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Combustion Fundamentals PDF
Combustion Fundamentals PDF
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What is NOx?
NOx stands for Nitrogen Oxides
NO, N2O, NO2, etc.
Some NOx will always be formed when fuel is
burned in air
There are several ways that NOx is formed
Most important path is the reaction of the N2 and
O2 to form NO the Zeldovich reaction
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NOx formation pathways
Zeldovich reaction (thermal NOx)
N2O reaction
Prompt NOx
Fuel NOx
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Zeldovich Reaction
Reaction 1: O + N2 => NO + N
Reaction 2: N + O2 => NO + O
Net reaction: N2 + O2 => 2NO
Reaction rate increases exponentially
with flame temperature
Often called thermal NOx
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Impact of GT Conditions on
Thermal NOx formation
The Zeldovich reaction also increases
with the square root of pressure, so gas
turbine designers are faced with a true
dilemma
Higher pressure ratios and higher firing
temperatures yield higher efficiencies
but also produce more thermal NOx
Which would you choose?
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Impact of GT Compressor Discharge
Conditions on NO Formation
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N2O Pathway
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Prompt NOx
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NO2 Formation
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How is CO formed?
In a flame the carbon atoms in a fuel will
react with O2 in the air to form CO2
But this occurs in a two step process
Step 1: one oxygen atom reacts with a
carbon atom to form CO
Step 2: another oxygen atom reacts with
CO to form CO2
Without step 2 you get CO emissions
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Quenching causes CO
Step 2 will not happen if the combustion
products are quenched or cooled
prematurely
Typically this happens in regions where cooling air
is mixed into the flow
Step will also not happen if there is a
shortage of O atoms fuel-rich combustion
Typically not encountered in gas turbines
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Regions of High CO in a GT
combustor
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NO & CO
In general, hotter firing temperatures
produce more NOx and less CO
Conversely, lower firing temperatures
produce more CO and less NOx
Also, longer residence time in the flame
zone gives more time for NOx form and
for CO to be consumed
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Important Concepts
Air/Fuel Ratio (A/F)
Stoichiometric A/F Ratio (A/F)ST
Equivalence Ratio ()
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
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Air/Fuel Ratio
Ratio of air flow to fuel flow in a flame
Can be a volume (or mole) ratio or a
mass ratio (lbs-air/lbs-fuel)
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Stoichiometric A/F
The air/fuel ratio that results in all of the
fuel and oxygen being consumed
In air, for every mole (or molecule or
cubic foot) of O2 there are 3.77 moles
(or molecules or cubic feet) of N2
So after all the O2 has been consumed
you still have a lot of N2 in the exhaust
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Stoichiometric Combustion of
Methane
CH4 + 2x(O2 + 3.77N2) => CO2 + 2H2O +
7.54N2
(A/F)ST = 2x(1+3.77)/1 =
9.54 ft3-air/ft3-CH4
(A/F)ST = (2x32+2x3.77x28)/16 =
17.2 lbs-air/lb-CH4
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Equivalence Ratio ()
= (A/F)ST /(A/F)actual
= 1, stoichiometric combustion
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Combustion Properties of
some Gaseous Fuels
Fuel (A/F)ST Adia. Flame
(lb/lb) Temp., F
Methane, CH4 17.2 3565
Ethane, C2H6 16.1 3579
Propane, C3H8 15.6 3590
Hydrogen, H2 34.2 3824
Carbon 2.5 3832
Monoxide, CO
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AFT
CDT
0 1 2
(no fuel) (stoich.) (excess fuel)
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Adiabatic Flame T is
maximized around = 1
Thermal NOx formation is also
maximized around = 1
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Optimal Conditions
To minimize NOx, must operate in fuel-
lean conditions ( < 1)
Cannot be too lean or CO emissions will
become too high
Cannot operate fuel-rich because
unburned hydrocarbons and CO will be
too high
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Diffusion vs Pre-Mixed
AIRFLOW 70%
30%
4100F
2530 K
Conventional
FUEL Same
Solar Turbines Incorporated Turbine
Inlet
FUEL
Temp
2900F
Lean-Premixed 1870 K
AIRFLOW 40%
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Diffusion vs Pre-Mixed Flames
Fuel & air are separate Fuel and air are well-
before flame zone mixed before flame
zone
Fuel burns over range
of fuel/air mixtures Fuel burns at specific
air/fuel ratio,
Burn rate depends on Flame temperature
rate of fuel & air supply varies as function of
and degree of mixing and fuel type
Over-ventilated flame Flammability limits are a
temps near max function of and fuel
No flammability limits type
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= 1.68
= 1.0
= 0.50
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Blow-off and Flashback
If the flame speed does not match the
flow speed of the reactants, the flame
front will move
If flame speed is too high, you can get
flashback (flame moving upstream into
fuel nozzle)
If flame speed is too low, you can get
blow-off (flame pushed downstream)
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Pre-mixed Combustor with Diffusion Pilot Flame
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Dynamic Instabilities or
Humming
Combustion instabilities occur when a
forcing mechanism drives pressure
fluctuations at the resonant frequencies
of the the combustion chamber.
Combustion instabilities can lead to:
Excessive wear and eventually component
failure
Increased emissions of NOx and UHC
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Auto-Ignition
When fuel and air are pre-mixed, one
always has to worry about the mixture
igniting before it reaches a spark (or
flame)
The temperature above which a fuel-air
mixture can spontaneously ignite is
called the auto-ignition temperature.
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Part-Load Operation
As gas turbines reduce load, the turbine
rotor inlet temperature decreases, which
means that the overall fuel-air ratio must
decrease
This poses problems for pre-mixed flames
because of the lower flammability limit
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Part-Load Strategies
Some manufacturers only operate in pre-
mixed mode over a limited load range
At low loads the combustion switches to a
diffusion flame (with higher emissions)
Some manufacturers extend the load range
of pre-mixed operation by air-staging or
fuel-staging
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Fuel-Staging Example
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Annular Combustor
Fuel Staging
Gas
Turbines
with Air-
Staging
(combustor
by-pass
valve)
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