Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Red&
C O N T E N T S
1. Introduction
2. Further Introduction:
Two Important Design
Blue
Features
3. The Problem
Requirements
4. The Annular Data
Area and Track Pitch
5. Diffraction Limits for
Track Pitch and
Linear Data Density
6. CAV Versus CLV Disc
Laser
CDs:
Drives
7. Linear Data Density
8. Digital Video
Compression
Appendix A:
Glossary of Terms
Appendix B:
Notes for the Teacher
How Much Data
Appendix C:
Sample Solution and
Analysis
Can They Hold?
ii Interdisciplinary Lively Applications Project
TITLE: RED AND BLUE LASER CDS:HOW MUCH DATA CAN THEY HOLD?
NSF INITIATIVE:
MATHEMATICS SCIENCES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS THROUGHOUT THE CURRICULUM
(CCD-MATH)
Red & Blue Laser CDs: How Much Data Can They Hold? 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Philips
sold in the United States
and Sony pioneered the CD
audio disc in 1982. To date
over 120 million CD players
and 3 billion CDs have been
alone. The introduction of the CD laser
technology offered unheard of levels of information storage about 74
minutes of music or about 680 million bytes (megabytes) of computer
programs and data.
However, for storing video the CD is just not big enough about 20
minutes of video is the maximum capacity for a CD (5 to 7 CDs are
needed for a movie). A national phone directory for the United States
with 112 million listings requires 6 CDs.
Since 1982 significant advances in enabling technologies (laser diodes,
disc manufacturing, digital coding and compression algorithms, integrat-
ed circuits, drive mechanisms) have opened the way for the current gen-
eration of laserdiscsthe digital video disc or DVD.
The DVD, physically the same size as the audio CD, can contain 7 times
the data of an audio CD on just one layer of the 4 available layers. Over 2
hours of video (including multiple sound and subtitle tracks) will fit on
one layer of one side of a DVD.
For this project you are to present an analysis of the data capacity for dif-
ferent types of laser disc technologies. Two design factors will be impor-
tant: laser wavelength (infrared, red or blue) and disc drive mechanics
(CLV or CAV). A brief introduction to the two design factors will be given
in section 2 so that the problem requirements can be stated in section 3.
Perhaps surprisingly, the laser color or wavelength is a determining factor
in laser disc data capacity. The wave phenomena called diffraction is the
key to this mystery. Diffraction, technical data and background informa-
tion about disc drive mechanics are discussed in later sections.
Appendix A is a glossary; included terms are identified by bold italic font
when they first occur in the text.
REQUIREMENT 1A:
Using an appropriate functional model for a spiral, calculate the exact length of
an ideal mathematical spiral based on the three laser wavelengths.
REQUIREMENT 1B:
Present at least one (but possibly more) alternate ways to model the spiral
track which give approximate values for the track length. Calculate the length
based on the three laser wavelengths for these approximate methods.
REQUIREMENT 1C:
Compare the values found in 1a and 1b above. Are they very different or sur-
prisingly close? Evaluate and discuss this comparison.
The second requirement focuses on a difference between discs designed for
CLV versus CAV disc drives.
Audio CDs and all other discs designed for CLV drives use the same area of
the disc for data storage. The dimensions of this area are shown in the next
section. Surprisingly, for discs designed for CAV drives, using less of the disc
surface for data increases the data capacity. You will address the less is more
issue of how much of the surface area should be used for maximizing data on
a disc for a CAV drive in requirement 2.
COMMENTS:
At first the significance of the difference between CLV and CAV is illu-
sive. Insights and background information in section 6 might help clear
up ideas presented in brief outline form here.
For a constant angular velocity (CAV) disc, the data capacity is deter-
mined by the length of the inner cycle of the spiral track with all other
cycles containing the same amount of data. Thus the effective length of
the data track is the length of the innermost cycle of the track times the
number of cycles in the spiral.
If the full area is used, there are more cycles; however, the capacity of
each cycle is smaller due to the shorter innermost cycle of the track.
On the other hand, if, say, only the outer third of the disc area is used,
there are fewer cycles but more information per cycle.
REQUIREMENT 2:
Determine how much of the data area to use for a disc designed for a CAV
drive in order to have the largest effective data track length (and thus largest
data capacity).
REQUIREMENT 3:
For each of the three laser wavelengths you must evaluate data capacity for
both CAV and CLV discs. Present your findings regarding data storage capacity
in terms of two measures. First report capacity in terms of the minutes of high
resolution video which can be stored (this measure is meaningful for video
applications). Secondly, report capacity in terms of the number of millions of
data records which can be stored (this measure is meaningful for database
applications).
In summary, you are to present an analysis of different mixes of CAV/CLV and
laser wavelength technology in terms of their feasibility to provide the storage
capacity needed for high resolution video and database storage applications.
4 . T H E A N N U L A R D ATA A R E A A N D T R A C K P I T C H
Figure 2:
DIMENSIONS OF DATA AREA ON CLV LASER DISCS
A compact disc has a diameter of 120 mm. The data surface is an annular
region 35.5 mm wide with an inner radius of 22.5 mm and an outer
radius of 58 mm. A 2 mm band on the outside of the disc is not used for
data.
With a metric ruler and any audio CD you can verify these dimensions
which are established by international convention.
Figure 3:
SPIRAL SHOWING TRACK PITCH
In this section the value for the track pitch for each of the three
laser types is given. Background information on diffraction and
focusing/resolution problems and their relationship to track
pitch are presented. In addition, linear data density is defined
and values given for the three laser types.
For conventional audio CDs, the track pitch is 1.6 microns (millionths of
a meter). The pit size is small enough that on average each millimeter of
track can encode about 121 bytes of information. A laser beam is focused
on the moving data track on the reflective CD surface. The intensity of
the reflected light is modulated by the presence (or absence) of data pits
which enable the processor to pick up digital data from the disk. The cir-
cular image on the CD surface of the laser beam is approximately 2
microns in diameter. The track pitch and laser beam image are depicted
in Figure 4.
Figure 4:
TRACK PITCH AND LASER
IMAGE FOR LASER DISC
ll
Figure 5:
LASER CONFIGURATION Beam
Waist
SHOWING BEAM WAIST l
f
The next table contains values for the beam waist of a focused laser beam
for infrared (CD), red (DVD) and blue (hypothetical) laser technologies.
The beam waist of the focused laser beam controls both the track pitch
and the density and size of the small pits which encode the data and
make up the track.
For the purposes of this project you may assume that the track pitch is
0.8 times the beam waist.
The linear data density (data per unit length of data track) depends on
the size of the pits and how closely they are packed together. These
dimensions are also controlled by the resolution of the focused laser
beam, i.e., the beam waist. Values for linear data density are listed in the
last column of Table 1 for infrared, red and blue laser technologies.
Linear data density is discussed further in section 7 below.
6 . C AV V E R S U S C L V D I S C D R I V E S
same amount of data as the innermost cycle and, thus, the information is
spread out more thinly on the outer, longer track cycles. CLV discs have a
larger data capacity.
If data capacity were the only issue, all disc drives would be CLV drives.
However, computer manufacturers had compelling reasons to design flop-
py disc drives as CAV devices rotating at a fixed speed just like old record
players. The performance advantage for CAV devices is improved random
access time, the time required for the read head to move from one portion
of the disc surface to another. A serious drawback for CLV discs is that
there is a wait time for the discs to speed up or slow down as the read
head moves between inner and outer cycles of the track. In contrast,
although CAV discs hold less data there is no speed-up or slow-down
time needed when jumping around for data on the disc.
There is a trade-off between data capacity and access time for the two
technologies. For applications where large capacity is vital and data is nor-
mally accessed in a fixed sequence (audio and video applications) CLV
discs are preferred. Database applications (phone number or dictionary
look-up, for example) and interactive computer applications perform bet-
ter when using CAV discs and drives.
One final design feature of CAV and CLV discs affects data capacity, name-
ly the size of the annular area on the surface of the disc which is used for
data storage. This area is visible on both CDs and floppy discs.
Since CLV disc data capacity depends on total track length, the larger the
area the better. The dimensions shown in section 4 above have been
adopted by international convention between manufacturers of CLV discs.
The choice of data area for a CAV disc is a critical part of this project.
Leaving a 2 millimeter unused ring on the outer edge of the disc is neces-
sary for the physical protection of the data pits. The best radius for the
inner boundary for the data area needs to be determined. If the entire disc
surface is used, there will be an increased number of track cycles but
there will not be much data per cyclethe innermost track will be very
short and the pits and spaces on the outer ring will be elongated and inef-
ficient. On the other hand, using less of the surface gives more data per
ring but fewer rings. A mathematical analysis of the size of the annular
area giving the optimal storage capacity is needed. The reasonableness of a
mathematical analysis of this problem can be judged by checking that the
actual measured data area on floppy discs is consistent with your conclu-
sionssurely disc manufacturers for these CAV discs thought through
this issue when designing floppy discs.
In summary, data capacity for a CAV disc depends on the length of the
innermost track cycle and the number of cycles since all cycles contain
the same amount of data. Data capacity for a CLV disc depends on the
total length of the spiral track. The size of the annular area on the disc
surface used for data storage is set by convention for CLV discs. For CAV
discs the data area is chosen to maximize data capacity.
7 . L I N E A R D ATA D E N S I T Y
8 . D I G I TA L V I D E O C O M P R E S S I O N
Digital
second,
video compression is essential for
disc storage of movies. Even with
medium resolution of 600 x 800 pix-
els and 256 colors at 30 frames per
one second of raw video requires 14.4 megabytes of
data. At this data rate only about 8 minutes of video (with no sound)
would fit on one layer of a DVD20 or more DVDs would be needed
for one movie.
The MPEG2 video/audio compression standard is used for DVD. Under
MPEG2, the data rate required to encode video varies with time. More
data is used to encode complex sequences (action on a moving back-
ground) and less for simple sequences (a small plane flying across a clear
sky). Typical fluctuations in the bit rate for encoding a movie are depict-
ed in the following figure.
Figure 5:
VARIABLE BIT RATE FOR
MPEG2 DECODING
DVD players can process data at rates up to 1.25 megabytes per second.
By contrast, the byte rate used for digital satellite television (DSS) is fixed
at 0.75 megabytes per secondDVD picture quality is significantly high-
er. The standards for Digital TV (DTV) (which include high definition
TV) announced by the Federal Communications Commission at the end
of 1996 call for data rates of 4 times the rate of the first generation of
DVDs. Thus DVDs will offer video quality somewhere between satellite
digital TV and high definition TV.
The MPEG2 digital video compression used for DVD requires an average
of 0.62 megabytes per second to encode very high quality video along
with 5.1 channels of digital quality audio in 3 languages. This value of
0.62 megabytes per second can be used for estimating video capacity for
the different disc technologies under examination in this project.
Annular Region
A region bounded by two concentric circles. The area of such a region will be the dif-
ference between the areas of two discs.
Beam Waist
The diameter of the smallest circle to which a laser beam configuration can be focused.
This value is not zero due to diffraction and also due to imperfections in the mechani-
cal parts and set-up.
Bit
The smallest unit of data, usually represented by the choice of either a 0 or 1 value.
Byte
A unit of data consisting of 8 bits, usually thought of as representing one character.
Constant Linear Velocity (CLV)
Used in reference to disc drives which vary the revolution speed from inner (shorter)
tracks to outer (longer) tracks to maintain a constant bit rate under the read head.
Constant Angular Velocity (CAV)
Used in reference to disc drives which operate at a fixed speed of rotation.
Cycle of a Spiral
The part of a spiral traced out during one revolution. A cycle is nearly a circle but the
two ends do not match up. There are more than 22,000 cycles in the data track of an
audio CD.
Diffraction
Bending or dispersion of a beam of light when passing by a sharp edge or through a
narrow aperture. Diffraction is due to wave interference and thus the extent of disper-
sion depends upon the wavelength or color of the light.
Linear Data Density
The quantity of data (typically in bytes) per unit length of a data track.
Linear Spiral
A spiral where the distance from the center is a linear function of the angle.
Megabit
A unit of data consisting of one million bits.
Megabyte
A unit of data consisting of one million bytes. Hard disc drives are usually rated in
terms of megabytes of data storage.
Micron
A tiny unit of length, one millionth of a meter. For example, one human hair is about
75 microns, a dust particle is 40 microns. A micron is symbolized by .
MPEG2
A video/audio coding and compression standard used for DVDs.
Random Access Time
The average time needed to jump from one section of a data stream to another.
Spiral
A geometric figure representing the path of a dot which moves radially outward as it
cycles around its center.
Track Pitch
Track pitch is the distance between successive cycles in a spiral track. The track pitch
is 1.6 micrometers for an audio CD.
INTRODUCTION
The mathematics needed for this project is not daunting. The major diffi-
culty is mastering a lot of detailed information and extracting an appro-
priate conceptualization of the problem and the relevant numerical val-
ues needed for the various requirements. The discussion of diffraction
and MPEG2 coding are for background information and are not needed
for the solution for the problem. The authors felt that some understand-
ing of this background was valuable in its own right and, also, was essen-
tial for the authenticity of the project.
The first step is to realize that a linear function in polar coordinates (a lin-
ear spiral) is the most appropriate mathematical representation of the spi-
ral data track. The length is obtained using the standard arc length formu-
la in polar coordinates. A trigonometric substitution is needed to evaluate
this integral. Approximations to this length can be based on conceptualiz-
ing the spiral as a family of concentric circles or else as a long thin strip
with thickness equal to the track pitch which is rolled into a coil.
Data capacity calculations depend on differences between CAV and CLV
drives. The easy case is CLV drives where the data capacity is track
length times the amount of data per unit length (linear data density).
Also, for CLV drives the size of the data area is established by convention
(essentially bigger is better in this case).
In the CAV case, the basic fact is that the amount of data is the same in
each cycle and this fixed amount depends only on the length of the
shortest spiral. Thus data capacity is the number of cycles or rings in the
track times the length of the shortest cycle times the linear data density.
The number of track cycles is the thickness of the annular data area
divided by the width of space between tracks (track pitch). Determining
the thickness of the annular data for a CAV drive is an optimization
problem solved quite easily with calculus (or more simply, with an
understanding of the parabolic shape of quadratic curves). The data area
for a CAV disc is annular with the inner radius equal to one-half the
outer radius (just like floppy discs).
Finally, data capacity in terms of data records and in terms of minutes of
video is obtained by dividing the data capacity in bytes by the values
given for either the number of bytes per record or the average number of
bytes per second of video.
CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATIONS
The physicist among the authors felt that diffraction and the modeling of
light as a wave phenomenon are concepts which are central to many
aspects of modern physics and technology and that these concepts are
largely missing from mathematics courses. As we worked out the details
of this project, the rest of the authors came to appreciate the validity of
this point of view. Unfortunately an understanding of diffraction is not
logically essential to the mathematical solution for this problem.
However, it is diffraction which limits the resolution of a focused laser
beam and thus the minimal size and packing of data pits on a CD. Also it
is diffraction which explains why laser wavelength is significant. The
non-physics authors were enlightened (and entertained) by seeing a sim-
ple diffraction demonstration, which is described in the next paragraph.
We encourage those teachers who use this module to contact the physics
department of their institution to borrow the equipment needed for their
own demonstration.
A laser source (for example a common red laser pointing device used by
speakers) and a slit micrometer are all that are needed for an interesting
demonstration which takes only 5 minutes of class time. With the beam
shining onto a wall through the slit, one sees that, at first, as the slit nar-
rows the spot on the wall becomes narrower and sharper. However, as the
slit narrows further, the spot on the wall becomes fuzzy and expands. One
can see that there is a limit to how sharply the beam can be focused. The
light waves are bending around corners, i.e., diffraction is taking place.
Floppy disc drives are constant angular velocity devices. Thus we expect
that floppy discs would be designed to have a data area with outer radius
2 times the inner radius as predicted by calculus. This can be verified by
simple measurements.
For a standard 3-inch floppy disc, the inner and outer radii of the data
area can be estimated by measuring the opening under the sliding metal
window cover. Approximate results are 4.2 cm outer radius and 2.0 cm
inner radius. This is not inconsistent with the theoretical 2 to 1 ratio.
Note that the actual data area will be somewhat smaller then the size of
the window opening. The actual data area does not seem to be visible on
the disc surface.
Measuring the faintly visible markings on the older 5-inch floppy discs,
the inner radius is approximately 3.2 cm and the outer radius is 6.4 cm.
COPYRIGHT 1998 COMAP MAY BE PHOTOCOPIED FOR CLASSROOM USE
16 Interdisciplinary Lively Applications Project
INTERNET RESOURCES
A P P E N D I X C : S A M P L E S O L U T I O N A N D A N A LY S I S
where r1 is the inner radius (22.5mm) and p is the track pitch. Note that
that since must rotate 2 radians for each cycle, the radius r() increas-
es by the track pitch p each complete cycle. Also note that the interval for
will be 0 2 x R where R is the total number of cycles in the
track. The radius of the annular data region (outer radius minus the
inner radius) is 35.5mm so the basic relationship between the
track pitch p and the number of cycles or rings R is R = 35.5
p
where p is measured in millimeters. The values for p for the three laser
colors are obtained by multiplying the beam waist from Table 1 by 0.8 as
directed just following Table 1. Thus the final polar equation for the
p 35.5
spiral track is given by: r( ) = 22.5 + , 0 2 = 2 R
2 p
where the values of p are calculated as described above. In polar coordi-
nates the element of arc length is given by ds2 = r2d 2 + dr2 so we get the
following integral formula for the track length Lp as a function of the
track pitch p:
2 R
p p
Lp =
0
(
2
+ 22.5)2 + ( )2 d .
2
p
Using the substitution u = + 22.5 , we get
2
58
2 p
Lp =
p 22.5u 2 + ( )2 du.
2
This expression can now be evaluated to get the track length (in meters)
for different values of the track pitch p. The results are given in the next
table.
35.5
where p is the track pitch and R = is the number of cycles.
p
Before presenting these methods, we first show the values of the approxi-
mation Ap as compared to the exact values Lp
Notice that the largest error is 121 mm (about 5 inches) out of 3.49
miles. The reasons for the errors being so tiny are the subject of require-
ment 1c.
The first two methods are based on modeling the spiral track as a series
of concentric rings and figuring the length as the sum of the circumfer-
ences of the rings.
Method A: Perhaps the easiest way to estimate the sum of the circumfer-
ence of all of the concentric circular rings is to multiply the middle or
average ring circumference by the total number of rings. This gives
35.5 35.5 35.5
Approximate Track Length = 2(22.5 + ) R = 2(22.5 + )( ) = Ap .
2 2 p
Note that the average circumference will be the middle circumference
since the circumference is a linear function of the radius.
Using the fact that Rp = 355, this second formula for track length also
ends up with Track Length Ap .
Notice that the expression ( n + 2 ) used above could reasonably be
1
58 + 22.5 35.5
Annular Area = (582 22.52 ) = 2 (58 22.5) = 2 (22.5 + )35.5.
2 2
35.5
From this and the above observation we get (using = R):
p
Area
Track Length = Ap .
p
So this method gives the same value as the first two methods.
1 1
and the binomial expansion 1 + x = 1 + x x 2 + h(x)
2 8
where h(x) will have higher powers of x and is alternating.
2
3
p 1 2 1 1a 1 a a
This gives u 2 + ( )2 = u + a2 = u + + g( )
p 2 a a 2u 8 u u
where g(x) is a series whose lowest power is 5.
58
1
Notice that
22.5
a
udu = Ap ,
58
du = ln
1a 1 58
22.5
2u 2 22.5
a a, and
58 3
1 a a3 1 1
22.5 8 u du =
16 22.5 2 58 2
a3 .
p
Since the value of a = 10 3 mm for the largest value
2
of p (which is 0.0016), and especially since the additional terms are alter-
nating, we expect that the exact value will not be far from Ap.
One final observation may give some further insight by analogy into why
the approximation is so close to the actual value. The approximations are
based on modeling the spiral as rings, i.e., the slope or pitch of the
track is ignored. The track (in the shortest case) is about 3.5 miles or
5,611,179 mm long. As the laser beam tracks this length the beam trav-
els about 35.5mm from the inner to the outer tracks. By analogy we are
comparing the long side of a right triangle to the hypotenuse where the
long side is 5,611,179 and the other leg is 35.5. Note that this gives for
the length h of the hypotenuse h = 5,611,1792 + 35.52 = 5,611,179.00011229 .
Thus, since the slope of the track on a CD is so gradual, the diagonal and
flat lengths are virtually the same.
The reader may be familiar with the old problem which goes something
like this: if a string is tied around the equator of the earth (a perfect
sphere), how much slack must be added so that an elephant can walk
under the string? Only a fraction of an inch of slack is needed. Another
version of the problem is if a mile-long piece of railroad track (attached
at both ends to a perfectly flat track bed) expands by one inch due to the
heat of the sun, can a horse walk under the track in the middle (assum-
ing the new shape is an isosceles triangle with base 1 mile and with the
other two sides having length 1 mile and 1 inch)? In fact, the height of
the track in the middle is over 200 feet. Our problem here, in certain
respects, is like this: if a wire is 5,611.179 mm long and one end is
For a CAV disc, the optimal data area is an annular area with inner radius
one-half the outer radius. This can be verified by checking the data area
of a floppy disc. A mathematical argument goes as follows.
Let the variable r represent the inner radius of the annular data area.
Then the amount of data on the inside track would be 2 r k where k is
the linear data density (number of bytes of data per unit length). If the
Dr
outer radius of the disc is D, then the number of tracks is given by
p
where p is the track pitch (distance between tracks). Since the amount of
data on all tracks is the same, the total data capacity C(r)
Dr
is given by C(r) = 2 r k = Kr(D r).
p
This is quadratic in r. Either by drawing the graph and using properties
of parabolas or by setting the derivative to zero we can see that the
D
maximum of C( r ) will occur when r = as was claimed.
2
The effective track length for a CAV disc is simply the number of rings or
cycles times the circumference of the innermost ring:
29 1682
Effect track length for CAV disc = R 2 29 = 2 29 =
p p
The results for effective track lengths are given in the table below.
Knowing the track length (or effective track length in the case of
CAV discs) we can find the data capacity in megabytes by the simple
relationship
Data capacity (megabytes) = track length x linear data density
The capacity in minutes of video is the capacity in megabytes divided by
(0.62 megabytes/second x 60 seconds) = 37.2. The capacity in millions
of records (mega-records) is the capacity in megabytes divided by 50.
Final results for this report are summarized in the following two tables.
infrared (780) 2.000 1.60 22,188 5,611,179 3.49 121 679.0 18 13.6
red (640) 0.925 0.74 47,973 12,132,279 7.54 387 4695.2 126 93.9
blue (410) 0.400 0.32 110,938 28,055,895 17.44 800 22444.7 603 448.9
Table 5:
CALCULATIONS FOR A CLV DISC
infrared (780) 2.000 1.60 18,125 3,302,599 2.05 121 399.6 11 8.0
red (640) 0.925 0.74 39,189 7,140,755 4.44 387 2763.5 74 55.3
blue (410) 0.400 0.32 90,625 16,512,996 10.26 800 13210.4 355 264.2
Table 6 :
CALCULATIONS FOR A CAV DISC