Summary Bussines Resaerch Method

Measurement and Scales

(Disusun untuk Memenuhi Tugas Mata Kuliah Metode Penelitian Akuntansi)

Dosen Pengampu : Tri Lestari, Ph.D

DI SUSUN OLEH :

MAUNAH
7774160074

Program Studi Magister Akuntansi

Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa

Tahun 2017
 Chapter 16
Data preparation and description

16.2 Editing
The customary (usual) first step in analysis is to edit the data. The goal is to guarantee that
the data is accurate, consistent, uniformly entered, complete and arranged. To prevent
data errors, the researcher should review the reporting forms directly after the research
has been done. If there occurs an obvious error, the researcher should ask the respondent,
review other information or stike out the answer.

16.3 Useful rules for editing

Coding involves assigning number or other symbols to answers so that the response can
be grouped into a limited number of classes or categories. Example man or female M&F
(alphanumeric) or 0 and 1 (numeric). Coding helps the researcher to reduce several
thousand replies to a few categories containing the critical information needed for
analysis.
Four rules guide the establishment of category sets:
Appropriate to the research problem and purpose
exhaustive (thorough)
mutual exclusivity; a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a
category set.
Derived from one classification principle. To use a single dimension.

A codebook, or coding scheme, contains each variable in the study and specifies the
application of coding rules to the variable.
Pre-coding is particularly helpful for data entry because it makes the intermediate step of
completing a coding sheet unnecessary. Whether your research is qualitative or
quantitative, coding open answers is useful in grasping the structure of the information
collected. Content analysis measures the semantic content or the 'what' aspect of a
message.
Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative
description of the manifest content of a communication. Content analysis follows a
systematic process, starting with the selection of a unitization scheme.
Syntactical units are illustrated by word, which are the smallest and most reliable
units
Referential units may be object, evens, persons, and so on, to which an expression
refers.
Propositional units use several frameworks.
Thematic units are higher level abstractions inferred their connection to a unique
structure or pattern in thecontent.
 The 'don't know' (DK) response presents special problems for data preparation can be
divided in DK response when the respondent does not know the answer and a DK reply
illustrates the researcher's failure to get the appropriate information. The best way to
deal with undesired DK answers is to design better questions at the beginning. You can
categorize them differently or assume that they occur randomly.

16.4 Data entry

Data entry converts information gathered by secondary and primary methods to a
medium viewing and manipulation. Keyboarding remains a mainstay for researchers
who need to create a data file immediately and store it in a minimal space on a variety of
media. Methods of data-entry:
1. Optical character recognition transfer printed text into computer files in order to
edit and use it without retyping.
2. Optical scanning process the market-sensed questionnaires and store the answers
in a file.
3. Optical mark recognition (OMR) uses a spreadsheet-style interface to read and
process user-created forms.
Advantages: speed, accuracy, cost and convenience.
Computer-assisted interviewing and web-based surveys economize on the data entry,
because in these kinds of survey the respondents rather than the interviewers enter the
data.
A full-screen editor, where an entire data file can be edited or browsed, is a viable means of
data entry for statistical packages like SPSS. For large projects, database programs serve
as valuable data entry deviced. A database is a collection of data organized for
computerized retrieval. Programs allow users to define data fields and link files so that
storage, retrieval and updating are simplified. Data field represent single elements of
information, a data record is a set of data fields that are related, data files are sets of
records that are grouped together for storage on disks and databases are made up of one
or more data fields that are interrelated. Descriptive statistics and tables are readily
generated from within the database. Spreadsheets are a specialized type of database. A data
warehouse organized lare volumes of data into categories to facilitate retrieval,
interpretation and sorting by end-users.

16.5 Descriptive statistical summaries

Missing data is information that is missing about a respondent or case for which other
information is present. The common measures of location, often called central tendency or
centre, include the mean (average response) median (the middle value) and mode (the
most frequently occuring value) Measures of spread describe how scores cluster or scatter
in a distribution.
Different kinds of measures:
1. The variance; average of the squared deviation scores. It's a measure of score
dispersion about the mean.
2. Standard deviation; summarizes how far away from the average the data values
typically are.
3. Range; the difference between the largest and smallest score in the distribution.
4. Interquartile range (midspread); the difference between the first and third
quartiles of the distribution. Q3-Q1
5. Quartile deviation; Q3-Q1/2
The measures of shape is best communicated through visual displays. Skewness is a
measure of a distribution's deviation from symmetry.
 Chapter 17
Exploring, displaying and examining data

17.2 Exploratory data analysis

In exploratory data analysis the data guide the choice of analysis rather than the analysis
presuming to overlay its structure on the data without the benefit of the analyst's scrutiny
(kritisch onderzoek).