Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TVBK 5185JJweb PDF
TVBK 5185JJweb PDF
Avdelningen fr Konstruktionsteknik
Lunds Tekniska Hgskola
Lunds Universitet, 2010
2010
Abstract
Determining the structural type of a bridge is often a difficult task. The purpose of this thesis is to
preliminary design three bridge alternatives. The bridge shall cross the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland.
The goal is to determine the most favorable option. That decision will be based on economy,
construction and aesthetics. Following that a more detailed design of the superstructure is performed
for the chosen alternative. All calculations are performed according to Eurocode.
Keywords: concrete girder bridge; arch bridge; cable-stayed bridge; concrete; reinforcement;
prestress
i
Rapport TVBK-5185
ISSN 0349-4969
ISRN: LUTVDG/TVBK-10/5185+92p
Examensarbete
Supervisor: Dr. Fredrik Carlsson
Examinator: Prof. Sven Thelandersson
October 2010
ii
Foreword
This thesis was written under the administration of the Division of Structural Engineering at the
University of Lund. It was written during the period September 2009 - September 2010 under the
supervision of Dr. Fredrik Carlsson.
I especially want to thank my supervisor, Dr. Fredrik Carlsson, for all his help with making this thesis
become real. I also want to thank Einar Hafliason, the head of the bridge division of the Icelandic
Road Administration, for the help with finding a subject for this thesis and for giving me necessary
information regarding this subject. For the cost of various structural materials I would like to thank
Oskar Bruneby, a site manager at Peab, for his contribution. In addition I would like to thank a good
friend from Iceland, str Ingvason, for making 3D animations of the three bridge alternatives
presented in this thesis. Finally, I want to thank my friends at LTH: Bzav Abdulkarim, Daniel Honfi,
var Bjrnsson and Valdimar rn Helgason for all their help and last but not least other friends and
family for their moral support.
iii
iv
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Outline of the thesis ................................................................................................................ 1
2 Bridge types .................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Concrete bridge ....................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Arch bridge ............................................................................................................................. 3
2.3 Cable-stayed bridge................................................................................................................. 4
3 The actual project geometry and boundary conditions ................................................................ 5
4 Preliminary design .......................................................................................................................... 7
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 7
4.2 Loads ....................................................................................................................................... 7
4.2.1 Permanent loads .............................................................................................................. 7
4.2.2 Variable loads ................................................................................................................. 7
4.2.3 Load combinations .......................................................................................................... 8
4.3 Material cost............................................................................................................................ 9
4.4 The concrete beam bridge ..................................................................................................... 10
4.4.1 Geometry for type 1 ...................................................................................................... 10
4.4.2 Size estimation .............................................................................................................. 10
4.4.3 Supports ........................................................................................................................ 11
4.4.4 Construction .................................................................................................................. 13
4.4.5 Cost estimation/conclusions .......................................................................................... 13
4.5 The arch bridge ..................................................................................................................... 16
4.5.1 Geometry for type 2 ...................................................................................................... 16
4.5.2 Arch............................................................................................................................... 17
4.5.3 Bridge Deck .................................................................................................................. 22
4.5.4 Hangers ......................................................................................................................... 23
4.5.5 Transversal Bracing ...................................................................................................... 23
4.5.6 Foundations ................................................................................................................... 24
4.5.7 Construction .................................................................................................................. 24
4.5.8 Cost estimation/conclusions .......................................................................................... 24
4.6 The cable-stayed bridge ........................................................................................................ 26
4.6.1 Aesthetics of cable-stayed bridges ................................................................................ 26
4.6.2 Geometry for type 3 ...................................................................................................... 27
4.6.3 Design ........................................................................................................................... 27
v
4.6.4 Deck .............................................................................................................................. 32
4.6.5 Pylons ............................................................................................................................ 33
4.6.6 Foundation .................................................................................................................... 34
4.6.7 Construction .................................................................................................................. 34
4.6.8 Cost estimation/conclusions .......................................................................................... 35
4.7 Summary and choice of bridge type...................................................................................... 37
5 Final design ................................................................................................................................... 38
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 38
5.2 Design ................................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.1 Building codes .............................................................................................................. 39
5.2.2 Loading ......................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.3 Materials ....................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.4 Exposure classes and service life .................................................................................. 40
5.2.5 Tendon alignment and prestress force........................................................................... 40
5.2.6 Prestress losses .............................................................................................................. 46
5.2.7 Secondary effects of prestress ....................................................................................... 51
5.3 Ultimate moment capacity .................................................................................................... 55
6 References ..................................................................................................................................... 57
6.1 Literature ............................................................................................................................... 57
6.2 Computer programs............................................................................................................... 58
6.3 Other references .................................................................................................................... 58
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................................... 59
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................................... 74
vi
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The motivation for writing this thesis is an interest in bridges that the author has acquired during his
studies in structural engineering. Many people consider bridges to be state of the art of all civil
structures. That can be for many reasons; f. ex. bridges sometimes cross a difficult passing or because
of their aesthetic aspects.
During the time the subject for this thesis was under consideration the author decided to contact the
bridge division of the Icelandic Road Administration (ICERA). Einar Hafliason, the head of the
bridge division of ICERA, was contacted and he was more than willing to help. He came up with a
few options to look into which were all considered. Following that, a decision was made and a bridge
that is to be constructed to cross the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland was chosen as a subject for this
thesis.
1.2 Objectives
The main purpose for a bridge over the fjord orskafjrur is to shorten the distance of the route on
the way to the northwestern part of Iceland. With this bridge the route will shorten of about 10 km.
Another purpose is to increase traffic security by eliminating all one-lane bridges on this 10 km sector.
The main objective of this thesis is divided into two parts. First, a preliminary design of three bridge
alternatives is made. A rough cost estimation and an estimation of quantity of materials is made based
on the preliminary design for these three alternatives. Secondly, a more detailed design is made of the
most appropriate bridge type. The choice of a bridge type is based on the conclusions from the first
part. These conclusions will primarily be based on economy, aesthetics and construction method.
Chapter 3 displays the bridge location and describes the boundary conditions and geometry at the
construction site. It also includes information about why this bridge is to be built.
Chapter 4 includes preliminary design and cost estimations of the three chosen bridge alternatives
with respect to the quantity of materials needed for each type. That chapter also includes conclusions
of the preliminary design, that is, which type of bridge is chosen for a more detailed design with
respect to the limits that are set.
Chapter 5 includes more detailed structural analysis for the superstructure of the chosen bridge
alternative.
1
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
2 Brridge typ
pes
There arre many areaas of concernn that need tot be focusedd on when designing a bridge.b Theree are four
main subbjects considdered in this thesis. They can be listedd in order off priority as:
1. Safety
2. Serviceabilitty
3. Economy
4. Aesthetics
Safety aand serviceabbility are acchieved throuugh systemaatic applicatiion of scienttific and enggineering
principlees and thus depend on the analyticcal skills off the engineer. Economyy and aesthhetics are
achievedd through noonscientific means
m y of the engineer.
and deepend almostt entirely on the creativity
2.1 Concrete
C bridge
Concretee slab- or girrder bridges are by far the most comm mon of all brridge types nowadays. Prestressed
concretee bridges are an attractivee alternative for long-spaan bridges annd are consid dered by manny as one
of the siimplest formms for a bridgge with respeect to its strucctural mode of action. A typical cross-section
for this ttype of bridgge can be seeen in figure 2-1.
2
2
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
2.2 Arch
A bridg
ge
Arches have
h been ussed throughoout the ages as
a structural elements. A perfect archh, theoreticallly, is one
in whichh only comp pressive forces act at thee centroid off each elemeent of the arcch. The shappe of the
perfect aarch can be thought of asa the inversee of a hanginng chain bettween abutmments. It is prractically
impossibble to have a perfect archh bridge exceept for one loading conddition while it
i is usually subjected
s
to multipple loadings..
Arches can
c span up to about 5550 m and in the case of slender s strucctures of steeel, various innstability
risks succh as the riskk for torsionaal buckling of
o the arches, must be taken into consiideration.
3
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
2.3 Cable-stay
C yed bridg
ge
The conncept of a caable-stayed bridge
b is sim
mple althouggh the loadin ng mechanissm is not soo easy to
predict. A bridge carries
c mainnly vertical loads actinng on the girder.
g The stay cables provide
intermeddiate supportts for the girrder so that it can span a long distancce. The basicc structural fform of a
cable-staayed bridge is a series off overlappingg triangles thhat connect the
t deck to the
t pylons. The T deck,
the cables and the pylon
p are undder predominnant axial foorces, with thhe cables unnder tension and both
the pyloon and the deeck under compression. Axially
A loadeed members are generally more efficcient than
flexural members. This
T contributtes to the ecoonomy of a cable-stayed
c d bridge. Theey also have less steel
consumpption but on the other haand larger sttress variatioons can occuur and their structural
s beehavior is
complexx.
Nowadaays, cable-staayed bridges are the mostt common brridge type foor long-span bridges and can span
up to arround 1000 m and com me in variouus forms beccause of eco onomy and aesthetics. They
T are
beautifuul structures that
t appeal too most peoplle. The towerrs, or pylonss, are the most visible eleements of
a cable-stayed bridgge and thereffore contribuute the most from an aestthetic point of
o view. A clean
c and
simple cconfigurationn is preferabble with freee standing toowers. Underr special circumstances they can
also servve as tourist attractions, for example when lightinng is a part of
o the designn which enhaances the
beauty aand visibility
y of the bridgge at night. An
A example of o a cable-stayed bridge can be seen in figure
2-5.
4
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
3 Th
he actuall project geome
etry and boundarry condittions
The posiition of this bridge
b is in the
t north-western part off Iceland passsing a fjord called
c orskaafjrur.
Currentlly there is a road that gooes along thhe fjord and at the end of
o the fjord there
t is a brridge that
crosses a river with only one lanne. The purppose of the neew bridge iss therefore too have two laanes, one
in each direction, too increase trraffic safety, efficiency and
a to shortten the routee of about 10 km by
crossingg the fjord.
In figuree 3-1 the possition of the ffjord can be seen. The figgure displayss the northwestern part of
o Iceland.
The lighht gray line where
w the arroow points is the current road.
r
As was mentioned, the bridge will have tw wo traffic laanes for norrmal vehicle traffic, onee in each
directionn. The requuired length of the briddge, 170 m, is mainly due to ecollogical reasoons. The
necessarry area of water
w openingg needs to bee of minimuum 560 m2 so that full water
w changes will be
acquiredd. For full waater changes the water floow is assumeed to be 2.5 m/sec.
m
The restt of the distannce required to cross the fjord will bee achieved byy a road, on a rock fillingg on both
sides of the bridge. Therefore
T thee bridge willl be positioneed in the midddle of the fjord. The widdth of the
fjord whhere the bridgge is to be poositioned is around
a 1 km..
5
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
A sectioon of the fjordd is displayeed in figure 3-3. Note thatt the height is
i scaled 10 times
t the widdth.
Figu
ure 3-3: A crosss section of th
he fjord, the heeight is scaled up
u of the factor 10.
6
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
4 Preliminary design
4.1 Introduction
This chapter contains preliminary design of the three bridge types, a concrete girder bridge, an arch
bridge and a cable-stayed bridge. The aim of the preliminary design is to determine the most suitable
bridge type for the purpose of crossing the fjord orskafjrur. The chapter is divided in to two
different sections. The first sections (sections 4.2 and 4.3) treat factors that are common for all three
bridge types, i.e. loads, load combinations and materials. Sections 4.4 to 4.6 treat the three different
bridge types respectively. In these sections are sizes of important bridge elements for each bridge type
estimated. These sections also contain rough cost estimations and construction methods for each
bridge type. Finally, in the last section of this chapter, the most suitable bridge type is determined
based on the preliminary design.
4.2 Loads
For the preliminary design of this project only three loads are considered. Two permanent loads, self-
weight and pavement, and one variable load, traffic load. The loads are determined according to
Eurocode 1 (EC1).
Traffic Loads
In EC1-2, chapter 4, there are defined four different load models for traffic loads. In this case Load
Model 1 (LM1) is used with two partial systems, one including axle loads (Tandem system TS) and
the other including uniformly distributed loads (UDL system), see figure 4-1. LM1 is considered to
cover most of the effects from traffic of lorries and cars and should be used for general and local
verifications while the other load models are considered for dynamic effects, special vehicles and
other situations. LM1 should be applied on each notional lane and on the remaining areas. On notional
lane number i, the load magnitudes are referred to as QiQik and qiqik, axle load and distributed load
respectively. On the remaining areas, the load magnitude is referred to as qrqrk. According to chapter
4.3.2(3) in EC1-2 the recommended minimum values for the adjustment factors are:
0,8
1,0
The national annex for Sweden recommends the following minimum values for the adjustment factors:
= 0,9
= 0,9
=0
7
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
= 1,0
= 1,0
Hence, these valuess are used for f this situaation. The Swedish
S national annex is applied since an
Icelandic national annnex for this part of Euroocode 2 is noot ready yet. Characteristi
C ic axle loads, Qik, and
characteeristic verticaal distributedd loads, qik, arre summarizzed in table 4-1.
4
Figure 4-1:
4 Load arra
angements for load
l model 1 in
n EC1-2.
8
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
where
4.3 Material
M cost
Table 4--2 summarizzes unit pricees for the maaterials used.. Even thoug
gh values of various expeenses are
not commpletely correect they will give a goodd perspective on prices foor comparisoon of the briddge types
that have been invesstigated. The basis of the cost estimattion and pricces is from courses the auuthor has
attendedd and other resources like discussioons with conntractors andd engineers both in Iceland and
Sweden. Workforce is included in these vallues and highher values are chosen where w a price range is
given.
To estim
mate the pricee of the steell hangers in the
t arch briddge, see sectiion 4.5.4, uniit price for soolid steel
is used (SEK/kg). To T come upp with a priice for the stay cables of the cablee-stayed briddge it is
necessarry to find thee unit weightt (kg/m) of th
he cables. Unnit weight foor cables wass found in a literature
from Zhhuan (1998) about
a stay caables where the unit weight of cabless that has a similar
s breakking load
as the oones that were
w chosen here to usee and that vvalue is 24.1 kg/m. Noo lifetime cost, c like
maintenance or other factors, will be estimatted and cost of o foundations is a factorr of uncertainnty since
the desiggn of that is not done in the preliminary phase. Here
H estimatio on is used to
o calculate thhe cost of
9
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
the subsstructures with a method developed by b Menn (19986) as a 23..5% of the tootal cost of structural
s
elementss. Included in
n the substruucture are thee piers and fuundaments.
4.4 The
T concrrete beam
m bridge
Bridge ttype no. 1 iss a concrete post-tensionned girder bridge
b with four
f spans annd concrete columns
supportiing the beam w post-tenssioning cablees. The total width of
ms. There willl be two maain girders with
the bridgge deck will be 10 m, seee figure 4-3. Supports willl be founded
d on concretee piles.
Figure 4-2: Sp
pan lengths forr bridge type 1.
48
= 20 = = 2,4
20
10
= 1,8 = = 5,6
1,,8
The estim
mated cross--section of thhe bridge, baased on the methods
m abovve, can be seeen in figure 4-3.
4
10
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
Figu
ure 4-3: The crross-section at preliminary sttage.
4.4.3 Supports
Maximuum load on a column woould be when n the given traffic
t load is located as shown in figgure 4-4.
To estimmate the mosst unfavorabble load actin ng on a singgle beam the girder distriibution factoor (GDF)
has to bbe determineed. GDF tellss how the trraffic load iss distributed between thee girders. Thhe traffic
loads haave to be loccated in the most
m unfavorable positioon on the briidge deck in the lateral direction.
d
To find GDF, the moment
m is caalculated aro
ound B with the lever arrm for each load as dispplayed in
figure 4--4.
= 1,16
1 For UDL system
And the following trraffic loads thhat act on onne beam are:
11
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
= 1012
2
= 37 /
where thhe axle loadds are channged into onne concentraated force (aassumption). Then the bridge b is
analyzedd in the leng
gth directionn for one girrder. Calculaations are made
m for halff of the briddge cross
section. Figure 4-5 shows
s he position of actions to decide the laargest shear force for
the acctions and th
the colum
mns and the bridge sectioon in the ultiimate limit sttate.
The widdth of a sinngle girder overo supporrts is 1.380 mm. The thhickness of the supportt wall is
calculateed from a forrmula for preeliminary design given inn the ISE maanual (1985)::
= 0.44 + 0.6
67 0.44
100
2
11
1180 10 = 1380 0.44 45 + (0.67
7 500 0.44 45) 311
100
11180
28
400
12
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
4.4.4 Construction
The construction method of a concrete girder bridge is relatively easy to perform. Concrete girder
bridges are one of the most common bridges in Iceland. This bridge alternative is often chosen for
similar conditions as are in this case because of economic and constructional reasons, that is, when a
shallow fjord is to be crossed.
Supports and columns below the superstructure will be constructed first. They will be founded on
piles. Since the level of sea depth at is shallow at the construction site the superstructure of the bridge
will be casted in forms that are supported on a temporary filling under the bridge. The filling will
finally be removed when the concrete has hardened and can then be used as road material.
The superstructures costs can be reliably estimated with the help of the geometrical average span
length, lm, defined as:
The empirical equations given below give the quantities of concrete, reinforcing steel, and
prestressing steel as functions of lm and have been derived from samples of recently constructed
bridges.
By this method the volume of concrete in the whole superstructure is obtained by multiplying the total
deck surface by the effective girder depth, hm, defined by the following expression:
= 0.35 + 0.0045
where hm and lm are in meters. This equation is valid provided the actual girder depth, h, satisfies the
following inequality:
1 1
20 16
which fulfills the criteria used earlier, l/h=20. The quantity of reinforcing steel is obtained by
multiplying the total volume of concrete by the mass of steel per unit volume of concrete, ms. The
parameter ms is estimated using the equation:
= 90 + 0.35
where lm is in meters and ms is in kilograms per cubic meter of concrete (kg/m3). This expression is
valid provided the deck slab is not transversely prestressed. Between 65 and 70 kg/m3 of
reinforcement is required for stability during construction and crack control; this quantity is
independent of span length, see Menn (1986). The transverse reinforcement required to resist loads is
primarily a function of cross-section dimensions. An additional 20 to 25 kg/m3 is required for
commonly used cross-sections, regardless of span length. Most of the steel required above the
13
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
3
minimum m 65 to 70 kg/m
k is locaated in the deck
d slab. Thhe deck slab should thereefore be the focus of
attentionn in the desiggn and arranggement of thhe superstructture reinforcement.
The mass of prestreessing steel per unit volume of conncrete, mp, is a functionn of span lenngth and
construcction methodd. For girderss that are cassted on convventional falssework, mp is estimated using
u the
equationn:
= 0.4
The estiimated cost of concretee, reinforcin ng steel andd prestressinng steel in thet superstruucture is
obtainedd by multipllying the esstimated quaantities with unit materiial costs. Thhe cost of falsework
f
(scaffoldding systemms that are used
u to tem
mporarily suupport permaanent structuures) and fo formwork
(temporaary structuree used to rettain unhardenned concretee until hardeened) shouldd be estimateed taking
into accoount the prop
posed constrruction sequeence; if it is greater
g than 65
6 percent of the supersttructures
materiall costs, anotther construuction methood should be b considereed. Adding the bridge material,
falseworrk and formw work costs yiields the totaal superstructture cost. Sinnce abutmentts and piers are
a under
sea level the cost peercentage of the total cosst of those sttructural partts as well as falsework/fo
formwork
increaseed. These vaalues are choosen to be 25% and 23% % respectiveely. The rem maining costts can be
estimateed using tablee 4-3, from Menn
M (1986)).
Table 4-3:
4 Table from
m Menn (1986)) to estimate coosts for variou
us structural ellements.
14
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
T
Table 4-4: Amoounts of structu
ural materials for the concreete beam bridgge.
For the ffigures givenn in table 4-44, abutments and columns are includeed. Below is a table with prices of
sub- andd superstructture and the total
t cost bassed on the prrice values from
f section 4.3 and to get
g a total
cost for this bridge tyype the total values for th
he structural elements aree doubled.
F
Figure 4-6: An
n overview of th
he beam bridge.
15
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
4.5 The
T arch bridge
b
Bridge ttype no. 2 is a conventional steel arch bridge witth two separaate arches abbove the briddge deck.
Each arcch will be off a steel box cross-sectio
on with steel stiffeners innside, see fig
gure 4-11. Thhe arches
will be oof zero hingeed type with X-bracing between
b the arches
a to increase lateral stiffness. Thhe bridge
deck willl be of commposite steel/cconcrete. In the longituddinal directioon of the briddge there will be two
main girrders with sh T connect thhe two mainn girders therre will be traansversal steel beams
hear studs. To
which arre connected d to the archhes with hanggers. A reinfforced concrrete slab will be casted ono top of
the mainn girders, seee figure 4-7.
70
17
=4 = = 42,5
4
To connnect the deckk to the arch vertical steel wire hangeers with c/c 25
2 m are choosen. On figuure 4-8 is
a drawinng of the struuctural model of the bridgge.
16
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
Figure 4-9:
4 Position off traffic loads when
w calculatiing GDF.
= 1,00
1 For UDL system
And the following trraffic loads thhat act on onne girder are::
= 694
4
= 27 /
4.5.2 Arch
To desiggn the arch the
t influencee lines for thhe arch needd to be determ mined. 3 secctions in the arch are
investigaated: abutmeent, of thee arch and the middle. Influence
I linnes for each section are made by
moving a point load d of 100 kN N in 10 m intervals
i oveer the deck in the longiitudinal direction for
momentt, shear forcee and normal force. Thesse influence diagrams
d can n be seen in figure
f 4-10.
17
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
0.50
M
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
-0.50
-1.00
x/L
0.50
0.00
V
-1.00
x/L
0.50
0.00
N
-1.00
x/L
Figure 4-10: Influence lines for various section forces at most critical placements.
To calculate the important section forces for design of the cross section of the arch the traffic loads
are placed on the most unfavorable position corresponding to these influence diagrams in a program
called PCFrame. PCFrame is a commercial program for structural analysis of frames.
Cross Section
To design the arch in the ultimate limit state the section forces are required. The highest moment in
the arch is reached when the traffic load is located in the middle of the span. The position of the point
load at the first quarter of the span gave the highest normal force. So these corresponding section
forces are used to design the cross section and are shown in table 4-6.
18
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
T
Table 4-6: Dessign section forrces in the arch
h.
The matterial qualitiees of the steeel are given inn table 4-7.
The folloowing cross--section was determined after few triaals with resppect to stabiliity in the lonngitudinal
directionn and resistannce, see figuure 4-11:
F
Figure 4-11: Ch
hosen cross-secction of the arcch.
The crooss-section is a welded box sectionn with trapeezoidal stiffe feners. Furthher details about
a the
dimensioons of the crross section (moment
( of inertia, sectiion modulus etc.) can be seen in the appendix
a
A.
Stabilityy
To checck for stabiliity in longituudinal directtion two inveestigations are
a made; caalculation byy hand as
well as wwith the help
p of PCFram me. To fulfilll the requiremments for staability the ratio between buckling
load andd the maximu um normal force
f needs too be in the raange from 4 to 5, see Lo oretsen and S
Sundquist
19
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
=
( )
= 4.8
Fiigure 4-12: Bu
uckling mode sh
hape of the arcch.
with Nd as the designn normal forcce and the caapacity of thee cross-sectioon, Nb.Rd , as
. = /
Here iss the reductioon factor forr the relevantt buckling mode and is deefined as
1
= , 1
+
with e
equal to
= 0,5 1 + 0,2
0 +
= 0.49
20
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
,
= /
where A is dependin
ng on the crooss-section as below:
= 1,1
It can bee seen in tablle 4-8 that thhe buckling reesistance is well
w above thhe calculated
d normal forcces in the
arch.
. = /
. = /
. Bennding
. Com
mpression
21
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
. = / For class 1 or
o 2 cross secctions
22
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
. = ( )/
where thhe parameterrs are explainned in the lasst section. Thhe determineed cross-secttion of the traansversal
beams iss shown in fiigure 4-14. For
F detailed calculations,
c see appendix
x A.
Main girders
The maiin girders will
w be conneected to the transversal
t b
beams whichh are hangin
ng from the arches
a in
hangers.. The largestt shear forcee and momennt in the maiin girders arre determinedd to be 20877 kN and
7241 kNNm respectivvely. Here thee same criterria are checkked, shear- annd moment resistance,
r ass was for
the trannsversal beams. The deetermined crross-section can be seeen in figuree 4-15 and detailed
calculatiions can be seen
s in appenndix A.
4.5.4 Hangers
The hanngers are the elements thhat connect th he bridge deeck to the arcch. They aree vertical cabbles. The
hangers are designeed to resist the largest teension force,, which is determined
d to
o be 3393 kkN in the
ultimatee limit state. This force is acquired when the axxle force froom the trafffic load is poositioned
exactly at hanger nuumber 1 cloosest to the support. Thee chosen maaterial of theese hangers is M100
carbon ssteel with thee design yieldd strength ass 3605 kN.
23
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
4.5.6 Foundations
The soill under the foundationss is sedimen nt layers. Thhe foundation will be foounded on precasted
p
w be driveen down to the ground. Each pile resists
concretee piles that will r about 400 kN, Haafliason
(2010). The piles wiill have an innclination doown in the diirection to thhe archs direection. The estimated
e
length of
o the piles will
w be 14 m.. The largestt reaction forrce in the arcchs direction n is 12601 kN
k so the
estimateed amount off piles is
12601
32
400
pacing betweeen the piles will be 1.2 m. The total number of piles
for eachh arch. The sp p is deterrmined to
be 35 piiles under eacch abutment. The piles will
w also be able
a to resist the risk of tuurning alongg with the
fundameent itself. Thhe filling behhind the briddge will alsoo be able to resist some external acttions and
support the fundam ments. A conntinuous founndation is chhosen underr the whole bridge in thhe lateral
directionn and the app
proximate sizze of it will be
b 7.2 x 4 x 16.8
1 m, see figure
f 4-16.
4.5.7 Constructiion
My propposal of a coonstruction method
m for thhis bridge typpe is similarr to the methhod for bridgge type 1.
First, fouundations for the arches will be consttructed and then
t a tempoorary workingg plane of grravel will
be placeed under thee bridge. Theen the archees will be raaised. Each arch a will be divided intoo several
segmentts, sizes that are possiblee to transporrt. These seggments will be b welded toogether in steeps, each
segmentt at a time, su upported by falsework sttanding on thhe working plane.
p When the arches have
h been
placed inn right positiions the tempporary workiing plane is removed
r and
d can be used d as a road fillling.
24
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
To get a total cost thhe total materrial cost is dooubled, whicch is a rough estimation.
F
Figure 4-17: An
n overview of tthe arch bridgge.
25
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
4.6 The
T cable--stayed bridge
b
Bridge ttype no. 3 iss a back and front cable--stayed bridgge, see figuree 4-21. This bridge typee has two
pylons on each sidde, similar to the ressund bridgee. The bridgge will consist of a coomposite
steel/conncrete deck. The cross section
s of thhe deck is siimilar to briddge type 2. A further diiscussion
about thhe choice of the
t superstruucture is in thhe next chappter where aeesthetics and
d structural system
s of
cable-staayed bridgess are discusseed.
Nowadaays the pylon ns are most often madee of concretee. The deckk can be mad
de of concreete, steel
orthotroppic or as a co
omposite steel/concrete deck.
d
Many cooncrete cablee-stayed briddges have beeen built. In general, theere are two construction
c methods
for conccrete cable-sttayed bridgees: cast-in-pllace construcction or preccast construcction. A castt-in-place
construcction is a further
f deveelopment of the free caantilever coonstruction method.
m Forr precast
construcction it is poossible to usee a more com
mplicated crooss-section because
b preccasting is donne in the
yard. Thhe segments,, however, shhould all be similar to avvoid adjustm ment in the precasting
p forrms. The
weight of
o the segmeent is limitedd by the trannsportation capability.
c B is the prreferred cross section
Box
because it is stiffer and
a easier to erect.
A propeerly designed d and fabriccated orthotrropic deck iss a good sollution for a cable-stayedd bridge.
Howeveer, with incrreasing laborr costs, the orthotropic deck becom mes less commmercially attractive
a
except ffor very longg spans. The use of steell in the deckk is, today, tw
wo to four tiimes as expeensive as
concretee. Thus the reeduced self-w
weight of thee deck slab must
m result inn appreciablee savings.
26
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
4.6.3 Design
In this seection the eleements in thee following table
t t ultimate limit state.
will be checked in the
27
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
Tab
ble 4-12: Elemeents that will be
b checked in ULS.
U
28
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
x/L
@Pylon Center
Figure 4-22: Influence lines for moments in the deck and at pylon supports.
29
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
x/L
x/L
Figure 4-23: Influence lines for normal forces in pylon support and moment at 55% of the height of the pylons.
30
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
N 0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
x/L
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
N 0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
x/L
Figure 4-24: Influence lines for various parts of the structural system of the cable-stayed bridge.
After the influence lines have been created the bridge is modeled as a 3D model in SAP2000 with the
forces positioned at the corresponding positions. The slab is modeled as area section elements with a
meshing of 0.5 m so that the axle traffic loads can be positioned right. Main girders and cross beams
in the bridge deck are modeled as frame elements as well as the pylons. The cables are modeled as
cable elements with high tensional stiffness. The only supports of the model are the fixed supports
under the pylons because the pylons and cables should be able to carry its self-weight under
construction.
31
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
4.6.4 Deck
Concrete Slab
The conncrete slab will
w be 250 mm m thick and d the concrette quality is C35/45. Thee slab will consist
c of
concretee casted on site and a meetal deck benneath of trapeezoidal profilles. To achieeve compositte effects
shear stuuds will be welded
w on crooss beams annd main girdeers.
Cross BBeams
The cross beams willw be made of steel and d are placedd in 5 m inttervals alongg the deck. They
T are
designedd to resist thhe self-weighht of the concrete slab and the traff
ffic loads. Loocation of thhe traffic
loads forr the largest moment cann be seen in figure
f 4-25.
Figu
ure 4-25: Position of the trafffic loads to estiimate the size of the cross beeams.
When thhe largest mooment and shhear force aree determinedd in ULS, itss possible to determine thhe size of
the crosss beams. Thee cross sectioon of the beaam is I shapeed with the tootal height off 860 mm. The
T width
of the flanges is 300
0 mm and thee thickness of o the web annd flanges is 30 mm. Forr detailed callculation,
see appeendix A.
Main Girder
Largest moment in the t main girrders is when n the traffic loads are appplied at the middle of thhe bridge
span andd is determinned to be 7311 kNm. Th he largest sheear force is determined
d t be 1247 kN
to k and is
reached when the traaffic loads arre applied where
w the pyloons are posittioned. An I--shaped crosss section
is chosenn. From thesse design vallues the size of the girderr is determinned. The totaal height is 1200 mm,
the widtth of the flan m and the thickness off the web annd flanges is 30 mm. Forr detailed
nges is 400 mm
calculatiion, see appeendix A. Figuure 4-26 disp
plays the choosen bridge deck.
d
32
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
4.6.5 Pylons
The pyllons will be a concrete hollow sectiion. The conncrete qualitty in the pylons is chossen to be
C40/50. The towerss have two vertical
v cablee planes andd are connected togetherr with two trransverse
beams. Each pylon is designed for combin ned moment and normall force. The design mom ment and
normal force were determined
d t be 27292 kNm and 5121
to 5 kN resp
pectively. Thhe size of a pylon is
determinned 1.5 x 2.0
0 m with a wall
w thicknesss as 0.3 m. T The size of the
t cross-beaams that connnects the
pylons iis determined to be 1.2 x 2.0 m witth a wall thiickness of 0.25
0 m. Figuure 4-27 dissplays an
interactiion diagram to o the pylon. The star on the inside off the curve shows the
t estimate thhe capacity of
design ppoint for thee above menntioned secttion forces. Calculationss of the pyloons are dispplayed in
appendixx A.
N Diagram
N-M
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
N (kN)
20,000
10,000
0
0 5,000 10,,000 15,000 20,000
2 25,000
0 30,000 35,0
000
-10,000
-20,000
-30,000
M (kN
Nm)
33
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
Figure 4-28:
4 Cross secction of the pyllon with reinfo
orcement.
4.6.5.1 Cables
Where tthe cables arre connectedd to the bridgge deck crosss beams aree placed to reduce
r torsioon in the
main girrders. The cables
c are modeled
m as cable
c elemennts with highh tensional stiffness.
s Thhe largest
tension force
f in the cables was determined
d too be 15888 kN.
k A propoosal of a cablle system is V VSL SSI
2000 with tendon unnits as 6-61 with
w a designn capacity of 17019 kN.
Finally a model of th
he bridge thaat was construucted in SAP
P2000 is dispplayed in figuure 4-29.
4.6.6 Foundation
The founndation undeer each pylonn will consisst of concrette footings annd cohesive piles as for the other
bridge tyypes. The larrgest verticall reaction forrce and momment under onne pylon is determined
d too be 5121
kN and 27292 kNm m respectivelly. That imp plies that appproximately 13 piles aree needed unnder each
pylon. T
The fundamen nt along withh the piles is assumed to resist the risk for overturrning.
4.6.7 Constructiion
The founndations are to be constrructed first. After
A that, thhe work withh the pylons can start whhere each
pylon will
w be construucted up to a height where the lowestt cable is connnected. Theen the constru ruction of
the deckk can start where
w the decck is conneccted to the cables
c in seg
gments mean nwhile the pyylons are
construccted further up.
u During tthis the cross-beams are also set in place. Afterr the segmennts of the
o the upper edges of
main girrders and crooss-beams arre in place thhe trapezoidaal profiles arre fastened on
the beamms. Finally thhe slab is cassted. This process is donee for each caable row withh the segmennts of the
main girrders weldedd togeather until
u the top row
r is reacheed and the deeck structuree meets in thhe middle
of the sppan. This waay, the structture works asa a self-anchhored system m with the deeck hanging from the
34
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
T
Table 4-13: Am
mounts of strucctural materiaals for the cablee-stayed bridge.
Finally the
t total costt of this bridgge type is sum
mmarized inn the table 4-14.
35
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
36
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
But, there are also other aspects that need to be taken into consideration when choosing a bridge type;
aesthetics, method of construction and construction time are obvious factors that can affect which
choice is made. The author will leave those decisions for others to make at later stages but chooses to
design the concrete beam bridge in a more detailed manner. In the following chapter more detailed
calculations will be performed for the superstructure of bridge type 1. Calculations of the post-
tensioned cables are performed where the prestress force and eccentricity of the cable profile are
determined. Following that all cable losses are determined and then the secondary effects of prestress.
Finally the ultimate moment capacity is determined for relevant members of the superstructure.
37
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
5 Final design
5.1 Introduction
Prestressed concrete structures, using high-strength materials to improve serviceability and durability,
are an attractive alternative for long-span bridges, and have been used worldwide since the 1950s. The
presence of cracks that can develop in tensile members can lead to corrosion of the reinforcement due
to its exposure to water and chemical contaminants. Corrosion is generally only a problem for
structures in aggressive exterior environments (bridges, marine structures, etc.) and is not critical in
the majority of buildings. The effect of cracking of members can lead to substantial loss in stiffness
which occurs after cracking and the second moment of area of the cracked section is far less than the
second moment of area before cracking. Thus, allowing cracks to develop can cause a large increase
in the deformation of the member. For prestressed concrete, compressive stresses are introduced into a
member to reduce or nullify the tensile stresses which result from bending due to the applied loads.
The compressive stresses are generated in a member by tensioned steel anchored at the ends of the
members and/or bonded to the concrete.
There are two types of prestressing systems: pre-tensioning and post-tensioning systems. Pre-
tensioning systems are methods in which the strands are tensioned before the concrete is placed. This
method is generally used for mass production of prefabricated members. Post-tensioning systems are
methods in which the tendons are tensioned after concrete has reached a specified strength. This
technique is often used in projects with very large elements. The main advantage of post-tensioning is
its ability to post-tension cast-in-place members. Mechanical prestressing jacking is the most common
method used in bridge structures.
The post-tensioning process involves three fundamental stages. In the first stage of the process, the
concrete is cast around a hollow duct. After the concrete has set or hardened, a tendon, consisting of a
number of strands, is pushed through the duct (alternatively, the tendon can be placed in the duct
before casting). Thus, the tendon can be fixed in any desired linear or curved profile along the
member. By varying the eccentricity of the tendon from the centroid, the maximum effectiveness of a
constant prestressing force can be utilized by applying the prestress only where it is required. Once
the concrete has achieved sufficient strength in compression, the tendon is jacked from one or both
ends using hydraulic jacks, thus putting the concrete into compression. When the required level of
prestress is achieved, the tendon is anchored at the ends of the member. After anchorage, the ducts are
usually filled with grout under pressure. The grout is provided mainly to prevent corrosion of the
tendon but it also forms a bond between the tendon and the concrete which reduces the dependence of
the beam on the integrity of the anchor and hence improves its robustness.
When prestressed concrete elements are designed the following factors need to be considered:
The prestressing reinforcement is determined by concrete stress limits under service load.
Bending and shear capacities are determined for the ultimate limit state
Deformations are determined in the serviceability limit state.
38
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
5.2 Design
D
Throughhout the desiign process, one girder isi designed with
w propertiies of half thhe cross-secttion. The
loads are calculated with respectt to that. Aft
fter iteration of the calculations in this chapter thhe size of
the girdeers is changeed from whatt was chosen
n in chapter 4.4
4 with a heeight of 1800 0 mm insteadd of 2400
mm.
5.2.2 Loading
Self-weiight and trafffic loads aree the same ass in the pre-ddesign phasee. But in thiss detailed design also
the load generated by y prestressinng is taken innto account.
5.2.3 Materials
In this seection the most commonn physical prooperties of alll materials used
u are sum
mmarized.
5.2.3.1 Concrete e
High strrength concrrete is alwayys used in poost-tensionedd structural members.
m In this case thhe chosen
concretee quality is C45/55. Forr this qualityy the modullus of elasticity is Ecm=36000
= MPaa and the
concretee compressioon strength iss fck=45 MPa. The self-weeight of reinfforced concrrete is 25 kN//m3.
The effefects of creeep need to bbe taken intto account for f calculatio on of long-tterm deflecttion. The
definitioon of creep is that undeer compression the concrete member will contraact with tim me due to
constantt stress. To taake account for creep in the
t design off concrete membersm the modulus
m of elasticity,
e
Ecm, is reeduced to ann effective elaastic moduluus, Ec,eff. Ec,efff is determineed with the following
f forrmula:
, =
1+
where is the creep coefficient. is taken frrom EC2 andd shown in taable 5-1.
= 27700
39
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
= 6460000
2
= 466
which gives after interpolation the creep coefficient as =1.56, see table 5-1, and the effective
modulus of elasticity is determined to Ec,eff=14066 MPa.
5.2.3.2 Reinforcement
The quality of the reinforcement is chosen to be B500B with characteristic yield strength fyk=500 MPa.
These classifications give a structural class of S4 according to table 4.3N in EC2. For that class the
minimum concrete cover for reinforcement steel is cmin,dur=45 mm and for prestressing steel cmin,dur=55
mm. Also, for post-tensioned members, the concrete cover should not be less than the diameter of the
duct. In this case the external diameter of the duct is 117 mm. According to EC0, table 2.1, the service
life (indicative design working life) for bridges is 100 years.
40
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
0.17
7 = 348.5
0.1
12 = 246
These vvalues will beb used in thhe beginning g of the calculations. Miinimum spaccing of the cables,
c is
given inn section 8.100.1.3 in EC2, and should not be less than
t the diammeter of the duct, in this case 117
mm. Maaximum mom ments from self-weight ini external bays
b occur at 0.375L or 13.875 m annd in the
center oof the internaal bays. Thesse values wiill be checkeed later whenn the amounnt of cables has been
decided with respect to minimum m concrete cover
c and minimum
m disttances betweeen ducts. Fiigure 5-1
displayss the momennt curve from m self-weightt. In the prestressing staage only the self-weight from the
superstruucture will be
b taken into account.
Immediaately after th
he cables are released froom the jacks the maximum
m stresses inn the cables are
a given
as the sm
maller of:
At the same
s time, excessive
e coompressive and
a tensile sstresses musst not arise in the concrrete. The
acceptabble value deppends on thee length of tiime during which
w the co
oncrete has hardened.
h Euurocode 2
suggestss that an acceeptable comppressive stresss is:
0.60 ( )
( )= for t 28 days
41
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
( )= ( )
28 28
( ) = exp 1 = exp 0.25 1 = 0.85
10
where s is chosen to 0.25 which is valid for cement of strength classes CEM Class N at 10 days and
fcm is 53 MPa. From this fcm(t) is determined to 44.79 MPa and fck(t) to 36.79 MPa. Hence, the
compressive strength at transfer becomes:
0.6 = 0.6 45 = 27
EC2 does not lay down any compulsory permissible tension stresses so the choice of concrete tension
stress limits is left to the discretion of the designer. Hence the design is restricted by not allowing high
tensile stresses to develop at service and only the concrete tensile strength at transfer:
. , 2.7
2.0
= +
where P is the normal force, A is the area of the cross-section and I is the moment of inertia. Mg is the
moment generated by self-weight, es is the eccentricity of the normal force and y is the location in the
section where the stresses are calculated. In this equation P and es are unknown and have to be
determined. The prestress force and eccentricity will be determined by developing a Magnel diagram,
a method to determine a Magnel diagram is descriped in OBrien (1999). Magnel diagrams are
determined for the critical sections where the maximum transfer- and service moments occur. An
estimation of the ratio between the prestress force at service and the prestress force at transfer, , is
made (generally from 0.75-0.90) and is chosen here to be 0.75. The critical sections that will be
checked are external and internal spans and supports B and C. Figure 5-2 displays the load
arrangements to establish the largest moments at each section at service stage. These load
arrangements are determined based on influence lines that are created by the same method as in
section 4 and can be seen in appendix B.
42
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
Figu
ure 5-2: Momeent distribution
ns and load arrrangement forr moments at seervice for the calculated
c secttions.
These m
moments are calculated in i the compuuter programm PCFRAME E after influeence lines have been
developeed for each section
s and thhe moments can be seen in table 5-2.
1
=
43
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
1
=
1
=
1
=
where W is the section modulus (I/y). Wb is at a bottom annd is a negatiive value and d Wt is at topp and is a
positive value, A is area of thee cross-sectioon, e is the eccentricity of prestresss tendons (aabove the
centroidd is positive and
a below neegative) and M are applieed moments (M0 is the moment at trannsfer and
a positive and hog mom
MS at seervice), see table 5-2. Sagg moments are ments are neegative. Thesse values
are showwn in appenddix B. The nootation for peermissible strresses in thesse equations is the follow
wing:
In table 5-3 the numerical valuess for these peermissible strresses are giv
ven.
Note that for these calculationss compressivve stresses are considerred positive and tensilee stresses
negativee.
The folllowing four inequalities are used to determine thhe feasible zone
z for the prestressing
p force on
the Maggnel diagramss:
1 1
+ 1
44
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
1 1
+ 2
1 1
+ 3
1 1
+ 4
These inequalities represent half-planes bounded by the line on which the stress limits are just
satisfied. To determine which half-plane represents the inequality, the origin of the Magnel diagram is
substituted into inequality 1, 1/P=0 and e=0, and gives the following:
1
0 1
If this is true (A is positive), the correct half-plane is the one containing the origin and the same
procedure is done for the three remaining inequalities.
1
0 2
1
0 3
1
0 4
Thus, for inequality 1 the half-plane contains the origin, for inequality 2 it doesnt, for inequality 3 the
half-plane contains the origin and for inequality 4 it doesnt. For further information see appendix B
and OBrien (1999).
After some calculation the Magnel diagrams are established (Appendix B) and the appropriate
prestress force and eccentricity are chosen. The chosen prestress force is 46.512 kN (1/P=2.15 x 10-8
N-1) which is based on the maximum allowable eccentricity that is at supports B and C. That requires
approximately 8 tendons each with a breaking load of 7812 kN. The eccentricity limits at each section
are given below, based on these Magnel diagrams.
On figure 5-3 is the longitudinal feasible zone and the cable layout displayed. That zone is based on
the calculations above.
45
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
Time depend dent losses, which are frrom relaxatioon of the steel and by crreep and shriinkage of
the concrete.
Loss due to slippage of the tendons at the anchoorage knownn as draw-in loss (in casee of post-
tension).
46
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
= (
(1 )
= 2( )
where yi is the verrtical changee in height between thee sections thhat are calcculated and xi is the
horizonttal distance between
b the correspondin
c ng sections. These
T sectionns are displayyed on figure 5-5.
= (1 )
( )
= (1
1 )
The resuults of the calculated fricttion losses arre displayed in table 5-5.
47
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
1
1= +
where inndex 1 and 2 indicate tendon 1 andd 2 respectivvely. P and e are the prrestressing fforce and
eccentriccity respectiively. Ag is the area off the cross-seection. The results of the
t calculateed elastic
shorteninng loss for thhe whole cabble group in one
o girder arre displayed in table 5-6.
48
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
because of friction, this loss decreases along the length of the member to zero at a distance Ld from the
jack. The extent of draw-in losses is determined with the following equation:
=
( )/
where (Pjack-PL)/L is the slope of the distribution of prestress force if the friction loss is assumed to
vary linearly. s is the total shortening of the tendon. The magnitude of the draw-in loss at the
anchorage is then given by the following equation:
( )
=2
where P is the draw-in loss. The distribution of the prestress force after the draw-in loss is displayed
in figure 5-6 where the decrease of this loss along the length of the member becomes zero at distance
Ld approximately 15 m from the jack.
Draw-in loss
50000
0, 46512
P [kN]
Prestress due
45000 to friction loss
24, 44891
0, 43270 Draw-in loss
85, 40830
40000
0 20 40 60 80
x [m]
Figure 5-6: Distribution of the prestress force after the draw-in loss for half of the total span.
49
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
F
Figure 5-7: Reelaxation of preestressing steell.
The pheenomenon of o creep is essentially the t same ass that of rellaxation. Th he distinctionn is that
relaxatioon refers to the
t loss of sttress under constant
c straiin while creeep is the increase of straain which
occurs aat constant sttress. For preestressed conncrete, relaxaation occurs in the steel while
w creep occurs
o in
the conccrete.
+ ,
, =
1+ 1+ (1 + 0..8 )
where
cs = final shhrinkage straain calculatedd according to section 3..1.4 (6) in EC2. Calculatted value
of this strainn is cs=0.0000256.
Ep = modulu
us of elasticitty of the presstressing steeel.
p,r = loss of
o stress in thhe tendons att the design section
s due to
o relaxation.
c = stress inn the concrette at the levell of the tendoons due to peermanent loaads plus presttress.
The finaal shrinkage strain is commposed of tw wo componeents, the dryying shrinkagge strain, cd, and the
autogenoous shrinkagge strain, ca. For detailedd explanationns of calculaations of the final shrinkaage strain
t relaxation, p.r, is
author refers to secttion 3.1.4 (6)) in EC2. Thhe loss of strress in the teendons due to
50
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
derived from figure 5-7 with thee ratio of steeel stress/charracteristic tennsile strengthh as (p/fpk) with
w p at
the sectiion that is calculated as:
= +
, =3
The streess, c, in thhe concrete at the leveel of tendonns due to peermanent loaads plus preestress is
calculateed using the following eqquation:
( + )
= +
=
8
Since thhe equation of the bendding momennt for uniforrmly loaded simply suppported beam
m is also
paraboliic, the momeents must be equal in the two beams at
a any point. Thus
51
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
=
8
and
8
=
+
= +
2
To deterrmine the mooment at the intermediatee supports thee three-momment equation n (Clapeyronns theory)
is used. The calculattion procedurre of the threee-moment equation is in
n the followinng order:
52
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
Repeat as needed,
n alwaays moving oneo span to the right annd writing a new set off moment
equations.
Solve 3 simuultaneous eqquations for 4 spans to gett the internall moments.
In this ccase these mooment equatiions are three since theree are four spaans and threee unknown moments,
m
MA, MB aand MC. Theey are the following:
+2 ( + )+ = 6( + )
+2 ( + )+ = 6( + )
+2 ( + )+ = 6( + )
The term
ms on the rigght hand side of these equuations are accquired with
h the followinng formula for
fo beams
with uniiformly distriibuted load on
o span no. n:
n
=
24
In table 5-8 the calcculated valuees for w andd the prestresss moments are listed an nd on figure 5-11 the
momentt diagrams fo or the correspponding mom ments. The secondary mo oment is lineear between supports.
s
More deetailed calcullations to obttain the seconndary momeent are in apppendix B.
Table 5-8:
5 Prestress moment.
m
53
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
Figure 5-11:
5 Diagramss of primary an
nd secondary moments.
m
When thhe total mo oment has beenb obtaineed in the beeam, the ulttimate mom
ment capacityy can be
calculateed. That is doone in the neext chapter.
54
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
1
= +
where Mp is the moment due to prestress and P is the prestress force, both after all losses, at the
section that is calculated. The tendon strain is defined as (contraction positive):
= +
where Ap is the area of the prestress reinforcement and Ep is its modulus of elasticity. ct is the total
ultimate strain in the concrete and is found with the following equation:
( )
=
EC2 recommends that ult should be taken as 0.0035. Here d is the effective depth, distance from
extreme fibre in compression to the center of tension reinforcement, and x is the distance from
extreme fibre in compression to neutral axis. To calculate the equilibrium of forces the force in the
steel, Fp, and the compressive force acting on the concrete in compression, Fc, are required:
= ( )
= 0.8
Here b is the width of the section which Fc is acting on. is a coefficient which takes into account the
long-term effects on the compressive strength and is 1.0. c is the partial safety factor for concrete
strength and is equal to 1.5 according to EC2. Now the following equation for equilibrium of forces is
established and solved to find x:
+ =0
When x is found a check is made to see if the steel has yielded by substituting x into the equation for
the tendon strain defined above. The initial yield strain for prestressing steel is where p is
the partial safety factor for reinforcement strength and is equal to 1.15 according to EC2. pu cannot
exceed the initial strain, otherwise the steel has yielded. Finally the ultimate moment capacity can be
determined with the following formula:
= =
with z as:
= ( 0.4 )
55
Design of a 170 m long bridg
ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
In appenndix B are deetailed calcuulations of thee moment caapacity of eaach section displayed. In table 5-9
are the bbending mom
ments in ULS moment capaacity summarrized for each section.
S with prestreess and the m
Tab
ble 5-9: Total design
d Mtotal) and the ultimate moment capacity (M
momentt in the ULS with prestress (M Mult).
Finally, the cross-secction with thhe cable elevaation is displlayed for eacch section in figure 5-12.
56
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
6 References
6.1 Literature
Austin, W.J., (1971), IN-PLANE BENDING AND BUCKLING OF ARCHES, Journal of the
Structural Division, May 1971, pp. 1575-1591.
Bunner, M. and Wright, K., (2006), Selecting the Shape of a Steel Arch, Bridgeline, Volume 15, NO.
1, April 2006.
Chen, W. and Duan, L., (2000), Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press LLC, Florida.
Ghoneim, M. and El-Mihilmy, M., (2008), Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Vol. 3, Cairo
University, Cairo.
Gilbert, R. I., and Mickleborough, N. C., (2004), Design of Prestressed Concrete, Spon Press,
London.
ISE manual, (1985), I. Struct. E./ICE Joint committee, Manual for the Design of Reinforced
Concrete Building Structures, Institution of Structural Engineers, London.
Nawy, E. G., (2008), Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook, 2nd edition, CRC Press LLC,
Florida.
OBrien, E. J. and Dixon, A. S., (1999). Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Design, Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh.
Thelandersson, S., (2009), Design of bridges Structural design project, Lund University,
Structural engineering.
Zhuan M. Q. and Guo. X. J., (1998), PE Shelled Large Pitch Twisted Stay Cable, For Construction
Use, Shanghai PuJiang Cable Co. Ltd. Shanghai.
57
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
http://www.ingvason.com/
58
Appendix A
Appendix A
59
Appendix A
CALCULATIONSOFGDFFORBRIDGETYPE1
ForQ Forq
F z M q l z M
RA 5,6 RAx RA 5,6 RAx
135 6,8 918 9 3 5,8 156,6
135 4,8 648 2,5 3 2,8 21
90 3,8 342 2,5 3 0,2 1,5
90 1,8 162 M= 176,1
M= 2070 RA= 31,45
RA= 369,64 GDFq= 1,16
GDFQ= 1,37 RB= 10,55
RB= 80,36
Totalactionsonhalfofthecrosssectionfortrafficloadsinthelengthdirection
Q=2*GDFQ*RA= 1012 kN
q=GDFq*RA= 37 kN/m
60
Appendix A
CalculationsforArea,MomentofInertiaandSectionModulusforBridgeType1
Note:Allcrosssectioncalculationsaredonefromthebottomfibre
Inthemiddleofthespan
2
Part b h A y0 S=Ay0 yy0 I0 A(yy0) Ix
2 3 4 4 4
nr. mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
1 1080 2400 2592000 1200 3,11E+09 431,1 1,24E+12 4,82E+11 1,73E+12
2 1080 2400 2592000 1200 3,11E+09 431,1 1,24E+12 4,82E+11 1,73E+12
3 10000 250 2500000 2525 6,31E+09 893,9 1,30E+10 2,00E+12 2,01E+12
7684000 1,25E+10 5,46E+12
3
y= 1631,1 mm WTop= 5,36E+09 mm
3
h= 2650 mm WBottom= 3,35E+09 mm
CreepEffectiveelasticmodulus
Perimeter: u= 30100 mm
Notionalsize: 2A/u= 511 mm
Creepcoefficient: = 1,54
2
Effectiveelasticmodulus: Ec,eff= 14175 N/mm
InthemiddleofthespanHalfcrosssection
Part b h A y0 S=Ay0 yy0 I0 A(yy0)2 Ix
2 3 4 4
nr. mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm4
1 5000 250 1250000 2525 3,16E+09 893,9 6,51E+09 9,99E+11 1,01E+12
2 1080 2400 2592000 1200 3,11E+09 431,1 1,24E+12 4,82E+11 1,73E+12
3842000 6,27E+09 2,73E+12
3
y= 1631,1 mm WTop= 2,68E+09 mm
3
h= 2650 mm WBottom= 1,67E+09 mm
61
Appendix A
Overasupport
Part b h A y0 S=Ay0 yy0 I0 A(yy0)2 Ix
2 3 4 4
nr. mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm4
1 1380 2400 3312000 1200 3,97E+09 363,1 1,59E+12 4,36548E+11 2,03E+12
2 1380 2400 3312000 1200 3,97E+09 363,1 1,59E+12 4,36548E+11 2,03E+12
3 10000 250 2500000 2525 6,31E+09 961,9 1,30E+10 2,31335E+12 2,33E+12
9124000 1,43E+10 6,38E+12
3
y= 1563,1 mm WTop= 5,87E+09 mm
3
h= 2650 mm WBottom= 4,08E+09 mm
OverasupportHalfcrosssection
Part b h A y0 S=Ay0 yy0 I0 A(yy0)2 Ix
2 3 4 4 4
nr. mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
1 5000 250 1250000 2525 3,16E+09 961,9 6,51E+09 1,16E+12 1,16E+12
2 1380 2400 3312000 1200 3,97E+09 363,1 1,59E+12 4,37E+11 2,03E+12
4562000 7,13E+09 3,19E+12
3
y= 1563,1 mm WTop= 2,51E+09 mm
3
h= 2650 mm WBottom= 2,04E+09 mm
CreepEffectiveelasticmodulus
Perimeter: u= 30100 mm
Notionalsize: 2A/u= 606 mm
Creepcoefficient: = 1,50
2
Effectiveelasticmodulus: Ec,eff= 14416 N/mm
3
concrete= 25 kN/m
2
pavement= 2,1 kN/m
Selfweightofconcreteforhalfofthebridgesection
gconcrete= 96,1 kN/m
gpavement= 10,5 kN/m
gtot= 106,6 kN/m
2
Ec = 36000 N/mm
62
Appendix A
CALCULATIONSOFGDFFORBRIDGETYPE2
ForQ Forq
F z M q l z M
RA 10 RAx RA 10 RAx
135 9 1215 9 3 8 216
135 7 945 2,5 3 5 37,5
90 6 540 2,5 3 2 15
90 4 360 M 268,5
M= 3060 RA 26,85
RA= 306,00 GDFq= 0,99
GDFQ= 1,13 RB= 15,15
RB= 144,00
Totalactionsonhalfofthecrosssectionfortrafficloadsinthelengthdirection
Q=2*GDFQ*RA= 694 kN
q=GDFq*RA= 27 kN/m
63
Relevantdistancesforcrosssectioncalculationsofthearch
64
Appendix A
Stiffeners CalculationsforArea,MomentofInertiaandSectionModulusFortheStrongerAxis
65
y= 850,0 mm
Appendix A
h= 1700 mm
3
Wel= 1,24E+08 mm
Calculationsofplasticsectionmodulusofthesection
Part A y n Wxi Type
2 3
nr. mm mm mm
1 1949,8 731,31 4 5703690 Stiffener
2 1949,8 675,00 4 5264518 Stiffener
3 1949,8 450,00 4 3509679 Stiffener
4 1949,8 225 4 1754839 Stiffener
5 80000 53,00 4 1,7E+07 Stiffener
6 45000 825,00 2 7,4E+07 Flange
7 80000 400 4 1,3E+08 Web
Wxpl= 2,35E+08
ENV199311
5.4.5and5.4.5.2BendingMoment(page65) 5.4.4Compression((1)and(2))(page65)
M Sd M c.Rd N Sd N c. Rd
66
Msd= 15875 kNm NSd= 10901 kN
a)Designplasticresistancemoment a)Designplasticresistancecompression
Appendix A
M pl,Rd =Wpl f y / M0 N pl . Rd = Af y / M 0
MaingirdersBridgetype2
2
Part b h A y0 S=Ay0 yy0 I0 A(yy0) Iy
2 2 2 2 4 4
[mm ] [mm ] [mm ] [mm] [mm ] [mm] [mm ] [mm ] [mm4]
TopFlange 300 40 12000 1160 1,39E+07 570 1,60E+06 3,90E+09 3,90E+09
Web 40 1100 44000 590 2,60E+07 0 4,44E+09 0,00E+00 4,44E+09
BottomFlange 300 40 12000 20 2,40E+05 570 1,60E+06 3,90E+09 3,90E+09
68000 4,01E+07 1,22E+10
y= 590 [mm]
h= 1180 [mm]
3
Wel= 2,07E+07 [mm ]
2 VSd V pl . Rd = Av ( f y / 3) / M 0
Sheararea:Av=(dtw)= 44000 mm
Designvalues:
CrossSectionClass,table5.3.1inEC3 MSd,max= 7241 kNm
0,81 VSd,max= 2087 kN
d 1100
tw 40 Resistance:
Flange
67
Appendix A
CrossbeamsBridgetype2
y= 430 [mm]
h= 860 [mm]
3
Wel= 7,79E+06 [mm ]
2
VSd V pl . Rd = Av ( f y / 3) / M 0
Sheararea:Av=(dtw)= 24000 mm
Designvalues:
CrossSectionClass,table5.3.1inEC3 MSd,max= 3025 kNm
0,81 VSd,max= 1359 kN
d 800
tw 30 Resistance:
Flange
68
Appendix A
CALCULATIONSOFGDFFORBRIDGETYPE3
ForQ Forq
F z M q l z M
RA 10 RAx RA 10 RAx
135 9 1215 9 3 8 216
135 7 945 2,5 3 5 37,5
90 6 540 2,5 3 2 15
90 4 360 M 268,5
M= 3060 RA 26,85
RA= 306,00 GDFq= 0,99
GDFQ= 1,13 RB= 15,15
RB= 144,00
Totalactionsonhalfofthecrosssectionfortrafficloadsinthelengthdirection
Q=2*GDFQ*RA= 694 kN
q=GDFq*RA= 27 kN/m
69
Appendix A
CrossbeamsBridgetype3
Mmax
Vmax
2
Part b h A y0 S=Ay0 yy0 I0 A(yy0) Iy
2 2 2 2 4 4
[mm ] [mm ] [mm ] [mm] [mm ] [mm] [mm ] [mm ] [mm4]
TopFlange 300 30 9000 845 7,61E+06 415 6,75E+05 1,55E+09 1,55E+09
Web 30 800 24000 430 1,03E+07 0 1,28E+09 0,00E+00 1,28E+09
BottomFlange 300 30 9000 15 1,35E+05 415 6,75E+05 1,55E+09 1,55E+09
42000 1,81E+07 4,38E+09
y= 430 [mm]
h= 860 [mm]
3
Wel= 1,02E+07 [mm ]
2 VSd V pl . Rd = Av ( f y / 3) / M 0
Sheararea:Av=(dtw)= 24000 mm
Designvalues:
CrossSectionClass MSd,max= 3237 kNm
0,81 VSd,max= 672 kN
d 800
tw 30 Resistance:
Flange
c/tf 5 doesnotexceed50%ofthedesignplasticshear
Class Class1 c/tf9 resistanceV pl.Rd noreductionneedbemade
70
Appendix A
MaingirderBridgetype3
y= 600 [mm]
h= 1200 [mm]
3
Wel= 1,99E+07 [mm ]
VSd V pl . Rd = Av ( f y / 3) / M 0
Sheararea:Av=(dtw)= 34200 mm2
Designvalues:
CrossSectionClass MSd,max= 7311 kNm
0,81 VSd,max= 1247 kN
d 1140
tw 30 Resistance
Flange
V sd doesnotexceed50%ofthedesignplastic
c/tf 6,67
shearresistanceV pl.Rd noreductionneedbemade
Class Class1 c/tf9
71
Appendix A
Column
tx L l ty B b
mm 300 1500 900 300 2300 1700
2
A 1920000 mm
Reinforcement
Outside Bars Inside Bars
Cover x (Pcs.) Sox y (Pcs.) Soy x (Pcs.) Sox y (Pcs.) Soy
mm 50 18 80,9 26 80,6 13 85,4 21 83,0
CrossSection
ReshapeChartforRightScaling
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
72
Appendix A
Materials
Reinforcement # Creep, RH %
Ks40 1 Innomhus i uppvrmde lokaler 55
Ks60 2 Normalt utomhus samt inomhus i icke
75
Ss260S 3 uppvrmde lokaler
B500B 4 Mycket fuktig milj 95
Ks600S 5
Ns500 6
Nps500 7
XAxis
Load
70.000
NSd= 5121 kN
k 60.000
MSd= 27292 kNm
50.000
40.000
30.000
N(kN)
20.000
10.000
0
0 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000
10.000
20.000
30.000
M(kNm)
73
Appendix B
Appendix B
74
Appendix B
InfluenceLinesforMomentinInternal
spans
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
M/Mmax
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
x/Ltot
InfluenceLinesforMomentinExternal
Spans
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
M/Mmax
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
x/Ltot
75
Appendix B
InfluenceLinesforReactionForcesat
Supports
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
R/Rmax
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
x/L
RA RB RC
76
Appendix B
77
Appendix B
78
Appendix B
79
Appendix B
80
Appendix B
81
Appendix B
Span lengths:
L1 := 37m L2 := 48m
L4 := L1 L3 := L2
M A := 0kN m M E := 0kN m
M B := 1kN m
M C := 1kN m
M D := 1kN m
3 3
w1 L1 w2 L2
EI1 := EI2 :=
24 24
Given
( )
M A L1 + 2 M B L1 + L2 + M C L2 = 6 EI1 + EI2( )
( )
M B L2 + 2 M C L2 + L3 + M D L3 = 6 EI2 + EI3( )
( )
M C L3 + 2 M D L3 + L4 + M E L4 = 6 EI3 + EI4( )
Thus, solving these equations, the total moment, with primary and secondary effects, are:
MB 16134
14882 kN m
MC := Find( MB , MC , MD) =
M 16134
D
82
Appendix B
13875
M secondaryspan1 := M secondaryB = 2068 kN m
37000
M secondaryC M secondaryB
M secondaryspan2 := M secondaryB + = 5265 kN m
2
83
Appendix B
2
Ap1 := 4200mm Ep := 195000MPa
Ap := 8 Ap1 Ec := 36000MPa
12 4 2
Igsupport := 1.5648 10 mm Agsupport := 3770000mm
12 4 2
Igspan := 1.3462 10 mm Agspan := 3230000mm
M supportA1 := 0kN m
M span11 := 30314kN m
M supportB1 := 40838 kN m
M span21 := 31954kN m
M supportC1 := 43737 kN m
M A.ULS := M supportA1 + M A = 0 kN m
84
Appendix B
85
Appendix B
ct.1 =
(
ult d 1 x 1 )
x1
Tendon strain:
Pspan1
pu.1 = + ct.1 ce.1
Ap Ep
(
Fp.1 = Ap Ep pu.1 )
Equilibrium of forces:
Fp.1 + Fc.1 = 0
Given
Pspan1 ult d1 x1
Ap Ep +
( )
ce.1 + 0.8 b span x 1
fck
=0
Ap Ep x1
c
( )
x 1 := Find x 1 = 1.371 m
ct.1 :=
(
ult d 1 x 1 ) = 0.000531
x1
Pspan1
pu.1 := + ct.1 ce.1 = 0.005525 Less than f pd/Ep=0.007313
Ap Ep
86
Appendix B
( )
z1 := d 1 0.4 x 1 = 0.615 m
fck
Fc1 := 0.8 b span x 1 = 36199 kN
c
87
Appendix B
ct.B =
(
ult d B x B )
xB
Tendon strain:
PsupportB
pu.B = + ct.B ce.B
Ap Ep
(
Fp.B = Ap Ep pu.B )
Equilibrium of forces:
Fp.B + Fc.B = 0
Given
PsupportB
Ap Ep +
(
ult d B x B )
+
fck
ce.B 0.8 b support B = 0
x
Ap Ep xB
c
( )
x B := Find x B = 1.301 m
ct.B :=
(
ult d B x B ) = 0.000599
xB
PsupportB
pu.B := + ct.B ce.B = 0.006671 Less than f pd/Ep=0.007313
Ap Ep
88
Appendix B
( )
zB := d B 0.4 x B = 1.003 m
fck
FcB := 0.8 b support x B = 43707 kN
c
89
Appendix B
ct.2 =
(
ult d 2 x 2 )
x2
Tendon strain:
Pspan2
pu.2 = + ct.2 ce.2
Ap Ep
(
Fp.2 = Ap Ep pu.2 )
Equilibrium of forces:
Fp.2 + Fc.2 = 0
Given
Pspan2 ult d2 x2
Ap Ep +
( )
ce.2 + 0.8 b span x 2
fck
=0
Ap Ep x2
c
( )
x 2 := Find x 2 = 1.335 m
ct.2 :=
(
ult d 2 x 2 ) = 0.000424
x2
Pspan2
pu.2 := + ct.2 ce.2 = 0.00538 Less than f pd/Ep=0.007313
Ap Ep
90
Appendix B
( )
z2 := d 2 0.4 x 2 = 0.639 m
fck
Fc2 := 0.8 b span x 2 = 35248 kN
c
91
Appendix B
ct.C =
(
ult d C x C )
xC
Tendon strain:
PsupportC
pu.C = + ct.C ce.C
Ap Ep
(
Fp.C = Ap Ep pu.C )
Equilibrium of forces:
Fp.C + Fc.C = 0
Given
PsupportC
Ap Ep +
(
ult d C x C ) fck
ce.C + 0.8 b support x C = 0
Ap Ep xC
c
( )
x C := Find x C = 1.25 m
ct.C :=
(
ult d C x C ) = 0.000767
xC
PsupportC
pu.C := + ct.C ce.C = 0.006409 Less than f pd/Ep=0.007313
Ap Ep
92
Appendix B
( )
zC := d C 0.4 x C = 1.024 m
fck
FcC := 0.8 b support x C = 41990 kN
c
93