core slab with a simply- 2. From Fig. 6.3.7, determine:
supported unrestrained span of 8.5 m.
fpu = (0.54)(1860) = 1005 MPa
Concrete:
3. Determine Mn and wl :
fc = 35 MPa 1 = 0.80 1 = 0.88
A p fpu
Normal density, Type N c/dp =
1fc 1bdp + kp A p fpu
(693)(1005)
7 13 mm 1860 MPa low-relaxation strands =
(0.8)(35)(0.88)(1220)(158) + (0.28)(693)(1005)
kp = 0.28
= 0.141
Ap = (7)(99) = 693 mm2
fpr = (1005)[1 (0.28)(0.141)] = 965 MPa
h = 203 mm
a = (693)(965)/[(0.8)(35)(1220)] = 20 mm
u = 45 mm
Mn = (693)(965)(158 20/2)/106 = 99.1 kN-m
dp = 158 mm
w = (8)(99.1)/[(8.5)2(1.2*)] = 9.1 kN/m2
b = 1220 mm
*assumed load factor on total specified load = 1.2
wd = 2.6 kN/m2
w l = w wd = 9.1 2.6 = 6.5 kN/m2
l = 8.5 m
Example 6.7 Increasing fire endurance of a
Problem: double tee by adding reinforcement
Determine the maximum superimposed load that can
be supported after 2 h exposure to a standard fire. Given:
A 2400 400 double tee floor with 50 mm composite
Solution: topping and a simply-supported unrestrained span of
9 m.

Mn = (594)(442)(317 7/2)/106 = 82.4 kN-m
M = (12.5)(9)2/8 = 127 kN-m > Mn
4. Try adding one 25M Grade 400 MPa reinforcing
bar in each stem at u = 181 mm.
5. Estimate temperature and strength of the
reinforcing bars:
bw = 128 mm
s = 495C (Fig. 6.3.10)
fy = (0.70)(400) = 280 MPa (Fig. 6.3.7)
As = (2)(500) = 1000 mm2
Concrete:
fc (precast) = 35 MPa 1 = 0.80 1 = 0.88 6. Calculate Mn:
fc (topping) = 20 MPa 1 = 0.82 1 = 0.92 Adjusted a =
(594)(442) + (1000)(280)
(0.82)(20)(2400)
Normal density, Type N
= 14 mm
Mn = [(594)(442)(317 14/2)
6 13 mm 1860 MPa low-relaxation strands
+ (1000)(280)(269 14/2)]/106
kp = 0.28
= 155 kN-m > 127 OK
Ap = (6)(99) = 594 mm2
wd = 3.3 kN/m2 Continuous elements
wl = 1.9 kN/m2 Continuous elements undergo changes in stresses
when subjected to fire. These stresses result from
u = 133 mm
temperature gradients within the structural elements,
dp = 317 mm or changes in strength of the materials at high
Problem: temperatures, or both.
Determine the amount of additional non-prestressed Figure 6.3.11 shows a two-span continuous beam
reinforcement required to provide a 2 h structural fire whose underside is exposed to a fire test. The bottom
endurance. of the beam becomes hotter than the top and tends to
Solution: expand more than the top. This differential
temperature effect causes the ends of the beam to
w = (2.4)(1.9 + 3.3) = 12.5 kN/m tend to lift from their supports thereby increasing the
1. Estimate strand temperature at 2 h from Fig. reaction at the interior support. This action results in a
6.3.10. At centroid of strand: redistribution of moments, i.e., the negative moment
bw = 100 + (133/350)(55) = 121 mm at the interior support increases while the positive
moments decrease.
Avg. s = 545C
During a fire, the negative moment reinforcement
2. Estimate fpu from Fig. 6.3.7: (Fig. 6.3.11) remains cooler than the positive moment
fpu = (0.24)(1860) = 445 MPa reinforcement because it is better protected from the
3. Calculate Mn and compare with M: fire. In addition, the redistribution that occurs is
Assume N.A. is in the topping. sufficient to cause yielding of the negative moment
reinforcement. A relatively large increase in negative
c (594)(445)
= moment can be accommodated throughout the test.
dp (0.82)(20)(0.92)(2400)(317) + (0.28)(594)(445) The resulting decrease in positive moment means
that the positive moment reinforcement can be
= 0.023
heated to a higher temperature before failure will
fpr = (445) [1 (0.28)(0.023)] occur. The fire endurance of a continuous concrete
= 442 MPa beam is significantly longer than that of a simply
supported beam having the same cover and the
a = (594)(442)/[(0.82)(20)(2400)] = 7 mm
same applied loads.
OK, N.A. is in the topping.

Fig. 6.3.11 Moment diagram for two-span It can be shown that at the point of maximum positive
continuous beam moment, x1 :
l Mn
x1 =
2 wl
At x = x2, Mx = 0 and x2 = 2 x1:
2Mn
xo =
wl
wl 2 2Mn+
Mn = wl 2
2 wl 2
In most cases, redistribution of moment occurs early
during a fire and the negative moment reinforcement
will yield before the negative moment capacity has
been reduced by the effects of fire. The length of xo is
increased, i.e., the inflection point moves toward the
simple support. If the inflection point moves beyond
the cut off points of the negative moment
reinforcement, sudden failure may result.
Figure 6.3.13 shows a symmetrical beam or slab in
which the end moments are equal:

Mn = wl2 / 8 Mn+
wx 22
= Mn+
8
8Mn+
It is possible to design the reinforcement in a x2 =
continuous beam or slab for a particular fire w
endurance period. From Fig. 6.3.11 the beam can be 1
xo = (l x 2 )
expected to collapse when the positive moment 2
+
capacity, Mn , is reduced to the value of the l 1 8Mn+
maximum redistributed positive moment at a distance =
x1 from the outer support. 2 2 w
Figure 6.3.12 shows a uniformly loaded beam or slab To determine the maximum value of xo, the value of w
continuous (or fixed) at one support and simply should be the minimum service load anticipated, and
supported at the other. Also shown is the (w l 2 /8 Mn ) should be substituted for Mn
+
in the
redistributed applied moment diagram at failure. equation:
l 1 8Mn+
Fig. 6.3.12 Uniformly loaded element continuous xo =
at one support 2 2 w
+
For a given fire endurance period, the value of Mn
can be calculated by the procedures given in the
section on simply-supported elements. The value of

Mn can be calculated using the two preceding
equations:
wl 2 2Mn+
Mn = wl 2
2 wl 2
or
wl 2

Mn = Mn+
8

The necessary lengths of the negative moment *assumed load factor on total specified load = 1.2
reinforcement can be determined from:
Fig. 6.3.13 Symmetrical uniformly loaded element
2Mn
xo = continuous at both supports
wl
or
l 1 8Mn+
xo =
2 2 w
Use of these equations is illustrated in the following
example.
The amount of moment redistribution that can occur
is dependent on the amount of negative moment
reinforcement. Tests have demonstrated that the
negative moment reinforcement will yield, so the
negative moment capacity is reached early during a
fire test, regardless of the applied loading. The
designer must ensure that a secondary type of failure Problem:
will not occur. To avoid a compression failure in the Calculate the required amount of negative moment
negative moment region, the amount of negative reinforcement to provide a 3 h fire endurance.
moment reinforcement should be such that A23.3, Solution:
Clause 18.8, Limits for Minimum Factored Flexural From Fig. 6.3.9: s = 480C
Resistance, is satisfied before and after reductions in
fy, b, d and fc are taken into account. The negative From Fig. 6.3.7: fpu = 0.36 fpu = 670 MPa
moment reinforcement must be long enough to Calculate values: fpr = 658 MPa, a = 18 mm
accommodate the complete redistributed moment +
Mn = (550)(658)(310 18/2)/106
envelope and change in the inflection points. The
worst condition occurs when the applied loading is = 108.9 kN
smallest, such as dead load plus partial or no live M = (1.2*)(8.4 + 7.2)(7.5)2 / 8 = 131.6 kN-m
load. It is recommended that at least 20% of the Reqd Mn = 131.6 108.9 = 22.7 kN-m/unit
maximum negative moment reinforcement extend
throughout the span. Assume d a /2 = 310 mm and fy = 400 MPa
A s = (22.7)(10 )/[(400)(310)] = 183 mm /unit
6 2
Example 6.8 Design of a continuous hollow core
floor system for a 3 h fire endurance Neglect concrete above 750C in negative moment
Given: region, i.e. from Fig. 6.3.9, neglect bottom 13 mm.
1220 305 hollow core floor with 50 mm topping and Concrete within compressive zone will be about
a continuous span of 7.5 m. 730 to 750C, so use fc = 28 MPa, 1 = 0.81 (see
Fig. 6.3.8).
Concrete:

fc (precast) = 35 MPa 1 = 0.80 1 = 0.88 Check Mn , assuming that the temperature of the
negative moment reinforcement does not rise above
fc (topping) = 20 MPa 1 = 0.82 1 = 0.92
90C. If greater than 90C, the reinforcing strength
Normal density, Type N should be reduced according to Fig. 6.3.7.
Prestressed reinforcement: *Use 20% As throughout span.
10 9 mm 1860 MPa stress-relieved strands Try WWF with an area of 59.8 mm2/m in both
kp = 0.28 directions throughout plus WWF with an area of 123
Ap = (10)(55) = 550 mm2 mm2 /m in both directions over the supports.
wd = 8.4 kN/m2 Over supports:
wl = 7.2 kN/m2 A s = (1.2*)(59.8 + 123.0) = 220 mm /m
2
u = 45 mm a = (220)(400)/[(0.81)(28)(1220)] = 3 mm
dp = 310 mm
6
Mn = (220)(400)(330 13 3/2)/10 = 28 kN-m

Notes: 330 mm is the depth to the WWF restrained members, fire endurance is governed by
reinforcement from the bottom most fibre. 13 mm is heat transmission rather than by structural
the depth of the concrete above 750oC (neglected). considerations.
3/2 is half the depth of the stress block. Rational design method
With dead load + 50% live load; w = 12 kN/m2, An alternative method of calculating fire resistance is
M = 101 kN-m/unit and Mr = 28 kN-m/unit (calculated at to treat the restrained precast element as
room temperature). unrestrained with respect to its endurance to fire. The
+
Mmin = 101 28 = 73 kN-m/unit time the element is subject to fire is then multiplied by
7.5 8(73) 1/2. For example, an axially restrained precast
max xo = 0.5 concrete element subjected to a 3 hr fire, would be
2 1.2 * (12)
designed as an unrestrained element subjected to a
= 0.57 m = 570 mm fire time of 1.5 hr. The rationale for this method is the
Use the lighter WWF throughout plus the heavier ASTM E119 criteria for deriving unrestrained member
fabric for a distance of 900 mm in both directions from ratings from restrained fire tests.
the support. The WWF must extend into walls that Example 6.9 Design of a beam restrained
must be designed for the moment induced at the top. against thermal expansion
Elements restrained against thermal expansion
If a fire occurs beneath an interior portion of a large
reinforced concrete slab, the heated portion will tend
to expand and push against the surrounding part of
the slab. The unheated part of the slab exerts
compressive forces on the heated portion. The
compressive force, or thrust, acts near the bottom of
the slab when the fire first occurs but, as the fire
progresses, the line of action of the thrust rises as the
mechanical properties of the heated concrete
Given:
change. This thrust is generally great enough to
300RB600 as shown restrained against thermal
increase the fire endurance significantly.
expansion
The effects of restraint to thermal expansion can be Span = 10 m
characterized as shown in Fig. 6.3.14. The thermal Dead Load = 17 kN/m
thrust acts in a manner similar to an external Live Load = 15 kN/m
prestressing force, which increases the positive This beam is part of a precast concrete frame, well
moment capacity. connected to meet lateral load and structural integrity
The increase in bending moment capacity is similar to requirements. Consider the beam to be restrained for
the effect of added reinforcement located along the fire endurance determination.
line of action of the thrust. It can be assumed that the Concrete Properties:
3
added reinforcement has a yield strength (force) fc = 35 MPa Type N concrete - 2400 kg/m
equal to the thrust. It is possible to determine the
magnitude and location of the required thrust to Steel Properties:
provide a given fire endurance. fpu = 1860 MPa
The above explanation is greatly simplified as Ep = 190,000 MPa
restraint is complex, and likened to the behaviour of a fy = 400 MPa
flexural element subjected to an axial force.
Problem:
Interaction diagrams similar to those for columns can
Determine the necessary reinforcement for a four (4)
be constructed for a given cross-section at a particular
hour fire rating.
stage of a fire, e.g., 2 h of a standard fire exposure.
Use 8 - 13mm low relaxation strands as shown
The guidelines in ULC S101 for determining above.
conditions of restraint are useful for preliminary Solution:
design purposes. Interior bays of multi-bay floors or Since the member is restrained, use rational design
roofs can be considered to be restrained. With procedures for an unrestrained member at 1/2 the
required 4 hour fire resistance time = 2 hr fire rating.

(15 + 17)(10)2 M = (792)(983)(531-108/2)
M = = 400 kN-m n
s 8 + (316)(300)(450-108/2) = 409 kN-m OK
1.5
2400 Adding the 2 15M bars to the beam will achieve the
E = (3300 fc + 6900) = 28,164 MPa
c 2300 required 4 hr fire rating.
2 2
A = (8 strands)(99 mm /strand) = 792 mm Shear resistance
ps
(5)(50 mm) + (3)(100 mm) Many fire tests have been conducted on simply
y = = 69 mm supported reinforced and prestressed concrete
s 8
elements and elements restrained against thermal
d = 600 mm 69 mm = 531 mm expansion. Shear failures did not occur in any of
Minimum concrete cover is the least distance to the these tests.
centre of the strand less half the strand diameter. When beams that are continuous over one support
u = 50 12/2 = 44 mm (e.g., as shown in Figure 6.3.11) are exposed to fire,
both the moment and the shear at the interior support
From Fig. 6.3.9 for Type N concrete, strand increase. This redistribution of moment and shear
temperature will be 390C results in a severe stress condition. Of the several fire
From Figure 6.3.7: tests of reinforced concrete beams where this
condition was simulated, shear failure occurred in
fpu = (0.56)(1860 MPa) = 1041 MPa
only one beam. [42] The shear reinforcement in that
Determine Mn test was inadequate, even for service load conditions
c A fpu without fire as judged by the shear requirements of
= A23.3. It appears from available test data that
dp a1fc 1bdp + kp Aps fpu
members that are designed for shear strength in
(792)(1041) accordance with A23.3 will perform satisfactorily in
= = 0.198
(0.80)(35)(0.88)(300)(531) + (0.28)(792)(1041 fire situations, i.e. failure will not occur prematurely
due to a shear failure.
fpr = 1041[1-(0.28)(0.198)] = 983 MPa Protection of connections
(792)(983)
a = = 93 mm Many types of connections in precast concrete
(0.80)(35)(300)
construction are not vulnerable to the effects of fire,
M = (792)(983)(53193/2) and consequently, require no special treatment. For
n
example, connections such as the bearing between
= 377 kN-m < 400 kN-m
precast concrete panels and concrete beams or
Additional reinforcement is needed to carry the footings that support them do not generally require
specified loads. special fire protection.
Try 2 15M bars at 150 mm from the bottom of the If panels rest on elastomeric pads or other combustible
beam. materials, protection of the pads is not generally
needed because deterioration of the pads will not
Estimate the temperature and strength of the
cause collapse. Connections that can be weakened by
reinforcing bars:
fire and thereby jeopardize a structure's load carrying
u = 44 mm (same cover as prestressing capacity should be protected to the same degree as
strands) that required for the supported member. For example,
an exposed steel bracket supporting a panel or
From Fig. 6.3.9: spandrel beam will be weakened by fire and may fail,
s = 390C causing the panel or beam to collapse. Such brackets
should be fire protected.
From Fig. 6.3.7:
The amount of protection depends on:
fy = (0.79)(400 MPa) = 316 MPa
2 1. the stress-strength ratio in the steel at the time
As = (2)200 = 400 mm of the fire, and
Calculate the new Mn
2. the intensity and duration of the fire.
(792)(983) + (400)(316)
adjusted a = = 108 mm The thickness of protection materials required is
(0.80)(35)(300)
greater as the stress level and fire severity increase.

Fig. 6.3.14 Axially restrained beam during fire frequency of the rhythmic activity), and the presence
exposure of other occupancies in the building, such as offices
or residences, where people are sensitive to the
vibrations generated in the building by others. Sects.
6.4.2 to 6.4.4, based on [46] and [47], contain design
recommendations to avoid these problems.
These recommendations are based on the following
basic resonance model [47] for a floor panel:
A rhythmic activity generates a repeated force
on the floor, at a step frequency of
approximately 2.5 Hz. For some activities such
as dancing, the repeated force is nearly
sinusoidal with time. For other activities such as
high-impact aerobics, the repeated force is not
sinusoidal, but is a combination of sinusoidal
forces, one at the step frequency, the others at
twice and, for aerobics, three times the step
frequency. The repeated force from a person
6.3.8 CPCI Manual, Fire Resistance Ratings walking across a floor is a combination of
for Prestressed and Precast Concrete sinusoidal forces of the first four multiples
The CPCI manual, Fire Resistance Ratings for (harmonics) of the step frequency,
Prestressed and Precast Concrete [45] gives approximately 2 Hz.
information on a number of additional topics Figure 6.4.1 shows peak acceleration of a floor
including: panel as a function of forcing frequency due to a
1. cover thickness requirements for prestressed continuous sinusoidal force applied to the floor.
concrete slabs The floor panel is assumed to have only one
mode of natural (free) vibration its fundamental
2. anchor protection for post-tensioned tendons mode. The primary feature of the response in
3. cover and width requirements for prestressed Fig. 6.4.1 is resonance: when the forcing
concrete beams and joists frequency matches the natural frequency, the
vibration builds up to a large magnitude,
4. thickness requirements for precast concrete controlled only by damping in the floor system.
column covers The peak acceleration at resonance shown in
In many instances, the CPCI manual contains more Fig. 6.4.1 is given by a formula similar to
extensive data and discussion than comparable Newtons second law (force = mass x
information in Chap. 2 of the Supplement to the acceleration):
National Building Code of Canada. The manual sinusoidal force
discusses alternative methods of achieving fire- peak acceleration = Eq. (1)
resistance ratings such as providing added moment mass 2
capacity in lieu of increasing the cover thickness. The = model damping ratio
manual gives more conservative values of cover The curve shown in Fig. 6.4.1 provides the basis for
thickness for beams and joists than Chap. 2 of the the vibration criteria used in this section. It must be
Supplement to the NBCC. emphasized that the calculations presented are very
approximate. The actual natural frequency of a floor
6.4 VIBRATION IN CONCRETE
can be estimated to a reasonable degree of
STRUCTURES
accuracy, but the calculations are based on damping
6.4.1 Introduction and on human response, both of which are subject to
Aerobics, dancing and other rhythmic human much variation. When in doubt about the acceptability
activities are sources of annoying vibration in of a proposed floor system, the best way to decide is
buildings. to compare it to existing similar systems that are
known to be acceptable or unacceptable, using the
The two main factors behind these problems are same method of analysis. See [48] for a general
resonance (which occurs when a natural frequency of discussion on floor vibration for precast concrete.
the floor structure is equal to or close to a forcing

Fig. 6.4.1 Resonance model ( = damping ratio)
Sometimes annoying floor vibration is generated by 6.4.3 Natural Frequency

mechanical equipment. This can usually be corrected
by isolating the equipment as discussed in Sect. For vibration, the fundamental natural frequency of
6.4.5. the floor structure, fn, is the most important property.
Design recommendations for lateral building vibration A simplified formula for estimating fn is given by [46]:
due to wind are given in reference [50]. 18
fn = Eq. (2)

6.4.2 Vibration Limits
is the maximum deflection (in mm) of the floor
Vibration is generally expressed in terms of peak
structure under the weight supported.
acceleration as a fraction of the acceleration due to
gravity, a/g, where g = 9.81 m/s2. In an office For simply-supported slabs (e.g., hollow core or
environment, annoyance occurs when vibration double tee slabs) on rigid supports, is obtained
exceeds approximately 0.5%g. In an active from the simply-supported beam deflection formula. If
environment such as a lively concert in a stadium, the slabs are supported on simply supported girders,
people will accept much greater vibrations, up to the deflection of the girder under the weight it
approximately 18%g. Active participants of rhythmic supports should be added to obtain the total
activities will accept more than 18%g. Vibration limits deflection, i.e. = j + g.
are recommended for design in Fig. 6.4.2 for different
In a tall building the shortening of the supporting
occupancies. [46] These limits apply for vibration
columns under the weight they support should also
frequencies between 2 and 10 Hz, the range of
be added to obtain . [46] An example of resonant
natural frequency for most precast floor structures,
vertical vibration during aerobics due to axial spring
also the range of greatest human sensitivity, hence
action of columns is given in [49]. Thus the
the range for most annoying vibrations due to human
fundamental natural frequency of the floor structure,
activities.
fn, is affected by the total deflection of the structure,
Fig. 6.4.2 Recommended acceleration limits for not just the deflection of the slab itself.
vibration [46] The deflection, , for a uniformly-loaded simple span
Occupancies Affected Acceleration Limit floor panel is determined from:
by the Vibration %g
5wl 4
Office and Residential 0.4 to 0.7 = Eq. (3)
Dining and Weightlifting 1.5 to 2.5 384EI
Rhythmic Activity Area E = 1.2Ec for concrete. The factor 1.2 takes into
Office or residential building 4.0 to 7.0 account the rate-of-loading effect for dynamic
Stadium or arena 10 to 18

vibration as compared to static deflection. [47] Eq. (3) example of calculating peak acceleration for a one-
does not apply to two-way flat slabs or two-way beam way hollow core slab on stiff supports. See [47] for
and slab construction. more detail.
Floors with natural frequencies lower than 3 Hertz are Fig. 6.4.3 Recommended values of parameters
generally not recommended because people may in Eq. (4)
more readily synchronize their actions at lower Constant Damping Acceleration
frequencies, such as "rogue" jumping. [47] If the Force Ratio Limit
natural frequency is less than 3 Hz, a special P0, kN a0/g
evaluation should be carried out, considering the Offices,
planned uses of the floor area. residences, 0.29 0.02 to 0.05* 0.5%
churches
6.4.4 Design for Walking Vibration Shopping
0.29 0.02 1.5%
Floor vibration due to walking is rarely a problem for malls
concrete construction. Footbridges
Indoor 0.41 0.01** 1.5%
The following design criterion [47] is used for walking Outdoor 0.41 0.01 5.0%
vibrations of long-span floors with natural frequency
* 0.02 for floors with few nonstructural components and
less than 9 Hz is based on the resonance model, Eq.
furnishings, as can occur in electronic or paperless offices,
(1):
open work areas or churches; 0.03 for floors with
ap a0 nonstructural components and furnishings, but with only small
Eq. (4a)
g g demountable partitions; 0.05 for full-height partitions between
2 floors.
ap = peak acceleration due to walking, m/s
** 0.02 for drywall ceiling well-attached to a footbridge deck
a0 = acceleration limit, m/s2
Example 6.10 Hollow core floor walking
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2) vibration
Where ap /s is calculated on the resonance model (Eq. 1):
Determine if a 200 mm simply supported hollow core
ap P e0.35fn floor system satisfies the vibration criterion given in
= 0 Eq. (4b)
g W Eq. (4) due to walking. The floor supports a
residential occupancy with full-height partitions.
P0 e0.35fn = the harmonic walking force at or near fn,
Concrete Floor Properties:
kN
Unit width 1.22 m; Span variable L m
P0 = a constant force representing the walker,
Concrete unit mass 2400 kg/m3
kN fc = 35 MPa
fn = natural frequency of the floor structure, H2
Elastic Modulus:
W = wBL = effective weight of the floor, where w
E = 1.2Ec
is the weight per m2 of a floor panel, L m
long and B m wide. For hollow core slabs it 2400
1.5
E = 1.2 (3300 35 + 6900)
is recommended to take B equal to L. For 2300
double tees, it is recommended to vary B
from 0.8L for 450 mm topped double tees = 33,800 MPa
and 0.6L for 800 mm topped double tees. = 33.8106 kN/m2
For continuous spans, W may be increased
50%. [47] At an unstiffened edge of a floor, Moment of inertia:
the width B used for estimating the floor Untopped I = 693 106 mm4 = 693 10-6 m4
weight should be halved. [47] Weight of slab:
Compute ap/g and compare to the limit in Fig. 6.4.3 Untopped = 2.7 kN/m2
Recommended values of P0 and for several Floor panel properties
occupancies and the respective a0/g acceleration Supported weight:
limits are given in Fig. 6.4.3.
wj = 1.22[2.7+0.2(flrg, etc.) + 0.3(live)]
Procedures for calculating W and fn for two-way floor = 3.90 kN/m
systems are given in Reference [47]. Below is an

Deflection (Eq. 3): 6.4.5 Design for Vibration Due to Rhythmic
4 4
(5)(3.90)(L )(1000) L Activities
j (in mm) = 6 6
=
(384)(33.8 10 )(693 10 ) 461 Resonance vibration due to rhythmic activities is
often unacceptable. It is usually necessary to avoid
Natural frequency (Eq. 2):
resonance by ensuring that the natural frequency, fn,
fn = 18 L4 461 = 386 /L2 is greater than the forcing frequency, ifstep. The
following criterion [46] is based on the curve in Figure
Panel width: B = L 6.4.1 above resonance:
Panel weight: Wj = wBL = [3.9/1.22]L2 = 3.2L2 i w p
fn ifstep 1 + K Eq. (5)
2
Damping ratio: = 0.05 (Fig. 6.4.3); W = 0.16L ao / g w t
Acceleration (Eq. 4):
ao/g = acceleration limit (see Fig. 6.4.2).
ap 0.29e0.35fn 0.29e 0.35fn 1.81e0.35fn
= = = wt = total dead weight supported by the floor
g W 0.16L2 L2
structure expressed as a UDL.
Figure 6.4.4 shows the peak walking acceleration, ap,
for simply-supported residential floors on stiff wp = weight of participants as an equivalent UDL
supports as a function of span length. These over the floor span. This can be estimated
calculations were also carried out for an open plan from the UDL of the participants over the
office with low partitions, where the damping ratio can area occupied by the participants as
be reduced in Fig. 6.4.3 from 0.05 to 0.03. Topping is recommended in Fig. 6.4.5.
usually applied for an office floor; with the effective ifstep = forcing frequency of the ith harmonic as
moment of inertia increased from 69310-6 m4 to recommended in Fig. 6.4.5. For aerobics,
127610-6 m4 and the weight of hollow core increased three harmonics need to be considered
from 2.7 kPa to 3.9 kPa, The calculated acceleration because of its repeated impactive
for the topped office floor is approximately the same character. For lively concert, sports events
as for the untopped residential floor. Both floors are or dancing, the second harmonic in Fig.
satisfactory for walking for spans up to the maximum 6.4.5 takes into account the impactive
recommended (10 m). If the office floor were character of foot stamping.
untopped, however, Fig. 6.4.4 indicates
unsatisfactory walking vibration for spans above i = dynamic coefficient for the ith harmonic of
7.5 m. the step or jumping frequency, as
recommended in Fig. 6.4.5.
If the hollow core floor system is supported on steel
beams, the natural frequency of the floor system is K = 1.7 for dancing, 1.7 for lively concert or
decreased, and the system must be re-evaluated. sports event, 2.0 for aerobics.
See [47], Example 5.2.2. To prevent resonance vibration, Eq. (5) is applied to
Continuity of hollow core over supports will reduce the highest harmonic. However, if the dynamic
vibration by providing increased mass and, if adjacent loading for the highest harmonic, iwp, is sufficiently
spans are unequal, increased natural frequency of small compared to the mass weight, wt, then
the floor system. Procedures for estimating these resonance may be acceptable, in which case the
effects are contained in [47]. above equation is applied to the second highest
harmonic in Fig. 6.4.5. The peak acceleration due to
See [47], Example 5.2.1, for the design of a precast harmonic resonance, based on Eq. (1), is obtained
double tee mall footbridge with low damping (0.01 in from [47]:
Fig. 6.4.3) for walking vibration.
1.3 i w p
ap/g = Eq. (6)
2 w t
For rhythmic activities, can be taken as 0.04 to 0.06

for design purposes. The more people on the floor
the greater the damping ratio.

Fig.6.4.4 Walking vibration - 200 mm hollow core on stiff supports
Fig 6.4.5 Recommended dynamic loading for rhythmic events [46]

Forcing UDL of Participants on Dynamic
Activity Frequency Occupied Area Coefficient
f (Hz) wp (kPa) i
Dancing
first harmonic 1.5 to 2.7 0.6 (2.5 m2 per couple) 0.50
second harmonic 3.0 to 5.0 0.6 (2.5 m2 per couple) 0.05
Lively Concert/Sports Event
first harmonic 1.5 to 2.7 1.5 (0.5 m2 per person) 0.25
second harmonic 3.0 to 5.0 1.5 (0.5 m2 per person) 0.05
Aerobics
first harmonic 2.0 to 2.75 0.2 (3.5 m2 per person) 1.50
second harmonic 4.0 to 5.5 0.2 (3.5 m2 per person) 0.60
third harmonic 6.0 to 8.25 0.2 (3.5 m2 per person) 0.10
6.4.6 Stadium Seating deflect about their weakest principal axis, as shown in
the example. Furthermore, the bays in stadiums are
Precast, prestressed concrete seating slabs, as often of non-uniform width. This causes each seating
shown in Example 6.4.2, are often used in stadiums slab to have a different span and thus, a different
and arenas and are usually manufactured in units natural frequency that helps to prevent resonance.
that are one, two or three seats wide. Connections
are provided between the upper and lower units to Fifty-six different seating slabs made by PCI
prevent differential deflection of the adjacent units. members have been examined. All are known to
have satisfactory performance in service. This exam-
These seating slabs are subjected to rhythmic
ination produced the following recommendations:
excitation, as a crowd responds in unison to a cheer
or song. The response of the seating slabs is different 1. The slabs should be sufficiently interconnected,
from that of an ordinary flat floor. The seating slabs with a minimum of three connections per bay, to
have a three-dimensional nature, and vibrate and prevent differential deflection between adjacent
units. If people sit on one slab, with their feet

resting on another slab below, they are much harmonic. Because the seating vibrates in a direction
more sensitive to differential deflections of the two normal to the weak axis, these forces are multiplied
units. by cos22.
2. For bays of uniform width with an angle in plan, First, apply Eq. (6) to see if second harmonic
, less than 5 degrees (see Fig. 6.4.6), the resonance is acceptable:
minimum natural frequency requirement for the 1.3 (0.05)(1.5)cos 22o
first harmonic should be satisfied. For bays of a/g = = 12%g
non-uniform width with an angle in plan, , of 5 (2)(0.06) 5 + 1.5
degrees or more, the minimum frequency which is marginally acceptable. For a stadium,
requirement may be reduced 25 percent. second harmonic resonance is much more likely to
Consult with local CPCI members for specific be annoying during a lively concert because of the
recommendations for stadium seating slabs. duration of a song. For most stadia, lively concerts
are rare, and a 12%g vibration limit is expected to be
Fig. 6.4.6 Uniform and non-uniform width bays acceptable. To limit accelerations in such stadia to
in a stadium 15%g, Eq. (5) is applied for ifstep = 2.7 Hz for the first
harmonic in Fig. 6.4.5:
1.7 (0.25x1.5)cos 220
fn 2.7 1 + = 3.5Hz
0.15 5 + 1.5
The natural frequency for the precast seating is
determined from Eq. (3) using the principal moment
of inertia in the most flexible direction (slope of 220),
which is found by application of [51] to be
3350 10-6 m4 - see Example A2 in [47]. Application
of Eq. (3) results in:
5 (6.5)(1.6)(L4 )(1000) L4
=
= 384 (33.8 106 )(3350 10 6 ) 836 Eq. (7)

(L in m, in mm)
Example 6.11 Stadium seats on stiff supports E = 1.2Ec
lively concert/sports event
where Ec = 33.8106 kN/m4 from Example 6.10. For a
minimum natural frequency of 3.5 Hz that
corresponds to a of 26.5 mm from Eq. (2),
application of the above formula results in a
maximum span of 12.2 m.
For stadia where lively concerts often occur, the
owner may wish to limit the acceleration to 10%g ,
and Eq. (5) is applied for ifstep = 5 Hz for the second
harmonic in Fig. 6.4.3:
1.7 (0.05 1.5)cos 220

The precast stadium seating shown above is fn 5.0 1 + = 5.4Hz
proposed, where it is assumed that the risers are on 0.10 5 + 1.5
stiff supports. The weight of the seating, including For a minimum natural frequency of 5.5 Hz,
non-structural components, is 5 kPa on a horizontal application of Eq. (2) results in a of 10.7 mm, and
projection. Determine the maximum acceptable span from Eq. (7), the maximum span of 12.2 m is reduced
for vibration acceptability during a lively concert or to 9.7 m.
sports event using an acceleration limit of 10 to
18%g, see Fig. 6.4.2. These calculations are based on the assumption that
the risers are on stiff supports. For precast risers on
For such an event, Fig. 6.4.5 recommends a UDL of flexible supports, the properties of the structure
1.5 kPa for the weight of participants and two (natural frequency and mass) are altered, primarily in
harmonic loads with forcing frequencies up to 2.7 Hz a reduction of natural frequency. To investigate this, a
for the first harmonic and up to 5 Hz for the second

dynamic analysis of the supporting structure is f = forcing frequency of the equipment (Hz)
recommended, see [47]. fl = static deflection of the floor system at the
6.4.7 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical location of the equipment caused by the
Equipment weight of the equipment (including inertia
block), (mm).
Vibrations produced by equipment and unbalanced
operating or starting forces can usually be isolated Example 6.12 Vibration Isolation
from the structure by mounting the equipment on a A piece of mechanical equipment has a forcing
heavy concrete slab placed on resilient supports. This frequency of 15 Hz. Determine the approximate
type of slab, called an inertia block, provides a low minimum deflection of the mounts due to the weight
centre of gravity to compensate for dynamic forces supported and the maximum deflection of the floor
such as those generated by large fans. structure due to the equipment.
For equipment with less unbalanced weight, a The minimum static deflection of the mounts due to
housekeeping slab is sometimes used below the the weight supported is determined as follows:
resilient mounts to provide a rigid support for the 2
47.4
mounts and to keep them above the floor so they are m = = 10 mm
easier to clean and inspect. This slab may also be 15
mounted on pads of precompressed glass fibre or The maximum deflection of the floor structure under
neoprene. the weight of isolated equipment is determined as
The natural frequency of the total mass on resilient follows:
mounts must be well below the forcing frequency fl = (0.15)(10) = 1.5 mm
generated by the equipment. The required weight of
an inertia block depends on the total weight of the 6.5 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND
machine and the unbalanced force. For a long-stroke CONSTRUCTION
compressor, five to seven times its weight might be 6.5.1 Terms and Definitions
needed. For high pressure fans, one to five times the
fan weight is usually sufficient. Admixtures Those ingredients in concrete other
than hydraulic cement, water, and aggregates that
A floor supporting resiliently mounted equipment are added to the mixture immediately before or during
must be stiffer than the isolation system. If the static mixing.
deflection of the floor approaches the static deflection
of the mounts, the floor becomes part of the vibrating Anthropogenic Effects or processes that are
system, and little vibration isolation is achieved. In derived from human activities, as opposed to natural
general, the floor deflection should be limited to about effects or processes that occur in the environment
15% of the deflection of the mounts. without human influences.
Simplified theory shows that for 90% vibration Blast-furnace cement Mixture comprised of
isolation, the equipment plus blocking mass hydraulic cement and higher percentages of blast-
supported on resilient mounts should have a natural furnace slag.
frequency of about one-third the forcing frequency of Durability The ability of a structure or a structural
the equipment. element to maintain adequate performance for a
The natural frequency of this system, can be given time under expected actions and environmental
calculated by [52]: influences, including air, water, land, natural
15.8 resources, flora, fauna, humans and their
fom = Eq. (7) interrelations. [65]
m
m = static deflection of the mounts due to the Eco-toxicity Adverse effects on plants and
weight supported (mm) animals, populations, or communities.
The minimum required static deflection of the mounts Entrain Trap and retain; gas bubbles in liquid or
can be determined as follows: solid or air in concrete.
2 Environmental aspect Element of an
47.4
m = Eq. (8) organizations activities, products and services that
f
can interact with the environment.
f1 = 0.15m Eq. (9)

Environmental burden An adverse environmental Life cycle assessment (LCA) A compilation and
impact. evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential
environmental impacts of a product system
Environmental conditions Chemical, biological or
throughout its life cycle.
physical influences on a structure that may
deteriorate the materials constituting the structure Life cycle cost (LCC) All costs associated with the
that may affect its reliability in an unfavorable way. products life cycle. These include all costs involved
in acquisition (research & development, design,
Environmental declaration A presentation of
production & construction, and phase-in), operation,
environmentally relevant product information.
support and disposal of the product.
Environmental impact Any change to the natural
Life cycle inventory analysis (LCI) The phase of
environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or
life cycle assessment involving the compilation and
partially resulting from an organizations activities,
quantification of inputs and outputs for a given
products or services.
product system throughout its life cycle.
Eutrophication A process by which a water body
Live load All the loads in a building not part of the
becomes rich in dissolved nutrients.
structure: furniture, people, snow, wind.
Fly ash Finely divided residue resulting from the
Off-gassing Also known as outgassing, is the
combustion of ground or powdered coal that is
emission of chemicals from building materials,
transported from the firebox through the boiler by flue
furniture, textiles, bedding or other products in a
gases. Fly ash is a by-product of coal-fired electric
home.
generating plants.
Pozzolan cement A fine powdered material that is
Functional unit The quantified performance of a
added to non-hydraulic lime mortars to accelerate the
product system for use as a reference.
set. The material possesses little or no cementitious
Heat capacity Also called thermal capacity, is the value, but in a finely divided form it will react with
ability of matter to store heat. It is the amount of heat calcium hydroxide (lime putty) in the presence of
required to raise the temperature of one gram of a moisture to provide a chemical set.
material one degree Celsius.
Precast element A concrete unit cast and cured in
High performance concrete (HPC) Concrete a place other than the final location in a structure.
made with appropriate materials (superplasticizer,
Note: The precast elements described in this section
retarder, fly ash, blast furnace slag and silica fume)
are assumed to be manufactured in a permanent
combined according to a selected mix design and
production facility in accordance with A23.4, as
properly mixed, transported, placed, consolidated,
opposed to units cast at a building site.
and cured to give excellent performance in some
properties of concrete, such as high compressive Raw material A primary or secondary material
strength, high density, low permeability, long-term used to produce a product.
mechanical properties, early age strength, toughness,
Recycling The collection or processing of waste
volume stability, or service life in severe
from a system, that results in a useful application of a
environments.
product either in the same system or in a different
Hydraulic cement Hydraulic cement is the most system.
common type of cement in general use, as it is a
Recycling is the reuse of materials that would
basic ingredient of concrete and mortar. It consists of
otherwise be considered waste. Recycled materials
a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminum.
can be derived from pre-consumer waste (materials
Hydraulic cement and similar materials are made by
used in manufacturing) or post-consumer waste
heating limestone (as source of calcium) with clay or
(materials discarded by the consumer).
sand (as source of silicon) and grinding the product.
The resulting powder, when mixed with water, will Sandwich panels Insulated precast sandwich wall
become a hydrated solid over time. panels consist of two reinforced or prestressed
concrete wythes with a continuous layer of rigid
Integral cost The sum of environmental burden
insulation sandwiched between.
and economic cost.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) A concrete
Life cycle Consecutive and interlinked stages of a
mixture that can be placed purely by means of its
product system, from raw material acquisition or
own weight with little or no vibration.
generation of natural resources to final disposal.

Supplementary cementing materials (SCM) Fly reporting framework to take into account not just
ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, silica financial outcomes but also environmental and social
fume, and natural pozzolans, such as calcined shale, performance.
calcined clay or metakaolin, are materials that, when
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) Organic
used in conjunction with hydraulic or blended cement,
chemical compounds that have high enough vapour
contribute to the properties of the hardened concrete
pressures under normal conditions to significantly
through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity or both.
vaporize and enter the atmosphere. VOCs are an
These materials are generally categorized as
important outdoor air pollutant.
supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) or
mineral admixtures. Supplementary cementing Waste Unwanted or undesired material left over
materials are added to concrete as part of the total after the completion of a process.
cementing system. They may be used in addition to
or as a partial replacement of hydraulic cement or 6.5.2 Introduction
blended cement in concrete, depending on the Sustainable design applies good design practices
properties of the materials and the desired effect on and good business principles in addition to preserving
concrete. Types of supplementary cementing the natural environment. Sustainable development is
materials are given in A23.1, Table 8. defined as development that meets the needs of
Setting time The time required for a specimen of people living today without compromising the ability
concrete, mortar or cement paste, prepared and of future generations to meet their own needs.
tested under standardized conditions, to attain a Sustainable development requires a long-term vision
specified degree of rigidity. of industrial progress, preserving the foundations
upon which quality of life depends: respect for basic
Slag A by-product of smelting ore to purify metals. human needs and local and global ecosystems. [60]
Slags can be considered to be a mixture of metal
oxides. Slag can contain metal sulphides and metal The First International Conference on Sustainable
atoms in the elemental form. Slags are generally Construction in 1994 defined sustainable construction
used as a waste removal mechanism in metal as: The creation and responsible maintenance of a
smelting, however they can also serve other healthy built environment, based on ecological
purposes such as assisting in smelt temperature principles, and by means of an efficient use of
control and to minimise re-oxidation of the final resources. In keeping with this definition, architects,
bullion product before casting. engineers, owners, contractors and developers have
a responsibility to design and select materials and
Slag cement A supplementary cementitious systems that will provide a durable foundation for
material often included in contemporary concrete sustainable communities. The production and use of
mixes. Slag cement is a hydraulic cement. concrete in all its forms is central because concrete is
Surplus material Material left over at the end of a second only to water as the most consumed
production process. substance on earth, with nearly three tons used
annually for each person on the planet.
Sustainable development Development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising Like all manufactured products, the production and
the ability of future generations to meet their own use of concrete building systems imposes
needs. environmental burdens. However, concrete offers a
dramatic range of colours, finishes and unlimited
The three pillars of sustainability are: design possibilities difficult to match with other
1. environmental quality materials. Concrete structures can provide superior
environmental and energy performance from a life
2. social equity and cultural issues cycle perspective. Precast concrete offers a
3. economic constraints competitive building solution based on first cost, long-
term economic benefits, energy efficiency, lower
Thermal inertia A measure of the response of a maintenance and overall operating costs as well as
material to temperature changes within a substance. opportunities for future reuse should the occupancy
Triple bottom line An expanded spectrum of of a building change.
values and criteria for measuring organizational (and The Canadian cement and concrete industrys
societal) success economic, environmental and environmental record is continuously improving. The
social. In practical terms, triple bottom line accounting industry has achieved the following:
usually means expanding the traditional company

30% reduction per tonne of cement in the are certified by the CaGBC based on a total point
consumption of coal, natural gas and score, following an independent review and audit of
petroleum coke since the 1970s selected documents submitted by a design team.
With four possible levels of certification (Certified,
11% energy efficiency improvement between
Silver, Gold and Platinum), LEED is flexible enough
1990 and 2001 [59]
to accommodate a wide range of green building
8% decrease in direct emissions of CO2 per strategies that best fit the constraints and goals of
tonne of concrete product between 1990 and particular projects.
2000, with a further 2% decrease projected
All of these systems assess and reward performance
by 2010 [60]
with regard to design and construction management,
6.5.3 Green Building Rating Systems site selection, material selection and use, operational
energy use, water use, and indoor environmental
When we consider the current and future use of quality. Within these broad categories there are
precast concrete, it is useful to look at the green specific criteria and requirements, from building reuse
building rating and assessment systems used to and waste management to new building
evaluate and reward buildings for their environmental commissioning.
performance. There are several systems in use in
North America and in the world that promote the Precast concrete can be used in combination with a
construction of better buildings better for the wide variety of other building materials to contribute
environment, the owner and for the occupant. These to the achievement of a desired level of certification in
systems allow many variables in a project to be any of the systems. In LEED, for example, precast
quantified and assessed objectively. concrete solutions can contribute to the achievement
of points through Optimize Energy Performance,
In North America, BREEAM Green Leaf, the web- Building Reuse, Construction Waste Management,
enabled Green Globes system, and LEED are the Recycled Content, Local/Regional Materials and
principal rating systems used for assessing buildings Innovation in Design leading toward a desired level
where precast concrete is most likely to play an of certification. The energy, material selection,
important role. construction waste management, and indoor
BREEAM Green Leaf is an environmental environmental quality criteria are the most critical.
assessment protocol that was developed in response Each is examined in subsequent sections.
to a need for a less expensive method that could be
6.5.4 Life Cycle Cost and Assessment
partially conducted in-house. The method originated
in Canada and was developed by ECD Energy, Doing the right thing, the right way, at the right time,
Environment Canada and Terra Choice. It combined usually results in the lowest Life Cycle Cost (LCC).
a Canadian adaptation of the UK BREEAM (Building Generally, design (D) accounts for around 2%,
Research Establishment Environmental Assessment construction (C) around 23%, and operation and
Method) set of environmental issues with the Green maintenance (O&M) around 75% of the total life-cycle
Leaf Eco-Rating procedure. [58] costs of a building. Making the right investment up
front will minimize O&M. Saving 10% on C can cause
Green Globes, part of the BREEAM/Green Leaf suite
O&M to escalate.
of environmental assessment tools for buildings, is an
online building and management audit tool that helps Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a standardized
property owners and managers to measure the method for examining a broad range of environmental
environmental performance of their buildings against impacts associated with a process or a product over
best practices in areas such as energy, water, its complete life cycle. When applied to buildings,
hazardous materials, waste management and indoor LCA includes the following:
environment. Using a confidential questionnaire, it
resource extraction
generates an online report.
manufacturing and transportation of materials
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
and pre-fabricated components
Design), developed by the United States Green
Building Council (USGBC), is being adopted as a on-site construction
green building design and rating tool by both the
building operations, including energy
architectural and engineering communities, with the
consumption and maintenance, and
LEEDTM Canada adaptation provided through the
Canadian Green Building Council (CaGBC). Buildings end-of-life reuse, recycling or disposal

Only the LCA of a building can provide estimates of for environmental and energy conservation as well as
the full range of environmental burdens such as for the technical benefits they can provide. SCMs are
embodied energy use and related fossil fuel added to concrete as part of the total cementitious
depletion, other resource use, greenhouse gas system, either as an addition or partial replacement of
emissions, and toxic releases to air, water and land. hydraulic cement. The colour and uniformity of SCMs
must be investigated for architectural precast
An inclusive LCA of a building is a complex task best
concrete applications.
handled with computer modelling tools. In Canada
and the U.S., the Athena Institutes ATHENATM When properly used, the SCMs can enhance the
Environmental Impact Estimator [66] is available to following properties of concrete:
perform a full life cycle analysis at the whole building
generally improve the workability and
level.
finishing of fresh concrete
6.5.5 Energy Use reduce bleeding and segregation of fresh
There are two sides to energy use: concrete
1. the embodied energy (an LCA term discussed in lower the heat of hydration, beneficial in
more detail below) associated with the mass pours
manufacturing, transportation, use and ultimate
improve the pumpability of fresh concrete
disposal of all the materials in a building, and
generally improve the long term strength gain
2. the energy used to heat, cool, light and generally
operate a building. reduce permeability and absorption
Embodied energy represents the total energy used in (especially silica fume)
making a product, including cement production, reduce alkali-aggregate reactivity
energy used to extract and process aggregates,
transportation energy, and energy used in a precast The effect of replacing cement with supplementary
plant. Energy is required for machinery, concrete cementitious materials on the embodied energy of
curing and for heating the plant. concrete is appreciable. For example, a 1%
replacement of cement with fly ash results in an
It is possible to utilize manufacturing energy very approximately 0.7% reduction in energy consumption
efficiently as production of precast concrete elements per unit of concrete.
takes place mainly in enclosed factories. For
example, the heat used for accelerating the strength Silica Fume
development of concrete can also be used in heating Silica fume is a waste product recovered from the
the plant. When producing massive elements, the reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in electric
exothermal reaction (hydration) of the cement may furnaces in the production of silicon and ferrosilicon
also reduce heating requirements. The energy alloys. Silica fume improves the quality, strength and
consumption in precast plants during the winter is durability of concrete by making the concrete much
typically about 40% higher than the annual average. less permeable and more resistant to corrosion of the
The energy consumption of the manufacturing steel reinforcement.
process depends on the type of production.
Fly Ash
Equipment, like cranes, transport equipment for
aggregates and cement, bending equipment for Fly ash is a pozzolan waste product collected from
reinforcement, vibrators etc., can, due to their coal-fired power plants. Fly ash contains some heavy
repetitive operations, be reduced to what is metal (normally more than silica fume), so the heavy
absolutely necessary to perform the task. The energy metal content of the concrete will increase.
required to produce concrete can be improved by Replacement of cement with moderate quantities of
rationalizing energy consumption in plant production. fly ash can refine the pore structure of the concrete,
making it more resistant to chloride penetration. Not
Supplementary Cementing Materials (SCM) can
all fly ash is suitable for use in concrete. Fly ash shall
significantly reduce the embodied energy of precast
conform to the requirements of CSA A3000 and shall
concrete products by substituting waste materials for
be specified in accordance with Tables 7 and 8 in
relatively high energy hydraulic cement. SCMs are
CSA A23.1.
mostly by-products of other industrial processes; their
judicious use in concrete production is desirable both

Normally 10% to 20% of the cement can be replaced comparative thermal inertia of various building
with fly ash to reduce the environmental burden of the materials.
concrete. Substitution with fly ash at levels exceeding The heat capacity of concrete is about
25% is considered to be a high volume SCM 2,400 KJ/m3/K. With an average concrete volume of
application. Appropriate testing to ensure the desired 30 m3 for an apartment, energy in the order of 70 MJ
performance should be carried out. The substitution will be stored in the concrete frame for each degree
of cement with fly ash can increase setting times and the temperature is raised or lowered. This energy can
decrease early age strength. This may be an be released to contribute to heating or cooling the
economic factor in precast concrete manufacturing if space when the temperature changes. To get an idea
casting cannot be maintained on a daily cycle. about how much energy this is, it can be compared to
Although fly ash offers environmental advantages, it the total energy consumption required to heat an
also improves the performance and quality of apartment in a modern building: on an annual basis,
concrete. Fly ash affects the plastic properties of this is a maximum of 150 kW/m2 (45 GJ for an
concrete by improving workability, reducing water apartment of 80 m2). The daily energy consumption in
demand, reducing segregation and bleeding, and the cold season is less than 250 MJ. [62]
lowering heat of hydration. Fly ash increases long- Several systems have been developed to use thermal
term strength, reduces permeability, reduces mass in precast structures, see Fig. 6.5.2. Air is
corrosion of reinforcing steel, increases sulphate circulated in the voids of hollow core floor and roof
resistance, and reduces alkali-aggregate reaction. slabs. This system reduces the size of the required
Concrete containing fly ash, when substituted for mechanical system and creates energy savings both
cement, reaches its maximum strength more slowly for heating in the winter as well as cooling in the
than concrete made with only hydraulic cement. summer. For heating, energy savings in the order of
Blast Furnace Slag 35% can be achieved with this system. A reduction in
cooling power consumption can be about 40%. [62]
Production of blast furnace slag consumes about
The underside of concrete floor and roof slabs should
of the energy required to produce cement.
be exposed to get the full benefits of thermal mass.
Substitution of slag at levels exceeding 35% for
Doing away with a suspended ceiling can reduce the
hydraulic cement in precast concrete is considered a
overall building height and can result in 5% to 7%
high volume SCM application, and its suitability for
savings in construction costs. Using the thermal mass
intended use must be prequalified. The addition of
of concrete is extremely important from an
slag cement usually results in reduced need for
environmental point of view as it provides a long-term
water, faster setting time, improved pumpability and
economic gain for a building owner through reduced
finishability, higher 28-day strength, lower
life cycle costs.
permeability, resistance to sulfate attack and alkali-
silica reactivity (ASR), and lighter color. Blast-furnace The mass of concrete also provides excellent
slag shall conform to the requirements of CSA A3000 acoustic insulating properties for air-borne sound and
and shall be specified in accordance with Tables 7 makes concrete ideal for external walls in buildings
and 8 in CSA A23.1. facing roads with heavy traffic, as insulation between
different areas in a building and as a noise barrier
One of the important lessons from LCA is that beside railroads and roads.
decisions should not be based on either embodied or
operational energy use in isolation. The key is to Fig. 6.5.1 Thermal inertia of various materials
optimize total energy use over the full life cycle, [62]
recognizing that a higher embodied energy may pay
dividends in the form of lower maintenance and
operating energy. Athena Institute studies show that,
over the lifetime of a building, operating energy is the
more significant of the two. The embodied energy of
the materials may represent only 3% to 13% of total
energy use over a 75 to 80 year building life.
Thermal Mass
From an operating energy perspective, the thermal
inertia of heavy materials is well known, both in warm
and cold climates. Figure 6.5.1 shows the

Fig. 6.5.2 Precast hollow core air supply system Fig. 6.5.3 Energy consumption required to
that uses thermal inertia of concrete produce concrete floors [62]
Hollow core Cast-in-place
Item slab slab
(MJ/m2) (MJ/m2)
Cement 186 389
Steel 45 60
Other raw materials 15 23
Manufacturing process 128 32
Transportation 28 42
Total 401 560
In Fig. 6.5.4, the comparison is broadened to cover a

number of physical characteristics and a range of
environmental effects. The precast concrete hollow
core floor slab is less environmentally intensive than
6.5.6 Material Selection its cast-in-place counterpart, with the exception of
Material selection and resource use is one of the key greenhouse gas emissions where the precast system
areas assessed in all rating systems. The choice of has slightly higher impacts.
materials and systems within a material category can CEM I, II, and II are European cement designations.
have dramatic effect in terms of the environmental CEM I (hydraulic cement) and CEM II (hydraulic
burdens captured in a full life cycle assessment. composite) cements, used for the hollow core slabs,
Material selection impacts a number of more specific and CEM III (Blast-furnace cement), used for the
concerns, such as design efficiency and related cast-in-place floor, can have an impact on the results
material use, recycled content, recyclability, and the in the above table. The sensitivity analysis carried out
potential for reuse. All these considerations are either shows that when using other data and other
directly or indirectly taken into account in green assumptions, the environmental profile remains
building assessment and rating systems. While the intact, and the hollow core floor scores even more
systems do not yet deal explicitly, or well, with favourably in many cases. A floor of hollow core slabs
building durability issues, it is obvious that material consumes 40% less concrete and 50% less steel
selection can also be a key aspect of ensuring a compared to a cast-in-place reinforced slab. This
building service life that exceeds the desired or amounts to savings of 14.4 t of concrete and 275 kg
planned service life. This is especially true for of steel for an average apartment unit.
materials that will be exposed to the elements or
subjected to wear and tear from occupants. These results reflect the efficiency of material use in
a precast system with advanced production
LCA comparison of precast versus cast-in-place processes using high strength concrete and
systems floors and roofs are significant in terms of prestressing steel. Precast structures use less
the environmental burden during the production of the material to achieve the same load bearing capacity
load bearing components of a structure. Optimization compared with cast-in-place structures. Smaller
of floor and roof components can significantly reduce precast cross sections result in less dead load to
the environmental impact of the overall structure carry. CSA A23.3 allows the use of a higher concrete
construction. Figure 6.5.3 shows that a precast resistance factor for certified plant manufactured
concrete hollow core slab system can offer clear precast concrete elements. The choice of one precast
embodied energy advantages relative to a cast-in- load bearing system over another does not have a
place floor slab. major impact on the environmental burden created by
Distances from a precast plant and a ready-mix plant the construction.
to the building site are assumed to be the same. The Prestressing done by pretensioning prestressing
higher energy consumption for the cast-in-place slab strands in the forms at a precast plant is highly
is due to the larger volume of concrete needed per efficient, reducing the amount of embedded steel and
square metre of floor. improving structural performance.

Example 6.13 Comparing a prestressed and Service Life
non-prestressed reinforced concrete beam
The durability, or service life, of a building element is
A beam spanning 7.0 m is required to carry a dead a function of the material and the environment.
load of 30 kN/m and a live load of 25 kN/m. A cross Precast prestressed concrete will provide reliable
section of 300x600 mm is chosen with top
long-term performance in extremely harsh conditions
reinforcement of 2-20M bars. The main reinforcement
that can destroy lesser materials. Precast is resistant
required for the reinforced beam is 4-30M bars to
to deterioration from weather extremes, chemical
carry the load, while a prestressed beam needs 8-13
mm strands. The reduction in shear reinforcement in attack, fire, accidental damage and the determined
the prestressed beam is neglected. The efforts of vandals. [63]
reinforcement required is 2800 mm2 for the reinforced The production of precast concrete elements under
beam compared with 792 mm2 for the prestressed controlled plant conditions allows for accurate control;
beam a reduction in the area of the main e.g. tolerances and concrete quality. The concrete
reinforcement of about 70%. used in precast components is usually denser,
Summary: stronger and is generally of better quality than
concrete cast at the jobsite. Many codes do not
Precasting allows optimized concrete mix reflect the positive effect of high quality concrete or
designs. Mixes are usually designed to reach include requirements for smaller rebar cover or
25-30 MPa in 12-16 hours for precasting a increased life expectancy for higher grades of
new element each day. concrete used in precast structures.
Prestressing can significantly reduce the The most common deterioration of concrete
amount of steel used. structures is the corrosion of the steel reinforcement.
Post-tensioned concrete can be employed at In precast production the concrete cover to the
a precast plant and is often used at the site to reinforcement is better controlled. Protection of
join elements as moment connections, shear reinforcing steel from corrosion can be obtained by
walls and for stabilizing elevator and stair proper embedment in concrete. A protective iron
shafts in tall buildings. oxide film forms on the bar as a result of the high
alkalinity of the cement paste. This protection is
Fig. 6.5.4 Comparison of different floor types usually lost by leaching and carbonation. Concrete
from a study in the Netherlands where with sufficiently low permeability and adequate cover
an extensive investigation compared a will protect the reinforcement. Hairline and structural
precast hollow core floor with a cast- cracking may allow oxygen and moisture to reach the
in-place floor [62]. reinforcement, providing conditions where rusting of
Hollow core Cast-in-place the steel and staining of the concrete may occur. [63]
slab (per m2) slab (per m2) Precast concrete being HPC, manufactured to better
Concrete (kg) 263.7 423.0 tolerances and prestressed (with its lower usage of
Reinforcement (kg) 3.2 6.1 steel), provides better durability in harsh
Total mass (kg) 266.9 429.1 environments.
Building Reuse
Eutrophication
0.0356 0.0410
(kg P04-3 eq.) Durability of the original structure is a key
Exhaustion (10-12) 0.0468 0.0707 determinant of the potential for building reuse that in
Ecotoxicity (l03 m3) 2.78 5.81 turn has significant environmental implications.
Greenhouse effect Buildings constructed from robust materials that
55.2 53.4
(kg CO2 eq.) withstand the elements and occupant use for a very
Acidification (kg SO2 eq.) 0.252 0.306 long time, are often prime candidates for
Summer smog refurbishment and continued service. Buildings
0.0297 0.0460
(kg C2H4 eq.) constructed from precast concrete fit these criteria. A
Human toxicity (kg) 0.318 0.411 precast interior frame of a building can have a life
expectancy of hundreds of years.
Use of primary energy
461.0 643.0 Adaptability is a key factor underlying the ultimate
(MJ)
service life of a building. If a structure is designed so
Solid waste (kg) 36.3 58.8 that the interior of the building can be changed
Note: eq. = equivalents without major demolition, the building itself can have

a long life. Long spans, common in precast Sound attenuation is another key element in indoor
prestressed structures, are one way of assisting the environmental quality. Concrete has excellent
adaptability of buildings. Increasing the load carrying acoustic insulation properties. Precast concrete is
capacity of precast floor systems is not expensive well suited for use as a noise barrier for external walls
and can extend the useful life for a building by on buildings close to airports and areas with heavy
providing flexibility for future conversion to other traffic. Sound barriers, positioned along the edges of
uses. Secondary installations, such as precast major roads and highways, can reduce the
concrete mezzanine floors in industrial buildings, can transmission of direct sound to residential areas
easily be installed, or removed, when occupancy see Sect. 6.2.
requirements demand changes to a building.
6.5.7 Production of Precast Concrete
Precast buildings can also be disassembled and
rebuilt at another location, providing yet another Environmental and manufacturing conditions at a
means of extending service life. precast plant are easily monitored. The production of
precast concrete elements takes place under
At the end of a buildings useful life, 100% of concrete
controlled conditions in enclosed factories. This
demolition waste can be recycled. After removal of
makes the control of waste, emissions, noise levels,
the reinforcement, concrete can be crushed to
etc. easy compared with the same processes at a
produce aggregate that is primarily used in pavement
building site. The raw material consumption is similar
construction, as granular sub-base, lean-concrete
for similar qualities of concrete, regardless of whether
sub-base, and soil-cement aggregate. It has also
the production takes place in a factory, at a ready-mix
been used on a limited scale as replacement
plant or at a building site. The raw material waste in
aggregate in new concrete production.
precast production is very small.
Recycled concrete aggregate has a higher absorption
The use of new technologies like self-consolidating
and lower specific gravity than conventional
concrete (SCC) can significantly reduce noise and
aggregate, necessitating a more strict moisture
vibration in the production process. The use of high-
control in stockpiles. Concrete made with recycled
performance concrete (HPC) enables the design and
coarse aggregate and conventional fine aggregate
production of more reliable and more durable
can obtain adequate compressive strength. The use
structures with function-optimized shapes. Cost and
of recycled fine aggregate can result in minor
material savings in structural material consumption
reduction of compressive strength. The drying
and natural resources can be realized through
shrinkage and creep is up to 100% higher than
controlled production.
concrete with a corresponding amounts of
conventional aggregate. For these reasons, large Forms
scale use of recycled aggregate concrete has not yet
been achieved in Canada. Forms used in precast planks are normally made of
either steel or plywood. Form use is usually
Indoor Environmental Quality Low Emitting significantly higher than for cast-in-place construction.
Materials (VOCs) A large number of castings in forms are typical in the
production of precast concrete elements in plants
The materials used in construction can affect the
with a saving of raw materials.
quality of a buildings indoor environment. The
primary impact comes from volatile organic Plywood form use is limited to about 20 to 50
compounds (VOCs) that can be emitted from some castings depending upon the complexity,
products and produce negative health impacts. VOC maintenance and shape of the form.
emissions are minimized with the use of precast
Standardized elements cast in steel forms are one
concrete because they require no coatings or finishes
step towards sustainable production. An unlimited
in interior applications. If coatings are required,
number of castings can be made by precasting using
precast concrete offers the advantage of being
steel forms. Standardization of precast products will
compatible with many low water-based VOC
save cost. Attempts by the precast industry to
materials. Exposed concrete floors can utilize low
standardize precast cross sections are designed to
VOC coatings and eliminate the need for carpeting or
save costs and increase market share by getting the
other flooring products.
maximum number of casts out of every form.
Mould spores are a significant contributor to indoor
air quality problems. Concrete does not sustain
mould growth.

Form oil Reinforcement
Mineral oil release agents can affect the health of The process of preparing mild steel reinforcement
workers, pollute the air, water and soil, be flammable, may be the same for a precaster as for a contractor
have poor biodegradability and result in hazardous at a building site, except that precasters will usually
waste. New form oils have been developed, have less waste. This results in better utilization of
containing a mix of marine ester, medical white oil the steel and less consumption of natural resources.
and vegetable oil. These oils are easily Mesh reinforcement in thin members is a very
biodegradable and are practically harmless. efficient use of materials. Precast elements may
Precasters use approximately 0.5 kg form oil per m3 require some extra reinforcement to resist lifting and
of concrete. Mineral oils are still used, but as prices handling stresses. A precast structure may need
come down, precasters can change to the new form some additional reinforcement to facilitate the force
oils. transfer in building connections. This may reduce
some of the advantages gained during production.
Silicone
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
Silicone is frequently used to seal joints in forms. No
scientifically based negative ecological findings have Infrastructure components that commonly deteriorate
been found regarding the life cycle of silicone over time, usually by corrosion, can force early
sealants. rehabilitation. Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
composite materials may be used to reinforce these
Admixtures
sections to allow the infrastructure to achieve its full
Admixtures can be divided into four main groups: lifetime see CSA S806 for design and production
water-reducing, air-entraining, retarders and procedures.
accelerators. In addition, there are several other Glass, aramid and carbon FRPs are up to 6 times
types of admixtures for special applications. The stronger than steel, one-fifth the weight, noncorrosive
purpose of admixtures is to improve concrete quality and non-magnetic. Their high strength and light
both in the fresh and hardened state. The use of weight, and the fact that FRPs are now available in
admixtures often has a beneficial effect on the the form of thin sheets, make them an attractive
environment: better durability of concrete, less alternative and economical solution for strengthening
consumption of cement, less energy consumption existing concrete bridges and structures. The use of
during casting, etc. FRP bars and tendons is considered to be one of the
Water-reducing admixtures are normally synthetic most promising solutions to overall deterioration
organic compounds; sulphonated naphthalene/ aggravated by corroding steel reinforcements in new
melamine formaldehyde condensates, sulphonic acid structures and bridges. [63]
esters, carbohydrate esters etc. The content of water
Colour pigments
reducing admixture is typically 0.02% 0.1% by the
weight of concrete. Water-reducing admixtures do not Colour pigments are commonly used to manufacture
contribute to emissions. coloured concrete. Pigments are normally iron oxides
(e.g. red and brown), chrome oxides (green) or cobalt
Air-entraining agents are used to improve the frost
oxides (blue). Pigment content varies normally
resistance of concrete. These admixtures are
between 2% and 4% of the cement by weight. Most
surface-active organic compounds. Their amount in
pigments are insoluble and non-toxic.
concrete is very small 0.002% 0.02% by the
weight of concrete. Sandblasting, retarders and acid etching
Retarders and accelerators are used to control the Sandblasting is commonly used to create a coarse
setting of the cement. Contents are typically less than texture on the surface of concrete panels. The sand
0.1% by the weight of concrete. can be collected and reused as road base. Retarders
Admixture quantities in precast concrete are very low, are applied to the forms to slow down the hydration
normally less than 0.1% by weight of concrete. The process of the concrete at the surface and allow
quantities of admixtures used are too small to have washing of the concrete afterwards. This is a
any significant environmental impact. Most common method used to create facades with
admixtures used in prefabrication are non-toxic, exposed aggregate surfaces. Acid etching is also
organic compounds. used in faade production, mainly to wash a panel
surface to give a coarse texture. Wash water
containing acid residue is neutralized before disposal.

Other materials normally not very noisy or dusty, free of toxic fumes,
and generally provide comfortable temperatures and
In precast concrete production, special materials are humidity. The most obvious advantage for the
occasionally needed such as epoxy, lacquer, varnish workers is their protection from adverse weather
and paint. Although some of these materials are conditions.
slightly hazardous, they are normally used in very
small amounts and their effects can be controlled Nearly, but not all, precast plants are enclosed
during prefabrication. Effective ventilation can be factories. Open-air production facilities are typically
provided in areas where these materials are used located away from populated areas to provide a noise
Waste is easily collected and disposed of in an and dust pollution buffer zone.
environmentally sound manner. Production waste
Quality assurance
Surplus materials are generated during the
The production of precast concrete elements, using production of precast elements. Much surplus
repetitious operations under controlled climatic material is recyclable, and consists mainly of:
conditions, allows for accurate quality control (e.g: hardened concrete with or without
tolerances and concrete quality). This facilitates reinforcement
better use of materials and less material
consumption. The controllability of the production steel reinforcement and pieces of structural
process allows for strict tolerances and the optimal steel
use of materials. plywood and other wooden materials
CSA A23.3 allows a reduced material factor c for fresh concrete (from production and washing
concrete in precast concrete members that are of equipment)
certified in accordance with A23.4 in recognition of
the good quality control and accurate placement of slurry from the sawing of concrete
forms and reinforcement. The measures required to insulating materials (mineral wool and
obtain accurate results and to check the results are polystyrene)
part of the manufacturing process. oil etc. from machinery
Pollution paper and other packaging materials
Most sources of pollution can be identified and The amount of surplus material varies between
controlled when precasting takes place in a plant. factories and different types of production. Studies in
Pollution handlers include exhaust fans at welding the Scandinavian countries [62] have shown that the
sites, with the air passing through filters; and closed magnitude is typically about 100 kg of surplus
systems for the transport of cement, aggregates and material per m3 of concrete produced. About 40% of
fresh concrete. the surplus material is fresh and hardened concrete
Concrete production can create pollution mainly in and about 45% is wastewater from washing
the form of dust and noise. The fabrication of hollow equipment and sawing slurry generated during hollow
core slabs requires sawing the hardened concrete, core slab production.
producing dust and noise levels that can exceed 85 It is possible to collect and sort different types of
dB. Saw blades can be cooled with water that can be surplus materials in precast plants. Excess materials
filtered and reused. Saws can be encased in noise that can be recycled and reused include steel, wood,
absorbing containers. insulating materials, oil, paper and other packaging
Solid waste from precast plants is very low, about materials. Wood can be sorted out, cut and used as
2.5% of the mass of concrete used in production. industrial firewood, or used for other construction
About 95% of this waste can be further beneficially purposes.
reused through crushing and recycling of hardened Fresh concrete
concrete, leaving approximately 3 kg/m of actual
waste. [60] Most excess fresh concrete comes from the washing
of equipment, cut-outs, leftover in the buckets etc.
The workplace environment The sand and gravel can be separated from fresh
Enclosed precast plants make it easier to control the concrete and reused in the production of new
manufacturing environment and conditions. The concrete. The cement slurry left after the removal of
environment for workers is comparatively clean, the sand and gravel can be left in basins for

evaporation. Concrete leftovers from production are compared to cast-in-place construction (formwork,
often left to harden. [60] scaffolding, reinforcement, concrete, etc.). Precast
erection is fast and efficient, generally carried out
Hardened concrete
using mobile cranes.
Surplus concrete can be crushed into fragments that Total precast bridge structures (abutments,
can either be used as road base, fill material or wingwalls, girders and decks and traffic barriers) can
occasionally as aggregates in new concrete. The dramatically speed up construction and reduce
advantage for the precaster is the known quality of inconvenience and detours for motorists.
the material being crushed so it can be used with full
confidence as recycled aggregate. Manpower
Recycling surplus hardened concrete costs about the A normal erection team will consist of two or three
same as for new crushed natural aggregates. erection workers and a crane operator. These few
Recycled aggregates can be used in reinforced and people can erect a whole frame and the floors and
prestressed concrete. The amount of recycled roof together with the walls of a building often before
aggregate is about 5% of the total amount of the any other trades are engaged at the site.
aggregate in some precast plants. Tests have been The following are typical per working day erection
made with 100% recycled crushed hollow core slab times:
concrete in hollow core production with no
detrimental effects on the new hollow core slabs. Erection of hollow core floor slabs 300 m2
Removal and recycling of any embedded steel is Grouting of floor joints 500 m2
easily carried out during the crushing operation.
Erection of columns 8 pieces
6.5.8 Transportation and Erection
Erection of beams 15 pieces
In precast construction, the rigging of scaffolding, Erection of double tee slabs 20 pieces
formwork, storage areas etc. is either not necessary
or done only once. Scaffolding is generally not Erection of walls 7 pieces
required for precast structures. Cranes are used to lift Stair and elevator shafts 2 floors
precast components into their place in a structure.
For commercial buildings (offices, shopping centers,
Transportation schools etc.) about 100 m2 of a building can be
When a building uses precast elements, large parts erected each day, including the erection of all
of the building can be brought to the site with each components and all necessary connections. The
transport. Larger trucks consume less fuel per ton corresponding figure for the erection of apartment
transported. Materials for formwork, scaffolding etc. buildings is about 80 m2 per day. The difference is
are not required at the site and do not need to be generally due to smaller pieces and stricter tolerance
transported. Less fuel is required to transport precast requirements.
concrete structures since they are lighter than the Waste
equivalent amount of on site cast-in-place concrete.
There is little waste to dispose of at a building site
This represents a significant reduction in the number when the structure is precast. This was documented
of truck movements and reduced consumption of in a major investigation carried out in Sweden in 1996
fossil fuels. The amount of energy consumed during where about 400 apartments were to be built. [62]
the transport of precast elements is about Ten similar buildings were selected, each containing
0.00114 MJ/kg/km. This represents 5% to 10% of the 11 apartment buildings; five were precast and five
total energy consumption during manufacturing of were cast-in-place. Records were kept of the
precast concrete elements. consumption of energy and materials, productivity,
Construction time construction time, working environment, sick leaves,
accidents, quality control, installations, waste
Precast construction leads to shorter time spent generation and cost. The final result was the amount
building the main parts of a structure. Components of waste at the building site was 35% less for the
are manufactured in a precast plant at the same time precast buildings compared with the cast-in-place
as the foundations are being constructed at the site. buildings.
Precast units are normally large pieces, so greater
parts of a building are completed with each activity

Fig. 6.5.3 Waste generated at a building site Precast is a low maintenance building
over time [62] system.
Lower operating costs the thermal mass
characteristics of concrete help to moderate
heating and cooling peaks and lower HVAC
equipment requirements.
The reflectance of precast surfaces can lower
interior lighting costs
The reflectance of precast surfaces reduce
the heat island effect, lowering cooling costs.
Precast concrete is durable buildings last
longer, and are resistant to wear and tear,
severe weather, rot, insects and fire.
Environmental and social benefits:
In 2001, close attention was paid to the waste
generation at a major project in Oslo, Norway. [62] Excellent indoor air quality precast contains
The buildings contain about 150,000 m2 of floor no VOCs to contribute to sick building
space. The structure was constructed using steel syndrome.
frames with precast hollow core floor and roof slabs.
Safety precast offers superior fire, wind,
The delivery and erection of the steel frame and the
vibration, and seismic resistance.
slabs were combined in the precast contract. The
surplus material generated at the site during the The thermal mass of precast concrete
erection of these components was only about 1 kg contributes to operating energy efficiency and
per m2 of hollow core slab. The surplus material reduced heating & cooling costs.
consisted mainly of wood, concrete and reinforcing
Longer lasting concrete structures reduce
steel from the grouting of the joints at the site. All
energy needs for maintenance and
surplus material, except some epoxy resin, was
reconstruction.
recycled, and was not considered as waste.
Made-to-order precast concrete means less
Inconvenience to the public
on-site construction waste and improved
Precast components can be brought to the site just- quality control.
in-time by truck with a considerable reduction in traffic
Precast needs no additional interior or
and less obstruction for the public. No staging areas
exterior finishes.
are required. The precast units are lifted directly from
the trucks and placed in the structure without any Precast can reduce transportation energy
stockpiling on the jobsite. use and emissions.
6.5.9 Summary Precast concrete sandwich wall panels the

desired R-value can be obtained by
The use of precast, prestressed concrete building specifying the appropriate type and thickness
elements can contribute directly to the triple bottom of incorporated insulation.
line. Precast systems help minimize cost and
environmental impacts, while providing comfortable, Light reflectance light coloured precast
safe buildings. walls reduce interior lighting requirements,
while lighter coloured exterior walls help
Economic benefits: reduce the heat island effect in large
Concrete is made using local materials metropolitan areas. Urban areas have a
aggregates, sand and cement. higher concentration of structures and
surfaces that absorb heat and tend to
Low transportation costs precast concrete experience higher temperatures than their
is produced locally. Structures weigh less rural neighbours. Buildings that are lighter in
than those built using cast-in-place concrete. color reflect more light (high albedo
Precast is a cost-effective and competitive surfaces). This helps minimize the heat
building material.

island effect that reduces the energy needed The lighting system should parallel the stems of
for cooling, and lowers ozone levels. [64] double tees to achieve uniform lighting free from
distracting shadows. A reflective paint and properly
6.6 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND spaced high-output fluorescent lamps installed in
OTHER SUB-SYSTEMS continuous strips can achieve a high level of
COORDINATION illumination at a minimum cost. Lighting coffers can
be enclosed with diffuser panels fastened to the
6.6.1 Introduction bottom of the tee stems to provide a flush ceiling, see
Structural precast concrete is used in a variety of Fig. 6.6.1.
buildings. Precasts integration with lighting,
mechanical, plumbing, and other services is 6.6.3 Electrified Floors
important. Environmental demands are substantially Computers, communication systems, and other
increasing the ratio of mechanical and electrical monitoring systems require adequate and flexible
system costs to total building costs. means of supplying power and cable networks. When
This section shows some methods that can cast-in-place toppings are placed on prestressed floor
economically satisfy mechanical and electrical elements, conduits and floor outlets can be buried
requirements, and describes standard methods of within the topping. Shallow depth electrical systems
providing for the installation of other sub-systems. require as little as a 35 mm topping. Tests on slabs
with buried ductwork have shown that structural
6.6.2 Lighting and Power Distribution strength is generally not impaired by these voids.
Voids in hollow core slabs can be used as electrical
Designers can take advantage of the finished raceways.
appearance, fire resistance, thermal mass and
reflective qualities of precast, prestressed concrete The high load-carrying capacity of prestressed
by leaving the columns, beams, and ceiling structure concrete elements makes it possible to locate heavy
exposed for many applications. transformers near the areas of consumption at little or
no additional expenses. Distribution feeds can be run
between the legs of double tee slabs.
Fig. 6.6.1 Metal panels attached to the bottoms of precast tee stems create ducts, and lighting diffuser
panels provide a flush ceiling.
Fig. 6.6.2 Radiant heat tubing on precast floor prior to pouring concrete topping slab.

6.6.4 Underfloor Radiant Heat the field assembly of ducts.
Underfloor radiant heat uses the floor to heat the Prestressed concrete box girders have been used to
building above by raising the floor temperature until serve a triple function as heating and air conditioning
the heating output of the floor matches the amount of distribution ducts, conduit for utility lines and
heat that the building is losing. Radiant heating structural supporting elements for roof deck units.
systems use a boiler or hot water heater to heat Conditioned air can be distributed within the void area
water (or an antifreeze solution) which is circulated of the girders and introduced into the building work
through in-floor tubing. areas through modular openings cast in the sides and
Precast floor slabs are ideal for use with radiant bottoms of the box girders. The system is balanced
heating. A topping slab containing radiant heating by plugging selected openings.
tubes is cast over hollow core or double tee floor Vertical supply and return air trunks can be carried in
slabs, see Fig. 6.6.2. either the building core or the exterior walls, with
small ducts branching out into the ceiling space. In
6.6.5 Ductwork some cases, exterior wall cavities have been
The space between double tee stems and the voids replaced with three or four sided precast boxes
in hollow core slabs may be used for distribution stacked to provide vertical runs for mechanical and
ducts for heating, air-conditioning and exhaust electrical systems. These stacked boxes can also be
systems. The underside of double tee slabs provided used as columns or lateral bracing elements for the
by the bottom of the flange and the sides of the stems structure.
form a duct. The bottom of the duct can be completed
by attaching a metal panel to the tee stems (see Fig. 6.6.6 Openings Through Floor and Roof
6.6.1). Field installed connections generally offer the Units
best economy and ensure exact placement. Inserts
should only be cast-in when they can be located at Large openings are usually provided using block-outs
the design stage, well in advance of casting the in the forms during precast manufacturing; smaller
precast elements. ones (up to about 200 mm) are usually field cut.
Openings in the flanges of stemmed elements should
Hollow core slabs have round, oval or rectangular
be limited to the flat portion of a double tee flange.
voids that can act as ducts or raceways for Angle headers are often used for framing large
mechanical and electrical systems. Openings, core- openings in hollow core floor and roof systems, see
drilled from above or below in the field, provide for Fig. 6.6.4.
access and distribution. The voids in the slabs can be
aligned at bearing supports and connected to provide 6.6.7 Other Sub-Systems
continuity of the system. The enclosed space can be
Suspended ceilings, crane rails, mechanical and
used as a plenum chamber with uniform pressure
electrical equipment and other sub-systems can be
throughout its length. Diffusers can be installed in
accommodated with standard manufactured
floors or ceilings to distribute the air. Branch runs,
hardware items and embedded plates as shown in
where required, can be standard ducts installed along
Fig. 6.6.5.
beams or walls.
Window or door assemblies, when properly
When ceilings are necessary, proper selection of
precast components can result in shallow ceiling protected, can be cast into panels at the plant.
spaces as shown in Fig. 6.6.3. This figure also Aluminum frames should be properly coated so that
illustrates the flexibility of space arrangements the aluminum will not react with the concrete. Glazing
possible with long span prestressed concrete and doors can be installed prior to or after panels are
elements. delivered to the job site. Repetition is a key to
economy when manufacturing precast concrete wall
Branch ducts of moderate size can be assemblies. Windows and doors should be located at
accommodated by providing block-outs in the stems identical locations in panels whenever possible.
of tees or beams. Such block-outs should be modular
Sandwich wall panels can provide the thermal
and repeated in size and location to handle all
conditions demanded by mechanical, electrical, resistance values required for modern energy
and/or plumbing runs. While this may lead to slightly efficient buildings, (see Sect. 6.1). Sandwich panels
larger openings in some cases, the end result will are normally cast on flat beds. Where exposed, the
usually be more economical. Sufficient tolerance inside surface of the panel can be given a troweled
should be allowed in sizing openings to provide for finish at the precast plant.

Fig. 6.6.3 Where ceilings are required, ducts, piping and lighting fixtures can be accommodated within a
shallow depth.
Fig. 6.6.4 Large openings in floors and roof slabs made during manufacturing. Small openings are field
drilled. Some common types of openings are shown.
6.6.8 Total Precast Buildings Electrical conduits and boxes can be cast in the
precast wall panels for housing systems. This
Many complete buildings have been built using process requires coordination with the electrical
precast and prestressed concrete components. This contractor. Savings on job-site labour and time are
construction can lead to more prefabrication of the possible. The metal or plastic conduit can be prebent
building sub-systems, such as basic plumbing to the desired shape, connected to the electrical
assemblies or electrical/mechanical assemblies plus boxes and delivered to the casting bed. Cable TV and
lighting, for installation within the structure.

telephone conduits can also be cast in using the Prefabricated wet-wall plumbing systems (see Fig.
same procedure. 6.6.7) incorporate preassembled piping systems.
These units require block-outs in the precast flooring
To reduce on-site labour, prefabricated bathroom
units and are arranged to mate with connecting
units or combination bathroom/kitchen modules have
modules. Best economy results when bathrooms are
been developed (see Fig. 6.6.6). Such units include
backed up to each other, with a common vertical run
bathroom fixtures, kitchen cabinets and sinks, as well
to service both bathrooms.
as wall, ceiling, and floor surfaces.
Some core modules not only feature bath and kitchen
Bathroom/kitchen modules can be assembled prior to
components, but also HVAC components, all
delivery to the job site. The module can be built on a
packaged in one unit. These modules can be easily
structural slab element. Units are stacked with one
accommodated in precast structural systems by
module directly above the one below in multi-storey
placing them directly on the precast slabs and
construction. Block-outs for chases are provided in
shimming and grouting as required.
the precast floors. Connections are made from one
unit to the next to provide a vertical plumbing stack.
Fig. 6.6.5 Methods of attaching suspended ceilings, crane rails and other sub-systems.

Fig. 6.6.6 Kitchen/bathroom modules can be preassembled on precast prestressed slabs ready for
installation into systems buildings.
Fig. 6.6.7 Prefabricated wet-wall plumbing systems incorporate preassembled piping.

6.7 REFERENCES [15] ASTM E1007, Standard Test Method for Field
Measurement of Tapping Machine Impact
Building Envelope Sound Transmission through Floor-ceiling
[1] National Energy Code for Buildings - 1997, Assemblies and Associated Support Structures,
Canadian Commission on Building and Fire American Society for Testing and Materials,
Codes / National Research Council of Canada 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103
[2] National Energy Code for Houses - 1997, [16] ASTM E989, Classification for Determination of
Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Impact Insulation Class (IIC), American Society
Codes / National Research Council of Canada for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race St.,
Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103
[3] 2005 ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals - SI
Edition, American Society of Heating, [17] ASTM C423, Standard Test Method for Sound
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Absorption and Sound Absorption Coefficient by
the Reverberation Room Method, American
[4] Hutcheon, N.B. and Handegord, G.O., Building Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race
Science for a Cold Climate, Wiley, 1983 St., Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103
[5] Moisture Control in Buildings, G. R. Treschel, [18] The US Federal Highway Administration issues
Editor a free prediction program called STAMINA
[6] Canadian Building Digests, National Research [19] The Wall Journal, PO Box 1217, Lehigh Acres,
Council of Canada, Ottawa FL 33970-1217, T: (813) 369-0178
[7] Energy Conservation Design Resources [20] Field Sound Transmission Loss Measurements,
Handbook, The Royal Architectural Institute of A.C.C. Warnock, Building Research Note 232,
Canada National Research Council, Canada
[8] Architectural Details for Insulated Buildings, [21] Measurements of the Sound Transmission Loss
Ronald Brand, Van Nostrand Reinhold (1990) of Windows, J.D. Quirt, Building Research Note
[9] Architectural Precast Concrete Walls Best 172, National Research Council, Canada
Practice Guide, Canada Mortgage and Housing [22] Sound Transmission Loss of Masonry Walls:
Corporation, 2002 (revised 2005) Tests on 90, 140, 190, 240 and 290 mm
Acoustics Concrete Block Walls With Various Surface
Finishes, A.C.C. Warnock and D.W. Monk.
[10] ASTM E90 - Laboratory measurement of airborne Building Research Note 217, National Research
sound transmission loss of building partitions, Council, Canada
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916
Race St., Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103 [23] Sound Transmission Loss of Masonry Walls:
Twelve-inch Lightweight Concrete Blocks With
[11] ASTM E336 - Standard Test Method for Various Surface Finishes, T.D. Northwood and
Measurement of Airborne Sound Insulation in D.W. Monk, Building Research Note 90,
Buildings, American Society for Testing and National Research Council, Canada
Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA,
USA, 19103 [24] Sound Transmission Loss of Masonry Walls:
Twelve-inch Lightweight Concrete Blocks
[12] ASTM E413 - Determination of sound Comparison of Latex and Plaster Sealers, T.D.
transmission class, American Society for Testing Northwood and D.W. Monk, Building Research
and Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA, Note 93, National Research Council, Canada
USA, 19103
[25] Sound Transmission Loss Measurements
[13] ASTM C522 Standard Test Method for Through 190 mm and 140 mm Blocks with
Airflow Resistance of Acoustical Materials. Added Gypsum board and Through Cavity Block
American Society for Testing and Materials, Walls, A.C.C. Warnock, NRCC Internal Report
1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103 586, 1990
[14] ASTM E492 - Laboratory measurement of [26] Noise Control in Buildings, A Practical Guide for
impact sound transmissions through floor-ceiling Architects and Engineers, Cyril M. Harris, ed.,
assemblies using the tapping machine, McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1994
American Society for Testing and Materials,
1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103

[27] Handbook of Acoustical Measurements and Fire Resistance
Noise Control, Third Edition, Cyril M. Harris, ed.,
[39] ULC Standard CAN/ULC-S101-04 Standard
McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1991
Methods of Fire Endurance Tests of Building
[28] NIOSH Compendium of materials for noise Construction and Materials, Underwriters
control, R.A. Hedeen, DHEW Publication No. Laboratories of Canada, Toronto, ON, 2004.
80-116. US Department of Health, Education
[40] Design for Fire Resistance of Precast,
and Welfare, 4676 Columbia Parkway,
Prestressed Concrete, Second Edition, MNL-
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
124-89, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
[29] Catalog of STC and IIC Ratings for Wall and
[41] Abrams, M. S., Gustaferro, A. H., and Salse, E.
Floor/ceiling Assemblies, R.B. Dupree, Office of
A. B., Fire Tests of Concrete Joist floors and
Noise control, California Department of Health
Roofs, RD Bulletin 006B, Portland Cement
Services, Berkeley, California 94704
Association, Skokie, IL.
[30] Northwood, T.D., Dickens, H.B. and Hansen,
[42] Fire Endurance of Continuous Reinforced
A.T., Noise Control in Residential Buildings,
Concrete Beams, RD Bulletin 072B, Portland
NRC 9162, National Research Council of
Cement Association, Skokie, IL
Canada 1967
[43] Lie, T.T., Contribution of Insulation in Cavity
[31] 2000 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Systems
Walls to Propagation of Fire, Fire Study No. 29,
and Equipment, American Society of Heating,
Division of Building Research, National
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
Atlanta, GA, 2000
[44] Gustaferro, A.H. and Abrams, M.S., Fire Tests
[32] Berendt, R. D., Winzer G. E., and Burroughs, C.
of Joints Between Precast Wall Panels: Effect of
B., A Guide to Airborne, Impact and Structure-
Various Joint Treatments, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
Borne Noise Control in Multi-family Dwellings,
20, No. 5, Sept-Oct 1975, pp. 44-64
prepared for Federal Housing Administration,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, [45] Fire Resistance Ratings for Prestressed and
DC, 1975 Precast Concrete, Canadian Prestressed
Concrete Institute, February 1978
[33] Sabine, H. J, Lacher, M. B., Flynn, D. R., and
Quindry, T.L, Acoustical and Thermal Vibrations
Performance of Exterior Residential Walls,
Doors and Windows, National Bureau of [46] Commentary D on Part 4 of the National
Building Code of Canada: Deflection and
Standards, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, 1975 Vibration Criteria for Serviceability and Fatigue
Limit States. Supplement to the National
[34] IITRI, Compendium of Materials for Noise Building Code of Canada 2005. National
Control, U.S. Department of Heath, Education Research Council Canada, Ottawa
and Welfare, U.S. Government Printing Office,
[47] Allen, D.E., Onysko, D.M. and Murray, T.M. ATC
Washington, DC, 1980
Design Guide 1: Minimizing Floor Vibration,
[35] Harris, C. M., Handbook of Acoustical Applied Technology Council, Redwood City,
Measurements and Noise Control, Acoustical California, 1999
Society of America, Melville, NY, 1997
[48] Mast, R.F., Vibration of Precast Prestressed
[36] Litvin, A., and Belliston, H. W., Sound Concrete Floors, PCI JOURNAL, 46(6), Nov-
Transmission Loss Through Concrete and Dec 2001, pp. 76-86
Concrete Masonry Walls, Journal of the
American Concrete Institute, V. 75, No. 12, [49] Allen, D.E., Building Vibrations from Human
December 1978 Activities, Concrete International, 12(6), June
1990, p. 66-73
[37] Acoustical Properties of Precast Concrete, PCI
JOURNAL, V. 23, No. 2, March-April 1978 [50] Commentary I on Part 4 of the National Building
Code of Canada: Wind Load. Supplement to the
[38] Highway Traffic Noise Analysis and Abatement National Building Code of Canada 2005.
Policy and Guidance, U.S. Department of National Research Council Canada, Ottawa
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Office of Environment and Planning, Noise and [51] Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M. Mechanics of
Materials (see Appendix A, p. 485 - 497). Van
Air Quality Branch, Washington, D.C., June
1995 Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1972

[52] Harris, C.M. and Crede, C.E. Shock and
[59] Canadian Cement Industry Fact Sheet, Portland
Vibration Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw-
Cement Association, 2003
Hill, New York, NY, 1976
[60] Guide to Sustainable Design with Concrete,
[53] Allen, D.E. and Murray, T.M., Design Criterion
Cement Association of Canada
for Floor Vibration Due to Walking, AISC
Engineering Journal, Fourth Quarter (December) [61] The BREEAM Green Leaf Environmental
1993, p. 117-129 Assessment Protocol for Multi-residential
Buildings, Technical Series 2001-119, Canada
[54] International Standard ISO 2631-2:1989,
Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC)
Evaluation of Human Exposure to Whole-Body
Vibration - Part 2: Continuous and Shock- [62] Environmental issues in prefabrication, state-of-
Induced Vibrations in Buildings, International art report, bulletin 21, fdration internationale
Organization for Standardization, Geneva, du bton (fib), January 2003
Switzerland
[63] Infrastructure Construction Technical Guide,
[55] Bachmann, H., Vibration Problems in Structures, Canadian Precast/ Prestressed Concrete
Birkhauser-Verlag, Basel - Boston - Berlin. 1995 Institute
[56] Vibrations of Concrete Structures, Special [64] Slag Cement and the Environment, Slag
Publication SP-60, American Concrete Institute, Cement in Concrete No. 22, Slag Cement
Detroit, MI, 1979 Association, 2003
[57] International Standard ISO 10137:1992, Basis [65] CSA S478-95(R2000) Guidelines on Durability
for Design of Structures - Serviceability of in Buildings, Canadian Standards Association
Buildings Against Vibration, International
[66] ATHENATM Environmental Impact Estimator,
Organization for Standardization, Geneva,
Switzerland Athena Sustainable Materials Institute:
http://www.athenaSMI.ca
Sustainable Design and Construction
[67] Green Building Part II: Precast Concrete LEED
[58] The Cement Sustainability Initiative Our Certification, AWARD Magazine, Canada Wide
Agenda for Action, World Business Council for Magazines and Communications Ltd., February
Sustainable Development, July 2002 2005

CHAPTER 7
PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPABILITY
7.0 NOTATION ...................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 7-3
7.2 EXPLANATION OF LOAD TABLES................................................................................ 7-3
7.2.1 Safe Superimposed Load ................................................................................... 7-3
7.2.2 Limiting Criteria................................................................................................... 7-3
7.2.3 Estimated Camber.............................................................................................. 7-4
7.2.4 Concrete Strength and Density .......................................................................... 7-4
7.2.5 Prestressing Strand ............................................................................................ 7-5
7.2.6 Prestress Losses ................................................................................................ 7-5
7.2.7 Strand Placement ............................................................................................... 7-5
7.2.8 Columns and Load Bearing Wall Panels............................................................ 7-5
7.2.9 Piles .................................................................................................................... 7-6
7.3 STEMMED DECK ELEMENTS
Double Tee Load Tables ................................................................................................. 7-7
Pretopped Double Tee Load Tables ............................................................................. 7-18
Single Tee Load Tables................................................................................................. 7-21
7.4 FLAT DECK ELEMENTS
Hollow Core Load Tables .............................................................................................. 7-22
Solid Flat Slab Load Tables........................................................................................... 7-24
7.5 BEAM ELEMENTS
Rectangular Beam Load Tables .................................................................................... 7-27
Inverted Tee Beam Load Tables ................................................................................... 7-28
L-Shaped Beam Load Tables........................................................................................ 7-30
Bridge Girder Load Tables ............................................................................................ 7-32
Box Section Beam Load Tables .................................................................................... 7-34
7.6 COLUMNS AND LOAD BEARING WALL PANELS
Precast Prestressed Columns ....................................................................................... 7-35
Precast Reinforced Columns......................................................................................... 7-37
Double Tee Wall Panels ................................................................................................ 7-39
Hollow Core Wall Panels ............................................................................................... 7-40
Precast Prestressed Solid Wall Panels ......................................................................... 7-41
Precast Reinforced Solid Wall Panels........................................................................... 7-42
7.7 PILES
Bearing Piles.................................................................................................................. 7-43
Sheet Piles..................................................................................................................... 7-44

PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPABILITY
7.0 NOTATION Pr = factored axial load resistance
Ag = gross area of section Prb = factored axial load resistance under
balanced conditions
Pro = factored axial load resistance with zero
As = area of non-prestressed reinforcement
eccentricity
b = overall width of element
Sb = section modulus with respect to the bottom
ec = eccentricity of prestress force from the fibre of section
centroid of the section at the centre of the
St = section modulus with respect to the top
span
fibre of section
ee = eccentricity of prestress force from the
s = strand spacing
centroid of the section at the end of the
span t = thickness
fc = specified compressive strength of concrete Vc = factored shear resistance of concrete
fci = compressive strength of concrete at time Vf = factored shear force
of initial prestress Vr = factored shear resistance
fcp = average compressive stress in concrete at V/S = volume-surface ratio
centroid due to effective prestress force
only w = weight expressed in force units
fpr = stress in prestressed reinforcement at yb = distance from bottom fibre to centroid of
factored flexural resistance section
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressed yt = distance from top fibre to centroid of
reinforcement section
fpe = effective stress in prestressed z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural
reinforcement after losses reinforcement
fy = specified yield strength of non-prestressed = factor to account for low density concrete
reinforcement = As/bd = reinforcement ratio for non-
h = overall depth prestressed reinforcement
I = moment of inertia c = resistance factor for concrete
l = span p = resistance factor for prestressed
reinforcement
Mr = factored flexural resistance
s = resistance factor for non-prestressed
Mrb = factored flexural resistance under reinforcement
balanced conditions
1 = ratio of average stress in rectangular
Mro = factored flexural resistance with zero axial compression block to the specified
load concrete strength.
m = mass of element

7.1 INTRODUCTION For beams, a single table is used for several sizes of
elements. The values shown are based on sections
This part of the Manual is devoted to technical data
containing the maximum practical number of
on the shapes that are standard in the precast
prestressing strands, but in some cases, more
prestressed concrete industry today. The use of this
strands could be used.
part of the Manual as guide for selection of a
particular shape, together with information on design 7.2.1 Safe Superimposed Load
aids and techniques provided in other parts of this
Manual, should enable the designer to quickly and The values for safe (unfactored) superimposed load
expeditiously complete a design. are based on the capacity of the element as
governed by the limitations tabulated below:
The load tables on the following pages show
dimensions, gross section properties and engineering
Factored Factored
capabilities of the shapes most commonly used Type of
flexural shear
Flexural Crack
throughout the industry. These shapes include double element stresses widths
resistance resistance
and single tees, hollow core slabs, beams, girders,
columns, piles and wall panels. The dimensions of
the shapes shown in the tables may vary among Flat deck
X X X
manufacturers. Adjustment for these minor variations elements
can be made by the designer. Hollow core slabs of
different thicknesses, core sizes and shapes are
Stemmed
available in the market under various trade names.
deck X X X
Load tables on pages 7-22 and 7-23 are developed
elements
for non-proprietary hollow core sections of
thicknesses most commonly used in the industry.
Designers making use of these load tables should Beams X X X
contact the manufacturers in the geographic area
of the proposed structure to determine
availability and exact dimensions of products A portion of the safe load shown is assumed to be
shown here. Manufacturers will usually have their dead load for the purpose of applying load factors
own load tables for sections which are not and determining time-dependent cambers and
included on the following pages. deflections. For untopped deck elements, 0.5 kN/m2
of the capacity shown is assumed as superimposed
7.2 EXPLANATION OF LOAD TABLES dead load, typical for roof elements. For topped deck
elements, 0.7 kN/m2 of the capacity shown is
Load tables for stemmed deck elements, flat deck assumed as superimposed dead load, typical for floor
elements and beams show the safe superimposed elements. The capacity shown is in addition of the
load, estimated camber at the time of erection and dead load of the topping. For beams, 50 percent of
the estimated long-time camber after the element has the capacity shown is assumed as dead load,
essentially stabilized. For the deck elements, the normally conservative for beams which support
upper table gives the information for the element with concrete decks.
no topping. For single and double tees, the lower
table is for the same element with 75 mm of normal Example 7.1 For an untopped 2400 700 double
density concrete topping acting compositely with the tee with an 8-D strand pattern (page 79) and a 16 m
precast section. For hollow core and solid flat slabs span, the capacity shown is 4.8 kN/m2.
the topping is 50 mm. Values in the table assume a
uniform topping thickness for the full span length, and 7.2.2 Limiting Criteria
assume the element to be unshored at the time the The criteria used to determine the safe superimposed
topping is placed. Safe loads and cambers shown in load and the strand placement are based on
the tables are based on the dimensions and section requirements of the Code. For design procedures,
properties shown on the page. For the calculation of see Chap. 3 of this Manual. A summary of the code
concrete stresses and crack width criteria, the section provisions used in the development of these load
properties have been transformed to account for the tables is as follows. The load combination shown
effects of the prestressed reinforcement. For below is the one believed to give the highest factored
elements with different dimensions or section load in most cases. In high snow or wind regions, this
properties, the safe loads and cambers will vary. would need to be rechecked, based on A23.3-04:

Factored Flexural Resistance elements. For interior exposure, the Code allows a
maximum value for the crack control parameter, z, to
Load factors: 1.25 for dead load
be 30,000 N/mm. The capacity of partially
1.50 for live load prestressed elements is limited such that this crack
width is not exceeded. The critical section is assumed
Resistance factors:
at midspan for elements with straight strands; for
Precast concrete, c = 0.70 elements with tendons depressed at midspan, the
critical section is found at either 0.4l or 0.5l.
Prestressing tendons, p = 0.9
If it is a requirement that the allowable crack width
Reinforcing bars, s = 0.85
parameter be restricted to less than 30,000 N/mm, a
Calculation of moments assumes simple spans with marginal increase in the final prestress force may be
roller supports. If the strands are fully developed (see required if the full superimposed load capacity in the
Sect. 3.4.9), the critical moment is assumed to be at tables is to be achieved.
midspan in elements with straight strands; for
elements with tendons depressed at midspan, the Factored Shear Resistance
critical section is found at either 0.4l or 0.5 l. For flat deck elements, the capacity may be limited by
(Note: The actual critical point can be determined by the factored shear resistance. In this case, the safe
analysis, but will seldom vary significantly from 0.4 l.) superimposed load is that which will yield a factored
Flexural resistance is calculated using strain shear force Vf of no more than Vr, as permitted by the
compatibility as discussed in Chap. 3. Code for slabs without shear reinforcement. See
Chapter 3 for the design procedures.
Flexural Stresses at Transfer
For stemmed deck elements and beams, the factored
The following limitations are placed on flexural shear resistance may exceed Vr by providing shear
stresses immediately after transfer of prestress, reinforcement, designed as described in Chapter 3.
before long time losses; it is assumed that strands For many deck elements, however, minimum or no
are initially tensioned to 0.75 fpu or less: reinforcement may be required.
Compression: 0.6 fci Span/depth Ratios
End tension: 0.5 fci Flat deck elements show no values beyond a
span/depth ratio of 50 for untopped elements and 40
Midspan tension: 0.25 fci
for topped elements. These are the suggested
These stresses are calculated at 50 strand diameters maximums for roof and floor elements respectively,
from the end of the element (the theoretical point of unless a detailed analysis is made.
full transfer) and at midspan.
Release tension is not used as limiting criterion for 7.2.3 Estimated Camber
beams. Supplemental top reinforcement must be The estimated cambers shown are calculated to the
provided, and designed as described in Sect. 3.4.9 of nearest 5 mm using the multipliers shown in Sect.
this Manual. 3.5.3 of this Manual. These values are estimates and
Stresses due to Specified Loads, after all Losses should not be used as absolute values. Non-
structural components attached to elements which
Compression due to sustained loads: 0.45 fc could be affected by camber variations, such as
partitions of folding doors, should be placed with
Compression due to total load: 0.60 fc
adequate allowance for camber variation. Calculation
Tension: 0.5 fc of topping quantities should also recognize that the
values can vary.
The critical point for service load moment is assumed
at midspan for elements with straight strands; for 7.2.4 Concrete Strength and Density
elements with tendons depressed at midspan, the
critical section is found at either 0.4 l or 0.5 l. Twenty-eight day cylinder strength for concrete in the
prestressed units is assumed to be 35 or 40 MPa,
Crack Widths of Partially Prestressed Elements, unless noted otherwise. Tables for units with
After All Losses composite topping are based on the topping concrete
Sect. 3.4.8 describes the design procedures for being normal density concrete with a cylinder
calculating the crack widths of partially prestressed strength of 25 MPa. For stemmed and flat deck

elements, the concrete strength at time of strand 7.2.7 Strand Placement
tension release is 25 MPa unless the value falls For stemmed deck elements and beams, the
below the heavy line shown in the load table, eccentricities of strands at the ends and midspan are
indicating that a cylinder strength greater than 25 shown in the load tables. Strands have been placed
MPa is required. For beams, the concrete strength at so that the stress at 50 strand diameters from the end
transfer is 30 MPa. No values are shown when the (theoretical transfer point) will not exceed those
required release strength exceeds 30 MPa. The specified above, with a concrete strength at release
designer should recognize that it is sometimes of 25 MPa for stemmed elements and 30 MPa for
difficult to obtain a release strength higher than 25 beams. For stemmed deck elements, values below
MPa on a one-day casting cycle. In such cases, the the heavy line indicate a required release strength
cost of production will be increased and the designer between 25 MPa and 30 MPa.
should consult with prospective producers when
required release strengths are above 25 MPa. For flat deck elements the load table values are
based on strand centred 45 mm (40 mm for solid
Many prestressing plants prefer to use higher slabs) from the bottom of the slab. Strand placement
strength concretes, resulting in somewhat higher can vary from as low as 25 mm to as high as 55 mm
allowable loads or greater spans than indicated in the from the bottom, which will change the capacity and
load tables contained herein. camber values shown. The higher strand placements
give improved fire resistance ratings (see Chap. 5 of
In this Chapter, all tables apply to normal density
this Manual for more information on fire resistance).
concrete only, with the density assumed as
3 The lower strand placement may require higher
2400 kg/m .
release strengths, or top tension reinforcement at the
ends. The designer should contact the local
7.2.5 Prestressing Strand
supplier of flat deck elements for available and
Prestressing strands used in the load tables are 13 recommended strand placement locations.
mm diameter low relaxation strands with a specified
tensile strength of 1860 MPa, unless otherwise noted. 7.2.8 Columns and Load Bearing Wall
Panels
Quantity, size and profile of strands are shown in the
Interaction curves for selected precast prestressed
load tables under the column headed Strand
columns, precast reinforced columns and various
Pattern. In the double tee load tables, for example,
types of commonly used wall panels are provided on
8-S indicates 8-13 mm diameter 1860 MPa strands
Pages 735 to 742.
(4 per double tee stem) and the S indicates that the
strands are straight. 8-D indicates 8-13 mm These interaction curves are for factored loads and
diameter 1860 MPa strands depressed at one point in moments and the appropriate load factors must be
the midspan of the double tee. applied to the service loads and moments before
entering the charts. Also, the curves are for short
For the flat deck elements (Pages 722 to 726) the elements. Moment magnifiers caused by slenderness
manufacturer is allowed some flexibility in choice of effects must be calculated and applied to the design
strand size and tensile strength. Manufacturers moments before using the curves for final element
should be contacted for details of strand utilization. selection (see Chap. 3).
Note: For development length see Chap. 3. The column curves are terminated at a value of 0.8
Pro, the maximum allowable load for tied columns
7.2.6 Prestress Losses under the Code. Most of the wall panel curves show
the lower portion of the curve only (flexure
Losses assumed in computing the required concrete
controlling). Actual design loads will rarely exceed the
strength at time of strand release are 8%. Total
values shown.
losses averaged 18% for normal density concrete.
The curves for double tee wall panels are shown for
For long span, heavily prestressed products, losses bending in directions causing either tension or
may be somewhat higher than these assumed compression in the stem.
values, and, for shorter spans with less prestressing,
they may be lower. However, these values will Partial development of strands has been assumed for
usually be adequate for element selection. Additional prestressed columns and full development for
information on losses is given in Chapter 3 of this prestressed wall panels. Lateral ties have been
Manual. assumed for prestressed columns and double tee

wall panels and no ties assumed for hollow core and pile alone are shown on Page 743. The ability of the
solid wall panels. For double tee and hollow core wall soil to carry these loads must be evaluated by a
panels, the effects of strands above the neutral axis geotechnical engineer. Values for concrete strengths
have been neglected for the calculation of the flexural up to 55 MPa are shown. Available strengths should
resistance under zero axial load. be checked with local manufacturers. The design of
prestressed concrete piles is discussed in Chapter 3
The curves for hollow core wall panels are based on
of this Manual.
a generic section as shown. They can be used with
small error for all sections commonly marketed for Section properties and allowable service load
wall panel use. bending moments for prestressed concrete sheet pile
units are shown on Page 744. These units are
7.2.9 Piles available in some areas for use in earth retaining
The factored resistances of prestressed concrete structures.
bearing piles, based on the structural capacity of the

Strand Pattern Designation Section Properties
DOUBLE TEE Untopped Topped
No. of 13 mm strands 2400 x 300
S = straight D = depressed Normal Density Concrete A=
2
191,250 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
2S 1,350 2,600
yb = 220 mm 272 mm
yt = 80 mm 103 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
6,130 9,530
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include 16,880 25,150
m=
2 2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m2 for 194 kg/m 374 kg/m
w=
2 2 2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m for topped 1.9 kN/m 3.7 kN/m
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time V/S = 33 mm
cambers include superimposed dead load but
do not include live load.
Key
10.5 Superimposed (service) load, kN/m2
10 Estimated camber at erection, mm
10 Estimated long-time camber, mm
Table of superimposed service load (kN/m2) and cambers (mm) No Topping

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
170 9.6 5.6 3.4 2.0
2S 0 10 10 10
170 0 10 10 10
145 11.2 7.3 5.0 3.4 2.4
4S 10 10 20 20 20
145 10 20 20 20 20
86 7.9 5.4 3.8 2.7 1.9
6S 10 10 10 10 10
86 10 20 20 10 0
86 5.9 4.4 3.3 2.5 1.8
6D 30 30 40 30 30
157
40 40 30 30 10
57 2.6 2.0
8D 50 40
150
40 20
Table of superimposed service load (kN/m2) and cambers (mm) 75 mm Normal Density Topping
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
170 11.4 6.3 3.4 1.7
2S 0 5 10 10
170 0 5 0 0
145 8.6 5.5 3.5 2.1
4S 10 20 20 20
145 10 10 10 0
86 6.9 4.2 1.8
6S 10 10 10
86 10 10 0
86 6.9 4.9 3.0 1.6
6D 30 30 40 30
157 30 20 20 0
57 1.5
8D 50
150 0
(1) ee and ec are the maximum eccentricities at end and midspan that will not violate the permissible concrete stresses at transfer.
Notes: Values below heavy solid line require transfer strengths higher than 25 MPa.
Values to right of dashed line indicate that element is partially prestressed.

DOUBLE TEE
No. of 13 mm strands 2400 x 500 Untopped Topped
2
239,000 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
4S 5,390 8,480
yb = 357 mm 427 mm
yt = 143 mm 148 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
15,100 19,900
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m2 for m= 234 kg/m
2
419 kg/m
2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m2 for topped

w=
2 2
2.3 kN/m 4.1 kN/m
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time
cambers include superimposed dead load but V/S = 36 mm
Key

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
282 10.5 7.7 5.6 4.2 3.1 2.3 1.7
4S 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
282 10 15 15 20 10 10 10
240 14.1 10.3 7.7 5.9 4.5 3.5 2.7 2.0
6S 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
240 20 20 20 20 30 20 20 20
240 8.9 6.8 5.3 4.2 3.3 2.6 2.0
6D 20 30 30 30 30 30 30
294 30 30 30 30 30 30 20
169 5.3 4.3 3.4 2.8 2.2 1.8
8D 40 40 40 40 40 40
287
50 50 50 40 40 20
117 2.7 2.2 1.8
10D 60 60 50
281
60 50 30
98 1.8
12D 70
275 50
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
282 7.7 5.5 3.8 2.3
4S 10 10 10 10
282 10 10 10 10
240 8.1 5.7 3.9 2.5
6S 20 20 20 20
240 20 20 20 10
240 7.0 5.1 3.6 2.4
6D 30 30 30 30
294 30 30 20 20
169 5.1 3.8 2.7 1.8
8D 40 40 40 40
287 40 40 30 20
117 1.8
10D 60
281 30

DOUBLE TEE
2
279,250 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
6D 12,600 18,600
yb = 492 mm 578 mm
yt = 208 mm 197 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
25,500 32,100
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
459 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
2.7 kN/m 4.5 kN/m
Key

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
392 9.1 7.3 5.9 4.8 3.9 3.1 2.5 2.0
6D 20 20 20 30 30 30 20 20
429 20 30 30 30 30 20 20 10
292 8.4 6.9 5.7 4.8 4.0 3.3 2.8 2.3 1.9
8D 30 30 40 40 40 40 30 30 20
422 40 40 40 40 40 30 30 20 0
222 6.2 5.2 4.4 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.3 1.9
10D 50 50 50 50 50 40 40 30
416 60 60 50 50 40 30 20 0
166 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.8
12D 60 60 60 50 40 30
410
60 50 40 30 10 20
134 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.0
14D 70 60 60 40
403
50 40 20 10
110 2.2 1.9
16D 70 60
397 20 10
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
392 8.6 6.7 5.1 3.9 2.9 2.1
6D 20 20 20 30 30 30
429 20 20 20 20 20 10
292 7.8 6.3 5.0 4.0 3.1 2.4 1.8
8D 30 30 40 40 40 40 30
422 30 30 30 30 20 10 0
222 5.5 4.5 3.7 2.9 2.3
10D 50 50 50 50 50
416 40 40 30 20 10
166 3.1 2.4 1.8
12D 60 60 60
410 30 20 0
134 1.8
14D 70
403 0

DOUBLE TEE
2
396,000 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
12D 30,500 44,100
yb = 587 mm 684 mm
yt = 313 mm 291 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
25,500 64,500
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
576 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
3.9 kN/m 5.65 kN/m
Key

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
403 10.3 8.8 7.5 6.4 5.5 4.7 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.4 1.9
12D 35 35 35 35 35 35 30 30 20 15 5
505 40 40 40 40 35 30 25 20 10 10 30
322 10.5 9.0 7.8 6.8 5.8 5.0 4.3 3.7 3.2 2.7 2.3 1.9
14D 40 40 45 45 45 40 40 35 30 20 15 0
498 50 50 50 45 45 40 30 20 10 15 25 50
268 10.3 9.0 7.8 6.9 6.0 5.2 4.5 3.9 3.4 2.9 2.5 2.1
16D 55 50 50 60 60 55 45 40 35 30 10 0
492 55 55 55 60 60 45 35 20 10 0 30 50
225 10.3 9.0 7.9 6.9 6.0 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.2
18D 55 55 55 650 60 55 50 45 35 25 15 0
486
60 55 55 60 60 45 35 30 10 15 30 60
192 6.7 5.9 5.2 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.3
20D 65 60 60 55 50 40 30 15 0
479
55 50 50 45 30 5 10 30 60
164 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2
22D 70 65 60 60 45 40 15 5
473 55 55 50 30 0 10 40 70
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
403 10.0 8.2 6.9 5.7 4.7 3.9 3.1 2.4
12D 35 35 35 35 35 35 30 30
505 40 35 30 25 30 20 10 0
322 10.2 8.6 7.2 6.0 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.2
14D 40 40 45 45 45 40 40 35 30
498 40 40 40 40 30 20 10 0 20
268 7.4 6.2 5.6 4.4 3.6 3.02.3
16D 50 50 50 50 45 40 35
492 25 20 10 0 15 3555
225 7.3 6.2 5.3 4.5 3.62.8 2.2
18D 55 55 55 55 50 45 40
486 50 45 35 20 1010 30
192 5.8 4.9 4.13.3 2.7 2.1
20D 65 65 60 55 50 45
479 45 40 30 10 10 30
164 3.8 3.1 2.5 2.0
22D 60 60 50 45
473 30 10 15 40

DOUBLE TEE
S = straight D = depressed Normal Density Concrete Ag =
2
233,625 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
6S 1,628 3,139
yb = 222 mm 274 mm
yt = 78 mm 102 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
7,335 11,443
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
377 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
1.9 kN/m 3.7 kN/m
Key

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
172 7.4 4.2 2.4
2S 0 0 0
172 0 0 0
147 8.6 5.5 3.7 2.4
4S 10 10 10 10
147 10 10 10 10
105 10.7 6.9 4.7 3.2 2.3
6S 10 10 10 10 10
105 10 10 10 10 10
105 9.4 6.5 4.6 3.3 2.4
6D 20 20 20 30 30
159
20 30 30 30 20
8.2 5.7 4.0 2.8 2.0
84
8S 10 10 20 20 10
84
20 20 20 10 0
72 4.2 3.1 2.3
8D 30 40 40
152 40 40 30
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
172 8.6 4.4 2.2
2S 0 0 0
172 0 0 0
147 10.5 6.4 3.9 2.3
4S 10 10 10 10
147 10 10 10 10
105 8.9 5.7 3.6
6S 10 10 10
105 10 10 10
105 11.5 7.6 5.1 3.4
6D 20 20 20 30
159 20 20 20 10
84 7.4 4.4 2.0
8S 10 20 20
84 10 10 0
72 4.9 3.0
8D 30 40
152 30 20

DOUBLE TEE
2
291,725 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
6D 6,589 10,433
yb = 358 mm 429 mm
yt = 142 mm 147 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m2 for 46,400 71,210
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m2 for topped m= 235 kg/m
2
418 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
2.3 kN/m 4.1 kN/m
do not include live load. V/S = 37 mm
Key

(1)
Strand ee Span (m)
Pattern ec 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
8.1 5.7 4.2 3.0 2.1
283
4S 10 10 10 10 10
283 10 10 10 10 10
8.8 6.6 5.0 3.8 2.9 2.2
258
6S 10 10 20 20 20 20
258 20 20 20 20 20 10
7.8 6.0 4.6 3.6 2.8 2.2
208
8S 20 20 20 20 20 20
208 20 20 20 20 20 10
208 10.2 7.9 6.2 4.9 3.9 3.1 2.5 2.0
8D 20 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
288
30 30 30 30 30 30 20 10
8.4 6.4 5.0 3.9 3.1 2.4
158
10S 20 20 20 20 20 10
158
20 20 20 20 10 10
158 6.2 5.0 4.0 3.3 2.7 2.2
10D 40 40 40 40 40 40
282 50 50 40 40 30 20
124 3.7 3.0 2.5 2.1
12D 50 50 50 50
276 60 50 40 20
(1)
Strand ee Span (m)
Pattern ec 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
8.3 5.6 3.6 2.2
283
4S 10 10 10 10
283
10 10 10 10
9.2 6.6 4.7 3.3 2.2
258
6S 10 10 20 20 20
258
10 10 10 10 10
8.3 6.1 4.5 3.2 2.3
208
8S 20 20 20 20 20
208
20 20 10 10 10
10.5 7.9 6.0 4.5 3.3 2.4
208
8D 30 30 30 30 30 30
288
30 30 30 30 20 10
9.3 6.9 5.1 3.8 2.3
158
10S 20 20 20 20 20
158
20 10 10 10 10
6.1 4.7 3.7 2.8
158
10D 40 40 40 40
282
40 30 30 20
3.5 2.5
124
12D 50 50
276
30 20

DOUBLE TEE
2
341,825 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
6D 15,649 23,182
yb = 492 mm 581 mm
yt = 208 mm 195 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m2 for 75,233 118,596
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m2 for topped m= 275 kg/m
2
460 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
2.7 kN/m 4.5 kN/m
do not include live load. V/S = 40 mm
Key

Strand e e
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
367 8.6 6.9 5.5 4.5 3.6 2.9 2.3 1.9
8S 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
367 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10
292 9.4 7.6 6.1 5.0 4.1 3.3 2.7 2.2
10S 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
292 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10
292 8.3 6.8 5.7 4.7 3.9 3.3 2.7 2.2
10D 30 30 40 40 40 40 30 30
416 40 40 40 40 40 30 20 10
233 8.3 6.9 5.8 4.9 4.1 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.1
12D 40 40 50 50 50 50 40 40 30
410
50 50 50 50 50 40 30 20 10
184 4.6 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.0
14D 60 60 50 50 50 40
403
60 60 50 40 30 10
154 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.0
16D 70 60 60 50
397 60 50 30 10
Strand e e
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
367 8.5 6.5 5.0 3.7 2.8 2.0
8S 20 20 20 20 20 20
367 20 20 20 20 10 10
292 9.6 7.5 5.8 4.5 3.5 2.6
10S 20 20 20 20 20 20
292 20 20 20 20 20 10
292 7.8 6.3 5.0 4.0 3.1 2.4
10D 30 30 40 40 40 40
416 30 30 30 30 20 10
233 7.8 6.4 5.2 4.2 3.4 2.7 2.1
12D 40 40 50 50 50 50 40
410 40 40 40 30 30 20 0
184 4.3 2.5 2.0 2.7
14D 60 60 50 50
403 40 30 0 20
154 2.6 1.9
16D 70 60
397 20 0

DOUBLE TEE
2
383,925 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
6D 28,785 41,258
yb = 627 mm 731 mm
yt = 273 mm 244 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
45,909 56,468
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
490 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
3.0 kN/m 4.8 kN/m
Key

Strand e e
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
351 7.0 5.8 4.9 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.4 1.9
12S 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
351 30 30 20 20 20 10 0 10
351 8.3 7.1 6.1 5.2 4.5 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.0
12D 40 40 50 40 40 40 40 40 30 30
545 50 50 50 50 40 40 30 20 10 0
284 7.2 6.2 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
14D 50 50 50 50 50 50 40 40 30 20
538 60 60 60 50 50 40 30 20 0 10
233 4.3 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.1
16D 60 60 60 50 50 40
532
60 60 50 40 20 10
199 3.1 2.7 2.4 2.1
18D 70 60 60 50
526
60 50 30 10
172 2.6 2.3 2.0
20D 70 70 60
519 50 60 10
Strand e e
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
351 6.5 5.2 4.2 3.3 2.6 1.9
12S 20 20 20 20 20 20
351 20 20 10 10 0 10
351 7.6 6.3 5.3 4.3 3.6 2.9 2.3
12D 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
545 40 40 40 30 30 20 10
284 6.4 5.4 4.5 3.8 3.1 2.5 2.0
14D 50 50 50 50 50 50 40
538 50 40 40 30 20 10 0
233 3.9 3.3 2.6 2.1
16D 60 60 60 50
532 40 30 20 0
199 2.5 2.0
18D 70 60
526 20 0

DOUBLE TEE
2
287,100 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
6D 2,534 4,471
yb = 268 mm 731 mm
yt = 82 mm 104 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
9,445 13,928
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
340 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
1.9 kN/m 3.7 kN/m
Key

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
193 15.6 9.4 6.1 4.1 2.7
4D 10 10 10 10 10
211 10 10 10 10 10
151 18.5 11.3 7.4 5.0 3.5 2.5
6S 10 10 10 10 20 20
151 10 10 10 10 10 10
151 6.6 4.7 3.4 2.5
6D 20 20 20 20
205 20 20 20 20
105 4.6 3.5 2.6
8D 30 30 30
198
30 30 30
88 2.6
10D 50
192
40
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
193 18.4 10.7 6.6 4.0 2.4
4D 10 10 10 10 10
211 10 10 10 10 10
151 23.4 13.9 8.8 5.7 3.7 2.1
6S 10 10 10 10 20 20
151 10 10 10 10 10 0
151 7.2 4.9 3.2 2.1
6D 20 20 20 20
205 20 20 20 10
105 4.9 3.4 2.0
8D 30 30 30
198 30 20 10
88 1.7
10D 50
192 10

DOUBLE TEE
S = straight D = depressed Normal Density Concrete Ag = 340,250 mm
2
I= 8,682 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
6D 13,079
yb = 411 mm 482 mm
yt = 139 mm 143 mm
Sb = 21,130 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
27,137
St = 62,468 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include 91,469
2
375 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
2.2 kN/m 4.0 kN/m
cambers include superimposed dead load but V/S=34 mm
Key

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
311 15.7 11.1 8.1 6.0 4.5 3.5 2.6 2.0
6S 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20
311 10 10 10 10 20 20 10 10
311 12.2 8.9 6.7 5.1 3.9 3.0 2.3
6D 10 10 20 20 20 20 20
348 10 20 20 20 20 20 10
261 9.3 7.2 5.6 4.5 3.5 2.8 2.2
8D 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
341 30 30 30 30 30 20 20
191 5.7 4.6 3.7 3.0 2.4
10D 40 40 40 40 40
335
40 40 40 30 20
152 3.7 3.1
12D 50 50
329
50 40
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
311 17.1 11.7 8.2 5.8 4.1 2.8
6S 10 10 10 10 20 20
311 10 10 10 10 10 10
311 12.8 9.0 6.4 4.6 3.2 2.1
6D 10 10 20 20 20 20
348 10 10 20 20 10 10
261 9.4 7.0 5.2 3.9 2.8
8D 20 20 30 30 30
341 20 30 30 20 20
191 5.3 4.1 3.1 2.3
10D 40 40 40 40
335 50 30 30 20
152 3.2 2.4
12D 50 50
329 30 20

DOUBLE TEE
2
385,510 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
6D 19,150 27,350
yb = 551 mm 640 mm
yt = 199 mm 185 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
34,760 42,730
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
405 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
2.5 kN/m 4.3 kN/m
Key

Strand e e
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
426 10.7 8.5 6.9 5.6 4.5 3.7 3.0 2.4
8D 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
481 20 20 30 30 30 30 20 20
331 8.8 7.2 6.0 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.4
10D 30 30 30 30 40 40 30 30
475 30 30 40 40 30 30 30 20
267 6.1 5.1 4.3 3.6 3.0 2.5
12D 40 40 40 40 40 40
469 50 50 40 40 30 20
215 4.3 3.7 3.1 2.7 2.3
14D 50 50 50 50 50
462
50 50 40 30 20
182 3.2 2.7
16D 60 60
456
50 40
Strand e e
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
426 10.4 8.0 6.2 4.7 3.6 2.7
8D 20 20 20 20 30 30
481 20 20 20 20 20 20
331 8.3 6.6 5.3 4.1 3.2 2.5
10D 30 30 30 30 30 30
475 30 30 30 30 20 20
267 5.4 4.3 3.5 2.7 2.1
12D 40 40 40 40 40
469 40 40 30 20 10
215 3.5 2.9 2.3
14D 50 50 50
462 40 30 20
182 2.2
16D 60
456 20

PRETOPPED DOUBLE TEE
No. of 13 mm strands 3660 x 400 Ag = 470,100 mm
2
S = straight D = depressed Normal Density Concrete I= 10 mm
6 4
3,857
8D yb = 309 mm
yt = 91 mm
Sb = 10 mm
3 3
12,485
St = 10 mm
3 3
42,396
m=
2
Superimposed loads shown include 308 kg/m
w=
2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m2 for 3.0 kN/m
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m2 for topped V/S = 55 mm
Key

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
10.4 6.5 4.1 2.6
234
4D 10 10 10 10
252
10 10 10 10
209 14.3 9.2 6.1 4.1 2.7
6S 10 10 10 10 10
209
10 10 10 10 10
209 7.2 4.9 3.4 2.3
6D 10 10 10 10
246
20 20 10 10
5.1 3.7 2.6
184
8D 20 20 20
239
20 20 20
5.0 3.7 2.7
159
10D 30 30 30
233
30 30 20
4.2 3.2
134
12D 40 40
227
40 40

2
532,250 mm
I= 10 mm
6 4
8D 11,930
yb = 468 mm
yt = 132 mm
Sb = 10 mm
3 3
25,490
St = 10 mm
3 3
m=
2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m2 for 345 kg/m
w=
2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m2 for topped 3.4 kN/m
Key

Strand ee(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
368 16.8 11.6 8.2 5.9 4.3 3.1 2.1
6S 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
368 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
368 18.2 12.7 9.1 6.6 4.8 3.5 2.5
6D 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
405 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
343 9.5 7.2 5.5 4.2 3.1 2.3
8D 20 20 20 20 20 20
398 20 20 20 20 20 10
7.3 5.7 4.5 3.5 2.7
318
10D 30 30 30 30 30
392
30 30 30 30 20
7.2 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.9
267
12D 30 40 40 40 30
386
40 40 40 40 30
225 4.4 3.6
14D 40 40
379 50 40

2
568,500 mm
I= 10 mm
6 4
8D 25,420
yb = 632 mm
yt = 177 mm
Sb = 10 mm
3 3
40,800
St = 10 mm
3 3
m=
2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m2 for 375 kg/m
w=
2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m2 for topped 3.7 kN/m
Key

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
498 13.9 10.7 8.3 6.5 5.1 4.0 3.1 2.4
8D 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 10
553 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
473 11.0 8.8 7.0 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.9
10D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
547 20 30 30 30 30 30 20
431 8.9 7.3 6.0 4.9 4.0 3.2 2.6
12D 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
541 40 40 40 40 30 30 20
7.2 6.0 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.2
358
14D 40 40 40 40 40 30 30
534
50 50 40 40 40 30 20
4.9 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.8
310
16D 50 50 50 40 40
528
50 50 40 30 30
273 4.0 3.4 2.8
18D 60 50 50
522 60 50 40

SINGLE TEE
2
492,000 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
14D 66,300 84,330
yb = 882 mm 984 mm
yt = 318 mm 291 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
75,200 85,668
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
578 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
3.9 kN/m 5.7 kN/m
Key

Strand e e
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
510 8.8 7.7 6.7 5.8 5.1 4.4 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.7
14D 35 35 40 40 40 35 35 35 30 25 20 10
793 40 45 40 40 35 35 30 25 15 5 5 20
425 10.5 9.1 8.0 7.0 6.1 5.3 4.6 4.1 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9 1.6
16D 40 40 40 45 45 45 45 45 40 35 30 25 20 10
787 50 50 50 50 50 50 45 40 35 25 15 0 15 35
359 8.1 7.1 6.3 5.5 4.8 4.2 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.1 1.8
18D 50 50 55 55 50 50 45 45 40 30 25 15
781 60 60 55 55 50 45 40 30 15 0 15 35
312 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
20D 60 55 55 50 50 45 35 30 20
774
60 55 50 40 30 20 5 15 35
272 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
22D 65 65 60 55 50 40 30 20
768
60 55 45 35 20 5 15 40
240 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.2 1.9
24D 65 60 55 45 35 25
762 50 35 20 0 20 40
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
510 8.2 6.9 5.9 5.0 4.2 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.7
14D 35 35 40 40 40 35 35 30 30
793 25 20 20 15 10 5 5 15 30
425 9.7 8.3 7.1 6.1 5.3 4.5 3.7 3.1 2.5 1.9
16D 40 40 40 45 45 45 45 45 40 35
787 35 30 25 25 20 15 5 5 15 30
359 7.3 6.3 5.5 4.7 3.9 3.2 2.5 1.9
18D 50 50 55 55 50 50 50 45
781 35 30 25 15 5 5 20 35
312 5.5 4.6 3.8 3.2 2.5 1.9
20D 60 60 55 55 50 50
774 25 15 5 5 20 40
272 5.4 4.5 3.7 3.1 2.5 1.9
22D 65 65 65 65 60 60
768 25 15 5 10 25 45
240 4.3 3.6 3.0 2.4 1.8
24D 75 70 70 65 60
262 15 0 15 30 50

HOLLOW CORE
S = straight D = depressed
2
Ag = 138,700 mm
3S 6 4 6 4
I= 693 10 mm 1,276 10 mm
yb = 101.5 mm 134 mm
yt = 101.5 mm 119 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 6,800 10 mm 9,250 10 mm
Superimposed loads shown include St = 6,800
3
10 mm
3
10,745
3
10 mm
3
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m2 for 2 2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m2 for topped m= 276 kg/m 393 kg/m
2 2
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time w= 2.7 kN/m 3.9 kN/m
Key

Strand e e
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
13.4 10.5 8.3 6.6 5.3 4.3 3.4. 2.8 2.8
3S 57 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
11.4 9.2 7.5 6.2 5.1 4.2 3.5 2.8 2.3
4S 57 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10
10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 20
11.4 9.4 7.7 6.4 5.3 4.4 3.7 3.0 2.5
5S 57 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0
10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 20
13.3 10.9 9.1 7.6 6.4 5.4 4.5 3.8 3.2
6S 57 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 10
12.3 10.3 8.7 7.4 6.3 5.3 4.5 3.8
7S 57 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
13.1 10.3 8.1 6.5 5.0 3.7 2.6
3S 57 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 10 10
14.1 11.2 8.9 6.9 5.4 4.2 3.1 2.2
4S 57 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0
10 10 0 0 0 10 10 20
13.8 11.1 8.9 7.1 5.6 4.4 3.4 2.6
5S 57 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0
10 10 10 10 0 0 10 20
13.2 10.7 8.7 7.1 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.8
6S 57 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 10 0 10 20
12.5 10.3 8.5 6.9 5.7 4.6 3.7
7S 57 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
20 20 20 10 10 0 0

HOLLOW CORE
Ag =
2
184,000 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
5S 2177 3,390
yb = 152.5 mm 189 mm
yt = 152.5 mm 165 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
14,275 17,900
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
482 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
3.55 kN/m 4.7 kN/m
Key

Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5
12.1 10.3 8.7 7.4 6.4 5.4 4.6 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.4
5S 108 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10
10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 20 20
12.5 10.7 9.2 8.0 6.9 5.9 5.1 4.4 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.2
6S 108 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10
10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 20 20 30
12.6 10.9 9.4 8.2 7.1 6.1 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.4 2.9 2.4
7S 108 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10
20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 10 20 20
12.3 10.7 9.3 8.1 7.1 6.2 5.4 4.7 4.1 3.6 3.1 2.6
8S 108 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 10 20 30
11.4 10.0 8.8 7.7 6.8 6.0 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6
9S 108 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 0
30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 0 10 20 30
11.9 10.5 9.2 8.1 7.1 6.3 5.6 4.9 4.3 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5
11S 108 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 10 0
30 40 40 30 30 30 30 20 10 10 0 20 30
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5
11.4 9.6 8.1 6.9 5.7 4.6 3.7 2.9 2.2
5S 108 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10
10 10 0 0 0 10 10 20 20
12.1 10.2 9.6 7.2 6.0 4.9 4.0 3.2 2.5
6S 108 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0
10 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 20
12.0 10.2 8.7 7.3 6.2 5.2 4.3 3.5 2.8 2.2
7S 108 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10 0 0
20 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 20 30
11.8 10.1 8.6 7.4 6.3 5.3 4.5 3.7 3.0 2.4
8S 108 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0
20 20 20 20 10 10 0 10 20 30
11.8 10.3 8.9 7.8 6.8 5.9 5.1 4.3 3.6 3.0 2.5
9S 108 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0
20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 10 20 30
12.8 11.2 9.8 8.5 7.5 6.5 5.7 4.9 4.3 3.7 3.2 2.7
11S 108 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 10
30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 0 10 20 30

SOLID FLAT SLAB
Ag =
2
122,000 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
3S 101.7 316.0
yb = 50 mm 72.3 mm
yt = 50 mm 77.7 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2033 4375
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include 2033 4069
2
362 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
2.35 kN/m 3.55 kN/m
Key

Strand Span (m)
Pattern 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
8.5 5.8 4.2 3.0 2.1
3S 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 10 10
10.4 7.3 5.5 3.9 2.8
4S 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 10
12.1 8.6 6.2 4.5 3.3
5S 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 10
13.3 9.0 6.6 4.9 3.6
6S 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
9.3 7.0 5.2 3.9
7S 0 0 10 10
10 10 0 0
Strand Span (m)
Pattern 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
11.8 8.6 6.3
3S 0 0 10
0 10 10
11.4 8.5
4S 0 0
0 10
10.1 7.7
5S 0 0
10 10
11.3 8.8
6S 0 0
0 10
12.1 9.8
7S 0 0
0 10

SOLID FLAT SLAB
Ag =
2
183,000 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
3S 343.1 756.0
yb = 75 mm 97.0 mm
yt = 75 mm 103.0 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
4575 7796
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include 4575 7339
2
482 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
3.53 kN/m 4.73 kN/m
Key

Strand Span (m)
Pattern 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
12.8 9.5 7.3 5.4 4.0 2.9 2.0
3S 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 0 0 10 10
12.8 10.0 7.7 5.8 4.5 3.4 2.4
4S 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 0 0 10 10
12.4 9.4 7.4 5.7 4.5 3.5 2.6
5S 10 10 10 10 0 0 0
10 10 10 0 0 10 20
11.1 8.5 6.9 5.4 4.2 3.4
6S 10 10 10 10 10 0
10 10 10 0 0 10
9.7 7.7 6.2 4.9 3.9
7S 10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 0
Span (m)
Strand Pattern
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
14.3 10.8 8.2 6.2 4.5 3.2
3S 0 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 10 10 20
11.6 8.9 6.9 5.4 4.0
4S 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 10 10 20
11.2 8.7 7.0 5.5
5S 10 0 0 0
0 0 10 20
13.4 10.7 8.4 6.8 5.5
6S 10 10 10 0 0
10 0 0 10 20
12.2 10.0 7.9 6.4 5.2
7S 10 10 10 0 0
10 0 0 10 20

SOLID FLAT SLAB
Ag =
2
244,000 mm
I= 10 mm 10 mm
6 4 6 4
3S 813.3 1489.0
yb = 100 mm 121.8 mm
yt = 100 mm 128.2 mm
Sb = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
8133 12,225
St = 10 mm 10 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include 8133 11,615
2
602 kg/m
2

w=
2 2
4.71 kN/m 5.91 kN/m
cambers include superimposed dead load but V/S= 86 mm
Key

Strand Span (m)
Pattern 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10
12.0 8.9 6.7 5.0 3.7 2.7
3S 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 10 10
12.5 9.8 7.5 6.0 4.6 3.4 2.5
4S 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 0 10 10 20
12.6 9.9 7.9 6.2 4.8 3.9 3.0 2.2
5S 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 10 10 10 10 20
12.1 9.8 7.9 6.2 5.0 4.0 3.3 2.5
6S 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10
10 10 10 0 0 10 10 20
11.3 9.4 7.5 6.2 5.1 4.2 3.3 2.6
7S 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10
10 10 10 10 0 10 10 20
Strand Span (m)
Pattern 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.5 9.0
11.8 8.9 6.7 5.0 3.7 2.6
3S 0 0 0 0 10 10
0 0 0 10 10 20
12.8 9.9 7.8 6.2 4.6 3.6
4S 0 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 10 10 20
13.0 10.4 8.3 6.6 5.3 4.1
5S 10 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 10 10 20
12.7 10.3 8.5 6.9 5.6 4.4
6S 10 10 0 0 0 10
10 0 0 10 10 20
12.3 10.3 8.5 6.9 5.6
7S 10 10 10 0 0
10 0 0 10 20

RECTANGULAR BEAMS
Section Properties
b h Ag I yb S m w
2 6 4 3 3
(mm) (mm) (mm ) (10 mm ) (mm) (10 mm ) (kg/m) (kN/m)
300 400 120,000 1600 200 8000 288 2.8
300 500 150,000 3120 250 12,500 360 3.5
300 600 180,000 5400 300 18,000 432 4.2
300 700 210,000 8575 350 24,500 504 4.9
300 800 240,000 12,800 400 32,000 576 5.6
300 900 270,000 18,200 450 40,500 648 6.4
400 600 240,000 7200 300 24,000 576 5.6
400 700 280,000 11,400 350 32,700 672 6.6
400 800 320,000 17,100 400 42,700 768 7.5
Key
77.1 Superimposed (service) load, kN/m2 400 900 360,000 24,300 450 54,000 864 8.5
10 Estimated camber at erection, mm 400 1000 400,000 33,300 500 66,700 960 9.4
Table of superimposed service load (kN/m2) and cambers (mm)

b h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) (mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
75.0 50.0 32.0 24.0 16.5
300 400 6 125 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 20 20 30
114.0 76.0 48.0 36.0 26.0 19.5
300 500 7 162 10 10 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 30 30 40
108.0 75.0 53.5 40.0 32.0 24.0 19.0
300 600 9 189 10 10 10 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 20 30 30 40
144.0 100.0 71.0 53.0 41.0 32.0 26.0 21.0 17.0
300 700 10 225 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 40
125.0 95.0 75.0 58.0 44.0 35.0 29.0 24.0 20.0
300 800 12 252 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 40
164.0 120.0 90.0 70.0 65.0 45.0 36.5 30 25 21.0 18.0
300 900 13 288 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40 40
145.0 100.0 70.5 52.0 40.5 32.0 25.5 20.0 16.5
400 600 12 190 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 40
130.0 95.0 70.0 56.0 42.0 34.0 27.5 22.0 18.5
400 700 13 230 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 40
98.0 73.0 60.0 49.0 39.0 33.0 27.0 22.0 18.5
400 800 16 255 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40
20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 50
96.0 76.0 62.0 51.0 42.0 35.0 29.0 24.0 21.0
400 900 18 287 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40
20 20 30 30 40 40 40 40 50
96.0 76.5 64.0 53.0 44.0 37.0 31.0 27.0
400 1000 20 320 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
20 30 30 30 40 40 40 40
The above tables have been generated using an initial tension of 0.75 fpu resulting in fully prestressed elements with Mr governing. Higher load
capacities may be achieved by using more strands with a lower initial tension which may result in partially prestressed elements.

INVERTED TEE BEAMS
(100 mm LEDGE)
Section Properties
h Ag I yb Sb St m w
2 6 4 3 3 3 3
(mm) (mm ) (10 mm ) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (kg/m) (kN/m)
500 210,000 4004 221 18,116 14,350 504 4.94
600 260,000 7021 269 26,099 21,210 624 6.12
700 310,000 11,336 318 35,647 29,675 744 7.30
800 360,000 17,200 367 46,866 39,723 864 8.48
900 410,000 24,864 416 59,768 51,371 984 9.65
1000 460,000 34,577 465 74,359 64,630 1104 10.83
1100 510,000 46,590 515 90,465 79,641 1224 12.01
1200 560,000 61,152 564 108,426 96,152 1344 13.18
1300 610,000 78,515 614 127,874 114,453 1464 14.36
Key 1400 660,000 98,927 664 148,987 134,412 1584 15.54
10 Estimated camber at erection, mm 1500 710,000 122,640 713 172,006 155,832 1704 16.72

h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
134.0 84.0 59.0 40.4 30.0 22.4
500 8 151 0 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 30
118.0 80.0 59.0 42.0 32.0 25.0
600 9 184 10 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 10 10 20 20
114.0 82.0 61.0 47.0 37.0 29.0
700 11 218 10 10 10 10 10 20
10 10 10 20 20 20
106.0 81.0 61.0 47.0 38.0 30.0 25.0
800 13 247 10 10 10 20 20 20 20
10 10 20 20 20 30 30
134.0 102.0 77.0 60.0 49.0 40.0 32.0 26.0
900 14 291 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
132.0 101.0 81.0 64.0 53.0 44.0 36.0 30.0 24.0
1000 17 310 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 30
10 10 10 10 20 20 30 30 40
134.0 100.0 79.0 65.0 53.0 45.0 37.0 31.0 26.0
1100 18 355 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
120.0 97.0 80.0 67.0 56.0 46.0 39.0 33.0
1200 20 389 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
117.0 96.0 80.0 67.0 56.0 47.0 40.0
1300 22 424 10 20 20 20 20 30 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 40
138.0 110.0 94.0 78.0 66.0 56.0 48.0
1400 24 449 20 20 20 20 30 30 30
20 20 30 30 30 40 40
130.0 108.0 80.0 77.0 66.0 57.0
1500 25 493 10 20 20 20 20 20
20 20 20 30 30 30

INVERTED TEE BEAMS
(200 mm LEDGE)
Section Properties
h Ag I yb Sb St m w
2 6 4 3 3 3 3
500 320,000 5817 213 27,308 20,267 768 7.53
600 360,000 9900 250 39,600 28,286 864 8.48
700 400,000 15,693 290 54,155 38,276 960 9.42
800 440,000 23,423 332 70,546 50,045 1056 10.36
900 480,000 33,300 375 88,800 63,429 1152 11.30
1000 520,000 45,541 419 108,690 78,384 1248 12.24
1100 560,000 60,352 464 130,070 94,894 1344 13.18
1200 600,000 77,940 510 152,824 112,957 1440 14.13
1300 640,000 98,508 556 177,173 132,404 1536 15.07
1400 680,000 122,261 603 202,755 153,402 1632 16.01
1500 720,000 149,400 650 229,846 175,765 1728 16.95
Key

h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
150.0 93.0 63.0 43.0 31.0 23.0
500 8 163 0 0 10 10 10 10
0 10 10 10 10 10
134.0 90.0 64.0 46.0 34.0 27.0
600 9 200 0 10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 10 10
134.0 94.0 72.0 54.0 41.0 33.0
700 11 240 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 20 20
134.0 98.0 76.0 60.0 48.0 38.0 31.0
800 13 282 10 10 10 10 10 10 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 20
126.0 97.0 76.0 61.0 50.0 40.0 33.0
900 14 325 10 10 10 10 10 10 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 20
130.0 103.0 83.0 68.0 56.0 46.0 38.0 33.0
1000 17 356 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20
10 10 20 20 20 20 30 30
160.0 129.0 104.0 84.0 70.0 58.0 49.0 41.0 35.0
1100 19 389 10 10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20
150.0 122.0 98.0 82.0 70.0 89.0 48.0 41.0
1200 20 435 10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20
146.0 121.0 101.0 84.0 71.0 60.0 52.0
1300 22 476 10 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 20 20 20 20 20 20
142.0 120.0 100.0 86.0 73.0 63.0
1400 24 513 10 10 10 20 20 20
20 20 20 20 20 20
138.0 118.0 98.0 83.0 73.0
1500 25 560 10 10 10 20 20
20 20 20 20 20

LSHAPED BEAMS
(100 mm LEDGE)
Section Properties
h Ag I yb Sb St m w
2
(mm) (mm ) (106 mm4) 3 3 3
(mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm )
3
(kg/m) (kN/m)
500 180,000 3600 233 15451 13483 432 4.24
600 220,000 6261 282 22201 19687 528 5.18
700 260,000 10,021 331 30273 27156 624 6.12
800 300,000 15,080 390 39684 35905 720 7.06
900 340,000 21,639 429 50441 45943 816 8.00
1000 380,000 29,898 473 62418 57386 912 8.95
1100 420,000 40,057 529 75722 70153 1008 9.89
1200 460,000 52,316 578 90412 84109 1104 10.83
1300 500,000 66,875 628 106488 99516 1200 11.77
1400 540,000 83,933 678 123795 116251 1296 12.71
1500 580,000 103,692 728 142434 134316 1392 13.66
Key

h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
140.0 88.0 60.0 43.0 31.8 24.2 18.8
500 8 151 0 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 30 30
122.0 83.4 60.0 44.6 34.2 26.6 21.2 17.0
600 9 187 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30
172.0 117.6 84.8 63.4 48.8 38.4 30.6 24.8 20.2
700 11 216 10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
151.0 109.0 82.0 63.0 50.0 40.0 32.4 26.6 22.0 18.2
800 12 255 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 30 30
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 40
141.6 106.4 82.4 65.2 52.6 42.8 35.4 29.4 24.6 20.6
900 14 282 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40
134.0 125.0 82.6 66.6 54.6 45.2 37.6 31.6 26.8 22.6 19.2
1000 16 309 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 220 30 30 30
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30 40
161.8 125.0 99.2 80.4 66.0 54.6 45.8 38.6 32.8 27.8 23.6
1100 17 349 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30 30
152.4 121.4 98.4 81.0 67.4 56.5 48.0 40.8 35.0 30.0
1200 19 380 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
145.6 118.0 97.4 81.6 68.4 58.0 49.6 42.6 36.8
1300 21 410 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
167.4 136.4 112.4 94.0 79.2 67.4 57.6 49.6 42.8
1400 22 449 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
159.4 131.6 110.2 93.2 79.4 68.2 58.8 65.5
1500 24 481 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30

LSHAPED BEAMS
(200 mm LEDGE)
Section Properties
h Ag I yb Sb St m w
2 6 4 3 3 3 3
500 260,000 5078 227 22,371 18,601 624 6.12
600 300,000 8730 270 32,333 26,455 720 7.06
700 340,000 13,859 315 43,999 35,999 816 8.00
800 380,000 20,674 361 57,270 47,095 912 8.95
900 420,000 29,378 407 72,183 59,591 1008 9.89
1000 460,000 40,174 454 88,490 73,580 1104 10.83
1100 500,000 53,264 502 106,105 89,071 1200 11.77
1200 540,000 68,850 550 125,182 105,923 1296 12.71
1300 580,000 87,131 598 145,705 124,119 1392 13.66
Key
155.1 Superimposed (service) load, kN/m2 1400 620,000 108,310 647 167,403 143,838 1488 14.60
10 Estimated camber at erection, mm 1500 660,000 132,586 695 190,771 164,703 1584 15.54

h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
150 96.0 65.0 47.0 34.0 26.0
500 8 151 0 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20
140.0 95.0 67.0 50.0 38.0 29.5 23.2
600 9 187 10 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 30
134.0 99.0 72.0 55.0 42.8 34.0 27.4
700 11 216 10 10 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 30
174.0 120.0 94.0 70.0 56.6 45.0 37.0 29.0 24.6
800 12 255 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
164.0 120 96.0 75.0 61.0 54.0 41.0 34.0 28.0
900 14 282 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
158.0 110.0 97.0 75.0 64.0 54.0 44.0 35.0 31.0
1000 16 309 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
144.0 110.0 94.0 75.0 64.0 54.0 44.0 35.0 31.0
1100 17 349 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
144.0 116.0 90.0 78.0 64.0 56.0 47.0 41.0
1200 19 380 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
138.0 110.0 94.0 79.0 68.0 57.0 50.0
1300 21 410 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 30 30 30 30
158.0 130.0 109.0 90.0 78.0 67.0 58.0
1400 22 449 10 10 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30
152.0 126.0 108.0 92.0 79.0 68.0
1500 24 481 10 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 30 30 30

IGIRDERS
Section Properties
Ag I yb Sb St m w
Designation 2 6 4 3 3 3 3
(mm ) (10 mm ) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (kg/m) (kN/m)
CPCI 900 218,000 19,300 398 48,600 38,400 523 5.13
CPCI 1200 320,000 53,900 527 102,300 80,000 768 7.53
CPCI 1400 413,000 102,600 635 161,400 134,200 991 9.72
CPCI 1600 499,000 174,700 793 220,200 216,600 1024 11.80
Key
Superimposed loads shown include 50% dead

load and 50% liveload. 5.0 MPa top tension
has been allowed, therefore additional top
reinforcement is required.

(1)(2)
ee Span (m)
13 mm
Designation ec
strand 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
102.8 80.2 64.1 52.1 43.0 36.0 30.4 25.8 22.1 19.1 16.5 14.3
306
CPCI 900 12 10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 40
328
20 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 50 60 60
138.1 112.9 93.8 78.9 67.0 57.5 49.7 43.2 37.8 33.2 29.3 25.9
412
CPCI 1200 20 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 50 50
443
20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 50 60 60 70
132.5 120.3 110.0 95.8 83.2 72.6 63.8 56.4 50.0 44.5
496
CPCI 1400 26 20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 50
554
20 30 30 40 40 50 50 50 60 60
136.4 124.5 114.3 105.6 98.0 91.4 84.3 75.0 67.0
607
CPCI 1600 30 20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40
703
20 30 30 40 40 40 50 50 50
Notes: Values below heavy line controlled by Vr
Values above heavy line controlled by Mr. See Limitations on Reinforcement, Sect. 3.3.1.
(2) End eccentricities may be decreased without affecting the load capacitites.

IGIRDERS
Section Properties
Ag I yb Sb St m w
Designation 2
(106 mm4) (mm) (103 mm3) 3 3
(mm ) (10 mm ) (kg/m) (kN/m)
CPCI 1900 544,000 268,400 840 285,500 279,500 1308 12.83
CPCI 2300 604,000 431,800 1135 380,300 370,800 1453 14.25
NU 2800 731,110 768,289 1288 596,497 508,128 1753 17.20
Key


(1)(2)
ee Span (m)
13 mm
Designation ec
strand 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60
90.8 80.3 41.9 29.9 21.8 15.9 11.6
838
CPCI 1900 30D 30 40 50 60 60 50 30
850
40 60 70 70 70 60 30
150.1 100.2 70.1 50.6 37.2 27.6 20.6 15.2 11.0
882
CPCI 2300 36D 30 40 50 60 60 60 60 40 20
1035
40 50 60 70 80 80 60 40 0
154.6 122.5 87.8 64.5 48.5 37.1 28.6 22.2 17.2 13.2 10.0
701
NU 2800 56D 30 40 50 60 70 70 70 70 60 50 20
1172
40 50 60 80 90 90 90 90 70 50 10
(2) End eccentricities may be decreased without affecting the load capacitites.

BOX SECTION BEAMS
Section Properties
h Ag I yb Sb St m w
2
(106 mm4) 3 3 3 3
(mm) (mm ) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (kg/m) (kN/m)
600 340,000 16,533 300 55,111 55,111 816 8.00
800 390,000 34,100 400 85,250 85,250 936 9.18
1000 440,000 59,467 500 118,933 118,933 1056 10.36
1200 490,000 93,633 600 156,056 156,056 1176 11.54
1400 540,000 137,600 700 196,571 196,571 1296 12.71
Key


13 m ee Span (m)
h
m ec
(mm) 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
strand (mm)
38.9 25.3 17.1 11.8 8.2 5.6
250
600 12S 20 20 20 20 20 10
250
20 30 30 30 20 0
39.2 28.5 21.2 16.0 12.1 9.1 6.8 4.9
350
800 18S 30 40 40 40 40 40 20 10
350
40 50 50 50 50 40 20 10
36.7 28.4 22.2 17.5 13.8 11.0 8.6 6.7 5.1
324
1000 24D 40 50 50 50 50 40 30 20 10
445
60 60 70 60 60 50 30 0 30
33.2 26.7 21.5 17.5 14.2 11.5 9.3 7.4 5.8
305
1200 30D 50 60 60 60 50 50 40 20 0
536
70 70 70 70 70 50 30 10 30
30.0 24.6 20.3 16.8 13.9 11.4 9.3 7.6 6.0
291
1400 36D 60 70 70 60 60 50 40 20 0
630
80 80 80 80 70 50 30 0 30

PRECAST PRESTRESSED COLUMNS
Fig. 7.6.1 Interaction curves for precast prestressed concrete columns
Criteria
1. Minimum prestress = 1.5 MPa

2. All strand assumed 13 mm diameter,
fpu = 1860 MPa
3. Curves shown for partial development of
strand near end of element, where fpr fpe.
4. When points of maximum stress are far from
end of element and strands can fully develop,
the section resistance will be greater than
shown.
5. Horizontal portion of curve is the maximum for
tied columns = 0.80 Pro

PRECAST PRESTRESSED COLUMNS
Fig 7.6.1 Interaction curves for precast prestressed concrete columns (cont.)

PRECAST REINFORCED COLUMNS
Fig 7.6.2 Interaction curves for precast reinforced concrete columns
Criteria
1. Concrete fc = 40 MPa
2. Reinforcement fy = 400 MPa
3. Curves shown for full development of reinforcent.
4. Horizontal portion of curve is the maximum for tied
columns = 0.80 Pro

PRECAST REINFORCED COLUMNS
Fig 7.6.2 Interaction curves for precast reinforced concrete columns

DOUBLE TEE WALL PANELS
Fig. 7.6.3 Partial interaction curve for prestressed double tee wall panels
Interaction curve data

h No. of b
Tension in stem Compression in stem
(mm) strands (mm)
Pro Prb Mrb Mro Prb Mrb Mro
325 4 130 4959 3600 234 105 1120 154 63
425 4 120 5590 3830 362 135 1430 262 91
525 6 110 6020 3740 498 57 1580 385 200
625 6 100 6540 3810 638 229 1900 520 255
1. fc = 40 MPa normal density

2. Strand = 13 mm fpu = 1860 MPa
3. Curves shown for full development of strand.
Load assumed at centroid of concrete section.

HOLLOW CORE WALL PANELS
Fig. 7.6.4 Partial interaction curve for precast hollow core wall panels
1. fc = 40 MPa normal density h Interaction curve data

(mm) Pro Prb Mrb Mro
2. fpu = 1860 MPa
203 2790 1160 107 46
3. Curves shown for full development of strand. 305 3480 1500 212 73

PRECAST PRESTRESSED SOLID WALL PANELS
Fig. 7.6.5 Partial interaction curve for prestressed solid wall panels
t h Interaction curve data

(mm) (mm) Pro Prb Mrb Mro
100 680 1989 878 25 8
1. fc = 40 MPa normal density 150 450 2983 1290 57 23
200 340 3978 1750 102 39
250 270 4972 2220 160 60
3. Curves shown for full development of strand. Load
assumed at centroid of concrete section.

PRECAST REINFORCED SOLID WALL PANELS
Fig. 7.6.6 Partial interaction curve for precast reinforced concrete wall panels
Interaction curve data

t fc = 35 MPa fc = 40 MPa
(mm)
Pro Prb Mrb Mro Pro Prb Mrb Mro
100 1850 880 22.6 2.0 2092 1035 25 2
150 2780 1370 51.0 4.5 3139 1550 57 5
200 3700 1770 94.9 7.8 4180 1970 106 8
250 4630 2160 149.8 10.6 5231 2510 168 11
1. fc = 40 MPa normal density

3. Curves shown for full
development of strand. Load
assumed at centroid of concrete
section.

PILES
Fig. 7.7.1 Section properties and resistance of prestressed concrete piles
(2)(3)
Factored resistance
Section Properties
(1) (kN)
Core
Size fc (MPa)
diameter
(mm)
(mm) Moment of Section Radius of
Area Mass Perimeter
2 inertia modulus gyration 35 40 45 50 55
(mm ) (kg/m) 6 4 3 3) (m)
(10 mm ) (10 mm (mm)
Square piles
250 Solid 63 000 151 326 2 610 72 1.00 860 999 1134 1266 1396
300 Solid 90 000 216 675 4 500 87 1.20 1229 1426 1620 1809 1994
350 Solid 123 000 295 1 250 7 140 101 1.40 1680 1949 2213 2472 2725
400 Solid 160 000 384 2 130 10 700 116 1.60 2185 2536 2879 3215 3544
450 Solid 203 000 487 3 420 15 200 130 1.80 2773 3217 3653 4049 4497
500 Solid 250 000 500 5 210 20 800 144 2.00 3415 3962 4499 5024 5538
500 275 191 000 458 4 930 19 700 161 2.00 2609 3027 3437 3838 4231
600 Solid 360 000 864 10 800 36 000 173 2.40 4917 5706 6478 7234 7974
600 300 289 000 694 10 400 34 700 190 2.40 3947 4580 5201 5808 6402
600 350 264 000 634 10 100 33 700 196 2.40 3606 4184 4751 5305 5848
600 375 250 000 600 9 830 32 800 198 2.40 3415 3962 4499 5024 5538
Octagonal piles
250 Solid 52 000 125 215 1 720 64 0.77 710 824 936 1045 1152
300 Solid 75 000 180 446 2 970 77 0.92 1024 1189 1350 1507 1661
350 Solid 101 000 242 825 4 710 90 1.07 1379 1601 1818 2030 2237
400 Solid 133 000 319 1 410 7 050 103 1.22 1817 2108 2393 2673 2946
450 Solid 168 000 403 2 260 10 000 116 1.38 2295 2663 3023 3376 3721
500 Solid 207 000 497 3 440 13 800 129 1.53 2827 3281 3725 4160 4585
500 275 148 000 355 3 160 12 600 146 1.53 2021 2346 2663 2974 3278
550 Solid 251 000 602 5 030 18 300 142 1.68 3428 3978 4517 5044 5560
550 325 168 000 403 4 480 16 300 163 1.68 2295 2663 3023 3376 3721
600 Solid 298 000 715 7 130 23 800 154 1.84 4070 4723 5363 5989 6601
600 375 188 000 451 6 160 20 500 181 1.84 2568 2980 3383 3778 4164
Round piles
900 650 304 000 730 23 400 52 000 277 2.83 4152 4818 5471 6109 6734
1 200 950 422 000 1 010 61 800 103 000 383 3.77 5764 6688 7594 8480 9348
1 350 1 100 481 000 1 150 91 200 135 000 435 4.24 6570 7624 8656 9666 10655
Hexagonal piles
300 Solid 78 000 187 486 3 240 79 0.90 1065 1236 1404 1567 1728
350 Solid 106 000 254 900 5 140 92 1.05 1475 1712 1943 2170 2392
400 Solid 139 000 334 1 540 7 700 106 1.20 1898 2203 2501 2793 3079
(1) Form dimensions may vary with producers, with corresponding variations in section properties.
(2) Maximum factored axial load resistance, Prmax = 0.85 [1 c fc (Ag Ap) fpr Ap]; fpe = 1120 MPa; fcp = 5.0 MPa.
(3) Resistance based on short column structural capacity only (see Sect. 7.2.9) with a maximum concrete strain of 0.002.
(4) Wire spiral varies with pile size.
(5) Strand pattern may be circular or square.

SHEET PILES
Fig. 7.7.2 Section properties and allowable moments of prestressed sheet piles
Maximum allowable service

Section properties per metre of width (2)
load movement (kN-m/m)
Thickness t
(mm) (1) Moment of Section
Area Mass fc = 35 MPa fc = 40 MPa
2 inertia modulus
(mm ) (kg/m)
(105 mm3) 3
(10 mm )
3
150(3) 150,000 360 28 374 26 29

200(3) 200,000 480 67 670 46 53
250 250,000 600 130 1040 72 53
300 300,000 720 225 1500 105 120
400 400,000 960 533 3670 187 214
450 450,000 1080 760 3380 236 270
500 500,000 1200 1040 4160 292 334
600 600,000 1440 1800 6000 420 480
(1) Nomal density concrete.

(2) Based on zero tension and maximum 0.4 fc compression.
(3) Strand can be placed in a single layer in thin sections. Where site conditions require it, strand may be placed eccentrically.

CHAPTER 8
GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION
8.1 DESIGN INFORMATION................................................................................................. 8-2
8.1.1 Dead loads of floors, ceilings, roofs, and walls .................................................. 8-2
8.1.2 Recommended minimum floor or roof live loads ................................................ 8-4
8.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams ............................................................... 8-6
8.1.4 Moments, shears, and deflections in beams with overhangs........................... 8-25
8.1.5 Torsion diagrams, reactions, and rotations ...................................................... 8-26
8.1.6 Camber (deflection) and rotation coefficients for
prestress force and loads ................................................................................. 8-27
8.1.7 Moments in beams with fixed ends .................................................................. 8-29
8.1.8 Moving load placement for maximum moment and shear ............................... 8-30
8.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES ............................................................................................ 8-31
8.2.1 Properties of prestressing strands.................................................................... 8-31
8.2.2 Properties of post-tensioning bars.................................................................... 8-31
8.2.3 Typical stress strain curve, 7-wire low relaxation prestressing strand ............. 8-32
8.2.4 Typical multi-strand post-tensioning anchorage details ................................... 8-33
8.2.5 Typical unbonded monostrand system details ................................................. 8-34
8.2.6 Reinforcing bar data ......................................................................................... 8-35
8.2.7 Detailing and estimating dimensions for standard end
hooks for deformed reinforcing bars................................................................. 8-35
8.2.8 Compression lap splices................................................................................... 8-36
8.2.9 Tension development lengths, using standard hooks for deformed bars. ....... 8-36
8.2.10 Development lengths for heavier confined deformed
reinforcing bars for normal density concrete .................................................... 8-37
8.2.11 Development lengths for heavier confined deformed
wire for normal density concrete. ..................................................................... 8-38
8.2.12 Standard styles of welded wire fabric............................................................... 8-39
8.2.13 Sectional areas of welded wire fabric............................................................... 8-40
8.2.14 Wire sizes in customary and metric units ......................................................... 8-41
8.3 SECTION PROPERTIES ................................................................................................. 8-42
8.3.1 Properties of geometric sections ...................................................................... 8-42
8.3.2 Plastic section moduli and shape factors ......................................................... 8-47
8.4 METRIC UNITS................................................................................................................ 8-48
8.4.1 SI base units..................................................................................................... 8-48
8.4.2 Conversion factors............................................................................................ 8-49

8.1 DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.1 Dead loads of floors, ceilings, roofs, and walls
Floorings Load (kN/m)
Normal density concrete topping per 10 mm of thickness 0.24
Semi-low density (1900 kg/m) concrete topping, per 10 mm 0.19
Low density (1900 kg/m) concrete topping, per 10 mm 0.15
22 mm hardwood floor on sleepers clipped to concrete without fill 0.24
40 mm terrazzo floor finish directly on slab 0.95
40 mm terrazzo floor finish on 25 mm mortar bed 1.49
25 mm terrazzo finish on 50 mm concrete bed 1.79
20 mm ceramic or quarry tile on 12 mm mortar bed 0.80
20 mm ceramic or quarry tile on 25 mm mortar bed 1.06
8 mm linoleum or asphalt tile directly on concrete 0.06
8 mm linoleum or asphalt tile on 25 mm mortar bed 0.59
20 mm mastic floor 0.45
Hardwood flooring, 22 mm thick 0.19
Subflooring (soft wood), 10 mm thick 0.13
Asphaltic concrete, 40 mm thick 0.90

Ceilings
12.7 mm gypsum board 0.10
15.9 mm gypsum board 0.12
20 mm plaster directly on concrete 0.26
20 mm plaster on metal lath furring 0.40
Suspended Ceilings 0.10

Acoustical tile 0.05
Acoustical tile on wood furring strips 0.15

Roofs
Five-ply felt and gravel (or slag) 0.31
Three-ply felt and gravel (or slag) 0.27
Five-ply composition roof, no gravel 0.20
Three-ply felt composition roof, no gravel 0.15
Asphalt strip shingles 0.15

Rigid insulation, per 100 mm (glass fiber) 0.07
Gypsum, per 10 mm of thickness 0.08
Insulating concrete, per 10 mm of thickness 0.06

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.1 Dead loads of floors, ceilings, roofs, and walls (cont.)
One side Both sides
Unplastered
Walls plastered plastered
(kN/m2)
(kN/m2) (kN/m2)
100 mm brick wall 1.86 2.10 2.33
200 mm brick wall 3.77 4.00 4.24
300 mm brick wall 5.59 5.83 6.06
100 mm hollow normal density concrete block 1.37 1.61 1.84

100 mm hollow low density block or tile 1.08 1.31 1.55
100 mm brick 100 mm hollow normal density block backing 3.24 3.47 3.71
100 mm brick 100 mm hollow low density block or tile backing 2.94 3.18 3.41
Windows, glass, frame and sash 0.38
100 mm stone 2.59
Steel or wood studs, lath, 20 mm plaster 0.86

Steel or wood studs, lath, 15.9 mm gypsum board each side 0.28
Steel or wood studs, 2 layers 12.7 mm gypsum board each side 0.44

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.2 Specified Uniformly Distributed Live Loads on an Area of Floor or Roof
Uniformly Distributed Loads Uniformly Distributed Loads
Minimum Minimum
Use of Area of Floor or Roof Specified Use of Area of Floor or Roof Specified
Load (kPa) Load (kPa)
Assembly Areas
a) Except for those areas listed under b) Corridors, lobbies and aisles
and c), assembly areas with or without Other than those listed below 4.8
fixed seats including
Arenas Not more than 1200 mm in width and all
Auditoria upper floor corridors of residential areas
(3)
Churches only of apartments, hotels and motels
Dance floors (that cannot be used for the assembly of
Dining areas(1) of people as a viewing area)(2)
Foyers and entrance halls
Grandstands, reviewing stands and 4.8
bleachers Equipment areas and service rooms
Gymnasia including
Museums Generator rooms
Promenades Mechanical equipment exclusive of
Rinks elevators
Stadia Machine rooms 3.6(4)
Stages Pump rooms
Theatres Transformer vaults
Other areas with similar uses Ventilating or air-conditioning equipment
b) Assembly areas with fixed seats that

have backs over at least 80% of the Exits and fire escapes 4.8
assembly area for the following uses:
Churches 2.4 Factories 6.0(4)
Courtrooms
Lecture halls Footbridges 4.8
Theatres
Garages for
c) Classrooms with or without fixed seats 2.4 Passenger cars 2.4
Light trucks and unloaded buses 6.0
Attics Loaded buses and trucks and all 12.0
Accessible by stairway in residential 1.4 other trucking spaces
occupancies only
Kitchens (other than residential) 4.8
Having limited accessibility so there is no 0.5
storage of equipment or material(2) Libraries
Stack rooms 7.2
Balconies Reading and study rooms 2.9
Exterior 4.8
Office areas (not including record storage
Interior and mezzanines that could be and computer rooms) located in
used for the assembly of people as a 4.8 Basement and first storey 4.8
viewing area(2) Floors above first storey 2.4
(3)
Interior and mezzanines other than
above

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.2 Specified Uniformly Distributed Live Loads on an Area of Floor or Roof (Cont.)
Specified Concentrated Live loads
Uniformly Distributed Loads
on an Area of Floor or Roof
Minimum Minimum
Use of area of floor or roof Specified Area of floor or roof Specified
Load (kPa) Load (kN)
Operating rooms and laboratories 3.6 Roof surfaces 1.3
Patients bedrooms 1.9 Floors and classrooms 4.5
Recreation areas that cannot be used for Floors and offices, manufacturing 9.0
assembly purposes including buildings, hospital wards and
Billard rooms 3.6 stages
Bowling alleys
Pool rooms Floors and areas used by passenger 11
cars
Residential areas (within the scope of
NBCC Aricle 1.3.3.2. of Division A) Floors and areas used by vehicles
Sleeping and living quarters in not exceeding 3600 kg gross 18
apartments, hotels, motels, boarding 1.9 weight
schools and colleges
Floors and areas used by vehicles
Residential areas (within the scope of exceeding 3600 kg but not 36
NBCC Article 1.3.3. of Division A) exceeding 9000 kg gross weight
Bedrooms 1.4
Other areas 1.9 Floors and areas used by vehicles
Stairs within dwelling units 1.9 exceeding 9000 kg gross weight(7) 54
Retail and wholesale areas 4.8 Driveways and sidewalks over area
ways and basements(7) 54
Roofs 1.0(5)
(3) Loads for Occupancy Served
The following shall be designed to carry not less than the specified load required for
the occupancy they serve, provided they cannot be used by an assembly of people
Sidewalks and driveways over areaways 12.0 as a viewing area: a) corridors, lobbies and aisles not more than 1,200 mm wide, b)
and basements all corridors above the first storey of residential areas of apartments, hotels and
motels, and c) interior balconies and mezzanines.
(4) Floor Loads Dues to Intended Use
Equipment areas and service rooms, factories, storage areas and warehouses shall
Storage areas 4.8(4) be designed for the live loads due to their intended use but not for less than the
specified loads listed above.
(5) Specified Load Due to Rain or to Snow and Associated Rain
Toilet areas 2.4 The specified load on a roof or any other building surface subject to snow and
associated rain shall be the snow load specified in Article 4.1.6.2., or the rain load
specified in Article 4.1.6.4., whichever produces the more critical effect.
(6) (6) Loads on Exterior Areas
Underground slabs with earth cover 1) Exterior areas accessible to vehicular traffic shall be designed for their intended
use, including the weight of firefighting equipment, but not for less than the snow
and rain loads prescribed in Subsection 4.1.6.
2) Except as provided in Sentences (3) and (4), roofs shall be designed for either the
Warehouses 4.8(4) uniform live loads specified in Table 4.1.5.3., the concentrated live loads listed in
Table 4.1.5.10., or the snow and rain loads prescribed in Subsection 4.1.6.,
Notes: whichever produces the most critical effects in the members concerned.
(1) Loads for Dining Areas 3) Exterior areas accessible to pedestrian traffic, but not vehicular traffic, shall be
The minimum specified live load listed in Table 4.1.5.3. for dining areas may be designed for their intended use, but not for less than the greater of
reduced to 2.4 kPa for areas in buildings that are being converted to dining areas, a) the live load prescribed for assembly areas in Table 4.1.5.3., or
provided that the floor area does not exceed 100 m2 and the dining area will not be b) the snow and rain loads prescribed in Subsection 4.1.6.
used for other assembly purposes, including dancing. 4) Roof parking decks shall be designed for either the uniformly distributed live loads
(2) Considerations for live Loads specified in Table 4.1.5.3., the concentrated live loads listed in Table 4.1.5.10., or
Attics Limited Accessibility - Attic live loading is not required when the ceiling below the roof snow load, whichever produces the most critical effect in the members
the attic consists of removable panels that permit access to the ceiling space without concerned.
loading the ceiling supporting members. Attic live loading is not required in any area (7) Loads Due to Concentrations
of the attic where the least dimension of the attic space is less than 500 mm. Floor Special study is required to determine concentrated loads for the design of floors and
Areas That Could Be Used As Viewing Areas - Some interior balconies, mezzanines, areas used by vehicles exceeding 9,000 kg gross weight, and of driveways and
corridors, lobbies and aisles that are not intended to be used by an assembly of sidewalks over areaways and basements. Where appropriate the designer should
people as viewing areas are sometimes used as such; consequently, they are subject refer to CAN/CSA-S6, Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code.
to loadings much higher than those for the occupancies they serve. Source: National Building Code of Canada 2005

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams
(1) SIMPLE BEAM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
wl
R = V ........................................................ =
2
l
Vx ............................................................. = w x
2
wl2
Mmax (at center) ........................................ =
8
wx
Mx ............................................................. = (l x )
2
5wl 4
max (at center) ......................................... =
384El
wx 3
X ............................................................. = ( l 2 lx 2 + x 3 )
24El
(2) SIMPLE BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTER
P
R = V ........................................................=
2
Pl
Mmax (at point of load)............................... =
4
l Px
Mx (when x < ) ......................................=
2 2
Pl 3
max (at point of load) ............................... =
48El
l Px
x (when x < ) .......................................= (3l2 4x 2 )
2 48El
(3) SIMPLE BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT
Pb
R1 = V1 (max when a < b)......................... =
l
Pa
R2 = V2 (max when a > b)......................... =
l
Pab
Mmax (at point of load)............................... =
l
Pbx
Mx (when x < a) ........................................ =
l
a(a + 2b) Pab(a + 2b) 3a(a + 2b)
max at x = when a > b ........ =
3 27Ell
Pa2b2
a (at point of load)...................................=
3Ell
Pbx 2
x (when x < a).........................................= (l b 2 x 2 )
6Ell

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams (cont.)
(4) SIMPLE BEAM TWO EQUAL CONCENTRATED LOADS SYMMETRICALLY PLACED
R = V ........................................................= P
Mmax (between loads) ...............................= Pa
Mx (when x < a) ........................................ = Px
Pa
max (when) ..............................................= (3l2 4a2 )
24El
Px
x (when x < a) .........................................= (3la 3a2 x 2 )
6El
Pa
x [when x > a and < ( l a )].................... = (3lx 3x 2 a 2 )
6El
(5) SIMPLE BEAM TWO UNEQUAL CONCENTRATED LOADS ASYMMETRICALLY PLACED
P1(l a) + P2b
R1 = V1 .....................................................=
l
P1a + P2 (l b)
R2 = V2 .....................................................=
l
Vx [when x > a and < ( l b )] ...................= R1 P1
M1 (max when R1 < P1) ............................= R1a
M2 (max when R2 < P2) ............................= R2b
Mx (when x < a) ........................................ = R1x
Mx [when x > a and < ( l b )]...................= R1x P1(x a)
(6) SIMPLE BEAM UNIFORM LOAD PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED
wb
R1 = V1 (max when a < c) ......................... = (2c + b)
2l
wb
R2 = V2 (max when a > c) ......................... = (2a + b)
2l
Vx [when x > a and < (a + b)].................... = R1 w(x a)
R R
Mmax at x = a + 1 ................................ = R1 a + 1
w 2w
Mx (when x < a) ........................................ = R1x

w
Mx [when x > a and < (a + b)] ................... = R1x (x a)2
2
Mx [when x > (a + b)] ................................ = R2 (l x)

DESIGN INFORMATION
(7) SIMPLE BEAM LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY TO ONE END (W IS TOTAL LOAD)
wl
W.............................................................. =
2
W
R1 = V1 ..................................................... =
3
2W
R2 = V2 (max) ........................................... =
3
W Wx 2
Vx ............................................................. = 2
3 l
l 2W l
Mmax at x = = 0.5774l ..................... = = 0.1283W l
3 9 3
Wx
Mx ............................................................. = (l2 x 2 )
3l 2
8 W l3
max at x = l 1 = 0.5193l ........... = 0.01304
15 El

Wx
x.............................................................. = 2
(3x 4 10l2 x 2 + 7l 4 )
180Ell
(8) SIMPLE BEAM LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY TO CENTER (W IS TOTAL LOAD)
wl
W.............................................................. =
2
W
R = V ........................................................ =
2
l W 2
Vx when x < ...................................... = (l 4x 2 )
2 2l2
Wl
Mmax (at centre) ........................................ =
6
l 1 2x 2
Mx when x < ..................................... = Wx 2
2 2 3l

W l3
max (at centre) ......................................... =
60El
l Wx
x when x < ...................................... = (5l 2 4x 2 )2
2 480El l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(9) BEAM SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS MOMENT APPLIED AT ONE END
Mo
R1 = R2 = V.......................................................... =
l
Mmax (at R1) ............................................................ = Mo
x
Mx = Mo R1x ......................................................... = Mo 1
l
Mo l2
max (when x = 0.422l ).......................................... = 0.0642
El
Mo 2 x3
x ............................................................................ = 3x 2lx
6El l

Mo l
1 (at R1)................................................................. =
3El
Mo l
2 (at R2)................................................................. =
6El
(10) BEAM SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS MOMENT APPLIED AT ANY POINT
Mo
R1 = V (when a > b)................................................ =
l
Mo
R2 (when a > b) ...................................................... =
l
Mo a
Mmax() (at x = a) ..................................................... =
l
a
Mmax(+) (at x = a) ..................................................... = Mo 1
l
M x
Mx (when x < a) ...................................................... = o
l
x
Mx (when x > a) ...................................................... = Mo 1
l
x (when x < a)....................................................... =

Mo x 2
6Ell
(
l 3b2 x 2 )
M (l x)
x (when x > a)....................................................... = o (3a2 2lx + x 2 )
6Ell
3
l2 3b2 Mo l2 3b2 2
max at x = if a > 0.4226l ................... =
3 3Ell 3

3
l2 3a2 Mo l2 3a2 2
max at x = l if a > 0.5774l ............. =
3 3Ell 3

Mo
MCL (at centre)...................................................... =
2
Mo 2
CL (at centre) ...................................................... = (l 4b2 )
16El
l 3 Mo l 2
max (when a = b = , af x = l = 0.28867l )..... =
2 6 124.71El
M l
CL (at centre) ...................................................... = o
12El

DESIGN INFORMATION
(11) BEAM SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS
MOMENTS APPLIED AT EACH END
M2 M1
R1 = R2 = V .........................=
l
x
Mx .........................................= (M2 M1) + M1
l
x(l x)
x ..........................................= [M1(2l x) + M2 (l + x)]
6Ell
6M1l 36M12 l2 12(M1 M2 )l2 (2M1 + M2 )

x1 .........................................=
6(M1 M2 )
l
1 (at end).............................= (2M1 + M2 )
6El
l
2 (at end).............................= (M1 + 2M2 )
6El
If M1 and M2 are of opposite signs, the above formulas hold;

just use actual sign of moment.
M1l
Point of contraflexure is where x =
M2 M1

DESIGN INFORMATION
(12) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
w 2
R1 = V1 ........................................................ = (l a 2 )
2l
w
R2 = V2 + V3 ................................................. = (l + a)2
2l
V2 ................................................................ = wa
w 2
V3 ................................................................ = (l + a 2 )
2l
Vx (between supports) ................................. = R1 wx
Vx1 (for overhang) ....................................... = w(a x1)
l a2 w
M1 at x = 1 2 ................................. = (l + a)2 (l a)2
2 l 8 l 2

wa2
M2 (at R2) .................................................... =
2
wx 2
Mx (between supports) ................................ = (l a2 xl)
2l
w
M x1 (for overhang)...................................... = (a x1)2
2
wx
x (between supports) ................................. = (l 4 2l 2 x 2 + lx 3 2a2 l 2 + 2a2 x 2 )
24Ell
wx1
x1 (for overhang)....................................... = (4a2 l l3 + 6a2 x1 4ax12 + x13 )
24El
(13) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON OVERHANG
wa2
R1 = V1 .........................................................=
2l
wa
R2 = V1 + V2..................................................= (2l + a)
2l
V2 .................................................................= wa
Vx1 (for overhang) ........................................= w(a x1)
wa2
Mmax (at R2) ..................................................=
2
wa2 x
Mx (between supports) .................................=
2l
w
M x1 (for overhang) .......................................= (a x1)2
2
l wa2 l2 wa2 l2
max (between supports at x = ) .............= = 0.03208
3 18 3El El
wa3
max (for overhang at x1 = a).........................= (4l + 3a)
24El
wa2 x 2
x (between supports) ..................................= (l x 2 )
12Ell
wx1
x1 (for overhang)........................................= (4a2 l + 6a2 x1 4ax12 + x13 )
24El

DESIGN INFORMATION
(14) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD BETWEEN SUPPORTS
wl
R = V ............................................................=
2
l
Vx .................................................................= w x
2
wl2
Mmax (at center) ............................................=
8
wx
Mx .................................................................= (l x )
2
5wl 4
max (at center) .............................................=
384El
wx 3
x..................................................................= (l 2lx 2 + x 3 )
24El
wl3 x1
x1 ...............................................................=
24El
(15) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT BETWEEN
SUPPORTS
Pb
R1 = V1 (max when a < b).............................=
l
Pa
R2 = V2 (max when a > b).............................=
l
Pab
Mmax (at point of load)...................................=
l
Pbx
Mx (when x < a) ............................................=
l
a(a + 2b) Pab(a + 2b) 3a(a + 2b)
max at x = when a > b ...........=
3 27Ell
Pa2b2
a (at point of load).......................................=
3Ell
Pbx 2
x (when x < a).............................................= (l b 2 x 2 )
6Ell
Pa(l x)
x (when x > a).............................................= (2lx x 2 a2 )
6Ell
Pabx1
x1 ...............................................................= ( l + a)
6Ell

DESIGN INFORMATION
(16) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT CONCENTRATED LOAD AT END OF OVERHANG
Pa
R1 = V1 ........................................................ =
l
P
R2 = V1 + V2................................................. = (l + a)
l
V2 ................................................................ = P
Mmax (at R2) ................................................. = Pa
Pax
Mx (between supports) ................................ =
l
M x1 (for overhang) ...................................... = P(a x1)
l Pal 2 Pal 2
max between supports x = ................ = = 0.06415
3 9 3El El
Pa2
max (for overhang at x1 = a)........................ = (l + a)
3El
Pax 2
x (between supports) ................................. = (l x 2 )
6Ell
Px1
x1 (for overhang)........................................ = (2al + 3ax1 x12 )
6El
(17) CANTILEVER BEAM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
R = V ............................................................= wl
Vx .................................................................= wx
wl2
Mmax (at fixed end)........................................=
2
wx 2
Mx .................................................................=
2
wl 4
max (at free end) ..........................................=
8El
w
x ..................................................................= (x 4 4l3 x + 3l 4 )
24El
(18) CANTILEVER BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT FREE END
R = V ............................................................= P
Mmax (at fixed end)........................................= Pl
Mx .................................................................= Px
Pl 3
max (at free end) ..........................................=
3El
P
x ..................................................................= (2l3 3l 2 x + x 3 )
6El

DESIGN INFORMATION
(19) CANTILEVER BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT
R = V ...................................... = P
Mmax (at fixed end).................. = Pb
Mx (when x > a) ...................... = P(x a)
Pb2
max (at free end) .................... = (3l b)
6El
Pb3
a (at point of load)................. =
3El
Pb2
x (when x < a) ....................... = (3l 3x b)
6El
P(l x)2
x (when x > a) ....................... = (3b l + x)
6El
(20) CANTILEVER BEAM LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY TO FIXED END
wl
W............................................ =
2
R = V ...................................... = W
x2
Vx ........................................... = W
l2
Wl
Mmax (at fixed end).................. =
3
Wx 3
Mx ........................................... =
3l2
W l3
max (at free end).................... =
15El
W
x ............................................ = 2
(x5 5l 4 x + 4l5 )
60Ell
(21) CANTILEVER BEAM UNIFORM LOAD PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED AT FREE END
R = V ...................................... = wb
Mmax (at support) .................... = wbe
wx 2
Mx (when x < b) ...................... =
2
wb
Mx (when x > b) ...................... = (b 2x)
2
wb
max (at free end).................... = (8e3 24e2 l b3 )
48El
w
x (when x < b)....................... = [8be3 24be2 (l x) + 2b3 x b4 2x 4 ]
48El
wb
x (when x > b)....................... = [8e3 24e2 (l x) (2x b)3 ]
48El
wb 2
(at free end)......................... = (b + 12e2 )
24El

DESIGN INFORMATION
(22) CANTILEVER BEAM VARYING LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY FROM SUPPORT TO FREE
END
wl
W..................................................=
2
R = V ............................................= W
2Wx x
Vx .................................................= 2
l
l 2
2W l
Mmax (at support) ..........................=
3
Wx 2
Mx .................................................= (x 3l)
3l 2
11W l3
max (at free end) ..........................=
60El
W
x ..................................................= [l 4 (15x 11l) x 4 (5l x)]
60Ell2
W l2
(at free end)...............................=
4El
(23) CANTILEVER BEAM MOMENT APPLIED AT FREE END
R = V ............................................= 0
Mx .................................................= Mo
Mo l2
max (at free end) ..........................=
2El
Mo
x ..................................................= (l x)2
2El
Mo l
(at free end)...............................=
El

DESIGN INFORMATION
(24) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED LOAD
3wl
R1 = V1 ......................................................=
8
5wl
R2 = V2 (max) ............................................=
8
Vx ..............................................................= R1 wx
wl2
Mmax...........................................................=
8
3 9
M1 (at x = l )...........................................= wl 2
8 128
wx 2
Mx ..............................................................= R1x
2
l wl 4
max (at x = (1 + 33) = 0.4215l) ...........=
16 185El
wx 3
x ...............................................................= (l 3lx 2 + 2x 3 )
48El
(25) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END CONCENTRATED LOAD
AT CENTER
5P
R1 = V1 ...................................................... =
16
11P
R2 = V2 (max) ............................................ =
16
3Pl
Mmax (at fixed end)..................................... =
16
5Pl
M1 (at point of load) ................................... =
32
l 5Px
Mx (when x < ) ....................................... =
2 16
l l 11x
Mx (when x > ) ....................................... = P
2 2 16
1 Pl 3 Pl 3
max (at x = l = 0.4472l )...................... = = 0.009317
5 48El 5 El
7Pl3
x (at point of load).................................... =
768El
l P
x (when x < ) ......................................... = x (3l2 5x 2 )
2 96El
l P
x (when x > ) ........................................ = (x l)2 (11x 2l)
2 96El

DESIGN INFORMATION
(26) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END CONCENTRATED LOAD
AT ANY POINT
Pb2
R1 = V1 ........................................................... = (a + 2l)
2l 3
Pa
R2 = V2 ........................................................... = (3l2 a2 )
2l3
M1 (at point of load) ........................................ = R1a
Pab
M2 (at fixed end) ............................................. = (a + l)
2l2
Mx (when x < a) .............................................. = R1x
Mx (when x > a) ............................................. = R1x P(x a)
l2 + a2 Pa(l2 a2 )3
max (when a < 0.414, at x = l )...... =
3l 2 a 2 3El(3l2 a2 )2
a Pab2 a
max (when a > 0.414, at x = l ) ....... =
2l + a 6EI 2l + a
Pa2b3
a (at point of load)......................................... = (3l + a)
12EIl3
Pb2 x
x (when x < a) ............................................... = (3al 2 2lx 2 ax 2 )
12EIl3
Pa
x (when x > a) ............................................... = 2
(l x)2 (3l2 x a2 x 2a2 l)
12EIl
(27) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END UNIFORM LOAD
PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED OVER SPAN
wb
R1 = V1 .............................................= 3
(12e2 l 4e3 + b2 d)
8l
R2 = V2 .............................................= wb R1
wb
Mmax() ...............................................= 2
(12e2 l 4e3 + b2 d 8el2 )
8l
R
M1 .....................................................= R1 a + 1
2w
Mx (when x < a) ................................= R1x

w
Mx [when x > a and x < (a + b)] ........= R1x (x a)2
2
Mx (when x > (a + b) and x < l )......= R1x wb(x d)
x
x (when x < a) .................................= [4R1(x 2 3l 2 ) + wb(b2 + 12e2 )]
24El
1
x [when x > a and x < (a + b)] .........= [4R1x(x 2 3l 2 ) + wbx(b2 + 12e2 ) w(x a)4 ]
24El
1
x (when x > (a + b) and x < c)........= [3MMAX (l x)2 + R 2 (l x)3 ]
6El

DESIGN INFORMATION
(28) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END MOMENT APPLIED AT
THE FLEXIBLE END
3Mo
R1 = R2 = V ..............................................=
2l
M1 ..............................................................= Mo
M2 ..............................................................= Q / SMo
Mo
Mx ..............................................................= (2l 3x)
2l
l M l2
max (at x = ) ..........................................= o
3 27El
Mo x
x ...............................................................= (l x)2
4Ell
Mo l
(at supported end) ..................................=
4El
(29) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS
wl
R = V ....................................................... =
2
l
Vx ............................................................ = w x
2
wl2
Mmax (at ends) ......................................... =
12
wl2
M1 (at centre) .......................................... =
24
w
Mx ............................................................ = (6lx l2 6x 2 )
12
wl 4
max (at centre) ........................................ =
384El
wx 2
x ............................................................. = (l x)2
24El

DESIGN INFORMATION
(30) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE
P
R = V ........................................................... =
2
Pl
Mmax (at center and ends)............................ =
8
l P
Mx when x < ........................................ = (4x l)
2 8
Pl3
max (at center) ............................................ =
192El
l Px 2
x when x < ......................................... = (3l 4x)
2 48El
(31) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT
Pb2
R1 = V1 (max when a < b)............................ = (3a + b)
l3
Pa2
R2 = V2 (max when a > b)............................ = (a + 3b)
l3
Pab2
M1 (max when a < b) ................................... =
l2
Pa2b
M2 (max when a > b) ................................... =
l2
2Pa2b2
Ma (at point of load) ..................................... =
l3
Pab2
Mx (when x < a) ........................................... = R1x
l2
2al 2Pa3b2
max (when a > b, at x = ) .................. =
3a + b 3El(3a + b)2
Pa3b3
a (at point of load)...................................... =
3Ell3
Pb2 x 2
x (when x < a) ............................................ = (3al 3ax bx)
6Ell3

DESIGN INFORMATION
(32) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS UNIFORM LOAD PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED OVER SPAN
wb
R1 = V1 ........................................= [4e2 (l + 2d) b2 (c a)]
4l 3
R2 = V2 ........................................= wb R1
wb
M1 ................................................= {b2 [l + 3(c a)] 24e2 d}
24l2
M2 ................................................= R1l wbe + M1
R R
Mmax(+) at x = a + 1 ................= M1 + R1 a + 1
w 2w
Mx (when x < a) ...........................= M1 + R1x
w
Mx [when x > a and x < (a + b)] ...= M1 + R1x (x a)2
2
1
x (when x < a) ............................= (3M1x 2 + R1x 3 )
6El
1
x [when x > a and x < (a + b)] ....= [12M1x 2 + 4R1x 3 w(x a)4 ]
24El
(33) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS MOMENT APPLIED AT ANY POINT
6Mo ab
R1 = V..........................................=
l3
6Mo ab
R2 ................................................=
l3
Mob
M1 ................................................= (l 3a)
l2
Mo a
M2 ................................................= (2l 3a)
l2
Mo 6abx
Mx (when x < a) ...........................= 2 l
+ b(l 3a)
l
Mo a 6bx
Mx (when x > a) ...........................= 6b 2l + 3a
l2 l
Mmax() (at x = a on left side) ........= Mmax(+) Mo
6a2b b
Mmax(+) (at x = a on right side) ......= Mo 3 2 (l 3a) + 1
l l
Mobx 2 2ax
x (when x < a) ............................= l 3a +
2Ell2 l
Mo a(l x)2 2bx

x (when x > a) ............................= 3a 2l + 2b
2Ell2 l
Mo
MCL (at centre)...........................= [3ab + b(l 3a)]
l2
Mob
CL (at centre) ...........................= (l 2a)
8El
0.01615Mo l2
max (when a = 0.2324l l )............=
El

DESIGN-INFORMATION
(34) SIMPLE BEAM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD AND VARIABLE END MOMENTS
wl M1 M2
R1 = V1 ................................... = +
2 l
wl M1 M2
R2 = V2 ................................... =
2 l
l M M2
Vx ........................................... = w x + 1
2 l
l M M2 wl2 M1 + M2 (M1 M2 )2
M3 at x = + 1 ........ = +
2 wl 8 2 2wl2
wx M M2
Mx ........................................... = (l x) + 1 x M1
2 l
2
l2 M1 + M2 M1 M2
b (to locate inflection points)... = + wl
4 w
wx 3 4M1 4M2 2 12M1 8M1l 4M2 l

x ............................................ = x 2l + x + x + l3
24El wl wl w w w
(35) BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE AND VARIABLE END MOMENTS
P M1 M2
R1 = V1......................... = +
2 l
P M1 M2
R2 = V2......................... =
2 l
Pl M1 + M2
M3 (at centre) .............. =
4 2
P M M2
Mx when x < .......... = + 1
l
x M1
2 2 l
P (M M2 )x
Mx when x > ......... = (l x) + 1
l
M1
2 2 l
Px 2 8(l x)
x when x < .......... =
l 2
3l 4x [M1(2l x) + M2 (l + x)]
2 48EI P l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(36) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OF SUPPORTS
3El
V = R1 = R2 .......................................= ( 2 1)
l3
3El
Mmax..................................................= ( 2 1)
l2
x
Mx .....................................................= Mmax 1
l
2 1 x x
2 3
x ......................................................= 1 + 3
2 l l
(37) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END ROTATION OF SUPPORT

3El
V = R1 = R2 .................................. = 1
l2
3El
Mmax............................................... = 1
l
x
Mx .................................................. = Mmax 1
l
l
max ............................................... = 1
5.196
3x 2 x3
x ................................................... = 1 x +
2l 2l2
38) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS DIFFERENTIAL

SETTLEMENT OF SUPPORTS
12El
V = R1 = R2 .................................. = ( 2 1)
l3
6El
M1 = M2 ....................................... = ( 2 1)
l2
6El 2x
Mx .................................................. = ( 2 1) 1
l2 l
x 2 x
3
x ................................................... = 1 + ( 2 1) 3 2
l l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(39) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS ROTATION OF SUPPORT
6El
V = R1 = R2 ..............................................= 2
l2
2El
M1..............................................................= 2
l
4El
M2..............................................................= 2
l
2El 3x
Mx ..............................................................= 2 1
l l
2 4
max (at x = l ) ........................................= l 2
3 27
x 2 x 3
x...............................................................= l2
l l
(40) TWO SPANS, CONTINUOUS BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE OF ONE SPAN ONLY
13
R1 = V1 ........................................................ = P
32
11
R2 =V2 + V3.................................................. = P
16
3
R3 = V3 ........................................................ = P
32
19
V2 ................................................................ = P
32
13
Mmax (at point of load).................................. = Pl
64
3
M2 (at R2) .................................................... = Pl
32
(41) TWO SPANS, CONTINUOUS BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT OF ONE
SPAN ONLY
Pb
R1 = V1 ........................................................ = [4l2 a(l + a)]
4l 3
Pa
R2 = V2 + V3 ................................................. = [2l2 + b(l + a)]
2l3
Pab
R3 = V3 ........................................................ = (l + a)
4l 3
Pa
V2 ................................................................ = [4l2 b(l + a)]
4l3
Pab
Mmax (at point of load).................................. = 3
[4l2 a(l + a)]
4l
Pab
M2 (at R2) .................................................... = (l + a)
4l 2

DESIGN INFORMATION
(42) TWO SPAN, CONTINUOUS BEAM UNIFORM LOAD OVER ONE SPAN ONLY
7
R1 = V1 ........................................................ = wl
16
5
R2 = V2 + V3 ................................................. = wl
8
1
R3 = V3 ........................................................ = wl
16
9
V2 ................................................................ = wl
16
7 49
Mmax at x = l ...................................... = wl 2
16 512
wl2
M1 (at R2) .................................................... =
16
wx
Mx (when x < l ) .......................................... = (7l 8x)
16

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.4 Moments, shears, and deflections in beams with overhangs
REACTIONS
BENDING MOMENT M
AND DEFLECTION y, MAXIMUM DEFLECTION,
LOADING AND SUPPORT AND MAXIMUM
VERTICAL AND END SLOPE
BENDING MOMENT
SHEAR
W W Wx
RB = RC = (A to B)M = (c x)2 (A to B) y = [6c 2 (d + x) x 2 (4c x) d3 ]
EQUAL OVERHANGS, B
2 2l 24Ell
UNIFORM LOAD (B to C)M =
(A to B) V = W Wx(d x)
[(c 2 x(d x)] (B to C) y = [x(d x) + d2 6c 2 ]
W(c x) 2l 24Ell

l
Wc 2 Wc
(B to C) V = M= at B and C y= [3c 2 (c + 2d) d3 ] at A and D
2l 24Ell
1 x+c
W W 2 d2 Wd2 d
2 l M= c y= (5d2 24c 2 )at x =
2l 4 384Ell 2
(C to D) V = d if 2c < d < 2.449c, the maximum deflection

at x = if d > 2c, M = 0
W(c + d x) 2 between supports is:
l d2
d d2 W d
at x = c2 y= (6c 2 d2 )2 at x = 3 c2
2 4 96Ell 2 4

if c = 0.207 l , at x = 0 = d W
= (6c 2d + 4c 3 d3 ) at A
24Ell
Wl W
M= = (6c 2d + 4c 3 d3 ) at D
46.62 24Ell
Wl
and M =
46.62
d
ar x =
2
x is considered positive on
both sides of the origin.
(A to B) M = (A to B) y =
RB = W Wx
UNEQUAL OVERHANGS, (c x)2 [2d(e2 + 2c 2 ) + 6c 2 x x 2 (4c x) d3 ]
W 2l 24Ell
UNIFORM LOAD (c + d e)
2d (B to C) M = Wx(d x)
(B to C) y =
W 24Ell
RC = (c x)2 + RB x
2l 2 2
W 2 2 2 2
(d + e c) (C to D) M = x(d x) + d 2(c + e ) [e x + c (d x)]
2d d
W
(A to B) V = (e + d x)2 W(x d)
2l (C to D) y = [2d(c 2 + 2e2 ) + 6e2 (x d)
W 24Ell
(c x)
l
Wc 2 (x d)2 (4e + d x) d3 ]
M= at B
2l Wc
(B to C) V = y= [2d(e2 + 2c 2 ) + 3c 3 d3 ] at A
We 2 24Ell
W M= at C
RB (c + x) We
l 2l y= [2d(c 2 + 2e2 ) + 3e3 d3 ] at D
Mmax between supports 24Ell
(C to D) V = W 2
= (c x12 ) at x = x1 This case is too complicated to obtain a general
W 2l
(d + e x) expression for critical deflections between the
l 2 2 2
c +d e supports.
= if x1 > c,
2d W
= (4c 3 + 4c 2d d3 + 2de2 ) at A
M=0 24Ell
at x = x1 x12 c 2 W
= (2c 2d + 4de2 d3 + 4e3 ) at D
24Ell
x is considered positive on
both sides of the origin.

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.5 Torsion diagrams, reactions, and rotations
(1)
Tl
At support: T = T =
GJT
(2)
Tl2
At support: T = tl =
2GJT
(3) T1b T1ab

a: Ta = 1 =
l lGJT
l
When a = b =
2
T1a Tl
b: Tb = 1 =
l 4GJT
T1(b + c) + T2 c Ta a
a: Ta = 1 =
(4) l GJT
T2 c T1a Tc c
b: Tb = 2 =
l GJT
When a = b = c = T/8
T1 = T2 = T/2
T1a + T2 (a + b) Tl
c: Tc = and 1 = 2 =
l 6GJT
T1(b + c + d) + T2 (c + d) + T3 d Tb b + Ta a
a: Ta = 2 =
(5) l GJT
T1a + T2 (c + d) + T3 d Ta a
b: Tb = 1 =
l GJT
T1a T2 (a + b) + T3 d Td d
c: Tc = 3 =
l GJT
T1a T2 (a b) + T3 (a + b + c)
d: Td =
l
(6)
tl tl2
Tsupport = CL =
2 8GJT
Note: G = Shear modulus

J = Torsion constant

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.6 Camber (deflection) and rotation coefficients for prestress force and loads(1)
CAMBER END ROTATION
EQUIVA-
LENT EQUIVALENT
PRESTRESS PATTERN
MOMENT LOADING
OR LOAD
(1)
Ml2 Ml Ml
M = Pe
16El 3El 6El
(2)
Ml2 Ml Ml
M = Pe
16El 6El 3El
(3)
Ml2 Ml Ml
M = Pe
8El 2El 2El
(4)
4Pe Nl 3 Nl 2 Nl2
N=
l 48El 16El 16El
(5)
Pe b(3 4b2 )Nl3 b(1 b)Nl2 b(1 b)Nl2

N=
bl 24El 2El 2El
(6)
8Pe 5wl 4 wl3 wl3

w= 2
l 384El 24El 24El
Note: 1. The tabulated values apply to the effects of prestressing. By adjusting the directional notation, they may also be used for the effects
of loads.
2. In cases where P is not applied at the c.g., total cambers will be the sum of the effects of pattern (3) plus those of (4), (5) or (6).

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.6 Camber (deflection) and rotation coefficients for prestress force and loads(1) (cont.)
CAMBER END ROTATION

EQUIVA-
PRESTRESS LENT EQUIVALENT
PATTERN MOMENT LOADING
OR LOAD
(7)
8Pe
w= 5wl 4 9wl3 7wl3
l2
768El 384El 384El
(8)
8Pe 5wl 4 7wl3 9wl3
w= 2
l 768El 384El 384El
w=
(9) 4Pe 5 b 2
8 2 (3 2b ) (1 b)(1 2b)wl
3
(0.5 b)l 2 (1 b)(1 2b)wl3
24El
w1 = wl 4 24El
w 48El
(0.5 b)
b
w=
(10) 4Pe 5 b 2 9 2 7 2
(0.5 b)l 2 16 4 (3 2b ) 8 b(2 b) 8 + b(2 b)

w1 = wl 4 wl3 wl3
w 48El 48El 48El
(0.5 b)
b
(11) w=
4Pe 5 b 2 7 2 9 2
(0.5 b)l 2 16 4 (3 2b ) 8 b(2 b) 8 + b(2 b)

w1 = wl 4 wl3 wl3
w 48El 48El 48El
(0.5 b)
b
Determination of camber along length of member

based on camber at midspan:
2
l
2 x
Camber at midspan = yc yx = yc yc 2

l
2

Note: 1. The tabulated values apply to the effects of prestressing. By adjusting the directional notation, they may also be used for the effects
of loads.
2. Consider the effects of end eccoutricities when computing camber.

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.7 Moments in beams with fixed ends
LOADING MOMENT AT A MOMENT AT CENTRE MOMENT AT B
Pl Pl Pl
(1) 8 8 8
(2) Pla(1 a)2 Pla2 (1 a)
2Pl Pl 2Pl
(3) 9 9 9
5Pl 3Pl 5Pl

(4) 16 16 16
Wl Wl Wl
(5) 12 24 12
W l(1 + 2a 2a2 ) W l(1 + 2a 2a2 ) W l(1 + 2a 2a2 )

(6) 12 24 12
W l(3a 2a2 ) W la 2 W l(3a 2a2 )

(7) 12 6 12
W la(6 8a + 3a2 ) W la2 (4 3a)

(8) 12 12
5W l 3W l 5W l
(9) 48 48 48
Wl Wl
(10) 10 15
W = Total load on the beam.

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.8 Moving load placement for maximum moment and shear
(1) SIMPLE BEAM ONE CONCENTRATED MOVING LOAD
R1 max = V1 max (at x = 0) ............................................ = P
l Pl
M max (at point of load, when x = ) ........................ =
2 4
(2) SIMPLE BEAM TWO EQUAL CONCENTRATED MOVING LOADS
a
R1 max = V1 max (at x = 0) ............................................. = P 2
l
when a < (2 2)l ................................................... = 0.586l
2
1 a P a
Mmax = under load 1, at x = l ........................ = l
2 2 2l 2
when a > (2 2)l .......................................... = 0.586l
Pl
Mmax = with one load at centre of span ..................... =
4
(3) SIMPLE BEAM TWO UNEQUAL CONCENTRATED MOVING LOADS
la
R1 max = V1 max (at x = 0) ............................................. = P1 + P2
l
1 P2a x2
Mmax under P1, at x = l ........................ = (P1 + P2 )
2 P1 + P2 l
Mmax may occur with larger load at centre

P1l
of span and other load off span ................................ =
4

8.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES PRESTRESSING STEEL
Fig. 8.2.1 Properties of prestressing strands
Strand Diameter - mm Minimum Strength - kN Nominal Area - mm Weight - kg/1000 m

(inches) (pounds) (sq. in.) (lbs/1000ft)
7-WIRE 1720 MPa (250 ksi) STRAND FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

9.53 (3/8") 89.0 (20,000) 51.6 (0.080) 405 (272)
11.11 (7/16") 120.1 (27,000) 69.6 (0.108) 548 (367)
12.7 (1/2") 160.1 (36,000) 92.9 (0.144) 730 (490)
15.2 (0.600") 240.2 (54,000) 139.3 (0.216) 1099 (737)
7-WIRE 1860 MPa (270 ksi) GRADE STRAND FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
7.94 (5/16") 71.2 (16,000) 38.0 (0.059) 298 (200)
9.53 (3/8") 102.3 (23,000) 54.8 (0.085) 432 (290)
11.1 (7/16") 137.9 (31,100) 74.1 (0.115) 582 (390)
12.7 (1/2") 183.7 (41,300) 98.7 (0.153) 775 (520)
12.7 (1/2"Special) 200.2 (45,100) 107.7 (0.167) 819 (550)
14.2 (9/16") 230.0 (51,800) 123.8 (0.192) 970 (651)
15.2 (0.600") 260.7 (58,600) 140.0 (0.217) 1104 (740)
Fig. 8.2.2 Properties of post-tensioning bars

26mm 32mm 36mm 46mm 65mm
THREAD BAR SIZE
(1 in) (1 in) (1 3/8 in) (1 in) (2 in)
Ultimate Load (1030 MPa) kN 567 834 1054 1779 3471
Yield Load (0.8 fpu Aps) kN 454 667 843 1423 2777
Steel Area mm 551 804 1018 1689 3358
Max, Bar Diameter mm 31 37 41.4 51 70
Nominal Linear Mass kg/m 4.48 6.53 8.27 13.7 27.3
Anchor Plate Sizes mm 127x127x32 152x178x38 178x178x44 230x230x57 305x356x64
102x165x32 127x203x38 127x241x44 --- ---
Nut Extension mm 48 64 70 74 127
Min. Bar Protrusion mm 92 98 122 98 149
Coupler Length mm 159 171 219 171 273
Coupler Diameter mm 51 60 67 79 114
Bar Duct O.D. mm 47 51 55 70 88
Bar Duct I.D. mm 43 48 51 67 84
Coupler Duct O.D. mm 70 76 87 101 138
Coupler Duct I.D. mm 67 72 83 95 134
Pocket Former Depth mm 178 203 219 N/A N/A
Pocket Former Max
mm 130 165 165 N/A N/A
Diameter
Note: Typical sizes, properties and dimensions of post-tensioning bars: confirm with bar supplier.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES PRESTRESSING STEEL
Fig. 8.2.3 Typical stress strain curve, 7-wire low relaxation prestressing strand
Note: Approximate strain at rupture is 0.05 to 0.07

For low-relaxation strand with fpu = 1860 MPa (270ksi), an appropriate formulation is:

0.975 0.9 75
fps = 29 103 pf 0.025 + 0.10 fps = 200 103 pf 0.025 + 0.10

(
1 + 118 10
pf )

(
1 + 118 10
pf )

270 ksi 1860 MPa
While for stress-relieved strands with fpu = 1860 MPa (270ksi), an appropriate formulation is:

0.97 0.97
fps = 29 103 pf 0.03 + 0.167
fps = 200 103 pf 0.03 + 0.167

(
1 + 121 6
)
(
1 + 121
)

6
pf pf
270 ksi 1860 MPa
Note: The coefficients of the above equations have been chosen so that the curves pass through the minimum specified yield strengths at
a strain of 1%. The stress-strain response of actual strands will typically look like the curves above.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES POST TENSIONING
Fig. 8.2.4 Typical multi-strand post-tensioning anchorage details
Strand G Spiral
No. of A B C D E F L No. of
Type Diameter I.D./O.D. Diameter
Strands (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Turns
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1 7 13 230 - - - - - 1200 - - -
12 13 300 - - - - - 1200 - - -
19 13 380 - - - - - 1200 - - -
31 13 460 - - - - - 1500 - - -
4 15 160 - - - - - 1200 - - -
7 15 200 - - - - - 1200
12 15 300 - - - - - 1200 - - -
19 15 390 - - - - - 1500 - - -
22 15 400 - - - - - 1500 - - -
27 15 450 - - - - - 1800 - - -
31 15 450 - - - - - 1800 - - -
2 12 13 25 50 150 250 250 210 - 70/75 10 5
19 13 30 63 185 300 250 290 - 85/90 10 5
22 13 40 75 230 375 250 315 - 90/95 15 5
31 13 45 75 230 375 250 315 - 105/110 15 7
2 4 15 20 50 115 200 150 175 - 55/60 10 5
7 15 25 50 150 250 300 210 - 65/70 10 5
12 15 30 63 185 330 450 290 - 85/90 10 5
19 15 45 75 230 420 600 315 - 105/110 15 7
22 15 45 100 230 420 600 375 - 115/120 15 7
31 15 64 100 292 500 700 375 - 130/135 15 8
3 7 13 122 51 120 139 260 200 - 55/60 10 7
12 13 158 57 140 210 266 250 - 70/75 15 7
19 13 190 60 185 245 266 320 - 85/90 15 7
3 4 15 122 51 120 139 266 200 - 55/60 10 7
7 15 158 57 140 210 306 250 - 65/70 10 7
12 15 190 63 162 245 356 280 - 75/80 15 7
19 15 280 70 216 336 458 388 - 105/110 15 7
Note: Generic drawings of multi-strand anchors. Contact post-tensioning supplier for specific dimensions.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES POST TENSIONING
Fig. 8.2.5 Typical unbonded monostrand system details
Type No. of Strand Dia A B C D E F

Strands (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
CPS Encapsulated 1 12.7 131.6 62.7 50.8 51 32 - 57 57
CPS Encapsulated 1 15.2 153.2 81.3 50.8 54 32 - 57 64
Zero Void Encapsulated 1 12.7 131.6 62.7 50.8 100 28 60
Note: Generic drawing of monostrand anchor. Contact post-tensioning supplier for specific dimensions.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES REINFORCING BARS
Fig 8.2.6 Reinforcing bar data
Metric Reinforcing Bars
Bar Size Nominal Linear Mass Nominal Dimensions(2)
Designation(1) (kg/m) Diameter (mm) Area (mm2) Perimeter (mm)
10M 0.785 11.3 100 35.5
15M 1.570 16.0 200 50.1
20M 2.355 19.5 300 61.3
25M 3.925 25.2 500 79.2
30M 5.495 29.9 700 93.9
35M 7.850 35.7 1000 112.2
45M 11.775 43.7 1500 137.3
55M 19.625 56.4 2500 177.2
(1) Bar numbers are based upon the rounded nominal diameter of the bars.
(2) The nominal dimensions of a deformed bar are equivalent to those of a plain round bar having the same linear mass as the deformed
bar.
Fig. 8.2.7 Detailing and estimating dimensions(1) (mm) for standard end hooks(2) for deformed reinforcing
bars
Steel Grade(4)
Nominal 300 R 400 R or 500 R 400 W or 500 W
Size 180 Hook 90 Hook 180 Hook(4) 90 Hook 180Hook(4) 90 Hook
D J G(3) A or G D J G(3) A or G D J G(3) A or G
10M 60 83 131 177 70 93 141 182 60 83 131 177
15M 90 122 169 252 100 132 180 257 90 122 169 252
20M 120 159 218 314 100 139 196 304
25M 150 200 276 403 150 200 276 403
30M 250 310 404 513 200 260 351 488
35M 300 371 484 614 250 321 431 589
45M 450 537 682 793 400 487 628 768
55M 600 713 900 1033 550 663 847 1008
(1) The dimensions provided use the minimum bend diameters (D) permitted in Annex A, Table 16 in A23.3.
(2) Standard hooks are defined in Clause 6.6.2.2 of A23.1
(3) Add the additional hook dimension G to the detailing dimension to estimate the total bar length:
For 180 hooks: G = (4db > 60 mm) + (D + db) / 2 D / 2 db
For 90 and 135 hooks: G A = 12db + D / 2 + db
(4) Special fabrication is required for bends exceeding 90 for 45M and 55M bars for steel grades 400 R or 500 R.

Fig. 8.2.8 Compression lap splices
Bar Size Bar Grade Standard Lap Within Ties(3) Within Spirals(4)
10M 400 300 300 300
15M 400 440 370 330
20M 400 590 490 440
25M 400 730 610 550
30M 400 880 730 660
35M 400 1030 850 770
10M 500 430 360 320
15M 500 640 530 480
20M 500 850 710 640
25M 500 1070 890 800
30M 500 1280 1060 960
35M 500 1490 1240 1120
(1) Calculated according to CSA Standard A23.3, Clause 12.14 and 12.16. The minimum length of compression lap splice shall not be less
than 0.073 fy db nor (0.133 fy 24) db for fy greater than 400 MPa, nor 300 mm.
(2) When bars of different sizes are to be lap spliced in compression, the splice length shall be the larger of the compression development
length of the larger bar or the splice length of the smaller bar. 45M and 55M bars may be lap spliced to 35M and smaller bars.
(3) In compression members where ties have an effective area Av 0.0015 hs, 0.83 times the standard lap length may be used, but not less
than 300 mm.
(4) Within spirals of spiral tied columns, 0.75 times the standard lap but not less than 300 mm may be used.
Fig. 8.2.9 Tension development lengths, dh(1), using standard hooks for deformed bars with fy = 400 MPa
[CI. 12.5.1].
dh(2) = hb* x (factors from [CI. 12.5.3]), but not less than 8 db or 150 mm, whichever is greater
* The values tabulated below give the basic hook development length hb (mm), according to [CI.12.5.2].
fc (MPa) Nominal Deformed Reinforcing Bar Size
10M 15M 20M 25M 30M 35M 45M 50M
20 252 357 437 564 668 798 977 1262
25 226 319 391 505 597 714 874 1128
30 206 291 357 461 545 651 798 1030
35 191 270 330 426 505 603 739 954
40 178 252 309 399 472 564 691 892
45 168 238 291 376 445 532 651 841
50 160 226 276 357 422 505 618 798
55 152 215 264 340 403 481 589 761
60 146 206 262 326 385 461 564 728
64 141 199 244 315 373 446 546 705
Note: Special fabrication is required for bends greater than 90 for 45M and 55M bars for steel grades 400 R and 500 R [Annex A, Table 16].
(1) The development length includes the out to out dimension of the hood and the straight length to the critical erection.
(2) The hooks must satisfy the dimensions for standard hooks shown in Fig. 8.2.7

Fig. 8.2.10 Development lengths (mm) based on Table 12.1 in A23.3(1) for heavier confined(2) deformed
reinforcing bars(5) with fy=400 MPa(3) , for normal density concrete(4).
fc
Modification Factors Included 10M 15M 20M 25M 30M 35M 45M 55M
(MPa)
20 322 483 644 1006 1207 1409 1811 2214
25 288 432 576 900 1080 1260 1620 1980
k1 = 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 263 394 526 822 986 1150 1479 1807
35 243 365 487 761 913 1065 1369 1673
k2 = 1.0 (uncoated bars) 40 228 342 455 712 854 996 1281 1565
45 215 322 429 671 805 939 1207 1476
k3 = 1.0 (normal density concrete(4)) 50 204 305 407 636 764 891 1146 1400
55 194 291 388 607 728 849 1092 1335
60 186 279 372 581 697 813 1046 1278
64 180 270 360 563 675 788 1013 1238
20 483 724 966 1509 1811 2113 2717 3321
25 432 648 864 1350 1620 1890 2430 2970
k1 = 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 394 592 789 1232 1479 1725 2218 2711
35 365 548 730 1141 1369 1597 2054 2510
k2 = 1.5 (epoxy coated bars) 40 342 512 683 1067 1281 1494 1921 2348
45 322 483 644 1006 1207 1409 1811 2214
55 291 437 583 910 1092 1274 1638 2002
60 279 418 558 871 1046 1220 1569 1917
64 270 405 540 844 1013 1181 1519 1856
20 419 628 837 1308 1570 1831 2355 2878
25 374 562 749 1170 1404 1638 2106 2574
k1 = 1.3 (top bars) 30 342 513 684 1068 1282 1495 1923 2350
35 316 475 633 989 1187 1384 1780 2175
k2 = 1.0 (uncoated bars) 40 296 444 592 925 1110 1295 1665 2035
45 279 419 558 872 1046 1221 1570 1919
55 252 379 505 789 947 1104 1420 1735
60 242 363 483 755 906 1057 1359 1662
64 234 351 468 731 878 1024 1316 1609
20 547 821 1095 1711 2053 2395 3079 3763
25 490 734 979 1530 1836 2185 2754 3366
30 447 670 894 1397 1676 1994 2514 3073
k1 k2 = 1.7 (top location and epoxy 35 414 621 828 1293 1552 1847 2328 2845
coated bars) 40 387 581 774 1210 1451 1727 2177 2661
45 365 547 730 1140 1368 1628 2053 2509
55 330 495 660 1032 1238 1473 1857 2269
60 316 474 632 988 1185 1410 1778 2173
64 306 459 612 956 1148 1366 1721 2104
Note: Calculations are based on the nominal bar diameter.
(1) Clear cover and clear spacing of bars must be at least 1.0 db and 1.4 db, respectively.
(2) for lighter confinement, Other cases in Table 12.1 in A23.3, multiply the above table values by 1.33. To qualify for heavier
confinement, must have either: member containing minimum stirrups or ties within l d , or slabs, walls, shells or folded plates having
clear spacing between bars being developed not less than 2db.
(3) for fy 400 MPa, multiply development length by fy / 400.
(4) Multiply table values by : k3=1.3 for structural low density concrete k3 = 1.2 for structural semi-low density concrete.
(5) The appropriate bar size factor k4 has been applied. For concrete strengths > 64 MPa, use development length for 64 MPa.
(6) After application of all modification factors, the development length must not be less than 300 mm.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES DEFORMED WIRE
Fig. 8.2.11 Development lengths (mm) based on Table 12.1 in A23.3(1) for heavier confined(2) deformed
wire(5) with fy = 400 MPa(3), for normal density concrete(4).
Modification Factors Included fc (MPa) MD9.1 MD11.1 MD13.3 MD18.7 MD25.8 MD34.9 MD47.6
20 110 121 133 157 185 215 251
25 98 108 119 141 165 192 224
k1 = 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 89 99 108 128 151 175 205
35 83 92 100 119 140 162 189
k2 = 1.0 (uncoated bars) 40 78 86 94 111 130 152 177
45 73 81 88 105 123 143 167
k3 = 1.0 (normal density concrete(4)) 50 69 77 84 99 117 136 159
55 66 73 80 95 111 129 151
60 63 70 77 91 107 124 145
64 61 68 74 88 103 120 140
20 164 182 199 236 277 322 376
25 147 162 178 211 248 288 336
k1 = 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 134 148 162 192 226 263 307
35 124 137 150 178 209 243 284
k2 = 1.5 (epoxy coated bars) 40 116 128 141 167 196 228 266
45 110 121 133 157 185 215 251
55 99 109 120 142 167 194 227
60 95 105 115 136 160 186 217
64 92 102 111 132 155 180 210
20 142 157 172 204 240 279 326
25 127 141 154 183 215 250 291
k1 = 1.3 (top bars) 30 116 128 141 167 196 228 266
35 108 119 130 154 181 211 246
k2 = 1.0 (uncoated bars) 40 101 111 122 144 170 197 230
45 95 105 115 136 160 186 217
55 86 95 104 123 145 168 197
60 82 91 99 118 139 161 188
64 80 88 96 114 134 156 182
20 186 206 225 267 314 365 426
25 167 184 201 239 281 326 381
30 152 168 184 218 256 298 348
k1 k2 = 1.7 (top location and epoxy 35 141 156 170 202 237 276 322
coated bars) 40 132 146 159 189 222 258 301
45 124 137 150 178 209 243 284
55 112 124 136 161 189 220 257
60 108 119 130 154 181 211 246
64 104 115 126 149 175 204 238
Note: Calculations are based on the nominal bar diameter.
(1) Clear cover and clear spacing of bars must be at least 1.0 db and 1.4 db, respectively.
(2) for lighter confinement, Other cases in Table 12.1 in A23.3, multiply the above table values by 1.33. To qualify for heavier confinement,
must have either: member containing minimum stirrups or ties within l d , or slabs, walls, shells or folded plates having clear spacing
between bars being developed not less than 2db.
(3) for fy 400 MPa, multiply development length by fy / 400.
(4) Multiply table values by : k3=1.3 for structural low density concrete k3 = 1.2 for structural semi-low density concrete.
(5) The appropriate bar size factor k4 has been applied. For concrete strengths > 64 MPa, use development length for 64 MPa.
(6) After application of all modification factors, the development length must not be less than 300 mm.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES WELDED WIRE FABRIC
Fig. 8.2.12 Standard styles of welded wire fabric
Mass Cross-Sectional Equivalent Equivalent
Wire Wire Cross-
per Unit Area Imperial Imperial
Diameter Sectional Area
Metric Designation Area per Metre Width Styles Styles
Long. Transv. Long. Transv.
mm in. 2 kg / m2 Gauge No. W Numbers
mm mm2 mm2 mm2
152152 MW9.1MW9.1 3.40 0.134 9.1 9.1 1.04 59.8 59.8 66 10/10 66W1.4/W1.4
152152 MW11.1MW11.1 3.76 0.148 11.1 11.1 1.26 73.0 73.0 66 9/9 66W1.7/W1.7
152152 MW13.3MW13.3 4.12 0.162 13.3 13.3 1.50 87.5 87.5 66 8/8 66W2.1/W2.1
152152 MW18.7MW18.7 4.88 0.192 18.7 18.7 2.11 123.0 123.0 66 6/6 66W2.9/W2.9
152152 MW25.8MW25.8 5.74 0.226 25.8 25.8 2.91 170.0 170.0 66 4/4 66W4/W4
152152 MW34.9MW34.9 6.67 0.262 34.9 34.9 3.95 230.0 230.0 66 2/2 66W5.4/W5.4
152152 MW47.6MW47.6 7.79 0.306 47.6 47.6 5.38 313.0 313.0 66 0/0 66W7.4/W7.4
102x102 MW9.1MW9.1 3.40 0.134 9.1 9.1 1.52 89.2 89.2 44 10/10 44W1.4/W1.4
102x102 MW11.1MW11.1 3.76 0.148 1.1 11.1 1.83 109.0 109.0 44 9/9 44W1.7/W1.7
102x102 MW13.3MW13.3 4.12 0.162 13.3 13.3 2.18 130.0 130.0 44 8/8 44W2.1/W2.1
102x102 MW18.7MW18.7 4.88 0.192 18.7 18.7 3.07 183.0 183.0 44 6/6 44W2.9/W2.9
102x102 MW25.8MW25.8 5.74 0.226 25.8 25.8 4.23 253.0 253.0 44 4/4 44W4/W4
5151 MW3.2MW3.2 2.03 0.080 3.2 3.2 1.03 62.8 62.8 22 14/14 N/A
5151 MW5.6MW5.6 2.69 0.106 5.6 5.6 1.80 110.0 110.0 22 12/12 N/A
5151 MW9.1MW9.1 3.40 0.134 9.1 9.1 2.94 178.0 178.0 22 10/10 22W1.4/W1.4

MATERIAL PROPERTIES WELDED WIRE FABRIC
Fig. 8.2.13 Sectional areas of welded wire fabric
Nom. Nom. As (mm2 / m)
Wire Size Number Centre to Centre Spacing (mm)
Diam. Mass
Smooth Deformed
(mm) (kg/m) 51 76 102 152 203 254 305
MW 129.0 MD 129.0 12.83 1.01 2540 1693 1270 847 635 508 423
MW 116.0 MD 116.0 12.17 0.911 2286 1524 1143 762 572 457 381
MW 103.0 MD 103.0 11.46 0.809 2032 1355 1016 677 508 406 339
MW 90.3 MD 90.3 10.72 0.708 1778 1185 889 593 445 356 296
MW 77.4 MD 77.4 9.93 0.607 1524 1016 762 508 381 305 254
MW 71.0 MD 71.0 9.50 0.556 1397 931 699 466 349 279 233
MW 67.9 9.30 0.531 1334 889 667 445 332 267 222
MW 64.5 MD 64.5 9.07 0.506 1270 847 635 423 318 254 212
MW 61.3 8.84 0.481 1207 804 603 402 301 241 201
MW 58.1 MD 58.1 8.59 0.936 1143 762 572 381 286 229 191
MW 54.9 8.36 0.430 1080 720 540 360 269 216 180
MW 51.6 MD 51.6 8.10 0.405 1016 677 508 339 254 203 169
MW 48.4 7.85 0.379 953 635 476 318 237 191 159
MW 45.2 MD 45.2 7.60 0.354 889 593 445 296 222 178 148
MW 42.1 7.32 0.329 826 550 413 275 205 165 138
MW 38.7 MD 38.7 7.01 0.304 762 508 381 254 191 152 127
MW 35.5 6.73 0.278 699 466 349 233 174 140 116
MW 32.3 MD 32.3 6.40 0.253 635 423 318 212 159 127 106
MW 28.9 6.07 0.228 572 381 286 191 142 114 95.3
MW 25.8 MD 25.8 5.74 0.202 508 339 254 169 127 102 84.7
MW 22.6 5.36 0.177 445 296 222 148 110 88.9 74.1
MW 19.2 4.95 0.152 381 254 191 127 95.3 76.2 63.5
MW 18.7 4.88 0.147 368 245 184 123 91.0 74.1 61.4
MW 16.0 4.52 0.126 317 212 159 106 78.3 63.5 52.9
MW 13.5 4.11 0.106 267 178 133 88.9 65.6 52.9 44.5
MW 12.9 4.06 0.101 254 169 127 84.7 63.5 50.8 42.3
MW 9.7 3.51 0.076 191 127 95.3 63.5 48.7 38.1 31.8
MW 9.0 3.40 0.071 178 119 88.9 59.3 44.5 36.0 29.6
Note:
(1) Wire sizes other than those listed above including larger sizes may be produced provided the quantity required is sufficient to justify
manufacture.
(2) Smooth Wires (ASTM A185) and deformed wires (ASTM A497) are available in a variety of steel grades (fy= 448 MPa to 552 MPa).
Check grades and availibility with suppliers

MATERIAL PROPERTIES WIRE
Fig. 8.2.14 Wire sizes in customary and metric units
W&D SIZE NUMBER CUSTOMARY UNITS U.S. UNITS METRIC UNITS EQUIV.
Nominal Nominal Nominal
Smooth Deformed Area Wire Gage Area MW or MD
Diameter Weight Diameter
2
(in.) (sq.in.) (lb./ft) Number (mm) (mm ) Size
W20 D20 0.505 0.200 0.680 12.8 129.0 MW129.0
0.490 0.189 0.643 7/0 12.4 121.9 MW121.9
W18 D18 0.479 0.180 0.612 12.2 116.1 MW116.1
0.462 0.168 0.511 6/0 11.7 108.4 MW108.4
W16 D16 0.451 0.160 0.544 11.5 103.2 MW103.2
0.431 0.146 0.495 5/0 10.9 94.2 MW94.2
W14 D14 0.422 0.140 0.476 10.7 90.3 MW90.3
0.394 0.122 0.414 4/0 10.0 78.7 MW78.7
W12 D12 0.391 0.120 0.408 9.9 77.4 MW77.4
W11 D11 0.374 0.110 0.374 9.5 71.0 MW71.0
W10.5 0.366 0.105 0.357 9.3 67.9 MW67.9
0.363 0.103 0.351 3/0 9.2 66.5 MW66.5
W10 D10 0.357 0.100 0.340 9.1 64.5 MW64.5
W9.5 0.348 0.095 0.323 8.8 61.3 MW61.3
W9 D9 0.338 0.090 0.306 8.6 58.1 MW58.1
0.331 0.086 0.292 2/0 8.4 55.5 MW55.5
W8.5 0.329 0.085 0.289 8.4 54.9 MW54.9
W8 D8 0.319 0.080 0.272 8.1 51.6 MW51.6
W7.5 0.309 0.075 0.255 7.8 48.4 MW48.4
0.307 0.074 0.251 1/0 7.8 47.6 MW47.6
W7 D7 0.299 0.707 0.238 7.6 45.2 MW45.2
W6.5 0.288 0.065 0.221 7.3 42.1 MW42.1
0.283 0.063 0.214 1 7.2 40.6 MW40.6
W6 D6 0.276 0.060 0.204 7.0 38.7 MW38.7
W5.5 0.265 0.055 0.187 6.7 35.5 MW35.5
0.263 0.054 0.184 2 6.7 34.9 MW34.9
W5 D5 0.252 0.050 0.170 6.4 32.3 MW32.3
0.244 0.047 0.158 3 6.2 30.3 MW30.3
W4.5 0.239 0.045 0.153 6.1 28.9 MW28.9
W4 D4 0.226 0.040 0.136 4 5.7 25.8 MW25.8
W3.5 0.211 0.035 0.119 5.4 22.6 MW22.6
0.207 0.034 0.114 5 5.3 22.0 MW22.0
W3 0.195 0.030 0.102 5.0 19.2 MW19.2
W2.9 0.192 0.029 0.098 6 4.9 18.7 MW18.7
W2.5 0.178 0.025 0.085 7 4.5 16.0 MW16.0
W2.1 0.162 0.021 0.707 8 4.1 13.3 MW13.3
W2 0.160 0.020 0.068 4.1 12.9 MW12.9
0.148 0.017 0.059 9 3.8 11.1 MW11.1
W1.5 0.138 0.015 0.051 3.5 9.7 MW9.7
W1.4 0.134 0.014 0.049 10 3.4 9.1 MW9.1

8.3 SECTION PROPERTIES
Fig. 8.3.1 Properties of geometric sections
SQUARE RECTANGLE A = bd
Axis of Moments Through A = d2 Axis of Moments on Diagonal bd
Center d c =
c = b + d2
2
2
d4 b3 d3
I = I =
12 6(b2 + d2 )
d3 b2 d2
S = S =
6 6 b2 + d2
d bd
r = = 0.288675d r =
12
6(b2 + d2 )
SQUARE RECTANGLE A = bd
Axis of Moments on Base A = d2 Axis of Moments Any Line b sina + dcos a
c =d Through Center of Gravity c =
2
d4 bd(b2 sin2 a + d2 cos2 a)
I = I =
3 12
d3 bd(b sin a + d2 cos2 a)
2 2
S = S =
3 6(b sina + dcosa)
d
r = = 0.577350d b2 sin2 a + d2 cos2 a
3 r =
12
SQUARE A = d2 HOLLOW RECTANGLE A = bd b1d1

Axis of Moments on Diagonal d Axis of Moments Through d
c = = 0.707107d Center c =
2 2
d4 bd3 b1d13
I = I =
12 12
d3 bd3 b1d13
S = = 0.117851d3 S =
6 2 6d
d bd3 b1d13
r = = 0.288675d r =
12 12A
RECTANGLE A = bd EQUAL RECTANGLES A = b(d d1)

Axis of Moments Through d Axis of Moments Through d
Center c = Center of Gravity c =
2 2
bd3 b(d3 d13 )
I = I =
12 12
bd2 b(d d13 )
3
S = S =
6 6d
d d3 d13
r = = 0.288675d r =
12 12(d d1)

SECTION PROPERTIES
Fig. 8.3.1 Properties of geometric sections (cont.)
RECTANGLE A = bd UNEQUAL RECTANGLES A = bt + b1t1

Axis of Moments on Base Axis of Moments Through 2
d 1 + b1t1(d 12 t1)
2 bt
c = Center of Gravity c =
2 A
bd3 bt 3
b t3
I = I = + bty2 + 1 1 + b1t1y12
3 12 12
bd2 I I
S = S = S1 =
3 c c1
d I
r = = 0.577350d r =
3 A
d(b + b1)
TRIANGLE TRAPEZOID A =
Axis of Moments Through bd Axis of Moments Through 2
Center of Gravity A = Center of Gravity d(2b + b1)
2 c =
2d 3(b + b1)
c =
3 d3 (b2 + 4bb1 + b12 )
I =
bd3 36(b + b1)
I =
36
d2 (b2 + 4bb1 + b12 )
bd2 S =
S = 12(2b + b1)
24
d
d r= 2(b2 + 4bb1 + b12 )
r = 6(b + b1)
18
R 4 y1
TRIANGLE PARTIAL CIRCLE I = + (R2 y12 )3
Axis of Moments on Base bd Axis of Moments Through 8 2
A = Circle Center
2 R2 y
y1 R 2 y12 + R 2 sin1 1
c =d 4 R
bd3
I =
12 R2
A = y1 R2 y12
bd2 2
S =
12 y
Note: Angles in Radians. R 2 sin1 1
d R
r =
6 2(R2 y12 )3 / 2
c =
3A
t 180sin t
SEGMENT OF A HOLLOW
CIRCLE A = ( 2R t ) c = cos R
180 2
3
360sin2 t
Ix = + sin ( cos ) R t
180 2

Iy = sin ( cos ) R3 t
180
180sin t
y = R Note: Angles in degrees.
2

SECTION PROPERTIES
CIRCLE d2 PARABOLA
Axis of Moments Through A = = R2 4
4 A = ab
Center 3
d
c = =R 2
2 m = a
5
d4 R 4
I = = 16 3
64 4 I1 = a b
3 175
d R3 4
S = = I2 = ab3
32 4 15
d R 32 3
r = = I3 = a b
4 2 105
2
HOLLOW CIRCLE HALF PARABOLOA A = ab
Axis of Moments Through Center 3
(d2 d12 ) 2
A = m = a
4 5
d 3
c = n = b
2 8
(d4 d14 ) 8 3
I = I1 = a b
64 175
(d4 d14 ) 19
S = I2 = ab3
32d 480
d2 d12 16 3
I3 = a b
r = 105
4
2
I4 = ab3
15
PARABOLIC FILLET t COMPLEMENT OF HALF 1
IN RIGHT ANGLE a = PARABOLA A = ab
2 2 3
t 7
b = m = a
2 10
1 2 3
A = t n = b
6 4
4 37 3
m =n= t I1 = a b
5 2100
11 4 1
I1 = I2 = t I2 = ab3
2100 80

SECTION PROPERTIES
(1) (1)
HALF ELLIPSE ELLIPTIC COMPLEMENT
A = ab 1
4
a
m =
1
A = ab 6 1
2 4
4a b
m = n =
3
6 1
8 4
I1 = a3b
8 9

1 3 1 1
I2 = ab3 I1 = a b
8 3 16 36 1
1 3
4
I3 = a b
8
1 1
I2 = ab3
3 16 36 1

4
(1)
QUARTER ELLIPSE REGULAR POLYGON
n = number of sides
180o
=
n
1 a = 2 R 2 R12
A = ab
4 a
R =
4a 2sin
m =
3 a
R1 =
4b 2tan
n =
3 1
4 A = na2 cot
I1 = a3b 4

16 9 1
= nR 2 sin2 = nR12 tan
4 2
I2 = ab3
16 9 A(6R2 a2 )
I1 = I2 =
1 24
I3 = a3b
16 A(12R12 + a2 )
1 =
I4 = ab3 48
16
6R2 a2
r1 = r2 =
24
12R1 + a2
=
48
(1) To obtain properties of half circles, quarter circle and circular complement, substitute a = b = R.

SECTION PROPERTIES
BEAMS AND CHANNELS
I3 = Ix sin 2 + Iy cos2
I4 = Ix cos2 + Iy sin 2
y x
fb = M sin + cos
Ix Iy

Where M is bending moment due to force F.
2K
tan2 =
ANGLE
Iy Ix
axis of moments though center of gravity
b2 + ct d2 + at
A = t(b + c) x= y=
2(b + c) 2(b + c)
K = product of inertia about X-X & Y-Y
abcdt
=
4(b + c)
1
Ix = [t(d y)3 + by3 a(y t)3 ]
3
1
Iy = [t(b x)3 + dx3 c(x t)3 ]
3
Iz = Ix sin2 + Iy cos2 + K sin2
Iw = Ix cos2 + Iy sin2 K sin 2
K is negative when heel of angle, with respect to center of

Note: Z-Z is Axis of Minimum I gravity, is in first or third quadrant, positive when in second
or fourth quadrant.

SECTION PROPERTIES
Fig. 8.3.2 Plastic section moduli and shape factors
SECTION PLASTIC MODULUS, Z3 , mm3 SHAPE FACTOR
bh2
1.5
4
x-x axis
w 1.12 (approx.)
bt(h t) + (h 2t)2
4
y-y axis
b2 t (h 2t)w 2
+ 1.55 (approx.)
2 4
w(h 2t)2
bt(h t) + 1.12 (approx.)
4
h3
1.70
6
2t
3
3 3 1 1
h 2t 16 h
1 1
6 h 3 2t
4
1 1
th2 for t << h h
1.27 for t << h
bh2 2t
2
2w
1 1 1 1.12 (approx.) for thin walls
4 b h
bh2
2
12
Note: For other shapes, refer to the CISC Steel Design Handbook for Zs values.

8.4 METRIC UNITS
Fig. 8.4.1 SI base units
Quantity Preferred Units Description Base Units
Area mm Square Millimetre
Coefficient of thermal expansion 1/DegC Reciprical of Degree Celcius
Density, mass kg/m Kilogram per Cubic Metre
Electric current A Ampere
Energy, work, quantity of heat J Joule 1 J = Nm
Force N Newton 1 N = kg-m/s
1 kg/m x 9.81 m/s
Force per unit length N/m Newton per Metre = (9.81 kg)(m)/(s)(1)/m
= 9.81 N/m
Frequency Hz Hertz 1 Hz = 1/s
Heat Capacity J/K Joule per Kelvin (m)(kg)/(s)(K)
Length mm Millimetre 1000 mm = 1 m
m Metre 1 km = 1000 m
km Kilometre
m Micrometre 1m = 1x10-6 m
Luminus intensity cd Candela
Mass kg Kilogram 1000 kg = 1 tonne
t Tonne
Modulus of Elasticity MPa Mega Pascal 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2
Modulus, section mm3 Cubic Millimetre
4
Moment of inertia mm Millimeter to Fourth Power
Moment of force Nm Newton Metre (m)(kg)/s
Plane angle deg 1 = (/180)rad
minute 1' = (/10,800)rad
Power W Watt 1 W = 1 J/s = (m)(kg)/s
Pressure Pa Pascal 1 Pa = 1 N/m
Specific volume m3/kg Cubic Metre per Kilogram
Stress MPa Mega Pascal 1 MPa = 1 N/mm
Temperature C Degree Celsius
Thermal conductivity W/mC Watt per Metre Celsius (m)(kg)/(s)(C)
Thermodynamic temperature K Kelvin 0C = 273.15 Kelvin
Time S Second
Min Minute 1 min = 60 s
H Hour 1 h = 3600 s
Torque kN-m Kilonewton Metre
Volume m3 Cubic Meter
3
mm Cubic Millimetre

CONVERSION FACTORS
Fig. 8.4.2 Conversion factors
Item SI - Imperial Imperial - SI
Acceleration 1 m / s = 3.2808 ft/s 1f t/s = 0.3048 m/s
Area 1 ha = 2.471 acres 1 acre = 0.4046856 ha
1 m = 10.764 ft 1 ft = 0.09290304 m
1 mm = 1.55 x 10-3 in 1 in = 645.16 mm
1 km = 0.3861 mi2 1 mi = 2.589988 km
1 m = 1.20 yd 1 yd = 0.8361274 m
-3
Capacity 1 mL = 35.2x10 oz 1 oz = 28.413062 mL
(Canadian Legal Units) 1 L = 0.220 gal 1 gal = 4.546090 L
1 L = 1.76 pt 1 pt = 0.568261 L
1 L = 0.880 qt 1 qt = 1.136522 L
Density, Mass 1 kg / m = 0.672 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 1.48816 kg/m
1 kg / m = 2.016 lb/yd 1 lb/ft = 0.496055 kg/m
1 g / m = 3.227x10-3 oz/ft 1 oz/ft = 305.152 g/m
1 kg / m = 0.205 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 4.88243 kg/m
-3
1 kg / m = 1.42x10 lb/in 1 lb/in = 703.069 kg/m
-3
1 kg / m = 62.4x10 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 16.01846 kg/m
1 Mg / m = 0.0361 lb/in 1 lb/in = 27.67990 Mg/m
Force 1 kN = 0.225 kip 1 kip = 4.448222 kN
Length 1 m = 3.28 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m = 304.8 mm
1 mm = 0.0394 in 1 in = 25.4 mm
1 km = 0.622 mile 1 mile = 1.609344 km
1 m = 1.09 yd 1 yd = 0.9144 m
Mass 1 kg = 2.20 lb 1 lb = 0.45359237 kg
1 Mg = 1.10 ton = 2200lb 1 ton (2000 lb) = 0.90718474 Mg
Mass per Unit Area 1 kg/m = 0.205 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 4.88243 kg/m
Mass per unit length 1 kg/m = 0.672 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 1.48816 kg/m
Moment of Inertia
a) Second Moment of area 1 mm4 = 2.4x10- 6 in 4 1 in4= 416231.4 mm4
3 -3
b) Section Modulus 1 mm = 0.06x10 in 1 in3 = 16387.064 mm
Pressure or Stress 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi 1 ksi = 6.894757 MPa
1 Pa = 0.0209 psf 1 psf = 47.88026 Pa
1 kPa = 0.145 psi 1 psi = 6.894757 kPa
Torque or Moment of Force 1 kN-m = 0.738 k-ft 1 k-ft = 1.355818 kN-m
-3
Volume 1 mm = 0.061x10 in 1 in = 16387.064 mm
1 dm = 0.0353 ft 1 ft = 28.31685 dm
1 m = 1.308 yd 1 yd = 0.764555 m
1 L = 0.2199 gal (Can) 1 gal (Can) = 4.54609 L
3
1 m = 219.9 gal (Can)

INDEX
Absorption............................................... 5-24 to 5-26 Cement ............................................................... 1-24

Acceptable noise criteria ........................... 6-19, 6-20 Cement grout .............................................. 4-7, 4-59
Aggregate ..................................1-24, 5-2, 5-13, 5-19 Cementitious materials ....................................... 5-14
Air / Vapour barrier ...................................... 5-3, 5-13 Centre of rigidity...................................... 2-44 to 2-46
Air barrier ...............................................................6-5 Ceramic veneers...............................5-19, 5-23, 5-24
Air entrainment ....................................................1-26 Checklist ............................................................... 5-2
Air leakage.............................................................6-5 Chloroprene pads ................................................ 4-7
Air space........................................... 5-12, 5-14, 5-20 Cladding, Cladding elements................ 5-2, 5-5, 5-12
Airborne sound ....................................................6-15 Clay, Clay products................................. 5-23 to 5-27
Aircraft cable........................................................3-98 Cleavage............................................................. 5-21
Aluminum foil .......................................................5-13 Closed joints ....................................................... 2-85
Analysis .....................................5-5, 5-10, 5-13, 5-21 Coefficients of expansion ................................... 2-14
Anchor rods .........................................................4-56 Coefficients of friction ........................................... 4-9
Anchorage elements......................... 4-25, 4-56, 4-59 Colour .................. 5-2, 5-17, 5-19 to 5-21, 5-25, 5-28
Anchorage, Anchors ....................... 5-3, 5-13 to 5-17, Column bases .................................................... 4-54
....................................................... 5-21 to 5-25, 5-27 Column covers ...................................... 5-8, 5-9, 5-19
Angles..................................................................4-52 Column design ........................................ 3-79 to 3-94
Architectural aesthetics ...............5-2, 5-4, 5-17, 5-21 Columns - Eccentrically loaded .............. 2-32 to 2-34
Architectural panel ...............................................2-72 Columns - Fixed base ............................ 2-20 to 2-25
Backup............................5-20, 5-21, 5-23, 5-25, 5-28 Columns - Interaction curves .................. 7-35 to 7-38
Balanced design - Fire............................... 6-31, 6-32 Columns - Precast prestressed ................. 7-35, 7-36
Base plates ..........................................................4-54 Columns - Precast reinforced .................... 7-37, 7-38
Base shear ..........................................................2-63 Complex units - Shapes...................... 5-2, 5-20, 5-28
Beam design............................................. 8-6 to 8-30 Composite, Non-composite ............5-2, 5-12 to 5-14,
Beam ledges .......................................................4-23 ................................................................... 5-17, 5-23
Beam load tables .................................... 7-27 to 7-34 Compression elements - Design............. 3-79 to 3-94
Bearing ..................................................................4-7 Compression elements - Resistance factors ..... 3-79
Bearing pads..........................................................4-7 Compression elements - Wall panels ................. 3-89
Bilinear behavior ..................................................3-58 Compressive strength of concrete ............. 1-24, 1-26
Bolts - Coil ...........................................................4-61 Computer modeling ............................................ 2-26
Bolts - High-strength ............................................4-60 Concrete exposure classes ................................ 1-25
Bolts - Standard ...................................................4-60 Concrete materials.............................................. 1-24
Bolts cast-in - see anchor rods ................................... Concrete mix design ...................................... 5-2, 5-3
Bond lifting loops .................................................3-98 Concrete strengths - Load tables.......................... 7-4
Bond, Bond breakers ..................... 5-13, 5-20 to 5-24 Condensation........................................................ 6-5
Bowing ..................................2-15 to 2-16, 5-4 to 5-7, Confinement reinforcement ....................... 4-13, 4-55
.................................................5-13, 5-14, 5-17, 5-20 Connections - Fire............................................... 6-41
Brackets - Concrete ............................................4-14 Construction techniques ....................................... 4-6
Brackets - Steel ...................................................4-45 Contraction................................................... 5-5, 5-14
Brick ............................................... 5-19, 5-23 to 5-27 Conversion factors .............................................. 8-49
Brick liners ...........................................................5-23 Copper ................................................................ 5-24
Bronze .................................................................5-24 Corbels................................................................ 4-14
Buckling .................................................. 3-79 to 3-94 Corners ........................................................ 5-7, 5-17
Building envelope ............................... 5-4, 5-17, 5-19 Corners - Movement .......................................... 2-15
Building science............................................. 5-2, 5-3 Cornices................................................................ 5-2
Camber ................................................... 3-57 to 3-64 Corrosion protection ............................................. 4-6
Camber multipliers...............................................3-61 Coupled shear walls ............................... 2-47 to 2-48
Camber load tables................................................7-4 Couplers.............................................................. 2-88
Cantilevers.......................................... 3-108, 5-7, 5-8 Cover requirements ............................................ 1-31
Capacity design ...................................................2-60 Crack width ......................................................... 3-26
Carbon content ...................................................4-57 Cracks, Cracking, Crack control ..5-5, 5-7, 5-13, 5-17
Carbon equivalent................................................4-57 Creep ......................................5-4 to 5-7, 5-10, 5-11,
Cast-in bolts - see anchor rods................................... ..........................................................5-17, 5-20, 5-27
Caulking, Caulked...................................... 5-17, 5-23 Creep loss............................................... 3-33 to 3-44
CPCI Design Manual 4 Index1

Creep strains ................................... 2-7 to 2-14, 3-41 Fire endurance.................................................... 6-27
Critical buckling load............................................3-84 Fire protection ...................................................... 4-6
Curing ...................................1-24, 2-9, 5-3, 5-5, 5-13 Fire resistance ............................................. 4-6, 6-27
Dapped end .........................................................4-18 Fire tests .................................................... 6-26, 6-29
Dead loads ................................................. 8-2 to 8-3 Flare bevel groove welds.................................... 4-57
Deflection................................2-46, 2-65, 3-67, 2-70, Flat wall panels .......................................... 7-41, 7-42
....................................................... 3-57 to 3-64, 8-25 Flexural design aids ................................ 3-13 to 3-24
Deformation, Deflection .............5-2, 5-4 to 5-7, 5-10, Flexural element design.......................... 3-10 to 3-31
................................................................... 5-11, 5-13 Flexural element design - Openings ................. 3-107
Deformed bar anchors .........................................4-46 Footing-soil interaction............................ 2-20 to 2-25
Deformed wire data .............................................8-38 Form suction ....................................................... 3-95
Design temperature .............................................2-11 Formwork .............................................................. 5-3
Development length................................ 3-52 to 3-57 Freeze thaw ........................................................ 5-23
Dew point.............................................................6-13 Freeze thaw and chemical resistance ................ 1-28
Diaphragm design..............2-17 to 2-20, 2-82 to 2-84 Friction .................................................................. 4-9
Differential movement..............2-71 to 2-72, 5-5, 5-7, Function .............................................. 5-2, 5-14, 5-12
.............................. 5-12, 5-13, 5-15, 5-17, 5-21, 6-12 Fundamental lateral period ................................. 2-63
Double tee - Load tables .......................... 7-7 to 7-20 Galvanized steel ................................................. 1-33
Double tee - Wall panels .....................................7-39 Geometric section properties.................. 8-42 to 8-46
Dovetail slots .......................................................5-24 Gergely - Lutz equation ...................................... 3-26
Dowels .................................................................4-59 Glass fibre (alkali resistant) .................................. 5-2
Draft .....................................................................3-95 Glazed........................................................ 5-23, 5-24
Drift ................................................ 2-65, 2-70 to 2-71 Granite .................................................... 5-20 to 5-22
Dry pack...............................................................4-63 Gravity loads ........................ 5-5, 5-6, 5-9, 5-10, 5-25
Ductile, Ductility .................................. 4-6, 5-15, 5-28 Green building rating systems ............................ 6-51
Durability............................................... 4-6, 5-4, 5-20 Grout, Mortar, and Drypack ................................ 1-28
Dynamic analysis procedures................. 2-62 to 2-63 Grouted tubes ..................................................... 4-59
Dynamic stresses ................................. 3-95 to 3-105 Grouting segmental................................. 2-84 to 2-85
Earthquake analysis ............................... 2-60 to 2-84 Handling................................................ 3-95 to 3-105
Eccentrically loaded anchors............ 4-28, 4-34, 4-39 Hanger - Cazaly hanger...................................... 4-49
Eccentricity, Eccentric loading....5-6, 5-7, 5-10, 5-11, Hanger - Loov hanger......................................... 4-50
................................................................... 5-13, 5-23 Hanger - Reinforcement ..................................... 4-20
Eccentricity, minimum..........................................3-87 Hardboard ............................................................. 4-9
Economy, Economical .......................... 5-4, 5-8, 5-20 Hauling................................................ 3-100 to 3-105
Edge distance ......................................................4-26 Haunches - Concrete ......................................... 4-14
Effective flange width ................................ 2-45, 2-51 Haunches - Steel ................................................ 4-46
Effective length ....................................... 2-34 to 2-35 Headed studs...................................................... 4-25
Effective moment of inertia ..................................3-59 Heat sink ............................................................ 4-57
Elastic shortening ........................................ 3-31, 5-9 High Performance Concrete (HPC) .................... 1-24
Elastomeric pads ...................................................4-7 Highway noise barriers ....................................... 6-24
Embedded steel shapes ......................................4-46 Hollow-core - Load tables .......................... 7-22, 7-23
End point criteria - Fire ........................................6-27 Hollow-core - Section properties................ 7-22, 7-23
Environmental changes .......................................5-17 Hollow-core - Wall panels ................................... 7-40
Epoxy...................................................................4-60 Horizontal shear...................................... 3-69 to 3-73
Equivalent static force procedure ........................2-63 Humidity annual average .................................... 2-10
Equivalent volume change ..................... 2-26 to 2-32 Hydration............................................................. 5-13
Erection................ 3-105, 4-7, 5-2 to 5-6, 5-9 to 5-11, I-girder load tables .................................. 7-32 to 7-34
.................................................5-14, 5-19, 5-20, 5-28 Impact factors ..................................................... 3-95
Expanded metal...................................................5-14 Impact Insulation Class (IIC)................... 6-18 to 6-20
Expansion ...... 5-5, 5-14, 5-20, 5-21, 5-23, 5-25, 5-27 Importance factors ...........................2-63, 2-68, 3-10
Expansion joints.......................................... 2-7 to 2-9 Insulation, Insulated .................5-8, 5-9, 5-12 to 5-14,
Fabric bearings pads ..................................... 4-7, 4-8 ....................5-16, 5-17, 5-20, 5-21, 5-23, 5-25, 5-27,
Facade, Facades .................................. 5-2, 5-9, 5-28 Interaction - Sandwich panels............. 3-109 to 3-112
Face mixes ............................................................5-2 Interaction curves.................................... 3-83 to 3-94
Fillet welds ...........................................................4-57 Interaction, Shear wall-frame.............................. 2-43
Finish ...................................5-2, 5-8, 5-9, 5-11, 5-13, Inverted tee load table ............................... 7-28, 7-29
..............................................5-19 to 5-21, 5-24, 5-28 Joint design........................................................... 6-6
Index2 CPCI Design Manual 4

Joints .................. 5-3, 5-4, 5-7, 5-9, 5-10, 5-17, 5-21, Non-load bearing .............. 5-2, 5-5 to 5-7, 5-10, 5-11
....................................................... 5-23 to 5-25, 5-28 Non-load bearing walls - Connections ................ 4-61
Joints - Connections ............................................4-61 Non-structural components................................. 2-66
Joints - Horizontal ................................................4-62 Open joints.......................................................... 2-84
Joints - Vertical ....................................................4-61 Openings........................................................... 3-107
Joints - Earthquake........................ 2-65, 2-71 to 2-72 Partial fixity.............................................. 2-20 to 2-25
Joints - Expansion ...................................... 2-7 to 2-8 Partial prestressing ................................. 3-44 to 3-52
Joints - Fire ................................................ 6-31, 6-32 Partial shear cones ............................................. 4-25
Joints - Locations........................................ 2-7 to 2-8 Patching ..................................................... 5-19, 5-28
Joints - Segmental .................................. 2-84 to 2-87 P-delta analysis ...................................... 2-35 to 2-36
Lateral buckling................................... 3-100 to 3-104 Permeability, Permeance.................................... 5-23
Lateral deflection ....................2-46, 2-65, 2-67, 2-70 Pervious/Impervious ........................................... 5-12
Lateral load connections........................... 2-45, 2-49, Piles ........................................................ 3-91 to 3-94
....................................................... 2-66 to 2-67, 2-69 Piles - Load tables ..................................... 7-43, 7-44
Lateral loads ..................2-7, 2-46, 2-59, 2-62 to 2-63 Plain concrete bearing ........................................ 4-10
Lateral period.......................................................2-63 Plastic bearing strip............................................... 4-9
Lateral stability.................................... 3-100 to 3-104 Plastic section modulii ........................................ 8-47
Ledger beams......................................................4-23 Poissons ratio............................................ 1-27, 5-25
Ledges .................................................................4-23 Porous........................................................ 5-14, 5-20
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)..............................6-51 Post-tensioned bar.............................................. 4-62
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) ..........................................6-51 Post-tensioning ................................................... 1-37
Lifting inserts..........................................................4-7 Post-tensioning - Design..................... 3-113 to 3-141
Lifting devices ......................................................3-98 Post-tensioning anchor data ................... 8-33 to 8-34
Limestone ...................................... 5-14, 5-20 to 5-22 Post-tensioning bar data..................................... 8-31
Limit states design ...............................................3-10 Post-tensioning - Segmental...................... 2-87, 2-88
Live loads.................................................... 8-4 to 8-5 Precast openings ....................................... 6-63, 6-64
Load bearing...................................... 5-2, 5-5 to 5-13 Preliminary analysis ............................................. 2-6
Load bearing walls - Connections .......................4-61 Prestress loss ......................................... 3-32 to 3-44
Load distribution ................................. 3-113 to 3-115 Prestress transfer................................................ 3-52
Load factors ................................................. 3-10, 4-7 Prestress, Prestressed ...... 5-3, 5-7, 5-13, 5-14, 5-23
Load multipliers....................................................3-95 Prestressing - Strand data ...................... 8-31 to 8-32
Location of connections............................. 2-69, 2-71 Prestressing - Load tables .................................... 7-5
Loss of prestress .................................... 3-31 to 3-45 Product information and capability........................ 7-1
Losses load tables .................................................7-5 Production...................................4-6, 5-2 to 5-5, 5-11
Low relaxation strand...........................................1-29 Properties......................... 5-3, 5-13, 5-20, 5-21, 5-24
Low-permeability concrete...................................1-25 Quality control ....................................................... 5-3
L-shaped beam load table ......................... 7-30, 7-31 Quirk mitre ............................................................ 5-9
Maintenance ..........................................................5-4 Rain penetration.................................................... 6-4
Manufacturing ........................................................4-6 Rainscreen.......................................................... 5-20
Marble..................................................... 5-20 to 5-22 Rational design for fire........................................ 6-40
Masonry ...................................5-12, 5-15, 5-24, 5-25 Rectangular beam load table.............................. 7-27
Mass law..............................................................6-15 Reinforced concrete bearing............................... 4-12
Mechanical connections ......................................4-60 Reinforcement................... 1-29, 5-3, 5-7, 5-10, 5-13,
Mitred corners.............................................. 5-9, 5-17 .................................................5-14, 5-16, 5-20, 5-24
Mockups ........................................... 5-19, 5-20, 5-28 Reinforcement ratio ............................................ 5-10
Modeling ..............................................................2-26 Reinforcing bar design data.................... 8-35 to 8-37
Modulus of elasticity ......................... 1-27, 5-20, 5-25 Reinforcing bar welding ...................................... 4-57
Modulus of rupture..................................... 1-26, 5-20 Relative humidity................................................. 6-14
Moisture .................................................................6-4 Relaxation ........................................................... 3-31
Moisture barrier....................................................5-21 Release stresses ................................................ 3-28
Moment connections............................................4-59 Repetition....................................................... 5-2, 5-4
Moment of inertia sandwich panels ...................3-109 Resistance factors .............................................. 3-11
Moment-resisting frames ...2-20 to 2-43, 2-36 to 2-42 Restrained elements - Fire ........................ 6-28, 6-40
Mullions.......................................................... 5-8, 5-9 Restrained volume change .................... 2-25 to 2-32,
Neoprene bearing pads .........................................4-7 ..................................................2-36 to 2-42, 4-6, 4-7
Nodal zones.........................................................4-13 Restraint....................................5-5 to 5-7, 5-14, 5-17
Non-insulated.........................................................5-2 Reveals ............................................... 5-2, 5-17, 5-19

Rib, Ribs ............................................. 5-2, 5-13, 5-14 Stability .............................................. 3-100 to 3-104,
Ribbed .......................................5-9, 5-10, 5-14, 5-15 ............................................... 5-2, 5-5, 5-8, 5-9, 5-15
Ribbed Panels - Design considerations . 3-90 to 3-91 Stainless steel................ 1-34, 4-25, 5-14, 5-21, 5-24
Ribbed Panels - Handling..................... 3-97 to 3-100 Standardization ...................... 2-6, 4-7, 5-2, 5-4, 5-11
Rift........................................................................5-21 Static friction ......................................................... 4-9
RSI-value .................................................. 6-8 to 6-12 Steel haunches ................................................... 4-46
Samples......................................... 5-19 to 5-21, 5-23 Steel sleeves.............................................. 4-60, 4-65
Sandblast.............................................................5-19 Stiffener............................................................... 4-52
Sandwich panels.............................. 5-12, 5-13, 5-17, Stone, Cut stone ..................................... 5-19 to 5-23
.......................................................... 5-23, 5-25, 5-27 Storage ............................................................. 3-104
Sandwich panels - Design .................. 3-108 to 3-112 Strain compatibility.................................. 3-24 to 3-26
Sandwich panels - Seismic Considerations ........2-72 Strand development................................ 3-52 to 3-57
Sealing, Sealants.............................. 5-10, 5-11, 5-23 Strand lifting loops .................................. 3-98 to 3-99
Second degree parabola .....................................2-17 Stress relieved strand ......................................... 1-29
Second order analysis ............................ 2-34 to 2-36 Stripping........................................5-3, 5-5, 5-6, 5-11,
Segmental construction ................. 1-38, 2-84 to 2-88 ..........................................................5-13, 5-16, 5-17
Seismic ..................... 5-5, 5-6, 5-10, 5-16, 5-25, 5-28 Stripping forces ..................................... 3-95 to 3-100
Seismic analysis ..................................... 2-60 to 2-84 Structural integrity .......................................... 5-2, 5-4
Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC).....................1-24 Structural integrity - Fire ..................................... 6-33
Service limit state.................................... 3-26 to 3-57 Structural irregularities........................................ 2-68
Shape factors............................................... 4-8, 8-47 Structural separation........................................... 2-65
Shape, Shaped ....................5-2, 5-8, 5-9, 5-11, 5-15, Strut and tie......................................................... 4-13
.................................................5-21, 5-23, 5-24, 5-28 Studs................................................................... 4-25
Shear capacity .....................................................5-14 Suction ....................................................... 5-16, 5-24
Shear connectors.................................... 5-14 to 5-17 Supplementary cementing materials ......... 1-24, 6-52
Shear design........................................... 3-64 to 3-79 Sustainable development ................................... 6-50
Shear horizontal...................................... 3-69 to 3-73 Teflon pads ........................................................... 4-9
Shear lag ....................................... 2-59 to 2-60, 2-70 Temperature change map .................................. 2-11
Shear resistance - Fire ........................................6-41 Temperature changes........................... 5-5, 5-6, 5-20
Shear strength of concrete ........................ 1-27, 3-64 Temperature effects............................................ 1-27
Shear transfer ..........................5-12, 5-13, 5-16, 5-17 Temperature gradient .................................. 5-6, 5-17
Shear transfer between elements........... 2-18 to 2-19 Temperature index..................................... 6-13, 6-14
Shear wall buildings................................ 2-43 to 2-60 Tensile strength of concrete ............................... 1-26
Shear walls .......................2-43 to 2-60, 2-76 to 2-82, Terra cotta......................................5-19, 5-23 to 5-25
................................................................... 5-10, 5-12 Testing .....................................5-16, 5-20, 5-21, 5-24
Shear-friction .......................................................4-10 Texture............................. 5-2, 5-17, 5-19, 5-21, 5-28
Sheet piles ...........................................................7-44 TFE pads .............................................................. 4-9
Shrinkage....................................5-5, 5-6, 5-11, 5-15, Thermal bridge, bridging.............................. 5-14, 6-8
.................................................5-17, 5-20, 5-23, 5-27 Thermal characteristics.............................. 5-13, 5-17
Shrinkage and creep............................................1-27 Thermal gradient........................................ 6-12, 6-13
Shrinkage strains ...................................... 2-9 to 2-14 Thermal inertia ...................................................... 6-7
SI units.................................................................8-48 Thermal mass ..................................... 6-7, 6-53, 6-54
Sidesway .............................................................3-86 Thermal resistance ................................... 6-9 to 6-12
Sill ........................................................................5-19 Thermal - Bowing ................................... 2-15 to 2-17
Single tee load tables ..........................................7-21 Threaded rods..................................................... 4-61
Slenderness effects ...........2-35 to 2-40, 3-84 to 3-89 Ties ................................................5-12 to 5-17, 5-24
Soffit.....................................................................5-19 Tolerances ...................... 4-6, 5-4 to 5-6, 5-9 to 5-11,
Soil modulus ........................................................2-21 ..........................................................5-19, 5-21, 5-23
Solid concrete rib ....................................... 5-13, 5-14 Torsion design ........................................ 3-73 to 3-79
Sound control.......................................................6-23 Torsion, Torsional forces .................... 5-6, 5-11, 5-17
Sound leaks .........................................................6-23 Torsional effects.................................................. 2-64
Sound Transmission Class (STC) ............ 6-16, 6-17, Total precast concrete structures ................ 1-2, 6-64
................................................................ 6-20 to 6-23 Transportation.................................3-105, 5-2 to 5-4,
Span-depth ratios ............................... 2-6, 3-115, 7-4 ..................................................................... 5-8, 5-14
Spandrels.......................................... 5-6 to 5-7, 5-11, Truss ................................ 5-9, 5-10, 5-14, 5-21, 5-24
................................................................... 5-12, 5-19 Tube structure................................2-59 to 2-60, 2-70
Spandrels - Prestressed design ............. 3-74 to 3-79 Twisting, Rotation ............................... 5-7, 5-11, 5-14
Index4 CPCI Design Manual 4

Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) 1-23, 1-34 Warpage ............................................. 3-104 to 3-105
Unbonded tendons ............................................3-116 Welded headed studs - Back edge..................... 4-40
Unbraced frames ...............2-20 to 2-32, 2-36 to 2-43 Welded headed studs - Corners ......................... 4-37
Unrestrained elements - Fire ......... 6-28, 6-33 to 6-37 Welded headed studs - Front edge .................... 4-34
Vapour diffusion.....................................................6-5 Welded headed studs
Veneer, Veneer facing ....................... 5-12, 5-19 5-27 Interaction of tension and shear ......................... 4-40
Vertical joint connections.....................................4-61 Welded headed studs - In-the-field..................... 4-40
Vibration isolation ................................................6-48 Welded headed studs - Shear ............................ 4-34
Vibrations................................................ 6-42 to 6-48 Welded headed studs - Side edge...................... 4-38
Volume change........................1-27, 2-9 to 2-14, 4-6, Welded headed studs - Tension ......................... 4-25
.....................................................5-5, 5-6, 5-11, 5-19 Welded wire fabric .................................. 8-39 to 8-40
Volume change strains ........................................2-12 Welding - Plates.................................................. 4-57
Volume-surface ratio..............................................7-2 Welding-Reinforcing bars ................................... 4-57
Wall panels - Load bearing................................3-109 Wind........................................................ 2-36 to 2-43
Walls - Fire resistance of connections...................4-6 Window walls ...................................................... 6-30
Walls - Floor to wall connections ............ 4-63 to 4-65 Window washing ................................................... 5-8
Walls - Joints .......................................................4-61 Wire data............................................................. 8-18
Walls - Vertical joints ...........................................4-61 Wythes .................................................... 5-12 to 5-17
Walls - Wall to foundation connections................4-64 Yarding.............................................................. 3-104
Walls - Deflection....................................... 2-46, 2-65

CPCI Design Manual - 4th Ed, Canadian Precast &amp; Concrete Institue

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CPCI Design Manual - 4th Ed, Canadian Precast &amp; Concrete Institue

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 METHODS AND MATERIALS

CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

CHAPTER 3 DESIGN OF ELEMENTS

CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS

CHAPTER 5 ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE

CHAPTER 6 RELATED CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 7 PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPACITY

CHAPTER 8 GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION

Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

First Edition 1982

Precast and Prestressed Concrete

Tel: (613) 232-2619