Table 1: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Series

+
X +
X
jk0 t
x(t) = ak e = ak ejk(2/T )t
k= k=
Z Z
1 jk0 t 1
ak = x(t)e dt = x(t)ejk(2/T )t dt
T T T T

Property Periodic Signal Fourier Series Coefficients


x(t) Periodic with period T and ak
y(t) fundamental frequency 0 = 2/T bk

Linearity Ax(t) + By(t) Aak + Bbk

Time-Shifting x(t t0 ) ak ejk0t0 = ak ejk(2/T )t0
Frequency-Shifting ejM 0 t = ejM (2/T )t x(t) akM
Conjugation x (t) ak
Time Reversal x(t) ak
Time Scaling x(t),
Z > 0 (periodic with period T /) ak
Periodic Convolution x( )y(t )d T ak bk
T
+
X
Multiplication x(t)y(t) al bkl
l=
dx(t) 2
Differentiation jk0 ak = jk ak
Z dt t   T 
(finite-valued and 1 1
Integration x(t)dt ak = ak
periodic only if a0 = 0) jk0 jk(2/T )

ak = ak

e{ak } = e{ak }

Conjugate Symmetry
x(t) real m{ak } = m{ak }
for Real Signals


|ak | = |ak |

<) ak = < ) ak
Real and Even Sig-
x(t) real and even ak real and even
nals

Real and Odd Signals x(t) real and odd ak purely imaginary and odd

Even-Odd Decompo- xe (t) = Ev{x(t)} [x(t) real] e{ak }
sition of Real Signals xo (t) = Od{x(t)} [x(t) real] jm{ak }

Parsevals Relation for Periodic Signals

Z +
1 2
X
|x(t)| dt = |ak |2
T T k=
 Table 2: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Series
X X
x[n] = ak ejk0n = ak ejk(2/N )n
k=<N > k=<N >

1 X 1 X
ak = x[n]ejk0 n = x[n]ejk(2/N )n
N n=<N >
N n=<N >

Property Periodic signal Fourier series coefficients

 
x[n] Periodic with period N and fun- ak Periodic with
y[n] damental frequency 0 = 2/N bk period N

Linearity Ax[n] + By[n] Aak + Bbk

Time shift x[n n0 ] ak ejk(2/N )n0
Frequency Shift ejM (2/N )n x[n] akM
Conjugation x [n] ak
Time Reversal x[n] ak !
 viewed as
x[n/m] if n is a multiple of m 1
Time Scaling x(m) [n] = ak periodic with
0 if n is not a multiple of m m period mN
(periodic with period mN )
X
Periodic Convolution x[r]y[n r] Nak bk
r=hN i
X
Multiplication x[n]y[n] al bkl
l=hN i
First Difference x[n] x[n 1] (1 ejk(2/N ) )ak
n    
X finite-valued and 1
Running Sum x[k] ak
periodic only if a0 = 0 (1 ejk(2/N ) )
k=

ak = ak

e{ak } = e{ak }

Conjugate Symmetry
x[n] real m{ak } = m{ak }
for Real Signals
|a | = |ak |
k


<) ak = < ) ak
Real and Even Signals x[n] real and even ak real and even

Real and Odd Signals x[n] real and odd ak purely imaginary and odd

Even-Odd Decomposi- xe [n] = Ev{x[n]} [x[n] real] e{ak }

tion of Real Signals xo [n] = Od{x[n]} [x[n] real] jm{ak }

Parsevals Relation for Periodic Signals

1 X X
|x[n]|2 = |ak |2
N
n=hN i k=hN i
 Table 3: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Transform
Z
1
x(t) = X(j)ejtd
2
Z
X(j) = x(t)ejt dt

Property Aperiodic Signal Fourier transform

x(t) X(j)
y(t) Y (j)

Linearity ax(t) + by(t) aX(j) + bY (j)

Time-shifting x(t t0 ) ejt0 X(j)
Frequency-shifting ej0 t x(t) X(j( 0 ))
Conjugation x (t) X (j)
Time-Reversal x(t) X(j) 
1 j
Time- and Frequency-Scaling x(at) X
|a| a
Convolution x(t) y(t) X(j)Y (j)
1
Multiplication x(t)y(t) X(j) Y (j)
2
d
Differentiation in Time x(t) jX(j)
Zdt
t
1
Integration x(t)dt X(j) + X(0)()
j
d
Differentiation in Frequency tx(t) j X(j)
d

X(j) = X (j)

e{X(j)} = e{X(j)}

Conjugate Symmetry for Real
x(t) real m{X(j)} = m{X(j)}
Signals


|X(j)| = |X(j)|

<) X(j) = <) X(j)
Symmetry for Real and Even
x(t) real and even X(j) real and even
Signals
Symmetry for Real and Odd
x(t) real and odd X(j) purely imaginary and odd
Signals
Even-Odd Decomposition for xe (t) = Ev{x(t)} [x(t) real] e{X(j)}
Real Signals xo (t) = Od{x(t)} [x(t) real] jm{X(j)}

Parsevals Relation for Aperiodic Signals

Z + Z +
2 1
|x(t)| dt = |X(j)|2d
2
 Table 4: Basic Continuous-Time Fourier Transform Pairs

Fourier series coefficients

Signal Fourier transform (if periodic)

+
X +
X
jk0 t
ak e 2 ak ( k0 ) ak
k= k=
a1 = 1
ej0 t 2( 0 )
ak = 0, otherwise
a1 = a1 = 12
cos 0 t [( 0 ) + ( + 0 )]
ak = 0, otherwise
1
a1 = a1 = 2j
sin 0 t [( 0 ) ( + 0 )]
j ak = 0, otherwise
a0 = 1, ak = 0, k 6= 0
!
this is the Fourier series rep-
x(t) = 1 2()
resentation for any choice of
T >0
Periodic
 square wave
1, |t| < T1 +  
x(t) = X 2 sin k0 T1 0 T1 k0 T1 sin k0 T1
0, T1 < |t| T2 ( k0 ) sinc =
k k
and k=
x(t + T ) = x(t)
+ +  
X 2 X 2k 1
(t nT ) ak = for all k
n=
T T T
 k=
1, |t| < T1 2 sin T1
x(t)
0, |t| > T1 
sin W t 1, || < W
X(j) =
t 0, || > W
(t) 1
1
u(t) + ()
j
(t t0 ) ejt0
at 1
e u(t), e{a} > 0
a + j
1
teat u(t), e{a} > 0
(a + j)2
tn1 at 1
(n1)! e u(t),

e{a} > 0 (a + j)n
 Table 5: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Transform
Z
1
x[n] = X(ej )ejn d
2 2
+
X
j
X(e ) = x[n]ejn
n=

Property Aperiodic Signal Fourier transform


x[n] X(ej ) Periodic with
j
y[n] Y (e ) period 2
Linearity ax[n] + by[n] aX(ej ) + bY (ej )
Time-Shifting x[n n0 ] ejn0 X(ej )
Frequency-Shifting ej0 n x[n] X(ej(0 ) )
Conjugation x [n] X (ej )
Time Reversal x[n]  X(ej )
x[n/k], if n = multiple of k
Time Expansions x(k) [n] = X(ejk )
0, if n 6= multiple of k
Convolution x[n] y[n] X(eZj )Y (ej )
1
Multiplication x[n]y[n] X(ej )Y (ej() )d
2 2

Differencing in Time x[n] x[n 1] (1 ej )X(ej )

n
X 1
Accumulation x[k] X(ej )
k=
1 ej
X+
j0
+X(e ) ( 2k)
k=
dX(ej )
Differentiation in Frequency nx[n] j
d
j

X(e ) = X (ej )

e{X(ej )} = e{X(ej )}

Conjugate Symmetry for x[n] real m{X(ej )} = m{X(ej )}

Real Signals

|X(ej )| = |X(ej )|

<) X(ej ) = <
) X(ej )

Symmetry for Real, Even x[n] real and even X(ej ) real and even
Signals
X(ej ) purely
Symmetry for Real, Odd x[n] real and odd
imaginary and odd
Signals
Even-odd Decomposition of xe [n] = Ev{x[n]} [x[n] real] e{X(ej )}
Real Signals xo [n] = Od{x[n]} [x[n] real] jm{X(ej )}

Parsevals Relation for Aperiodic Signals

+ Z
X
2 1
|x[n]| = |X(ej )|2 d
n=
2 2
 Table 6: Basic Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Pairs

Fourier series coefficients

Signal Fourier transform (if periodic)

+  
X X 2k
ak ejk(2/N )n 2 ak ak
N
k=hN i k=
2m
(a) 0 = N
+
X 1, k = m, m N, m 2N, . . .
ej0 n 2 ( 0 2l) ak =
0, otherwise
l= 0
(b) 2 irrational The signal is aperiodic
2m
(a) 0 = N
+ 1
2 , k = m, m N, m 2N, . . .
X
cos 0 n {( 0 2l) + ( + 0 2l)} ak =
0, otherwise
l= 0
(b) 2 irrational The signal is aperiodic
(a) 0 = 2r
N
1
+
X 2j , k = r, r N, r 2N, . . .
1
sin 0 n {( 0 2l) ( + 0 2l)} ak = , k = r, r N, r 2N, . . .
j 2j
l= 0, otherwise
0
(b) irrational The signal is aperiodic
+ 2
X 1, k = 0, N, 2N, . . .
x[n] = 1 2 ( 2l) ak =
0, otherwise
l=
Periodic
 square wave
1, |n| N1 +   sin[(2k/N )(N1 + 12 )]
x[n] = X 2k ak = , k 6= 0, N, 2N, . . .
0, N1 < |n| N/2 2 ak N sin[2k/2N ]
2N1 +1
N ak = , k = 0, N, 2N, . . .
and k= N
x[n + N ] = x[n]
+ +  
X 2 X 2k 1
[n kN ] ak = for all k
k=
N
k=
N N
1
an u[n], |a| < 1
 1 aej
1, |n| N1 sin[(N1 + 21 )]
x[n]
0, |n| > N1

sin(/2)

sin W n

1, 0 || W
=W
sinc
Wn
X() =
n 0, W < ||
0<W <
X()periodic with period 2
[n] 1
+
1 X
u[n] + ( 2k)
1 ej
k=
[n n0 ] ejn0
1
(n + 1)an u[n], |a| < 1
(1 aej )2
(n + r 1)! n 1
a u[n], |a| < 1
n!(r 1)! (1 aej )r
 Table 7: Properties of the Laplace Transform

Property Signal Transform ROC

x(t) X(s) R

x1 (t) X1 (s) R1

x2 (t) X2 (s) R2

Linearity ax1 (t) + bx2 (t) aX1 (s) + bX2 (s) At least R1 R2

Time shifting x(t t0 ) est0 X(s) R

Shifting in the s-Domain es0 t x(t) X(s s0 ) Shifted version of R [i.e., s is

in the ROC if (s s0 ) is in
R]
1 s
Time scaling x(at) X Scaled ROC (i.e., s is in
|a| a
the ROC if (s/a) is in R)

Conjugation x (t) X (s ) R

Convolution x1 (t) x2 (t) X1 (s)X2 (s) At least R1 R2

d
Differentiation in the Time Domain x(t) sX(s) At least R
dt
d
Differentiation in the s-Domain tx(t) X(s) R
Z ds
t
1
Integration in the Time Domain x( )d( ) X(s) At least R {e{s} > 0}
s

Initial- and Final Value Theorems

If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) contains no impulses or higher-order singularities at t = 0, then

x(0+ ) = lims sX(s)

If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) has a finite limit as t , then

limt x(t) = lims0 sX(s)

Table 8: Laplace Transforms of Elementary Functions

Signal Transform ROC

1. (t) 1 All s
1
2. u(t) e{s} > 0
s
1
3. u(t) e{s} < 0
s
tn1 1
4. u(t) e{s} > 0
(n 1)! sn
tn1 1
5. u(t) e{s} < 0
(n 1)! sn
1
6. et u(t) e{s} >
s+
1
7. et u(t) e{s} <
s+
tn1 t 1
8. e u(t) e{s} >
(n 1)! (s + )n
tn1 t 1
9. e u(t) e{s} <
(n 1)! (s + )n
10. (t T ) esT All s
s
11. [cos 0 t]u(t) e{s} > 0
s2 + 02
0
12. [sin 0 t]u(t) e{s} > 0
s2 + 02
s+
13. [et cos 0 t]u(t) e{s} >
(s + )2 + 02
0
14. [et sin 0 t]u(t) e{s} >
(s + )2 + 02
dn (t)
15. un (t) = sn All s
dtn
1
16. un (t) = u(t) u(t) e{s} > 0
| {z } sn
n times
 Table 9: Properties of the z-Transform

Property Sequence Transform ROC

x[n] X(z) R
x1 [n] X1 (z) R1
x2 [n] X2 (z) R2

Linearity ax1 [n] + bx2 [n] aX1 (z) + bX2 (z) At least the intersection
of R1 and R2

Time shifting x[n n0 ] z n0 X(z) R except for the

possible addition or
deletion of the origin

Scaling in the ej0 n x[n] X(ej0

  z) R
z-Domain z0n x[n] X zz0 z0 R
n
a x[n] X(a1 z) Scaled version of R
(i.e., |a|R = the
set of points {|a|z}
for z in R)

Time reversal x[n] X(z 1 ) Inverted R (i.e., R1

= the set of points
 z 1 where z is in R)
x[r], n = rk
Time expansion x(k) [n] = X(z k ) R1/k
0, n 6= rk
for some integer r (i.e., the set of points z 1/k
where z is in R)

Conjugation x [n] X (z ) R

Convolution x1 [n] x2 [n] X1 (z)X2 (z) At least the intersection

of R1 and R2

First difference x[n] x[n 1] (1 z 1 )X(z) At least the

intersection of R and |z| > 0
Pn 1
Accumulation k= x[k] 1z 1
X(z) At least the
intersection of R and |z| > 1

Differentiation nx[n] z dX(z)

dz
R
in the z-Domain

Initial Value Theorem

If x[n] = 0 for n < 0, then
x[0] = limz X(z)
 Table 10: Some Common z-Transform Pairs

Signal Transform ROC

1. [n] 1 All z

1
2. u[n] 1z 1
|z| > 1

1
3. u[n 1] 1z 1
|z| < 1

4. [n m] z m All z except
0 (if m > 0) or
(if m < 0)

1
5. n u[n] 1z 1
|z| > ||

1
6. n u[n 1] 1z 1
|z| < ||

z 1
7. nn u[n] (1z 1 )2
|z| > ||

z 1
8. nn u[n 1] (1z 1 )2
|z| < ||

1[cos 0 ]z 1
9. [cos 0 n]u[n] 1[2 cos 0 ]z 1 +z 2
|z| > 1

[sin 0 ]z 1
10. [sin 0 n]u[n] 1[2 cos 0 ]z 1 +z 2
|z| > 1

1[r cos 0 ]z 1
11. [r n cos 0 n]u[n] 1[2r cos 0 ]z 1 +r 2 z 2
|z| > r

[r sin 0 ]z 1
12. [r n sin 0 n]u[n] 1[2r cos 0 ]z 1 +r 2 z 2
|z| > r