DMA Review Sheet Merged PDF

Medieval Terms
Ars antiqua: ("The old art") A term used to describe the musical style period of France from 1150 to 1300
(Perotin, etc.).
Ars cantus mensurabilis: This treatise written in c1260 by Franco of Cologne introduced the first notation system
of long and short notes and rests (long and breve)--known as Franconian notation or mensural notation.
Ars nova: ("The new art") A term used to identify the experimental musical style period of France from
approximately 1300-1375 (DeVitry, Machaut, etc.).
Ars subtilior: ("The subtle art") A term used to describe the highly expressive musical style period of France in the
late 1300s/early 1400s (Baude Cordier, etc.).
Church Modes: The term for the system of eight "octave species" (dorian, phrygian, lydian, mixolydian,
hypodorian, hypophrygian, hypolydian, hypomixolydian) formulated originally for the purpose of organizing the
repertory of Gregorian chant.
Formes fixes: ("Fixed forms") The three French poetic forms that were the primary song forms of the Ars Nova
[see "The Structure of the Formes Fixes and the Ballata"], see also the entries for ballade, virelai, rondeau in
"Medieval Genres", below].
Isorhythm: ("The same rhythm") A compositional device usually applied to the Tenor of a polyphonic work,
featuring a repeated "talea" (rhythmic pattern) and "color" (melodic pattern). Used by DeVitry, Machaut and other
French Ars Nova composers.
Melisma: Many notes sung on a single syllable of text to put emphasis on that word.
Monophonic: A musical texture with one melody played or sung at a time with no harmony.
Musica enchiriadis: This writing, dating from c900, is the earliest known treatise to describe polyphonic music.
Musica ficta: ("False music") In polyphonic music c900-1500, in order to avoid forbidden dissonant intervals (such
as tritones), performers added accidentals (sharps, flats, or naturals) that are not specified in the written notation,
and were often beyond the medieval musical gamut.
Musica mundana: Boethius' term for the mathematical harmonic relationship of heavenly bodies ("Music of the
Spheres").
Polyphony: A musical texture with two or more simultaneously sounding lines of independent melody. The
development of polyphony around the year 1000 is perhaps the most significant occurrence in Western music
history.
Rhythmic Modes: A way of organizing rhythm in early Medieval polyphony by using one of six poetic patterns
based on combinations of long and short values.
Solmization: The practice of applying the set of syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la to patterns of whole and half steps in
melodies.
Stimmtausch: A repetition of a musical section with the voice parts exchanged.
Treatise: In music, this is a formal written document that studies some aspect of music theory and/or performance
practice.
Trecento: A term used to describe the musical style period of Italy in the 1300s (Landini).
Medieval Genres
Ballade: One of the late-Medieval French strophic "formes fixes" (fixed forms) that is usually in a form that could be
diagrammed as AaB.
Ballata: An Italian poetic song-form made famous by Landini and others during the Trecento, with a form that could
be diagrammed ABbaA.
Cantiga: A Portuguse narrative monophonic song that can be secular or sacred (such as songs about miracles or
praising the Virgin Mary).
Chanson: A French song; in the late Middle Ages they were usually based on one of the three poetic "fixed forms"
(ballade, virelai, rondeau--see "Formes fixes", in "Medieval Terms", above).
Chant: (also called "Gregorian Chant", "plainsong", or "plainchant") Sacred Catholic Latin sacred liturgical melodies
that are sung monophonically with an unmetered rhythm.
Conductus: A type of sacred but non-liturgical vocal composition for one or more voices, which all sang
rhythmically together in note-against-note "discant" style.
Estampie: A "stomping" Medieval instrumental dance that is usually monophonic.
Lai: A lyrical narrative sung poem from the 1200s/1300s that usually deals with tales of adventure and romance.
Madrigal: In the late Middle Ages, this term refers to a briefly-popular type of composition for two voices in the
Trecento Italian style of the 1300s. (The term relates to a very different and much more important genre in the
Renaissance and early Baroque periods.)
Mass: The approximately 25 prayers that lead to and follow the taking of communion. There are two types of mass
prayers: The "Ordinary" (5 everyday prayers--Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei) and The "Proper" (20
prayers that are appropriate only for a certain day, such as Easter or Christmas, according to the liturgical
calendar of saints and holy days). A "musical Mass" often refers to a musical setting of just the Mass Ordinary.
Motet: In the Middle Ages, this is term describes polyphonic compositions for two or three voice parts, often with
each part having an independent text (sometimes in different languages combining sacred and secular words).
Organum: This term was applied to the earliest-known notated examples of plainchant set in polyphonic texture--
long-held chant notes in the lowest voice, with faster moving metrical rhythms in the upper voice(s). [Perotin]
Pastourelle: A lyric French poem that is sung, dealing with the romance of a shepherdess.
Rondeau: One of the late-Medieval French strophic "formes fixes" (fixed forms) that is usually in a form that could
be diagrammed as ABaAabAB.
Rota: A type of vocal "round" popular in England in the 1200s and 1300s.
Sequence: In the Middle Ages, this term describes a type of long liturgical hymns based on a series of 2-line
stanzas (x aa, bb, cc, dd, ee... y).
Troubadour Canso: The earliest-known types of monophonic song set to a vernacular (non-Latin) text. [Love
songs written by travelling minstrels (troubadours) such as Bernard de Ventadorn].
Virelai: One of the late-Medieval French strophic "formes fixes" (fixed forms) that is usually in a form that could be
diagrammed as ABbaA.
Medieval Composers and Theorists (in chronological order)
Early Influences
Pythagoras (c580-500BC): The ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician who is credited with determining the
mathematics behind tuning systems, intervallic ratios, etc.
Boethius (c480-525): The heritage of Greek music theory was passed on to the Middle Ages primarily through the
writing of this sixth-century Roman diplomat.
Early- and Mid-Medieval Composers and Theorists
Notker Balbulus (c800): A 9th-century monk who wrote an important early collection of "sequences" (long liturgical
hymns with a series of 2-line stanzas: x aa, bb, cc, dd, ee... y).
Guido d'Arezzo (c1000): This eleventh-century monk was among the first to discuss polyphony and devise a
system of six-note patterns for teaching others to sight read. Also known for devising the "Guidonian Hand" as a
reference for solfege syllables.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179): A German nun, religious thinker, philosopher, visionary and composer who
wrote many liturgical songs.
Magister Albertus (died 1177): A French composer of the 12th century, who worked at Notre Dame in Paris and
composed the first known piece of European music for three voices.
Bernard de Ventadorn (c1130-c1200): A prominent roving minstrel/composer (troubadour) in France during the
mid-to-late 1100s. Non es meravelha s'eu chan [troubadour canso] c1190
Perotin (flourished c1200): A leading figure in the Notre Dame School of early polyphony. Known for his 2-,3-, and
4-voice organum. Sedeunt principes [organum quadruplum] c1200
Adam de la Halle (c1237-1288): A French travelling minstrel/composer (trouvere), known for his Jeu de Robin et
Marion--the earliest surviving French play with music.
Anonymous IV (late 1200s): The name given to an unknown writer of an important Medieval treatise (c1280) which
is the main source for understanding the music of the "Notre Dame School" of the Ars Antiqua (Leonin and
Perotin).
Franco of Cologne (late 1200s): This theorist/composer who flourished c1260-1280 codified a system of notation
that assigned duration values to individual neumes (long and breve) and rests. [This is called Franconian notation
or mensural notation].
Late-Medieval Composers and Theorists

Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361): A famous French composer and theorist during the Ars Nova, known for his
innovative and complex rhythmic notation. Garrit GallusIn Nova Fert [isorhythmic motet] c1319
Guillaume de Machaut (1300-1377): The most important French composer of the Middle Ages, he wrote in the
complex Ars Nova style and composed chansons, motets, and the first complete setting of the Mass Ordinary
(the Messe de Notre Dame [c1350]), which was the first to include a Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei).
Francesco Landini (1325-1397): This blind organist and composer was the leading figure in the Italian Trecento
style--known especially for his ballatas. Non avr ma' piet [ballata] (c1389)
Baude Cordier (c1380-c1439): This French composer's works are among the prime examples of the intricate and
highly-expressive Ars Subtilior style of the late 1300s-early 1400s. One of his most famous love songs, Belle,
Bonne, Sage (c1420), is written in the shape of a heart, and features new experiments with notation, rhythm and
melody.
Transition to the Renaissance

John Dunstable (c1390-c1453): This early 15th-century English composer began the transition to the Renaissance
with a triadic sound that came to be known on the continent as the "Contenance Angloise" (the English sound). It
has a very different sound than the French Ars Nova or Italian Trecento. Quam pulchra es [motet] c1430
Renaissance Terms
Cantus firmus: ("Fixed song") The process of using a pre-existing tune as the structural basis for a new
polyphonic composition.
Choralis Constantinus: A collection of over 350 polyphonic motets (using Gregorian chant as the cantus firmus)
written by the German composer Heinrich Isaac and his pupil Ludwig Senfl.
Contenance angloise: ("The English sound") A term for the style or quality of music that writers on the continent
associated with the works of John Dunstable (mostly triadic harmony, which sounded quite different than late
Medieval music).
Counterpoint: Combining two or more independent melodies to make an intricate polyphonic texture.
Fauxbourdon: A musical texture prevalent in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, produced by three
voices in mostly parallel motion first-inversion triads. Only two of the three voices were notated (the chant/cantus
firmus, and a voice a sixth below); the third voice was "realized" by a singer a 4th below the chant.
Glogauer Liederbuch: This German part-book from the 1470s is a collection of 3-part instrumental arrangements
of popular French songs (chanson).
Homophonic: A polyphonic musical texture in which all the voices move together in note-for-note chordal fashion,
and when there is a text it is rendered at the same time in all voices.
Imitation: A polyphonic musical texture in which a melodic idea is freely or strictly echoed by successive voices. A
section of freer echoing in this manner if often referred to as a "point of imitation"; Strict imitation is called "canon."
Musica Reservata: This term applies to High/Late Renaissance composers who "suited the music to the meaning
of the words, expressing the power of each affection."
Musica Transalpina: ("Music across the Alps") A printed anthology of Italian popular music translated into English
and published in England in 1588.
Odhecaton A: This set of 96 pieces published by Petrucci in 1501 is the first collection of polyphonic music printed
entirely worth movable type. [A major breakthrough in the history of music printing].
Old Hall Manuscript: This mid-14th-century royal collection contains nearly 150 pieces of English sacred
polyphony.
Orchesographie: The most detailed instructions on dance choreography and dance music of the Renaissance are
contained in this 1588 source.
Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical Music: An important English musical treatise published by Thomas
Morley in 1597.
Simultaneous Composition: The process of considering and writing all voice parts of a musical composition at the
same time, which allows for imitation, better voice leading to control dissonance, and consideration of a
fundamental harmonic bass line.
Successive Composition: The process of writing a musical composition one layer at a time (in the Medieval and
Renaissance eras, usually the tenor voice, then the top voice, then the middle voice).
Texture: The number of musical lines in a composition and their interrelationship to each other (monophonic,
homophonic, polyphonic, imitative, etc.).
practice.
Trent Codices: A collection of seven large music manuscripts compiled in the mid-1400s (now housed in Trent,
Italy) that contain mainly sacred vocal music composed between 1400 and 1475. With more than 1,500 separate
works and 88 different named composers represented (as well as many anonymous pieces), this is the largest and
most significant single European musical source of the Renaissance.
Renaissance Genres
Anthem: A sacred polyphonic vocal work with an English text, used in the liturgy of the Anglican church.
Carol: A name for an English two- or three-part setting of a religious poem in popular style, often with alternating
solo and choral portions.
Chanson: In the Renaissance, this is a French song for several voices, which may be accompanied by
instruments.
Consort Music: Music written for "consorts" of instruments, such as recorders, viols, lutes.
Cyclic Mass: In Renaissance music, a "cyclic mass" was a setting of the Mass Ordinary (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo,
Sanctus, Agnus Dei) that shared a common musical theme in each movement (usually a cantus firmus), thus
making it a unified whole. A famous example of a cyclic Mass is Dufay's Missa Se la Face Ay Pale, which uses the
tune from his own one of his own love songs (Se la Face Ay Pale--a chanson) as a cantus firmus in each
movement.
Frottola: An important type of Italian secular song from c1470-1530, with three or four voices in a light homophonic
style (some sung solo with instrumental rendering of the other voice parts).
Lute Ayre: In the Renaissance, ayres ("airs") were smooth "air-like" solo songs sung in English, most often with
lute accompaniment, hence the term "lute ayre."
Madrigal: In the Renaissance, these were expressive unaccompanied secular settings for three to six voices, each
on its own part. The madrigal began in Italy in the 1520s (Arcadelt), became more elaborate and chromatic from
1550-1580 (de Rore, Marenzio), and then made its way to England where it was anglicized into the English
madrigal tradition of the late 1500/early 1600s (Morley, Weelkes). In Italy, this genre continued to be important as a
means of continued experimentation and expression in the early Baroque (Monteverdi, Gesualdo).
prayers that are appropriate only for a certain day, such as Easter or Christmas, according to the liturgical calendar
of saints and holy days). A "musical Mass" often refers to a musical setting of just the Mass Ordinary. (see "Cyclic
Mass," above)
Motet: In the Renaissance, this is a sacred polyphonic choral setting with a Latin text, sometimes in imitative
counterpoint.
Parody Mass: During the 1500s, this is a Mass that uses multiple voice parts from another pre-existing work (such
as a polyphonic section of a motet or chanson) as some of its main melodic material. This often includes using this
borrowed polyphonic material as a "motto" theme to start each Mass movement.
Villancico: A common musical/poetic genre of folk songs in Spain and Portugal, sung with or without instrumental
accompaniment. Songs can be love-related or devotional in nature.
Renaissance Instruments
Clavichord: An early keyboard instrument that produces a unique delicate sound as its thin wire strings are struck
from below by brass tangents attached to the keys.
Lute: This pear-shaped plucked string instrument with a fretted neck was by far the most popular household solo
instrument of the Renaissance.
Sackbut: A Renaissance/Baroque trombone, similar to a trumpet except it uses a telescopic slide to change pitch.
Shawm: This is a term for a double-reed instrument used in "high" (haut) ensembles.
Vihuela: A guitar-shaped string instrument from 15th- and 16th-century Spain, usually with 6 doubled strings.
Viola da Gamba: A bowed instrument held between the legs, having 6 or 7 gut strings and movable gut frets. A
member of the family of viols that pre-dated the modern violin family.
Virginal: This is a common English name for a harpsichord (in honor of Elizabeth I--the Virgin Queen of England).
Renaissance Composers and Theorists (in chronological order)
Early Renaissance Composers and Theorists
John Dunstable (c1390-c1453): This early 15th-century English composer began the transition to the Renaissance
with a triadic sound that came to be known on the continent as the "Contenance Angloise" (the English sound). It
has a very different sound than the Medieval French Ars Nova or Italian Trecento. Quam pulchra es [motet] c1430
Gilles Binchois (c1400-1460): An early French (Franco-Flemish) Renaissance composer of church music and
secular chansons that were known for their elegant melodies and were often borrowed and used as cantus firmi by
other composers.
Guillaume Dufay (c1397-1474): A French composer known for both his church music (Masses and motets) as well
as his secular songs (chanson). He was one of the first to adopt the English triadic sound (the "Contenance
Angloise") on the main European continent, and he was the first composer known to have used a secular cantus
firmus for a cyclic Mass. Se la face ay pale [chanson] c1430s; Missa Se la face ay pale [cyclic Mass--using the
chanson as a cantus firmus] c1450s
Johannes Ockeghem (c1410-1497): This French (Franco-Flemish) composer of Masses, motets and songs
(chanson) is considered the most influential composer between Dufay and Josquin.
Mid-Renaissance Composers and Theorists
Josquin des Prez (c1450-1521): This French (Franco-Flemish) composer of Latin Masses/motets and popular
songs in many languages, was the greatest composer of his generation, and is considered the first master of the
High Renaissance style of imitative polyphonic vocal music. Ave Mariavirgo serena [motet] c1510; Mille regretz
[chanson] c1510
Marchetto Cara (c1470-1525): An Italian composer and lutenist, known mostly for his frottolas (light, catchy
secular songs that were a precursor to the Italian madrigal).
Juan del Encina (1468-c1530): Composer of Spanish secular vocal music ("canciones"), also a playwright, poet
and priest.
Ludwig Senfl (c1486-1542): Born in Switzerland, he moved to Germany, studied and worked with the famed
German musician-composer Heinrich Isaac. Senfl later became the leading German-speaking composer of his
time, during the beginning of Luther's Protestant Reformation.
Late Renaissance Composers and Theorists
Giovanni da Palestrina (c1525-1594): Known for his Masses and motets, this Italian was the most important
Renaissance composer of sacred Catholic music. This composer exemplified the spirit of the Catholic Counter-
Reformation movement and is said to have saved polyphonic church music. Missa Papae Marcelli [Mass] 1562
Orlando di Lasso (c1530-1594): This French (Franco-Flemish) composer wrote many famous Masses and motets
as well works in every main European genre and language, and was highly influential at the same time as
Palestrina. Justorem animae [motet] c1590
Claude LeJeune (c1528-1600): This French (Franco-Flemish) composer is known for his delightful homophonic
"Parisian" chansons, such as "Reveci venir du Printemps" (c1565). Revecy venir du Printemps [chanson] c1565
William Byrd (c1539-1623): This late Renaissance English composer wrote sacred Catholic and Anglican music,
as well as secular vocal polyphony, keyboard (virginal) music, and consort music. Sing Joyfully Unto God [anthem]
c1590
Thomas Morley (c1557-1602): This late Renaissance English composer and theorist is known for his light
Elizabethan madrigals and his treatise A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical Music (1597).
Robert Croo (dates unknown): This late Renaissance English musician is known only for publishing in 1591 the
music for A Coventry Carol, a well-known anonymous carol from a Christmas play called The Pageant of the
Shearmen and Tailors.
Thomas Weelkes (1576-1623): This late Renaissance English composer wrote madrigals, Anglican church music,
and a few examples of instrumental consort music. As Vesta Was From Latmos Hill Descending [madrigal] 1601
John Dowland (1563-1626): This English late-Renaissance composer, singer and lutenist is best known for his
melancholy lute ayres (solo songs with lute accompaniment). His most famous work is his Lachrimae Pavan (1596,
for instrumental viol consort), which was then transformed into his most famous lute ayre Flow My Tears (1600).
Transition to the Early Baroque

Carlo Gesualdo (1566-1613): This late Renaissance/early Baroque madrigalist developed an intensely-chromatic
and mannered style following his involvement in the murder of his wife and her lover. Moro, lasso al mio duolo
[madrigal] 1611
Claudio Monteverdi (c1567-1643): This Italian was a transitional figure who began composing in the late
Renaissance style and then became the most influential composer of the early Baroque. His most important works
are early Baroque operas (such as L'Orfeo, 1607), experimental madrigals, and Catholic sacred music . His daring
use of dissonance to express the meaning of the text is called the "seconda pratica".
Baroque Terms
Allemande: A German dance in moderate duple meter; one of the four standard movements of the German
Baroque suite).
Aria: A lyrical type of singing with a steady beat, accompanied by orchestra; a songful monologue or duet in an
opera or other dramatic vocal work. In the Baroque era, the most common aria designs were the "binary aria"
(A B), and the da capo aria.
Binary Form: A form comprised of two distinctly opposing musical sections ("A" vs. "B").
BWV: The shorthand initials for first complete thematic catalogue of JS Bach's compositions (the Bach-Werke-
Verzeichnis), in which his works are each given a number after being ordered by category (cantatas [first],
chorale harmonizations [second], fugal works [third], harpsichord concertos [fourth], keyboard works [fifth], etc.),
giving a date of composition wherever possible.
Figured Bass: A Baroque process of indicating the harmonic structure of a work as improvised from symbols and
numbers below a melodic bass line. (See Chart of Basic Figured Bass Symbols)
Chorale: A simple, metrical Lutheran melody; these were used by Bach and others as the basis for contrapuntal
variations, preludes, and cantata movements.
Concertino: In a concerto grosso, this is the term that identifies the small group of soloists.
Courante: A slow homophonic French dance in triple meter; one of the four standard movements of the German
Baroque suite.
Da Capo Aria: (da capo means "the head" in Italian) A design popular in Baroque opera, in the "A" and "B"
contrasting sections of an aria are sung, and then the singer goes back to the very beginning ("the head") of the
piece, but performs the return of "A" with improvised vocal ornaments to keep the drama moving forward. A - B -
A (ornamented)
Gigue: A lively French/Irish dance in 12/8 meter; one of the four standard movements of the German Baroque
suite.
Homophonic Texture: Polyphonic music with all the parts moving rhythmically together (chordal texture).
Idiomatic Writing: Music that is written for a specific instrument, taking advantage of that instrument's special
capabilities.
Ostinato: (called a "ground bass" in England) A sort, repeating melodic pattern in the bass.
Prima Pratica: (the "first practice") In the early 1600s, this was the term used to describe the "old style" of late
Renaissance vocal counterpoint with its carefully-controlled use of dissonance (represented by the music of
Palestrina). This was contrasted with the "seconda pratica"--the new approach used by Monteverdi to allow
dissonance to be used more freely to fully-express the meaning of the text.
Program Music: ("programmatic music") Instrumental music intended to tell a story, or give an impression of an
image or specific idea.
Recitative: A speech-like manner of singing in a free rhythm
- Recitativo secco ("dry recitative") is a term that refers to speech-like singing accompanied sparsely by
harpsichord.
- Recitativo obbligato is a section of recitative that includes brief yet dramatic moments of orchestral support.
Ritornello Form: ("Return") A Baroque formal design based on the dramatic alternation of two opposing entities: A
"returning" big group ("Tutti") and a contrasting small one ("solo")--Tutti-Solo-Tutti-Solo-Tutti-Solo-Tutti, etc.
Sarabande: A slow Spanish dance in 2/2 meter; one of the four standard movements of the German Baroque
suite.
Seconda Pratica: (the "second practice") In the early 1600s, this was the term used to describe the "new style" of
early Baroque vocal writing that broke the old late Renaissance rules of carefully-controlled dissonance (the
"Prima Pratica" represented by the music of Palestrina). Instead, Monterverdi as an advocate for the "seconda
pratica" used dissonance in any way that could fully-express the meaning of the text.
Suspension: Harmonic tension created by rhythmically holding a note so it becomes a dissonance that hangs on
(tied-over) instead of resolving downward at the correct time. (see example). Corelli was famous for his "chain
suspensions" that feature a long series of successive suspensions (so as one suspension resolves, another
begins in a different musical voice).
practice.
Treatise on Harmony: This 1722 writing by the French composer-theorist Jean-Philippe Rameau revolutionized a
new era in music theory when it c melody is derived from harmony, and that the natural law is for harmony to be
controlled by its fundamental bass (establishing modern triads and chord inversions).
Tutti: ("All" in Italian) In a concerto, this term in the score tells everyone to play together.
Baroque Genres
Cantata: A short, unstaged multi-movement Lutheran liturgical sacred work for solo singers, chorus and small
orchestra (5-9 movements performed during a Lutheran church service).
Concerto: A 3-movement work that pits a soloist vs. orchestra. The two different types in the Baroque are
-Solo Concerto: a 3-movement work for a one solo instrument vs. orchestra [Fast 1st movement; Slow 2nd
movement, Very Fast 3rd movement]
-Concerto Grosso: a 3-movement work based on the opposition of a small group of soloists (concertino) vs. an
orchestra.[Fast 1st movement; Slow 2nd movement, Very Fast 3rd movement]
Fugue: A complex contrapuntal manipulation of a musical "subject".
Madrigal: In the early Baroque, Italian composers such as Carlo Gesualdo and Claudio Monteverdi wrote intense
madrigals that explored daring harmonies, rhythms, and textures. Some of Monteverdi's later madrigal even used
basso continuo accompaniment.
calendar of saints and holy days). A "musical Mass" often refers to a musical setting of just the Mass Ordinary.
Monody: A musical texture with an ornate melody for one singer, supported by a free/sparse instrumental
accompaniment.
Motet: A sacred polyphonic choral setting usually with a Latin text, sometimes in imitative counterpoint. In the
Baroque, Henrich Schtz also wrote motets in German.
Opera: Invented by Italians in the early Baroque, this is a large-scale fully-staged dramatic theatrical work involving
solo singers, chorus, and orchestra. Throughout the Baroque, various types of opera developed, such as
- Early opera: In the early 1600s, Monteverdi used monody to give his operatic solo singers great expressive
freedom to depict the emotion and meaning of the text.
- Opera seria: By the mid-1600s, in Italy, composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti developed this type of serious
Italian opera in three acts, sung all the way through, based on dramatic alternating scenes of recitative and aria.
In the late Baroque, opera seria was brought to its greatest heights in the works of George Frederic Handel.
- English serious opera: In the later 1600s, composers in England such as Henry Purcell wrote a few serious 3-
acts operas sung in English (including Dido and Aeneas).
- French opera: In the early 1700s, composers in France such as Jean-Philippe Rameau developed a new kind
of French serious opera called "Tragdie lyrique" (such as Castor et Pollux).
- Ballad Opera: In the 1720s, John Gay in England introduced this new kind of English comic opera with
common characters speaking English street dialect and singing short, catchy popular songs (such as in The
Beggar's Opera). This simpler, more direct style of theater began the transition to the Classic era.
Oratorio: A large-scale religious work performed by solo singers, chorus, and orchestra without staging, scenery or
costumes.
Ordre: A type of keyboard suite developed by Francois Couperin in the 1700s, with many short individualized
movements ("ordre") that had picturesque programmatic titles.
Organ Music: In the Baroque, a wide variety of music was written for the organ, including preludes, toccatas,
fugues, etc.
Suite: A collection of dances performed by a solo keyboard instrument or orchestra. In the Baroque, the German
keyboard suite had four standard movements:
- Allemande (a German imitative dance in moderate duple meter)
- Courante (a slow homophonic French dance in triple meter)
- Sarabande (a slow Spanish dance in two)
- Gigue (a lively French/Irish dance in 12/8 meter)
In the 1700s, the French composer Francois Couperin devised a new type of keyboard suite with many short
individualized movements (called "ordre") that had picturesque programmatic titles.
Toccata: (derived from the word "toccare" in Italian, which means "to touch") A spectacular type of virtuoso
keyboard writing in which the player is required "to touch" many keys on the keyboard in rapid succession.
Trio Sonata: A multi-movement chamber work with three musical lines (parts) performed by four instruments--two
violins and basso continuo (harpsichord and cello).
Important Baroque Instruments
Basso continuo: The instrumental backup ensemble of the Baroque; usually comprised of a keyboard instrument
(harpsichord or organ) and a melodic bass instrument (viola da gamba or cello).
Harpsichord: A keyboard instrument that produces its sound by a system of levered keys with quill ends that pluck
the string when pressed the key is pressed.
Viola da Gamba: A bowed instrument held between the legs, having 6 or 7 gut strings and movable gut frets. A
member of the family of viols that pre-dated the modern violin family.
Violin Family: Invented in the mid-1600s in Italy, the violin family (featuring the violin, viola, cello and double bass)
became a fixture in the modern orchestra, and a favorite for many kinds of solo and chamber music.
Baroque Composers and Theorists (in chronological order)
Early-Baroque Composers
Carlo Gesualdo (1566-1613): This late Renaissance/early Baroque madrigalist developed an intensely-chromatic
and mannered style following his involvement in the murder of his wife and her lover. Moro, lasso al mio duolo
[madrigal] 1611
Claudio Monteverdi (c1567-1643): This Italian was a transitional figure who began composing in the late
Renaissance style and then became the most influential composer of the early Baroque. His most important
works are early Baroque operas (such as L'Orfeo,1607), experimental madrigals, and Catholic sacred music . His
daring use of dissonance to express the meaning of the text is called the "seconda pratica".
Heinrich Schtz (1585-1672): A German composer and organist known primarily for his sacred music set to
German texts. He studied with Monteverdi in Venice and brought the "seconda pratica" style to Germany. Die mit
Trnen sen [German motet] c1620
Mid- Baroque Composers
Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725): This Italian was the leading opera composer of the mid-Baroque; known for his
beautiful vocal writing and "da capo" arias. La Griselda [opera seria] 1721
Arcangelo Corelli (c1653-1713): This Italian was the first Western composer to write only instrumental music. He
is known for his trio sonatas and concertos written for the violin family. Trio Sonata in D major, Op.3 No. 2 [trio
sonata] 1689
Henry Purcell (c1659-1695): The leading English composer of the mid-Baroque, noted for his stage works, choral
music, songs, and keyboard music. Dido and Aeneas [English opera seria] 1689
Franois Couperin (1668-1733): A French composer, harpsichordist and organist, known for his four volumes of
harpsichord music that were grouped as ordre (non-traditional suites), and his treatise The Art of Harpsichord
Playing (1716), which has suggestions for fingerings, touch and ornamentation. Vingt-cinquieme ordre [keyboard
suite] c1730
Late Baroque Composers
Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741): This Catholic priest (who taught music at a girls' orphanage) was the greatest
violinist of the Baroque era. He wrote over 500 concertos and 50 operas. The Four Seasons [solo concerto] 1723
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750): This German composer and Lutheran organist was the greatest master of
Baroque counterpoint, and one of the most important composers in music history. He is known for a wide variety
of instrumental and vocal works, especially his cantatas, concertos, and keyboard music. Toccata and Fugue
[organ music] c1707; Brandenburg Concerto No. 5 [concerto grosso] 1721-22; French Suite No. 5 [keyboard
suite] 1720; Cantata No. 140 [cantata] 1731
Georg Frideric Handel (1685-1759): This cosmopolitan late-Baroque composer worked in Germany, Italy, and
England, and then merged German counterpoint with elements of Italian opera. Known for his keyboard suites,
orchestral music, Italian operas and oratorios (in English). Messiah [oratorio] 1741
Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764): This late-Baroque French composer also established the premises of tonal
harmony in his theoretical treatises (Treatise on Harmony, 1722). He is also known for his operas and keyboard
music. Castor et Pollux [tragedie lyrique] 1737
Transition to the Classic Era

John Gay (1685-1732): This English poet and entrepreneur is best-known for organizing the theatrical structure
and popular songs used in the famous operate Beggar's Opera (1728), with musical arrangements added by
Johann Pepusch.
Classic Terms
Alberti Bass: "Broken" arpeggiated triads in a bass line, common in many types of Classic keyboard music; named
after Domenico Alberti (1710-1740) who used it extensively but did not invent it.
opera or other dramatic vocal work.
Bel Canto: (Italian for "beautiful singing") An Italian singing tradition primarily in opera seria and opera buffa in the
late17th- to early-19th century. Characterized by seamless phrasing (legato), great breath control, flexibility, tone,
and agility. Most often associated with singing done in the early-Romantic operas of Rossini, Bellini and Donizetti.
Cadenza: An improvised or written-out ornamental virtuosic passage played by a soloist in a concerto. In Classic
concertos, a cadenza occurs at a dramatic moment before the end of a movement, when the orchestra stops so
the soloist can play in free time, and then after the cadenza is finished the orchestra reenters to bring the
movement to its conclusion.
Castrato The term for a male singer who was castrated before puberty to preserve his high soprano range (this
practice in Italy lasted until the late 1800s). Today, the rendering of castrato roles is problematic because it
requires either a male singing falsetto (weak) or a mezzo-soprano (strong, but woman must impersonate a man).
Empindsam: (German for "sensitive") The term used to describe a highly-expressive style of German pre-
Classic/early Classic instrumental music, that was intended to intensely express true and natural feelings,
featuring sudden contrasts of mood. CPE Bach Sonata in A major (1765)--written for the clavichord [a very
sensitive and expressive keyboard instrument].
Enlightenment: ("The Age of Enlightenment" or "The Age of Reason") An 18th-century philosophical movement in
France and later in the American colonies, aimed at improving society by logical thinking, such as the premise
that common people could be free from aristocratic rule if they were educated enough to choose their own
government and officials. (The American Declaration of Independence is based on such enlightened principles.)
Enlightenment concepts influenced Classic musical forms and genres based on symmetry and balance, and
impacted the types of common characters that were the heroes/heroines of Classic comic operas that spoofed
the battle between the upper and lower European classes.
Form: The musical design or shape of a movement or complete work.
Genre: A category (type) of musical composition.
Minuet: An aristocratic dance in 3/4 time and moderate speed.
Opus: ("Op."; Latin for "work") Opus numbers are assigned by the publisher in the sequence that a composer's
works were actually published--not when they were composed (therefore, opus numbers are not necessarily in
chronological order--a piece may have been written many years before it was published).
- Recitativo secco ("dry recitative") is a term that refers to speech-like singing accompanied sparsely by
harpsichord.
Retransition: In a sonata form, this is the last part of the Development section that sets up the final harmonic
return to the home key that happens with the start of the Recapitulation.
Scherzo: ("Scherzo" means "joke") A moderately-fast commoner's dance in 6/8 meter which replaced the
aristocratic Minuet as the preferred 3rd movement used in 4-movement Classic instrumental works after 1810.
Theme: In the Classic era, a "theme" is a melodic idea that stands on its own (has a complete harmonic
progression and cadence).
Viennese Classic School: Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven are often referred to by this term--They all worked in
Vienna, establishing a Classic "school of thought" there.
Classic Genres
Concerto: A 3-movement work that pits a soloist vs. orchestra. In the Classic era, the solo concerto was the most
esteemed type of instrumental composition (until the Beethoven symphonies). Mozart composed solo concertos
for every traditional instrument of his time (Ex: Piano Concerto in C minor, K. 491, 1786). Classic concertos used
Classic forms in their structure:-Solo Concerto: a 3-movement work for a one solo instrument vs. orchestra
1st movement: Fast, in the home key (Form = Concerto-sonata form, a blending of Baroque Ritornello form
and Classic Sonata form)
2nd movement: Slow, in a different but related key (Form= a small-scale form such as Ternary form or
5-part Rondo form
3rd movement: Very fast, in the home key (Form = Rondo form, blended with Baroque Ritornello elements).
calendar of saints and holy days). A "musical Mass" often refers to a musical setting of just the Mass Ordinary
(Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei). In the Classic era, Masses continued to be written by Catholic
composers such as Haydn and Mozart.
Motet: A sacred polyphonic choral setting usually with a Latin text, sometimes in imitative counterpoint. In the
Classic era, motets continued to be written by Catholic composers such as Haydn and Mozart.
solo singers, chorus, and orchestra. In the Classic era, several types of opera thrived in various countries, both
serious and comic:
- Opera seria: A type of serious Italian opera in three acts, sung all the way through, based on dramatic
alternating scenes of recitative and aria. In the Classic era, this continued to be the most prestigious type of
Italian opera.
- Ballad Opera: A type of common-level theatre introduced in England in the late 1720s, featuring spoken
English dialogue interspersed with popular songs.
John Gay introduced this new kind of comic opera with common characters speaking English street dialect and
singing popular songs with funny new words (such as in The Beggar's Opera, 1729). His simpler, more direct
style of theater began the transition to the Classic era.
- Intermezzo: In the early 1700s, these were short 2-act comic works with reduced performance requirements,
staged in front of the curtain during the between-act set changes of an opera seria; this developed into opera
buffa.
- Opera buffa: Comic Italian opera usually in two acts, sung in Italian all the way through (no spoken dialogue),
such as Mozart's Cosi fan tutte (1790).
- Opra comique: Comic French opera in two acts, with spoken French dialogue and simple French arias, such
as Rousseau's Le devin du village (1752).
- Singspiel: A type of German-language comic opera in two acts, with spoken German dialogue and silly catchy
songs; Mozart's Die Zauberflte (The Magic Flute, 1791) brought this usually low-level genre to new heights of
sophistication.
- Reform opera: With changes brought by the overblown spectacle of some serious French opera and the
various types of comic opera that developed in the first half of the 1700s, Christoph Glck "reformed" opera, by
going back to the original ancient Greek stories, and streamlining the music and staging so only what directly
enhanced the drama was includes. (Glck's Orfeo ed Euridice, 1762)
- Dramma giocoso: A type of Italian opera that blends comic and tragic elements, such as Mozart's Don
Giovanni (1787).
Serenade: In the Classic period, a little chamber symphony for a small group of string or winds. Mozart Eine kleine
Nachtmusik (1787).
Sonata: In the Classic period, a multi-movement instrumental work for a solo piano, or for a single instrument with
piano accompaniment. Beethoven Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 13 "Pathtique" (1797-98).
String Quartet: A chamber ensemble of four string players (2 violins, viola, cello); also the term for a 4-movement
work for string quartet. Haydn String Quartet in C major, Op. 76, No. 3 "Emperor" (1796-97).
Symphony: In the Classic era, this was usually a 4-movement work for orchestra. Beethoven Symphony No. 3 in
E-flat, Op. 55 "Eroica" (1803-4).
Classic Forms (internal designs of individual movements)
Binary Form: A form comprised of two distinctly opposing musical sections ("A" vs. "B")
--it is the musical reflection of traveling a straight line from "Point A" to "Point B".
In Binary Forms, each section is usually repeated: ||: A :|| ||: B :||
IV VI
"Rounded Binary Form" is created when the main melody returns at the end of the "B" section:
||: A :|| ||: B A :||
IV VI
Classic 4-movement Instrumental Design: In the Classic era, this 4-movement design became standardized:
Movement Tempo (usual character) Form Harmonic Center
1 Fast (strong) Sonata Form "Home" ley (I)
2 Slow (lyrical) Ternary Another key (usually IV)
3 Moderate (3/4 dance) Minuet & Trio "Home" key (I) [trio can be in another key]
4 Very fast (light/cheerful) Rondo Form 'Home" key (I)
Coda: A (means "tail" in Italian) A brief, final musical section often appended to a movement to bring it to a
satisfying conclusion.
Concerto-Sonata Form: A design used in the first movements of Classic concertos that merges aspects of
Baroque Ritornello form with Classic Sonata form:
It still features the Exposition, Development and Recapitulation sections of the traditional sonata form, but has to
make considerations for whether the "tutti" (orchestra) or "solo" plays the main themes and makes the critical
harmonic modulations, and where the soloist does a cadenza:
Exposition 1 (Orchestra)
- Theme 1 (in home key)
- Theme 2 (in V)
Exposition 2 (Soloist + Orchestra)--this is called a "double exposition"
- Theme 2 (in V)
[solo trills]
Development (Soloist + Orchestra)
- other keys
[solo trills]
Recapitulation (Orchestra, then Soloist with Orchestra)
- Theme 1 (orchestra in home key)
- Theme 2 (soloist with orchestra in home key)
[orchestra pauses]
- soloist does a cadenza (on V)
[solo trills]
-Coda (solo and orchestra in home key)
Minuet & Trio Form: Before 1810, this design was the usual third movement of the Classic four-movement design.
This form features a moderate dance in 3/4 meter with two opposing sections:
- "Minuet" section [A B A] [repeated]
- "Trio" section: [repeated] sweeter-sounding with reduced scoring (lighter than the "Minuet") [C D C] [repeated]
- "Minuet" returns [with no repeat] [A B A]
"returning" big group ("Tutti") and a contrasting small one ("solo")--Tutti-Solo-Tutti-Solo-Tutti-Solo-Tutti, etc. In the
Classic era, ritornello form was superseded by Classic forms, but it was still used in the alternating "tutti vs. solo"
structure in Classic concertos.
Rondo Form: A form that has its main melodic idea--the fast and catchy "rondo" theme [A])--return two or three
times after contrasting melodic material and key. There is a 5-part Rondo (A B A C A) used in slower movements,
and a 7-part Rondo (A B A C A B A) used in faster movements.
Scherzo & Trio Form: ("Scherzo" means "joke") After 1810, this design was the usual third movement of four-
movement works.
This form features a moderately-fast commoner's dance in 6/8 meter with two opposing sections:
- "Scherzo" section (a circular dance "in a 2 with a triplet feel" [6/8], quite different than a "Minuet")
- "Trio" section: sweeter-sounding with reduced scoring
- "Scherzo" returns
Sonata Form: The most important structural design of the Classic era, denoted by three dramatic divisions:
- Exposition: Two themes in opposing keys--Theme 1 (home key), Theme 2 (other key)
- Development: Harmonically unstable (explores distant keys from home)
- Recapitulation: Return of Theme 1 and Theme 2 in the home key
Sonata-Rondo Form: A form that blends the essential features of both sonata form and rondo form.
In the diagram below, the rondo form elements are in large capital letters:
Exposition
- Theme 1 in home key [A]
- Theme 2 in V [B]
- Theme 1 in V [A] In sonata-rondo, Theme 1 is brought back here (but is in V, not I)
Development (other keys) [C]
Recapitulation
- Theme 2 in home key [B]
- Theme 1 (Coda) home [A]
Ternary Form: A form having both opposition and return ("A B A")--it is the musical reflection of a circle
(start at "A" at the top, go around the circle to "B" at the bottom, then continue around the circle back to "A")
Theme & Variations Form: A form that presents a musical "theme" and then a series of variations on that theme:
- Theme 1 - Variation 1 - Variation 2 - Variation 3 - Variation 4 (etc.)
Classic Composers and Theorists (in chronological order)

Early-Classic Composers
John Gay (1685-1732): This English poet and entrepreneur is best-known for organizing the theatrical structure
and popular songs used in the famous ballad opera The Beggar's Opera (1728), with musical arrangements
added by Johann Pepusch.
Giovanni Pergolesi (1710-36): Despite his tragically short life, this Italian composer/violinist/organist had a major
impact on the development of Classic opera with his comic masterpiece La serva padrona [intermezzo] 1733.
Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757): This Italian-born pre-Classic composer is best known for his 1-movement
keyboard sonatas. Sonata in D major, K. 119 [sonata] c1740s
Johann Stamitz (1717-57): This German composer wrote important small-scale early symphonies that helped
establish the Classic model and the structure of sonata form. His symphonies often featured an exciting
crescendo effect known as the "Mannheim rocket." Symphony in E-flat major (mid-1750s).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): This Swiss philosopher/composer/theorist (who lived much of his life in Paris)
influenced the French Revolution with his philosophical writings, and made significant contributions to French
comic opera with Le devin du village [opera comique] (1752). He also published the first French music dictionary.
Johann Christian Bach (1735-1782): The youngest son of JS Bach (worked in Italy and England); his keyboard
concertos had a strong influence on Mozart. Keyboard Concerto in E-flat [concerto] 1770
Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (1714-1788): The second-oldest son of JS Bach (worked for King Frederick the
Great of Prussia [a large German-Russian kingdom]); his highly-chromatic keyboard sonatas and symphonies
are representative of the German Empfindsam style. Sonata in A major [sonata] 1765
Christoph Glck (1714-1787): This German composer who worked in both Vienna and Paris is best known for his
"reform operas," such as Orfeo ed Euridice (1762).
Classic Composers
Franz Josef Haydn (1732-1809): An Austro-Hungarian composer who established the standards of the string
quartet and symphony in the Classic era. String Quartet in C major, Op.76 No. 3 [string quartet] (1796-97)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791): This child genius grew to master every genre known in his day, but
excelled particularly in opera and concerto. Piano Concerto in C minor [concerto] 1786; Don Giovanni [dramma
giocoso] 1787; Die Zauberflte [Singspiel] 1791.
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827): This German-born composer was the most revolutionary musician of the
Classic and early Romantic eras. He excelled especially at the symphony, sonata, and string quartet, and
brought music to powerful new heights of expression and socio-political influence--despite spending most of his
career in complete deafness. Symphony No. 3 "Eroica" [symphony] 1803-4
Transition to early Romanticism c1815

Giocchino Rossini (1792-1868): This Italian opera composer wrote several of his earliest works in an early
Romantic style before 1820. Il Barbiere di Siviglia [opera buffa] 1816
Romantic Terms
Absolute Music: Music with no programmatic reference or storymusic for its own sake.
Bel Canto: (means "beautiful singing" in Italian) An Italian tradition of "beautiful singing" primarily in opera seria and
opera buffa in the late-17th through early-19th centuries. It was characterized by impeccable/seamlessly-smooth
phrasing (legato) demonstrating great breath control and vocal flexibility throughout the singer's entire range,
well-focused tone and diction, no loose vibrato, no forcing in the high register, and and agile ability to ornament
tastefully. This term is most particularly associated with the type of singing done in early-Romantic operas by
Rossini, Bellini, and Donizetti.
Cadenza: An improvised or written-out ornamental virtuosic passage played by a soloist in a concerto. In Classic
concertos, a cadenza occurs at a dramatic moment before the end of a movement, when the orchestra stops so
the soloist can play in free time, and then after the cadenza is finished the orchestra reenters to bring the
movement to its conclusion.
Castrato: The term for a male singer who was castrated before puberty to preserve his high soprano range (this
practice lasted in Italy until the late 1800s). Leading male roles were written specifically for the castrato voice
because it had the high range of a woman with the vocal power and strength of a mature male. Today, the
rendering of castrato roles is problematic because it requires either a male singing in falsetto (weaker than a
castrato) or a female mezzo-soprano (strong in this register, but then the woman has to impersonate a man).
Genre: A category (type) of musical composition.
Ide Fixe: In psychology, an idea that dominates a person's mind for a long period of time. In music, Berlioz used
this term to describe the recurring theme that appeared in increasingly disturbing guises in all five movements of
his Symphonie fantastique (1830)this tune represents the woman who was the object of obsession in the
work's programmatic story.
Lied: A German art song, performed by one singer accompanied by either piano or orchestra.
Leitmotif: A musical theme or motive associated with a particular person, thing, emotion, or idea in a Musikdrama.
Motivic Construction: Using a small rhythmic and/or melodic figure as a building block for larger ideas throughout
a movement or a multi-movement, as a means to unify the composition.
Opus: ("Op."; Latin for "work") Opus numbers are assigned by the publisher in the sequence that a composer's
works were actually published--not when they were composed (therefore, opus numbers are not necessarily in
chronological order--a piece may have been written many years before it was published).
Post-Romanticism: A musical style typical of the last decades of the 1800s and first decades of the 1900s,
characterized by extreme largeness of scope and design, a mixture of various musical forms (e.g., opera and
symphony), programmatic references, and heightened contrapuntal complexity. Often Post-Romanticism also
embraces vivid religious or mystical fervor, a sense of longing, and a sense of the grim and the grotesque.
- Recitativo secco ("dry recitative") refers to speech-like singing accompanied sparsely by harpsichord.
Retransition: In a sonata form, this is the last part of the Development section that sets up the final harmonic
return to the home key that happens with the start of the Recaptulation.
Scherzo: ("Scherzo" means "joke") A moderately-fast commoner's dance in 6/8 meter which replaced the
aristocratic Minuet as the preferred 3rd movement dance used in four-movement Classic instrumental works after
1810. In the Romantic era, a scherzo is also single-movement piano works with a harshly dark and dramatic
fervor.
Thematic Transformation: A high-level means of unifying a work by basing it on a recurring but ever-developing
main theme as a way of showing its spiritual metamorphosis.
Theme: In the Classic era, a "theme" is a melodic idea that stands on its own (has a complete harmonic
progression and cadence).
Genres Used in the Romantic Era
Ballade: A solo piano genre with a somewhat narrative style, favored by some Romantic composers, most notably
Chopin and Brahms.
Ballet: A fully-staged programmatic theatrical work for dancers and orchestra.
Cantata: A short, unstaged multi-movement Lutheran liturgical sacred work for solo singers, chorus and small
orchestra (5-9 movements performed during a Lutheran church service).
Character Piece: A one-movement programmatic work for solo piano.
Concerto: A 3-movement work that pits a soloist vs. orchestra. In the Classic era, the solo concerto was the most
esteemed type of instrumental composition (until the Beethoven symphonies). Romantic concertos often used
Classic forms but in a freer, longer and more personally expressive manner:
-Solo Concerto: a 3-movement work for a one solo instrument vs. orchestra
1st movement: Fast, in the home key (Form = Concerto-sonata form with Ritornello elements)
2nd movement: Slow, in a different key (Form= a small-scale form such as Ternary form or 5-part Rondo form)
3rd movement: Very fast, in the home key (Form = Rondo form, blended with Ritornello elements).
Etude: (derived from the Italian word "estudiar"to study) A "study" piece that focuses on some technical aspect
for the player to master on the instrument. Chopin Etude in C minor, Op. 10 No. 12 "Revolutionary" (c1831)
Mass: A"musical Mass" often refers to a musical setting of just the Mass Ordinary (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus,
Agnus Dei). In the Romantic era, Masses continued to be written by Catholic composers such as Verdi and
Bruckner, who wrote them in a more dramatic theatrical style.
Mazurka: A Polish folk dance usually in lively triple meter with a strong accent on the second or third beat of each
measure. Chopin Mazurka in B-flat major, Op. 7 No. 1 (1830-32)
Mazurka: A French art-song. Chopin Mazurka in B-flat major, Op. 7 No. 1 (1830-32)
Musikdrama: A term usually associated with Wagner's German politically-driven theatrical works, in which music,
staging, costuming etc. all have the sole purpose to propel the dramatic story.
Nocturne: A piano genre established by John Field, and made famous by Chopin, suggesting quietness of night.
solo singers, chorus, and orchestra. In the Romantic era, several types of opera thrived in various countries, both
serious and comic:
- Grand Opera: A dominant type of French opera in the nineteenth century, generally in 4 or 5 acts, which
featured large-scale casts and orchestras, lavish spectacle and special effects, usually with plots centered
around dramatic historic events.
- Lyric Opera: A type of French opera that blends "grand opera" with "opera boufee."
- Opera seria: A type of serious Italian opera in three acts, sung all the way through, based on dramatic
alternating scenes of recitative and aria.
- Opera buffa: Comic Italian opera usually in two acts, sung in Italian all the way through (no spoken dialogue),
such as Rossini's Il Barbiere di Siviglia (1816).
- Opra boufee: A light or satirical French opera similar to an operetta. Orphee auf enfers ("Orpheus in Hell")
1858 [this work spoofs the situation, and even includes the famous "Can-Can" as a dance in Hell]
- Opra comique: Comic opera in two acts, with spoken French dialogue and sung French arias. Oddly, though
it is tragic in nature, Bizet's Carmen (1875) comes from the opra comique tradition (it has spoken French
dialogue and sung French arias).
- Operetta: A type of opera that is light in terms of both music and subject matter; closely related in English to
musical theatre.
- Verismo: Italian opera with stories that aim to be more "true-to-life." Puccini La Bohme (1896)
Oratorio: A large-scale religious work performed by solo singers, chorus, and orchestra without staging, scenery or
costumes.
Piano Cycle: A multi-movement set of character pieces assembled together in a similar manner to a song cycle.
Schumann Carnaval (1834-35).
Sonata: As in the Classic period, a multi-movement instrumental work for a solo piano, or for a single instrument
with piano accompaniment. Brahms Piano Sonata No.1 in C major (1853).
Song Cycle: A set of art-songs arranged intentionally as a cycle to depict an ongoing story, or based on the same
literary source. Mahler Kindertotenlieder (1901-04).
String Quartet: A chamber ensemble of four string players (2 violins, viola, cello); also the term for a 4-movement
work for string quartet. Schubert String Quartet in No. 14 in D minor ("Death and the Maiden"-1824).
Symphony: In the Classic era, this was a multi-movement work for orchestra, usually larger in scope than in the
Classic era:
[related terms]
- Program Symphony: a multi-movement programmatic work for orchestra. Berlioz Symphonie fantastique 1830
- Romantic Symphony: a multi-movement work for orchestra which makes use of 19th-century style elements, but
which may or may not be programmatic. Bruckner, Symphony No. 7; Dvok, Symphony No. 9
- Symphonic Poem: a one-movement programmatic work for orchestra. Smetana The Moldau 1874
Forms Used in the Romantic Era (internal designs of individual movements)

Binary Form: A form comprised of two distinctly opposing musical sections ("A" vs. "B")
--it is the musical reflection of traveling a straight line from "Point A" to "Point B".
In Binary Forms, each section is usually repeated: ||: A :|| ||: B :||
IV VI
"Rounded Binary Form" is created when the main melody returns at the end of the "B" section:
||: A :|| ||: B A :||
IV VI
Concerto-Sonata Form: A design used in the first movements of concertos that merges aspects of Baroque
Ritornello form with Classic Sonata form:
It still features the Exposition, Development and Recapitulation sections of the traditional sonata form, but has to
make considerations for whether the "tutti" (orchestra) or "solo" plays the main themes and makes the critical
harmonic modulations, and where the soloist does a cadenza:
Exposition 1 (Orchestra)
- Theme 2 (in V)
Exposition 2 (Soloist + Orchestra)--this is called a "double exposition"
- Theme 2 (in V)
[solo trills]
Development (Soloist + Orchestra)
- other keys
[solo trills]
Recapitulation (Orchestra, then Soloist with Orchestra)
- Theme 1 (orchestra in home key)
- Theme 2 (soloist with orchestra in home key)
[orchestra pauses]
- soloist does a cadenza (on V)
[solo trills]
-Coda (solo and orchestra in home key)
Cyclic Form: The same motive or theme used in more than one movement of an instrumental work.
Multi-movement Instrumental Design: In contrast to the standard 4-movement design of the many Classic
instrumental works, the Romantic era featured works that often changed the speed/mood of movements and the
key relationships between and within movements. Slow introductions and long codas can be added, unusual
keys, longer more sentimental or flamboyant themes, etc.
"returning" big group ("Tutti") and a contrasting small one ("solo")--Tutti-Solo-Tutti-Solo-Tutti-Solo-Tutti, etc. In the
Classic era, ritornello form was superseded by Classic forms, but it was still used in the alternating "tutti vs. solo"
structure in Classic concertos.
times after contrasting melodic material and key. There is a 5-part Rondo (A B A C A) used in slower movements,
and a 7-part Rondo (A B A C A B A) used in faster movements.
Scherzo & Trio Form: ("Scherzo" means "joke") After 1810, this design was the usual third movement of four-
movement works.
This form features a moderately-fast commoner's dance in 6/8 meter with two opposing sections:
- "Scherzo" section (a circular dance "in a 2 with a triplet feel" [6/8], quite different than a "Minuet")
- "Trio" section: sweeter-sounding with reduced scoring
- "Scherzo" returns
Sonata Form: The most important structural design of the Classic era, denoted by three dramatic divisions:
Sonata-Rondo Form: A form that blends the essential features of both sonata form and rondo form.
In the diagram below, the rondo form elements are in large capital letters:
Exposition
- Theme 2 in V [B]
- Theme 1 in V [A] In sonata-rondo, Theme 1 is brought back here (but is in V, not I)
Development (other keys) [C]
Recapitulation
- Theme 2 in home key [B]
- Theme 1 (Coda) home [A]
Ternary Form: A form having both opposition and return ("A B A")--it is the musical reflection of a circle
(start at "A" at the top, go around the circle to "B" at the bottom, then continue around the circle back to "A")
Through-composed Design: A musical structure that has no discernible formthe music keeps changing as it
goes on, with no returning themes.
Romantic Composers (in chronological order)
Early-Romantic Composers
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827): This German-born composer was the most revolutionary musician of the
Classic and early Romantic eras. He excelled especially at the symphony, sonata, and string quartet, and
brought music to powerful new heights of expression and socio-political influence--despite spending most of his
career in complete deafness. Symphony No. 3 "Eroica" [symphony] 1803-4
Franz Schubert (1797-1828): He established the German art song (Lied) as an important genre in the 19th
century. He wrote over 600 Lieder, as well as song cycles, symphonies, string quartets, sonatas, and Masses.
Erlknig [Lied] 1815
Giocchino Rossini (1792-1868): This Italian opera composer wrote several of his earliest works in an early
Romantic style before 1820. Il Barbiere di Siviglia [opera buffa] 1816
John Field (1782-1837): An Irish-born early-Romantic composer, who also worked in Paris, Vienna, and Russia.
He is known for his piano works, especially for inventing the nocturne.
Mid-Romantic Composers
Felix Mendelssohn (1809-47): This German musical prodigy is known for his colorful symphonic music, piano
miniatures, songs, and oratorios, and for his work as a conductor--in which he revived interest in the music of JS
Bach. Elijah [oratorio] 1846
Hector Berlioz (1803-69): This daring French composer and brilliant orchestrator composed the first truly
programmatic symphony. He is known for his operas, songs, and programmatic orchestral works. Symphonie
fantastique [program symphony] 1830
Frderic Chopin (1810-49): This Polish-born composer-pianist spent most of his brief career in Paris. He is
especially known for his character pieces and piano concertos. Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9 No. 2 (1830-32).
Robert Schumann (1810-56): He was important as a music critic, but is most remembered for his many songs and
descriptive character pieces for piano. Carnaval, Op. 9 [piano cycle] 1834-35
Franz Liszt (1811-89): This Hungarian composer-pianist was perhaps the most spectacular pianist in history. He is
known for his piano music and orchestral symphonic poems. Piano Concerto No. 2 (1839-40)
Richard Wagner (1813-83): This German theatrical innovator perfected the use of the Leitmotif in his
Musikdramas, and paved the way for the expanded use of tonality and chromaticism in the 20th century. Der
Ring des Nibelungen [Musikdrama] 1848-74
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901): This operatic Romantic dramatist can be considered the most important Italian
composer of the 19th century. Rigoletto [opera seria] (1851)
Modest Musorgsky (1839-81): This Russian composer is known as one of "The Five" Russian Romantic
composers who endeavored to make a national musical style for their country. He is known for his opera Boris
Godunov (1868), his symphonic poems such as Night on Bald Mountain (1867), and especially for his piano cycle
Pictures at an Exhibition (1874) that was vividly orchestrated by Maurice Ravel in 1922.
Georges Bizet (1838-75): He was the most renowned composer of French grand opera in the mid-Romantic era,
but is most famous for his opera Carmen (1875) [opra comique]--it is an opra comique because it has spoken
dialogue and sung French arias--the story of Carmen is actually quite dramatic and tragic.
Bedrich Smetana (1824-84): He was the first important Czech (Bohemian) composer; known for his symphonic
works and operas. The Moldau [symphonic poem] 1874
Jacques Offenbach (1819-80): This French composer wrote nearly 100 operettas between 1850 and 1880 (such
as Orphee auf enters (Orpheus in Hades,1858). He is remembered mostly for his unfinished masterpiece--the
4-act "opra fantastique", Les contes d'Hoffmann (The Tales of Hoffmann) 1851.
Charles Gounod (1818-93): A French composer known for his grand opera Faust (1859), and his song-setting of
the Ave Maria (based on a work by JS Bach).
Late-Romantic Composers
Anton Bruckner (1824-1896): An This late-Romantic Austrian composer is known for his rich, polyphonic and
lengthy symphonies, as well as Masses, and motets. Symphony No. 7 [symphony] 1881-83
Johannes Brahms (1833-97): He was the most important successor to Beethoven in the 19th century with regard
to both symphonic and chamber music. Symphony No. 3 in F major [symphony] 1883
Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky (1840-93): This late-Romantic composer was the first internationally-acclaimed Russian
musician. He is known for his colorfully orchestrated ballets, concertos, opera, and symphonic works. The
Nutcracker [ballet] 1892
Gabriel Faur (1858-1924): This late-Romantic French composer, organist and teacher brought French art song
("mlodie) and chamber music to the highest levels of sophistication. His musical style had a strong influence on
many 20th-century composers. La bonne chanson [song cycle of French mlodie] (1892-94)
Giocomo Puccini (1858-1924): A leading figure in the Italian operatic verismo (true-to-life) movement of the late
19th- early 20th-centuries. La Bohme [verismo opera] (1896)
Antonn Dvok (c1841-1904): The leading Czech (Bohemian) composer of the Romantic era; known for his
symphonies, chamber works, operas, and songs. Symphony No. 9 ("From the New World") [symphony] 1893
Gustav Mahler (1860-1911): The most important Austrian composer of the late Romantic era, and one of the
greatest conductors and orchestrators in history. He is known for his highly-expressive and melancholy
orchestrally-accompanied song cycles, and his massive symphonies, which are examples of post-Romanticism.
Kindertotenlieder [song cycle] 1901-04
Transition to early 20th-century (c1895)
Richard Strauss (1864-1949): This German post-Romantic composer/conductor stretched Wagnerian

Romanticism to greater extremes, and he also ventured into the realm of early expressionism in works such as
Salome (1903). He is known for his intense operas and his symphonic poems. Also Sprach Zarathustra
[symphonic poem] 1896
Claude Debussy (1862-1918): The leader of the French "impressionist" movement in music. He was the first to
move into a clearly modern manner of composition--clearly breaking with the Romantic sound dominated by the
style of Wagner. Debussy is best known for his impressionistic piano works, symphonic poems, songs, and the
opera Pellas et Mlisande. Prlude l'aprs d'un faune ("Prelude to The Afternoon of a Faun") [symphonic
poem] 1894
Modern Art Music Terms
Atonality: In modern music, the absence (intentional avoidance) of a tonal center.
Avant Garde: (French for "at the forefront") Modern music that is on the cutting edge of innovation..
Expressionism: A style in modern painting and music that projects the inner fear or turmoil of the artist, using
abrasive colors/sounds and distortions (begun in music by Schoenberg, Webern and Berg).
Impressionism: A term borrowed from 19th-century French art (Claude Monet) to loosely describe early 20th-
century French music that focuses on blurred atmosphere and suggestion. Debussy "Nuages" from Trois
Nocturnes (1899)
Indeterminacy: (also called "Chance Music") A generic term applied to any situation where the performer is
given freedom from a composer's notational prescription (when some aspect of the piece is left to chance or the
choices of the performer).
Metric Modulation: A technique used by Elliott Carter and others to precisely change tempo by using a note value
in the original tempo as a metrical time-pivot into the new tempo. Carter String Quartet No. 5 (1995)
Minimalism: An avant garde compositional approach that reiterates and slowly transforms small musical motives to
create expansive and mesmerizing works. Glass Glassworks (1982); other minimalist composers are Steve Reich
and John Adams.
Neo-Classicism: Modern music that uses Classic gestures or forms (such as Theme and Variation Form, Rondo
Form, Sonata Form, etc.) but still has modern harmonies and instrumentation. Copland "Variations on a Shaker
Hymn" from Appalachian Spring (1944)
Neo-Romanticism: Modern music that avoids harsh avant garde experimentation to sound more lyrical and
Romantic in style, but still uses more modern sounding harmonies and tone colors. Barber Adagio for Strings
(1944)
Orchestral Soundmass: A musical texture that obscures the boundaries between sound and noise, focusing more
on dynamics, texture and tone color than on individual pitches. Xenakis Metastaseis (1954)
Pointillism: A musical texture promoted by Webern in which the pitches of a melody are presented just a few at a
time (isolated "points" of sound) rather than in a traditional continuous melodic line in the same instrument. This
technique is closely associated with Klangfarbenmelodie (which is the multi-colored melody that is produced
when the pitches played by the instruments are taken as a single melodic whole).
Polytonality: The simultaneous use of more than one harmonic center.
Post-Modernism: The borrowing of forms, procedures, and/or values of the past that can be found in the works of
many 20th-century composers. Post-modernism comes after modern (and react to it), and it is not a style or
historical period--it is an attitude that has a disdain for structural unity, can simultaneously blend elements of the
past and present, and embrace contradictions.
Prepared Piano: The process of installing every-day objects at strategic places between the strings of a piano in
order to allow it to create a myriad of new sounds.
Primitivism: A movement in modern Western art and music that evokes images of prehistoric peoples. Stravinsky
The Rite of Spring (1913)
Second Viennese School: The term associated with the early 20th-century "school of thought" centered in Vienna
of Schoenberg and his most prominent students--Berg and Webern. (The "First Viennese School" was Haydn,
Mozart and Beethoven in the Classic era.)
Serialism: The ordering of pitch so that all 12 chromatic tones (and their octave equivalents) are given equal
emphasis. A 12-tone row and 12 x 12 pitch matrix are constructed and used to control the melodic and harmonic
sonority of the work. All four forms of the 12-tone row can be used and transposed to any chromatic pitch as a
starting point:
- Prime (forward order of pitches #0-11)

- Retrograde (backwards, #11-0)
- Inversion (forward order, but the intervals of the Prime row are inverted)
- Retrograde Inversion (backward order with the intervals inverted)
Sprechstimme: A vocal style somewhere between agitated speaking and expressive singing, which uses wide
leaps and glissandos. (Half-sung, half-spoken melodramatic vocal delivery, indicated in the musical score by "x"
note-heads).
Stochastic Music: A slowly-evolving mass of sound that gradually makes "a symptotic (based on probability
theory) evolution towards a stable state." (In Probability Theory, a "Stochastic System" is one whose state is non-
deterministic). Xenakis Metastaseis (1954)
Theme: A melodic idea that stands on its own (has a complete harmonic progression and cadence).
Third Stream: In 1961, Gunther Schuller defined the third stream as "a new genre of music located about halfway
between jazz and classical music." It incorporates jazz instruments, jazz phrasing, jazz rhythms, and
improvisation, into orchestral and chamber music. Sketch for Double String Quartet (1959) with Schuller
conducting the Modern Jazz Quartet and the Beaux Arts String Quartet
Tone Cluster: The use of groups of pitches in an unbroken continuum of microtonal gradation in voices or string
instruments, or striking a large continuous section of black and white keys as a block (cluster of tones) on a
piano. Cowell The Banshee (1925)
Total Serialism and Multi-Serialism: Using the relative digits within a 12-tone row and 12 x 12 pitch matrix to
control many ("multi-serialism") or all ("total serialism") structural aspects of a work (melody, harmony, rhythm,
dynamics, articulation, choice of instruments, etc.). Webern experimented with multi-serialism in some of his later
works (such as Cantata No. 1 Op. 29), and then total serialism was promoted by mathematician/composers such
as Babbitt (Philomel, 1964).
Genres Used in the Modern Era
Ballet: A fully-staged programmatic theatrical work for dancers and orchestra. In the modern era, ballet became an
important format for new kinds of musical sound and dance. Stravinsky The Rite of Spring (1913), Copland
Appalachian Spring (1944)
Cantata: Traditionally this is a short, unstaged multi-movement Lutheran liturgical sacred work for solo singers,
chorus and small orchestra, but in the Modern Era, Schoenberg also used this genre (with chorus, orchestra, and
a narrator/soloist reciting in Sprechstimme) as the inspiration for a different type of religious commentary about
the genocide of Polish Jews during the Holocaust of World War II (A Survivor from Warsaw, 1946).
Character Piece: A one-movement programmatic work for solo piano.
Concerto: A 3-movement work that pits a soloist vs. orchestra.
Electro-Acoustic Music: Modern music that blends electronic or computer-generated sounds with traditional
voices/instruments.
Lied: A German art song, performed by one singer accompanied by either piano or orchestra.
Musique concrte: Recording sounds from the natural world and manipulating them electronically to create
entirely new sounds. Varese Pome lectronique (1958)
Nocturne: A programmatic piano genre suggesting quietness of night. In the Modern Era, Debussy expanded the
term to describe orchestral works that evoked similar imagery. Debussy "Nuages" from Trois Nocturnes (1899)
solo singers, chorus, and orchestra. In the Modern era, traditional types of serious and comic opera still thrived,
but more experimental and sometimes controversial models also arose such as
- Debussy Pellas et Mlisande (1902-Impressionist opera)
- Berg Wozzeck (1922-Expressionist opera)
- Gershwin Porgy and Bess (1935-called "an American folk opera" that uses the blues and other Afro-American
musical developments as its inspiration)
- Bernstein West Side Story (1957-Musical Theatre, and a merging of classical, pop, jazz in a street-gang rivalry
modernization of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet)
- Glass Einstein on the Beach (1975-Minimalist opera)
Song Cycle: A set of art-songs arranged intentionally as a cycle to depict an ongoing story, or based on the same
literary source. They are for one singer accompanied by either piano or orchestra. Schoenberg Pierrot lunaire
(1912)--a cycle of Lieder
String Quartet: A chamber ensemble of four string players (2 violins, viola, cello); also the term for a multi-
movement work for string quartet. Bartk: String Quartet No. 5 (1934); Carter String Quartet No. 5 (1995); Crumb
amplified his ensemble with special effects and used unusual performance techniques in his string quartet Black
Angels (1970).
Suite: In previous eras this was a collection of dances performed by a solo keyboard instrument or orchestra. In the
Modern Era, the structure was loosened to go beyond courtly dance movements or ballet excerpts, so it could
include picturesque or programmatic movements often of an exotic or international flavor. Villa-Lobos Bachianas
Brasilieras No. 7 (1942)
Symphony: In the Modern era, this was still a multi-movement work for orchestra, but now written with modern
harmonies and instrumentation. Webern Symphonie Op. 21 (1928)
Symphonic Poem: a one-movement programmatic work for orchestra. Debussy "Nuages" from Trois Nocturnes
(1899)
Forms Used in the Modern Era (internal designs of individual movements)
Arch Form: A design that creates a symmetrical arch with its structure
- Within a sonata form movement: Theme 1 - Theme 2 - Development - Theme 2 - Theme 1

(Exposition) | (Recapitulation in reverse order)
|_____________________|
|______________________________________|
- In a multi-movement structure: Movement 1 - Movement 2 - Movt 3 - Movement 4 - Movement 5

(similar to 5) (similar to 4) | (similar to 2) (similar to 1)
|_____________________|
|______________________________________|
Cyclic Form: The same motive or theme used in more than one movement of an instrumental work.
times after contrasting melodic material and key.
There is a 5-part Rondo (ABACA) used in slower movements, and a 7-part Rondo (ABACABA, used in fast
movements):
Sonata Form: (also called "sonata-allegro form") The most important structural design of the Classic era, denoted
by three dramatic divisions (in the Modern Era, composers who used sonata form expanded the harmonic
distance between the opposing keys):
Ternary Form: A form having both opposition and return ("A B A")--it is the musical reflection of a circle (start at "A"
at the top, go around the circle to "B" at the bottom, then continue around the circle back to "A
Through-composed Design: A musical structure that has no discernible form--the music keeps changing as it
goes on, with no returning themes.
Modern Art Music Composers (in chronological order)
Early-Modern Art Composers

Claude Debussy (1862-1918): This ground-breaking leader of the French "impressionist" movement is known for
his colorfully-evocative piano works, symphonic poems, and songs. "Nuages" from Trois Nocturnes [impressionist
nocturne] (1899)
Maurice Ravel (1875-1937): An important composer of French impressionism and a greatest orchestrator
Pictures at an Exhibition (orchestration of Musorgsky's piano suite) [orchestral suite] 1922
Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951): This Austrian composer promoted the revolutionary early 20th-century concepts
of atonality, serialism, expressionism, and Sprechstimme. Pierrot lunaire [song cycle] 1912; A Survivor from
Warsaw [cantata] 1946
Anton von Webern (1883-1945): He was among Schoenberg's most famous pupils and is known for the brevity of
his works, as well as his creative use of serialism and pointillism. Symphonie, Op. 21 [pointillist symphony] 1928
Alban Berg (1885-1935): He was also among Schoenberg's most famous pupils and is known for his lyrical
approach to atonality and serialism. Wozzeck [expressionist opera] 1925
Charles Ives (1874-1954): The first US composer to design an innovative, nationalistic approach to art music. He
used polytonality and experimental textures, harmonies, and rhythms while incorporating American themes.
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971): This Russian-born composer participated in and gave impetus to most of the
significant musical developments of the first half of the 20th century. The Rite of Spring [primitivist ballet] 1913
Henry Cowell (1897-1965): This American composer was one of the earliest experimental composers of the 20th
century. Primarily known for The Banshee [character piece] 1925, played directly on the strings inside the piano.
Bla Bartk (1881-1945): He was a daring pioneer in the scientific study of folk music in Hungary and other
eastern European countries. String Quartet No. 5 [string quartet] 1934
Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953): A leading Russian composer of the first half of the 20th century, known for his
intense symphonies, piano works, and his narrated symphonic poem for children--Peter and the Wolf (1936).
Mid-20th Century Art Composers
Paul Hindemith (1895-1963): He was the leading German composer of the first half of the 20th century, and an
important music theorist.
Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887-1959): This mid-20th century composer was the chief representative of musical
nationalism in Brazil. Bachianas Brasilieras No. 7 [orchestral suite] 1942
Edgard Varse (1883-1965): This French-born, American-raised composer was an early avant garde visionary.
Pome lectronique [musique concrte] 1958
Samuel Barber (1910-81): This American composer promoted neo-Romanticism (the new Romanticism). Adagio
for Strings [symphonic poem] 1936
Aaron Copland (1900-1990): The first truly internationally-renowned American composer, known for his
nationalistic ballets, songs, choral music, and orchestral works. Appalachian [ballet] 1944
Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-75): A leading Russian composer in the mid-20th century, known for his intense
symphonies, chamber music, and piano works.
Benjamin Britten (1913-76): He was the leading British composer of the 20th century, known for his operas,
choral, orchestral and chamber music.
Later Modern Art Music Composers
Olivier Messiaen (1908-92): A French 20th-century composer, known for his complex rhythmic and harmonic
orchestral, chamber and organ works.
Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928-2007): The leading German composer of the late 20th-century avant garde. Known
for his electronic music, electro-acoustic music, serial compositions, chamber and orchestral works.
Leonard Bernstein (1918-90): A multi-faceted and highly influential American composer, conductor, author and
teacher. West Side Story [jazz-influenced musical theatre] 1957
John Cage (1912-92): Perhaps the most important philosopher-composer of modern times, he challenged
everything about musical sound and construction. He is mostly remembered for "prepared piano" works such
as Sonatas and Interludes for Prepared Piano (1948), and those based on indeterminacy ("chance music") such
as 4'33" (1952)--but he did much more than just that, constantly searching for "the music I haven't heard yet."
Milton Babbitt (1916-2011): This Princeton University professor of mathematics and music composition was
associated with the compositional principles of total serialism. Philomel [electro-acoustic music] 1964
Iannis Xenakis (1922-2001): This Greek-born, French-naturalized composer, theorist and architect-engineer was
one of the most important post-World War II avant garde thinkers. He is most known for his post-modernist
stochastic music and orchestral soundmass compositions based on probability theory. Metastaseis (1954)
Elliott Carter (1908-2012): A Pulitzer-Prize winning American composer, who wrote an enormous amount of music
in almost every traditional classical genre. Known for his use of metric modulation. String Quartet No. 5 (1995)
Pierre Boulez (born 1925): This composer/conductor is the leading French avant garde composer, known for his
complex total-serialized works.
Gunther Schuller (born 1925): This contemporary American composer coined the phrase "third stream" music
(blending art music and jazz into a third category), and has incorporated jazz elements into many of his works.
Sketch for Double String Quartet (1959) with Schuller conducting the Modern Jazz Quartet and the Beaux Arts
String Quartet [third stream work]
George Crumb (born 1929): This professor emeritus at Princeton is one of the leading figures of the American
avant garde movement. Black Angels [electric string quartet] 1970
Steve Reich (born 1936): One of the leading composers of the American avant garde minimalist movement. Violin
Phase [minimalist composition] 1967
Philip Glass (born 1937): One of the leading composers of the American avant garde minimalist movement.
Glassworks [minimalist composition] 1970
John Adams (born 1947): One of the leading composers of the American minimalist and avant garde movements.

DMA Review Sheet Merged PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

DMA Review Sheet Merged PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Medieval Terms

Medieval Composers and Theorists (in chronological order)

Late-Medieval Composers and Theorists

Transition to the Renaissance

Early Renaissance Composers and Theorists

Mid-Renaissance Composers and Theorists

Late Renaissance Composers and Theorists

Transition to the Early Baroque

Important Baroque Instruments

Baroque Composers and Theorists (in chronological order)

Mid- Baroque Composers

Transition to the Classic Era

Classic Composers and Theorists (in chronological order)

Transition to early Romanticism c1815

Genres Used in the Romantic Era

Forms Used in the Romantic Era (internal designs of individual movements)

Romantic Composers (in chronological order)

Transition to early 20th-century (c1895)

Richard Strauss (1864-1949): This German post-Romantic composer/conductor stretched Wagnerian

- Prime (forward order of pitches #0-11)

Genres Used in the Modern Era

Forms Used in the Modern Era (internal designs of individual movements)

- Within a sonata form movement: Theme 1 - Theme 2 - Development - Theme 2 - Theme 1

- In a multi-movement structure: Movement 1 - Movement 2 - Movt 3 - Movement 4 - Movement 5

Early-Modern Art Composers

Mid-20th Century Art Composers

Later Modern Art Music Composers

You might also like