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MARKETING MANAGEMENT JOURNAL

Volume 20, Issue 1
Spring 2010

EDITORS
Mike d'Amico
University of Akron

Charles Pettijohn
Nova Southeastern University

PRODUCTION EDITOR
Lynn Oyama
HEALTHCAREfirst, Inc.

The Marketing Management Journal (ISSN 1534-973X) is published semi-annually by the Marketing
Management Association. Subscriptions, address changes, reprint requests and other business matters should
be sent to:

Dr. Michelle Kunz
Executive Director
Department of Management and Marketing
College of Business and Public Affairs
Morehead State University
Morehead, KY 40351-1689
Telephone: (606) 783-5479

Manuscript Guidelines and Subscription Information: see pages v-vi.
Copyright © 2010, The Marketing Management Association

Published by the Marketing Management Association
Jointly sponsored by the University of Akron and Missouri State University
i

PUBLICATIONS COUNCIL OF THE MARKETING MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION

Tim Graeff Suzanne A. Nasco Raj Devasagayam
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Bob McDonald Michael Levin
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EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD
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ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Effects of Jewish-Italian Consumer Animosity Towards Arab Products:
The Role of Personality
Gianluigi Guido, M. Irene Prete, Piermario Tedeschi and Luly Dadusc .......................................................................... 1

How Far Does the Apple Fall From the Tree? Advertising Preferences in Spain and Mexico
Linda C. Ueltschy ......................................................................................................................................................... 19

How Do U.S. and U.K. Salespeople Compare on the Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence,
Positive and Negative Affect, and Customer Orientation Levels?
Charles E. Pettijohn, Elizabeth J. Rozell and Andrew Newman. ..................................................................................... 32
McGraw-Hill Best Paper Award

An Examination of the Antecedents and Outcomes of Pay Satisfaction Among Retail Buyers
James B. DeConinck and Mary Beth DeConinck ............................................................................................................ 40

Perceptions of Retail Convenience for In-Store and Online Shoppers
Michelle Bednarz Beauchamp and Nicole Ponder .......................................................................................................... 49

Preparing to Negotiate: An Exploratory Analysis of the Activities Comprising the Pre-Negotiation
Process in a Buyer-Seller Interaction
Robert M. Peterson and C. David Shepherd .................................................................................................................... 66

&RPPHQWDU\RQ&RQFHSWXDOL]LQJWKH6HUYLFHVFDSH&RQVWUXFWLQµ$6WXG\RIWKH6HUYLFH
(QFRXQWHULQ(LJKW&RXQWULHV¶
Roscoe Hightower ......................................................................................................................................................... 76

%DQN3HUVRQQHO¶V3HUFHSWLRQRI%DQNLQJ6HUYLFHVDQG,PSOLFDWLRQVIRU6HUYLFH4XDOLW\
Musa Pinar, Zeliha Esar and Sandy Strasser .................................................................................................................. 87

Electronic Commerce Research: The First 15 Years in the Fields of Marketing, Management,
and Information Systems
Robert S. Moore and Michael Breazeale ....................................................................................................................... 105

7KH.QRZOHGJH(FRQRP\¶V6WUDWHJ\'LOHPPD%DODQFLQJ'LJLWDO5HODWLRQVKLSVDQG5LJKWV
E. Vincent Carter ....................................................................................................................................................... 123

Consumer Expertise, Sacralization, and Event Attendance: A Conceptual Framework
Andrew Espinola and Vishag Badrinarayanan ............................................................................................................. 145

Brand Cult: Extending the Notion of Brand Communities
Paul M. Acosta and Raj Devasagayam ......................................................................................................................... 165

Developing Multidimensional Trust Without Touch in Virtual Teams
W. Randy Clark, Leigh Anne Clark and Katie Crossley ................................................................................................ 177

21st Century Social Class Theory as it Applies to Marketing
Juan (Gloria) Meng and John P. Fraedrich .................................................................................................................. 194

Consumer Perceptions of Community Banks: An Exploratory Study
Jacqueline K. Eastman, Wendy T. Denton, Michael L. Thomas and Luther (Trey) Denton .......................................... 204

The Provisions for a Flourishing Marketing and Finance Discourse and its Impact on
Organizational Structure
Reza Motameni, Douglas Cords and Susan D. Geringer .............................................................................................. 217
iii

FROM THE EDITORS

The Marketing Management Journal, first published in Fall, 1991, is dedicated as a forum for the
exchange of ideas and insights into the marketing management discipline. Its purpose was and
continues to be the establishment of a platform through which academicians and practitioners in
marketing management can reach those publics that exhibit interests in theoretical growth and
innovative thinking concerning issues relevant to marketing management.

Submissions to The Marketing Management Journal are encouraged from those authors who possess
interests in the many categories that are included in marketing management. Articles dealing with
issues relating to marketing strategy, ethics, product management, communications, pricing and price
determination, distribution sales management, buyer behavior, marketing information, international
marketing, etc. will be considered for review for inclusion in The Journal. The Journal occasionally
publishes issues which focus on specific topics of interest within the marketing discipline. However,
the general approach of The Journal will continue to be the publication of combinations of articles
appealing to a broad range of readership interests. Empirical and theoretical submissions of high
quality are encouraged.

The Journal expresses its appreciation to the administrations of the College of Business
Administration of the University of Akron and the College of Business Administration of Missouri
State University for their support of the publication of The Marketing Management Journal. Special
appreciation is expressed to Lynn Oyama of HEALTHCAREfirst, Inc. and the Center for Business
and Economic Development at Missouri State University for contributing to the successful
publication of this issue.

The Co-Editors thank 7KH-RXUQDO¶V previous Editor, Dub Ashton and his predecessor David Kurtz,
7KH -RXUQDO¶V first Editor, for their work in developing The Marketing Management Journal and
their commitment to maintaining a quality publication.

iv

MANUSCRIPT AND SUBMISSION GUIDELINES

MARKETING MANAGEMENT JOURNAL
January 2010

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iv
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vi
Effects of Jewish-Italian Consumer Animosity . . . . Guido, Prete, Tedeschi and Dadusc
EFFECTS OF JEWISH-ITALIAN CONSUMER

ANIMOSITY TOWARDS ARAB PRODUCTS:
THE ROLE OF PERSONALITY
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0,5(1(35(7(8QLYHUVLWiGHO6DOHQWR/HFFHDQG/8,66³*XLGR&DUOL´5RPH
3,(50$5,27('(6&+,/8,66³*XLGR&DUOL´5RPH
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Wars or politic hostility between nations can lead consumers to modify their behavior, reducing
consumption of goods made in hostile countries. In particular, events concerning the Second Intifada
(2000) can be related to the decreasing sales of Arab goods occurred in recent years. This
SKHQRPHQRQFDQEHH[SODLQHGWKURXJK$QLPRVLW\GHILQHGDV³WKHUHPQDQWVRIDQWLSDWK\UHODWHGWR
SUHYLRXV RU RQJRLQJ PLOLWDU\ SROLWLFDO RU HFRQRPLF HYHQWV WRZDUGV FXUUHQW RU IRUPHU HQHPLHV´
(Shoham et al. 2007, p. 93). This paper has the aim to analyze antecedents and effects of animosity of
Jewish-Italian consumers towards Arab products and comparing results obtained in the study of
Shoham et al. (2006) in Israel with those obtained in Italy, considering also the role of their
personality traits. A nine-section questionnaire, containing different scales, was administered to a
sample of Jewish-,WDOLDQ FRQVXPHUV LH ³-HZV RI WKH 'LDVSRUD´ ,Q VSLWH RI WKHLU DQLPRVLW\
towards Arab goods, they are not dogmatic and buy these products, if these are perceived as being of
high quality. This is a result of their utilitarian personality, measured by the Big Five Factors and
Utilitarism/Hedonism high-order meta-traits. In presence of strong animosity, companies have to
accurately consider entry strategies, product strategy and communication strategy in foreign
markets. This is the first study considering animosity of Jewish-Italian consumers, one of the most
ancient Jewish communities. Furthermore, it is the first analysis which considers simultaneously
DQLPRVLW\ DQG FRQVXPHUV¶ SHUVRQDOLW\ WUDLWV VKRZLQJ WKH LQWHUHVWLQJ UHVXOW WKDW XWLOLWDULDQ
personality trait prevails on animosity attitude.
INTRODUCTION economic disagreement influence and modify

purchase behavior, regardless of product
Wars and political tensions between countries judgment (Papadopoulos and Heslop 1993).
can change consumer behavior, reducing the
purchase of products made by nations The present study aims to assess the extent to
experiencing such events;; in particular, the which animosity towards Arabs, due to terrorist
Second Intifada in September-October 2000 and military attacks on Israel by Arabs, affects
may be related to the decreasing sales of goods the intention to buy of Italians of Jewish origin,
worldwide produced by Israeli Arabs (Katz the so-FDOOHG ³-HZV RI WKH 'LDVSRUD´ ± Jews
2002;; Nir 2002). This phenomenon can be expulsed or who emigrated from Israel, but who
explained through Animosity Theory, according maintain an attachment and a relationship with
WR ZKLFK ³WKH UHPQDQWV RI DQWLSDWK\ UHODWHG WR their original homeland (Safran 1991;; Sarup
previous or ongoing military, political or 1996). Specifically, we aim to examine
HFRQRPLF HYHQWV ZLOO DIIHFW FRQVXPHUV¶ animosity (which arose from the Second
SXUFKDVHEHKDYLRU´.OHLQ(WWHQVRQDQG0RUULV Intifada) towards Arab Israeli products among
1998, p. 90). According to this theory, war and Italian Jews, analyzing its antecedents and
The Marketing Management Journal effects on intention to buy ± thus replicating the
Volume 20, Issue 1, Pages 1-18
study conducted by Shoham et al. (2006) in
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved Israel in the Italian context. The results
1 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

obtained are only in part congruent with the concerning conditions of use and safety
conclusions drawn in the cited study, since the standards.
sample used does not reside in Israel, but in
Italy. In fact, this study shows that Jewish- Research on country-of-origin effect also
Italian consumers with a high level of includes consumer ethnocentrismGHILQHGDV³D
nationalism and a low level of internationalism belief that it is inappropriate, or even immoral,
tend to show attitudes related to the animosity to purchase foreign products because to do so
construct;; moreover, the present study damages the domestic economy, costs domestic
demonstrates that a high level of animosity MREVDQGLWLVQRWSDWULRWLF´6KRKDPet al. 2006,
negatively affects both judgments of Arab- p. 108). Ethnocentrism represents the
made products and intention to buy, thus SURSHQVLW\ WR FRQVLGHU WKH PHPEHUV RI RQH¶V
leading to a future change in purchase. own ethnic group as the centre of the universe
Nevertheless, as regards those Italian Jews who and reject any requests or stimuli coming from
are characterized by a utilitarian personality, outside individuals. The stronger the in-group
their positive judgments of Arab products do bias (i.e. the sense of belonging to a particular
not bring about a decrease in the intention to group (Verlegh 1999), the more its members
buy or a change in purchase behavior. feel the necessity to evaluate their group
positively. Thus the level of identification
PURCHASE BEHAVIOR causes the strength of the group to increase
FOR FOREIGN PRODUCTS (Tajfel 1978). Ethnocentrism has a negative
influence on both purchase intention and
As a consequence of international trade judgment of foreign products (Shimp and
expansion and market globalization, researchers Sharma 1987), leading consumers to prefer and
DQG RSHUDWRUV¶ HIIRUWV KDYH IRFXVHG RQ WKH buy national goods, not only because such a
development of models which explain purchase thing is considered morally right, but also
behavior for foreign products and, in particular, because they are perceived as goods of higher
change in consumer behavior as a result of war quality, thus showing an inherent dislike for a
and economic disagreement. According to large part of foreign products.
Animosity Theory (Klein, Ettenson and Morris
1998), which can be found in research on In marketing, the animosity construct
country-of-origin effect SHRSOH¶V RSLQLRQ RI D concerning the analysis of purchase behavior
foreign country is reflected in the way they for products made in hostile countries or in
SHUFHLYHLWVSURGXFWV¶FKDUDFWHULVWLFV7KHUHIRUH nations whose political, economic policies, or
if consumers feel anger or hatred towards a religious practices are seen as unacceptable, is
foreign country, they will denigrate its products EDVHGRQ.OHLQ(WWHQVRQDQG0RUULV¶VVHPLQDO
as well (Johansson et al. 1993). Country-of- study (1998). Hatred due to war or economic
origin effect, which is related to the association disagreement between two countries has a
of a brand with a specific country of origin, has negative impact on consumption. Consider, for
an influence on judgments and purchase instance, antipathy in China towards Japanese
choices of foreign products (Maheswaran products, due to the Nanjing massacre, in 1937,
1994). Country-of-origin effect is stronger in in which the Japanese killed 300,000 Chinese.
the absence of other information useful for Furthermore, animosity is characterized by the
evaluating a product: in these cases, country irrelevance of judgments of foreign product
image has a great relevance in the decision- quality. Consumers who are high in animosity,
making process and acquires even a symbolic despite perceiving the superior quality of goods
and emotive meaning. Furthermore, country-of- made in detested countries, usually still avoid
origin effect is influenced by cultural and buying them. This characteristic distinguishes
SROLWLFDO VLPLODULW\ EHWZHHQ FRQVXPHUV¶ DQG the animosity construct from both country-of-
SURGXFWV¶ FRXQWULHV RI RULJLQ QRW RQO\ IRU origin effect, according to which ³PDGH-LQ´
ideological reasons, but also for practical ones influences intention to buy and has an indirect
Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 2
impact on product judgment (Papadopoulos and cannot be clearly classified;; some events can
Heslop 2003;; Peterson and Jolibert 1995;; have both economic and political causes,
Verlegh and Steenkamp 1999), and whereas others cannot be classified either as
ethnocentrism (Hinck 2004;; Klein and Ettenson stable events, or as temporary events, since they
1999;; Wit kowsky 2000) , whereby are related to current situations but, at the same
unwillingness to buy any foreign product time, have a historical background (Klein 2002;;
affects product judgment. Animosity and Klein Ettenson and Morris 1998;; Shin 2001;;
ethnocentrism differ also because the Witkowski 2000). Furthermore, some
ethnocentric consumer considers the purchase temporary events might change, turning into
of products made in any foreign country as stable ones, or, vice versa, events that have
immoral (Shimp and Sharma 1987), whereas been happening for a long time might turn into
DQLPRVLW\PDQLIHVWVLWVHOILQSHRSOH¶VUHIXVDOWR temporary situations.
buy goods or services produced by one
particular nation, but at the same time they The animosity literature can be divided into
remain disposed to buy products of other three main fields of research (Riefler and
countries (Klein, Ettenson and Morris 1998). Diamantopoulos 2007): the first includes Klein,
(WWHQVRQ DQG 0RUULV¶V RULJLQDO VWXGLHV
From a taxonomic point of view, animosity can DQG .OHLQ DQG (WWHQVRQ¶V ZKLFK
be considered a stable construct ± if due to contributed to establish the animosity construct
ongoing events ± or situational ± if caused by as a variant of ethnocentrism (Shimp and
temporary events;; it can also arise from Sharma 1987);; the second includes studies
national events ± related to a macroscopic which replicated previous research papers,
perspective ± or personal events± related to carrying it out in different contexts (Cicic et al.
situations experienced by single individuals 2005a,b;; Klein 2002;; Nijssen and Douglas
(i.e., labor loss caused by other countries) (Ang 2004;; Russell 2004;; Shin 2001;; Witkowski
et al. 2004;; Jung et al. 2002). Animosity 2000);; the third includes studies conducted in
originates from war (war animosity) ± for domestic contexts (Cicic et al. 2005a,b;; Hinck
example the mentioned Nanjing massacre or the 2004;; Hinck, Cortes and James 2004;; Shimp,
situation in Israel ± or from economic or Dunn and Klein 2004;; Shoham et al. 2006).
diplomatic disagreement (economic animosity), One of the studies belonging to the third field is
deriving from fear of economic domination that of Shoham et al. (2006), which
(Klein, Ettenson and Morris 1998;; Riefler and demonstrated a direct link between the tragic
Diamantopoulos 2007). events of the Second Intifada and the
decreasing sales in Israel of goods produced by
It is possible to classify animosity studies Arabs. Whereas the First Intifada (1987-1993)
according to these items (see Table 1). As was a grass-root uprising, lacking an actual
Table 1 shows, most studies deal with national leader, the Second Intifada (September-October
problems rather than personal ones (Ang et al. 2000) was characterized by violent
2004;; Riefler and Diamantopoulos 2007);; in demonstrations by Arabs.
addition, animosity caused by war mostly
brings about ongoing problems, such as the Animosity studies consider dogmatism,
unsolved issues related to the Second World nationalism, and internationalism as
War (Klein, Ettenson and Morris 1998;; Nijssen antecedents of animosity. Dogmatism is a
and Douglas 2004) or to the American War of philosophical stream which hypothesizes the
Independence (Shimp, Dunn and Klein 2004);; pre-eminence of an object over a subject;; it can
on the contrary, economic crises are temporary, EH GHILQHG DV ³WKH H[WHQW WR ZKLFK D SHUVRQ
such as the dispute beginning after German asserts his/her opinion in an unyielding
Unification (Hinck 2004;; Hinck, Cortes and PDQQHU´ DQG WKHUHIRUH DV WKH GHJUHH RI
James 2004). The studies mentioned in the RSHQQHVVRUFORVHQHVVLQSHRSOH¶VEHOLHIV\VWHP
middle of the table examine situations that (Bruner and Hensel 1992, p. 194). A high level
TABLE 1
Classification of Animosity Studies
Stable Situational
National Gouliamos and Theocharous (2008): War Ang et al. (2004): Economy
Klein (2002): War Bahaee and Pisani (2009a,b): Politics
Klein, Ettenson and Morris (1998): War Cicic et al. (2005a): War and Economy
Nijssen and Douglas (2004): War Cicic et al. (2005b): War
Shin (2001): War Cui, Wajda and Hu (2009): Economy and Politics
Shimp, Dunn and Klein (2004): Economy Edwards, Gut and Mavondo (2007): Diplomacy
Ettenson and Klein (2005): Diplomacy
Hinck (2004): Economy
Hinck, Cortes and James (2004): Economy
Klein and Ettenson (1999): Economy
Nijssen and Douglas (2004): Economy
Russell (2004): Politics
Shoham et al. (2006): Armed conflict
Witkowsky (2000): Politics
Amine (2008): Diplomacy
Kalliny and Lemaster (2005): War, Economy and Religion
Klein, Ettenson and Morris (1998): Economy
Klein (2002): Economy
Leong et al. (2008): Economy
Shin (2001): Economy
Witkowski (2000): Economy
Personal Ang et al. (2004): Economy Ang et al. (2004): Economy

Source: Adapted from Ang et al. (2004), p. 197.
of dogmatism is typical of people who are less towards other nations and cultures (Balabanis et
tolerant of minorities and more reluctant to al. 2001;; Kosterman and Feshback 1989);; it
change their beliefs and values;; on the contrary, should not be seen as a polar opposite to
a low level of dogmatism corresponds to open- nationalism, but as a general attitude towards or
mindedness about new information and ideas nations (Kosterman and Feshbach 1989),
GLIIHUHQWIURPRQH¶VRZQ0DQJLV implying openness in a geographical sense and
also open-mindedness about other ethnicities
Nationalism UHIHUVWR³YLHZVWKDWRQH¶VFRXQWU\ and religions, and about economic and political
is superior and should be dominant (and thus issues. Therefore, a high level of
LPSOLHV D GHQLJUDWLRQ RI RWKHU QDWLRQV´ internationalism is inversely related to
(Balabanis et al. 2001, p. 160);; it is precisely DQLPRVLW\ DV LW UHIOHFWV ³DQ RSHQ-mindedness
WKH EHOLHI WKDW RQH¶V QDWLRQ VKRXOG JDLQ SRZHU and acceptance concerning other nations and
in every field of economy and dominate FXOWXUHV´%DODEDQLVet al. 2001).
internationally. A high level of nationalism
characterizes people who are prone to As regards effects of animosity, Shoham et al.
aggressiveness and self-exaltation, prejudiced (2006), in the study mentioned above, in
towards other nations and ethnic groups contrast to previous research, found that
(Druckman 1994);; in addition, highly animosity does not affect only intention to buy,
nationalistic people show a high degree of in- but also product judgment, thus showing
group bias, that is the common need to develop consequences similar to those of country-of-
RQH¶VFRPPXQLW\7DMIHO9HUOHJK origin effect (Peterson and Joliber 1995) and
Internationalism refers to a positive attitude ethnocentrism (Shimp and Sharma 1987). This
result depends on both the temporal nature of nationalism, and inversely related to
animosity and the typology of goods used in the internationalism, according to the results
study. Firstly, events which caused Jews to feel obtained by Shoham et al. (2006). This
animosity towards Arabs ± the Second Intifada, objective is achieved verifying the following
in September-October 2000 ± are relatively hypothesis:
recent;; in addition, hostilities and tensions H1: D ogmatism, nationalism and
between the two sides are yet to be smoothed internationalism are antecedents of
out. Consequently, hatred nourished by Jews animosity.
towards Arabs leads them to denigrate Arab
products and services, according to the The second objective is analyzing if animosity
principle of cognitive dissonance (Festinger negatively affects judgment, intention to buy
1957). Secondly, products used by Shoham et and behavior change (increase/decrease) in the
al. (2006) in their study ± typical Arab purchase of Arab products ± thus implying a
consumer goods, such as bread and other baked decrease in purchase. This objective is achieved
goods, olives and olive oil, fruits and through the verification of the following three
vegetables ± lead consumers to make a more hypotheses:
negative judgment, since those products remind H2: The animosity construct negatively
them of the culture and habits of the country affects Arab products judgment.
towards which animosity is held (Russell and H3: The animosity construct negatively
Russell 2006). In contrast, a large part of affects intention to buy Arab
previous research concerning animosity did not products.
study purchase behavior for specific types of H4: The animosity construct negatively
goods (Ang et al. 2004;; Hinck 2004;; Hinck, affects change in purchase behavior
Cortes and James 2004;; Jung et al. 2002), and of Arab products.
even when it considered specific product
categories ± cars (Klein 2002;; Nijssen and The third objective is verifying if a favorable
Douglas 2004), televisions (Klein, Ettenson and product-quality judgment positively affects
Morris 1998;; Nijssen and Douglas 2004) or intention to buy and the future purchase of Arab
computers (Shimp, Dunn and Klein 2004) ± products. This objective is achieved testing the
they were not related to the culture of the following hypotheses:
country towards which animosity was felt. H5: Favorable judgment of Arab
products positively affects intention
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES to buy.
H6: Favorable judgment of Arab
This research aims to study animosity, resulting products positively affects change in
from the Second Intifada, towards Arab purchase behavior.
products among Italians of Jewish origin,
examining its antecedents and effects on The fourth objective adds to those considered
intention to buy and product judgment, thus by Shoham et al. (2006) and involves
replicating the study conducted by Shoham et H[DPLQLQJ -HZLVK ,WDOLDQ FRQVXPHUV¶
al. (2006) in Israel. Furthermore, we aim to personality, in order to find out the
analyze and compare the results obtained by predominant aspects of their characters and,
Shoham et al. (2006) in Israel with those specifically, to verify if they have utilitarian or
obtained in the Jewish-Italian community, in hedonistic personality traits (cf. Babin et al.
order to verify if it is possible to draw 1994). Consumers who are characterized by
analogous conclusions, considering the strong utilitarian personality are more rational,
relationship existing between Jewish Italians concerned with results, thus their purchase
and Israelis. The present study has four behavior is influenced by the functional
objectives: the first is verifying if animosity is features of goods/services, seen as things
positively related to dogmatism and required to solve a certain problem. On the
contrary, consumers who are characterized by IURP ³VWURQJO\ GLVDJUHH´ WR ³VWURQJO\
hedonistic personality are playful and have DJUHH´LQFOXGLQJILYHitems VXFKDV³I try to
aesthetic inclinations;; to them, shopping is a convince others to accept my political
source of pleasure from which multi-sensorial principles´ 7KH VHFRQG VHFWLRQ FRQFHUQV
and emotive benefits result, regardless of actual nationalism, measured by Kosterman and
purchase of goods/services. The construct of )HVKEDFK¶VVFDOH ± a seven-point Likert
multidimensional personality is examined VFDOHUDQJLQJIURP ³VWURQJO\GLVDJUHH´WR
through the Big Five Model (cf. Digman 1990). ³VWURQJO\ DJUHH´ LQFOXGLQJ VHYHQ items (for
It summarizes the potentially infinite number of H[DPSOHDQLWHPVWDWHG³The first duty of every
adjectives ± so-called markers ± in five main young Jew is to honor Israeli national history
latent dimensions (called traits, factors or and heritage´ 7KH WKLUG VHFWLRQ RI WKH
components), which properly describe the questionnaire measures internationalism using
personality traits. The five traits are as follows: .RVWHUPDQ DQG )HVKEDFK¶V VFDOH ± a
(1) Agreeableness, i.e., the propensity for seven-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 =
sensitiveness and kindness towards other ³VWURQJO\ GLVDJUHH´ WR ³VWURQJO\ DJUHH´
people;; (2) Openness to Experience, i.e., the including nine items VXFKDV³If necessary, we
level of tolerance of different cultures and ought to be willing to lower our standard of
experiences;; (3) Conscientiousness, i.e., the living to cooperate with other countries in
capacity for self-control, which enables the achieving equal standards for every person in
individual to achieve his/her objectives;; (4) the world´
Energy (or Extroversion), i.e., the propensity to
form relationships with others;; and (5) The fourth section concerns animosity,
Emotional Stability, i.e., the ability to react to PHDVXUHG XVLQJ .OHLQ (WWHQVRQ DQG 0RUULV¶V
VWLPXOL FRQWUROOLQJ RQH¶V HPRWLRQV DQG scale (1998) ± a seven-point Likert scale
impulses. This five-factor structure is further UDQJLQJ IURP ³VWURQJO\ GLVDJUHH´ WR
summarized in two meta-traits, called higher- ³VWURQJO\DJUHH´LQFOXGLQJQLQHitems, adapted
order factors, in order to permit much more to the Italian context (for example, an item
FRQFLVH HYDOXDWLRQ IROORZLQJ 'LJPDQ¶V stated: ³,ZLOOQHYHUIRUJLYH$UDEVIRUZKDWWKH\
approach (1997), in psychology, and Guido et GLG GXULQJ WKH ,QWLIDGD´). The fifth section
al LQ PDUNHWLQJ ,WDOLDQV -HZV¶ measures product judgment using Klein,
personality is examined through the meta- (WWHQVRQ DQG 0RUULV¶V VFDOH PRGLILHG
dimensions mentioned above: Utilitarianism, from that of Wood and Darling (1993) ± a
which is related to Conscientiousness and seven-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 =
Emotional Stability, and Hedonism, which is ³VWURQJO\ GLVDJUHH´ WR ³VWURQJO\ DJUHH´
related to Openness to Experience, including six items VXFKDV³Products made by
Extroversion and Agreeableness. Due to Arabs are carefully produced and display fine
phenomena of acculturation and psychic workmanship´ 6HYHUDO DWWULEXWHV ZHUH
distance, this objective is achieved through the considered, such as workmanship, quality,
verification of the following hypothesis: technology, design, reliability and convenience
H7: Jewish Italian consumers are (Darling and Arnold 1988;; Darling and Wood
characterized predominantly by a 1990;; Wood and Darling 1993);; a comparison
utilitarian personality. between Israeli and Arab products was included
as well, as Shoham et al. (2006) did in their
METHODOLOGY questionnaire (for example, one of the items
VWDWHG³Products made by Arabs are generally
We drew up a questionnaire, composed of nine of lower quality than Israeli products or from
parts, following that of Shoham et al. (2006). imports´7KHVL[WKVHFWLRQFRQFHUQVLQWHQWLRQ
The first section of the questionnaire concerns to buy, measured by Klein, Ettenson and
dogmatism, measured using Bruning et al¶V 0RUULV¶V VFDOH PRGLILHG IURP WKDW RI
scale (1985) ± a six-point Likert scale (ranging Wood and Darling (1993) ± a seven-point
/LNHUW VFDOH UDQJLQJ IURP ³GHILQLWHO\ RESULTS

GLVDJUHH´ WR ³GHILQLWHO\ DJUHH´ LQFOXGLQJ
six items VXFKDV³If two products were equal First of all, the reliability of the scales was
in quality, but one was Arab and one was not, I tested, by calculating the Cronbach Alpha index
would pay 10% more for the Arab product´ (see Table 2). Findings show that, as the index
is above .60, respondents indicate consistent
The seventh section of the questionnaire attitudes towards each item related to the
concerns change in purchase behavior for Arab considered constructs;; furthermore, scales
products over the last few years, as a result of prove to be valid and measure the constructs
the repeated terrorist attacks in Israel by Arabs. they refer to.
A five-point Likert scale was used (ranging
IURP ³ODUJH GHFUHDVH´ WR ³ODUJH The descriptive statistics of the considered
LQFUHDVH´ WR PHDVXUH SXUFKDVH FKDQJH ,Q WKLV constructs were examined, i.e., mean and
study, for a best adaptation to the Italian standard deviation, obtained through an
context, two product categories were added to additional procedure (see Table 3).
the six original ones considered by Shoham et
al. (2006) (pitas, Arab bread and other baked The correlation between the considered
goods, Arab olives and olive oil, Arab garage constructs appears in Table 4. The significant
services, Arab restaurants, Arab tourism correlation coefficients (p < .05) show that
services, Arab fruits and vegetables). Products animosity is positively related to dogmatism
from the two categories of consumer goods we and nationalism, and inversely related to
considered carry a clear Arab brand and internationalism;; moreover, animosity is
therefore can be easily recognized as Arab inversely related to both Jewish-,WDOLDQV¶
produced (Arab products sold in supermarkets quality judgment of Arab products and change
and books or movies dealing with Arab in purchase behavior of these products
culture). The eighth section of the questionnaire (increase/decrease). Finally, intention to buy
includes a list of 25 adjectives ± measured by a Arab products is positively related to quality
seven-point categorical scale ± which describe judgment of Arab products and to change in
the five personality traits, according to the Big purchase behavior.
Five Model (Caprara et al. 2001). The ninth
section collects socio-demographic data. Hypotheses were tested through a series of
linear regressions between the considered
The questionnaire was distributed in some variables, thus determining the existence and
Jewish meeting places in Rome (schools, rest the nature of the relationships between them.
houses, synagogues) and administered to a As regards H1, which hypothesizes that the
convenience sample of 241 Jewish-Italian independent variables of dogmatism,
consumers (43.6 percent M;; 56.4 percent F), nationalism and internationalism are valid
selected on the basis of a screening question ± predictors of animosity, the findings show a
the so-FDOOHG³-HZVRIWKHGLDVSRUD´LHWKRVH positive relation between the variables (R =
who follow the Jewish religion, but do not .458;; R2 = .210;; Adjusted R2 = .20), and from
UHVLGH LQ ,VUDHO ³'LDVSRUD´ JHQHUDOO\ UHIHUV WR ANOVA results (F = 21.008;; Sig. < .01). We
people who move from their country of origin infer that the null hypothesis can be rejected.
to another, still maintaining a relation with it Considering the effects of the single variables
(Vertovec and Cohen 1999);; however, in this of the examined model, the level of significance
case, most of the people of Jewish origin did and the related regression coefficients suggest
not move from Israel to Italy, yet they maintain that nationalism is the variable affecting most
a relation with it because of a strong sense of animosity ± as nationalism is positively related
belonging. An average Jew of the Diaspora sees to it ± followed by internationalism ± which is
,VUDHO DV D ³UHWXUQ WR RQH¶V RULJLQV´ RU IHHOV D inversely related to animosity ± whereas results
³VHQVHRIKRPH´&RKHQ
TABLE 2
Cronbach Alpha of the Considered Constructs
Cronbach Alpha based on
Cronbach Alpha N. of items
standardized items
Dogmatism .822 .821 5
Nationalism .700 .708 7
Internationalism .725 .726 9
Animosity .875 .877 9
Product judgment .743 .746 6
Intention to buy .754 .754 6
Purchase change .880 .881 8

TABLE 3
Descriptive Statistics of the Considered Constructs
Mean Standard deviation N.
Dogmatism 3.790 1.221 241
Nationalism 3.698 .754 241
Internationalism 4.253 1.019 241
Animosity 4.880 1.257 241
Product judgment 3.246 1.032 241
Intention to buy 3.605 1.290 241
Purchase change 2.973 .918 241

TABLE 4
Correlation Between the Considered Constructs
Dogmat. Nation. Internat. Animos. Product Intent. to Purchase
judg. buy change
Dogmatism 1
Nationalism .375(**) 1
Internationalism -.220(**) -.225(**) 1
Animosity .241(**) .415(**) -.272(**) 1
Product judgment -.144(*) -.239(**) .260(**) -.354(**) 1
Intention to buy -.198(**) -.370(**) .284(**) -.546(**) .546(**) 1
Purchase change -.026 -.244(**) .172(**) -.151(*) .587(**) .459(**) 1
Note: * All correlation coefficients are one-way significant (p < .05) (2-tailed). ** Correlation is significant for
p < .01 (2-tailed).

concerning dogmatism are not statistically As for hypothesis H6, regarding product
significant (see Table 5). These findings are judgment and change in purchase behavior (see
quite congruent: a high level of nationalism, on Table 10), the findings show that positive
the one hand, and a low level of judgment of Arab products generally brings
internationalism, on the other hand, positively about an increase in the purchase of these
affect animosity level. There is no clear pattern products.
as regards dogmatism for Jewish-Italians
consumers. Therefore, hypothesis H1, applied In order to test hypothesis H7, concerning the
to the Italian context, can be accepted only personalities of Jewish-Italian consumers, we
partly. conducted a preliminary analysis, to test the
existence of a multidimensional structure,
Data analysis validates hypothesis H2, congruent with that provided by the Big Five
regarding the existence of a negative Model (cf. Caprara et al. 2001). The factor
connection between animosity and quality analysis, conducted using the principal
judgment of Arab products;; findings show that, component method, Varimax rotation and
though the linear model used does not fit data considering the extraction of five factors, shows
properly (R = .354;; R2 = .125;; Adjusted R2 = a structure similar to that provided by the
.122), animosity statistically causes negative proposed theoretic model;; it explains over 55
product judgments (see Table 6). This result, percent of the total variance (see Table 11). The
congruent with that obtained by Shoham et al. factor coefficients obtained are above 0.35, in
(2006), suggests that Jewish-Italians, if not absolute value, except for the adjectives
asked to inspect Arab goods/services carefully, ³+DSS\´ UHODWHG WR ³$JUHHDEOHQHVV´,
tend to make negative judgments of them. ³(IILFLHQW´ UHODWHG WR ³Conscientiousness´
³$FXWH´ UHODWHG WR ³Openness to Experience´
As regards hypothesis H3, the findings show, as DQG ³:HOO-EDODQFHG´ UHODWHG WR ³Emotional
a consequence of the results obtained in the 6WDELOLW\´. Nevertheless, these adjectives were
preceding analysis, the link between animosity included all the same: the indexes of internal
and intention to buy (see Table 7). Consumers congruence of the various sub-scales
with a high level of animosity are less willing (Cronbach Alpha) obtained are above 0.65 and
to buy Arab products. H3 is therefore therefore the mentioned adjectives are
substantiated. congruent with the other adjectives describing
each trait.
As for hypothesis H4, the results obtained
validate it, as they show that animosity brings Jewish-,WDOLDQV¶ ILYH SHUVRQDOLW\ WUDLWV ZHUH
about a statistically significant reduction in the obtained using an additive procedure,
purchase of Arab products (Table 8). specifically, by calculating the mean related to
the five adjectives describing each trait.
Turning to hypothesis H5, regarding the Afterwards, the five personality traits were
existence of a positive relation between quality added, calculating the mean values, in order to
judgment of Arab products and intention to buy obtain two meta-dimensions, namely
(see Table 9), the findings show that there is a Utilitarianism and Hedonism. The procedure
link between the two variables, as positive followed by Guido, Capestro and Peluso (2008)
product judgment has a positive influence on was used, with the difference that
intention to buy, regardless of animosity levels. Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and
Therefore, data analysis validates hypothesis H5 Emotional Stability were combined into
and also confirms conclusions concerning Utilitarianism, whereas Opennness and
hypothesis H1, suggesting that Jewish-Italian Extroversion were aggregated, merging into
consumers are not dogmatic and are willing to Hedonism. This result is more congruent with
purchase Arab products if they perceive them to the Factors Į and ȕ described by Digman
be of high quality. (1997) and more suitable for the context of our
TABLE 5
Effects of Dogmatism, Nationalism and Internationalism on Animosity
Factors B Beta t Sig.
Dogmatism .073 .071 1.131 .259
Nationalism .580 .348 5.518 .000
Internationalism -.220 -.178 -2.975 .003

TABLE 6
Regression Between Product Judgment and Animosity
Animosity -.291 -.354 -5.850 .000

Notes: Dependent Variable: Product judgment;; R = .350;; R2 = .123;; Adjusted R2 = .188.
TABLE 7
Regression Between Animosity and Intention to Buy
Animosity -.561 -.546 -10.078 .000

Notes: Dependent Variable: Intention to Buy;; R = .546;; R2 = .298;; Adjusted R2 = .295.
TABLE 8
Regression of Change in Purchase Behavior on Animosity
Animosity -.111 -.151 -2.365 .019

Notes: Dependent Variable: Change in Purchase Behavior of Arab Products;; R = .151;; R 2 = .023.

TABLE 9
Regression of Intention to Buy on Product Judgment
Product judgment .683 .546 10.072 .000

TABLE 10
Regression of Change in Purchase Behavior on Product Judgment
Product judgment .522 .587 11.211 .000

Notes: Dependent Variable: Change in Purchase Behavior of Arab Product;; R = .587;; R 2 = .345;;
Adjusted R2 = .342.
study and represent social desirability ± which well be due to actual geographical distance
FRQFHUQV WKH LQGLYLGXDO¶V UHVSRQVH WR VRFLDOO\ from the conflict, whereas Jewish Israelis
acceptable matters concerning oneself or other directly experiencing hostilities adopt more
people ± and personal growth, that is openness intransigent and inflexible attitudes towards
WRQHZH[SHULHQFHVDQGXVHRIRQH¶VLQWHOOHFWXDO ,VUDHOL$UDEVWKDQ³-HZVRIWKHGLDVSRUD´
capacity.
Hypothesis H2 is substantiated, as findings
Finally, in order to find out the predominant showed that animosity generally affects quality
meta-dimension, the differences were analyzed, judgment of Arab products negatively. This
comparing the mean of the two sub-dimensions result is congruent with that obtained by
through a paired-sample t-test. The findings Shoham et al. (2006), showing that the
validate Hypothesis H7, demonstrating that animosity construct possesses features similar
Jewish-Italians are characterized predominantly to country-of-origin effect and ethnocentrism.
by a utilitarian personality (t(241) = -6, p < Furthermore, it is also congruent with
.000) (see Table 12). analogous results achieved in contexts similar
to the one considered in the present study ± that
DISCUSSION is contexts characterized by situational
animosity (Leong et al. 2008). Further research
Various results were obtained in the data on animosity demonstrated that it causes
analysis described in the preceding section. As resistance to goods/services related to the
regards hypothesis H1, which considers culture of the country towards which anger and
antecedents of animosity, the findings show hate are felt (Bahaee and Pisani 2009;; Russell
that members of the Jewish community in Italy, and Russell 2006). The present study, like other
characterized by high level of nationalism, tend surveys, clearly shows that animosity
to bear animosity, whereas those characterized influences intention to buy. As a matter of fact,
by high level of internationalism are less consumers who are high in animosity tend to
inclined to animosity. Moreover, unlike the avoid buying Arab-made goods, whereas other
study conducted by Shoham et al. (2006), this purchases remain unchanged, as hypothesis H3
research demonstrates that Italians of Jewish predicts. According to hypothesis H4, animosity
origin are not particularly dogmatic;; this may also has an impact on the variable representing

TABLE 11
Descriptive Statistics and Factor Loading of the Adjectives
Describing the Five Traits of Personality of Jewish-Italians.
Standard
Factors and adjectives Mean Factor loading
deviation
Factor 1: Extroversion (a = .715)
Dynamic 5.107 1.523 .721
Energetic 5.215 1.464 .704
Determined 5.439 1.371 .670
Competitive 4.937 1.428 .562
Happy 5.203 1.389 .111
Factor 2: Agreeableness (a = .730)
Honest 5.929 1.147 .720
Genuine 5.609 1.359 .715
Generous 5.539 1.300 .575
Sincere 5.946 1.176 .556
Friendly 5.468 1.396 .534
Factor 3: Openness to Experience (a = .755)
Original 4.871 1.520 .835
Modern 5.178 1.407 .758
Innovative 4.726 1.549 .688
Creative 4.813 1.654 .649
Acute 4.721 1.461 .049
Factor 4: Conscientiousness (a = .678)
Careful 5.145 1.538 .641
Responsible 5.800 1.301 .636
Constant 4.709 1.518 .352
Reliable 5.705 1.294 .106
Efficient 5.348 1.236 .268
Factor 5: Emotional Stability (a = .717)
Calm 5.095 1.456 .675
Confident 4.970 1.547 .650
Optimistic 5.037 1.610 .621
Solid 5.282 1.424 .379
Well-balanced 4.929 1.482 .299
Notes: N = 241. Extraction method: Principal component analysis. Rotation: Varimax. Total variance ex-
plained: 55%.
TABLE 12
Personality of Jewish-Italians
Factors Mean Standard Deviation t-value p-value
Utilitarian personality 5.367 .772

-6 .000
Hedonistic personality 5.021 .917
Note: N = 241.

purchase behavior of Arab products. This study hand, and situational animosity (resulting from
proved that, as a result of the repeated attacks temporary events, such as the Second Intifada
on Israel by Arabs, the average Jewish-Italian in Israel in 2000) on the other. Findings
consumer with a high level of animosity tends confirm, like other studies in recent times, that
to desist in the purchase of products made by animosity among Jewish-Italians has a negative
Arabs or related to that culture, thus reducing impact not only on intention to buy, but also on
consumption. product judgment (Leong et al. 2008).
Interestingly, this study also suggests that
Data analysis also draws another interesting antecedents and effects of animosity should be
conclusion: a positive judgment of Arab examined in further research, considering both
products affects intention to buy them, as regional contexts (Klein, Ettenson and Morris
hypothesis H5 predicts. Specifically, judgment 1998;; Shimp, Dunn and Klein 2004) and
deriving from animosity leads Jewish-Italian LQGLYLGXDOV¶SHUVRQDOLW\DQGVRFLR-demographic
consumers to hold that they will not buy Arab characteristics (Nakos and Hajidimitriou 2007).
products. Nevertheless, if consumers perceive a Like other studies on residents and immigrants
high product-quality, they say that they would (Mathur et al. 2008), this study provides
buy that product all the same. The impact of evidence that there exist some differences
product judgment on purchase behavior not between Jewish-Italians and Israelis due to the
only affects intention to buy, but also future fact that the respondents to the questionnaire,
change in purchase behavior (hypothesis H6). despite belonging to a Jewish community,
As a matter of fact, consumers who make a reside in Italy and therefore might be
positive product judgment, besides maintaining influenced by the local culture, as well as by the
their consumption habits, also tend to increase effects of globalization and socialization of
their purchases. In other words, the average consumer behavior.
Jewish-Italian consumer, despite bearing high
animosity due to hatred for Arabs, does not ,Q WRGD\¶V JOREDO HFRQRP\ FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\
change his/her predicted behavior if his/her frequent conflicts, findings on animosity are
product-quality assessment is high, therefore also managerially significant. They can be
he/she tends towards purchase loyalty. As useful to international marketing managers,
hypothesis H7 predicts, this consumption who should carefully examine the implications
behavior is typical of a utilitarian personality, of wars, of terrorist attacks or cultural
which determines purchase behavior aimed at disagreement on consumption, in order to avoid
benefits of efficiency and functionality. In KLJK ULVN LQYHVWPHQWV 6SHFLILFDOO\ D ILUP¶V
conclusion, Jewish-,WDOLDQFRQVXPHUV¶SXUFKDVH entry strategy into a foreign market and the
choices are not influenced only by animosity consequent marketing operations should take
towards Arab products, but also by a criterion account of investigations designed to measure
of economic convenience, deriving from animosity among individuals, its antecedents
assessment and appreciation of goods and and effects on intention to buy and product
services. This result is similar to that obtained MXGJPHQW DQG WR DQDO\]H LQGLYLGXDOV¶
in recent studies, which have demonstrated that personality traits (Ettenson and Klein 2005;;
some elements of personality and, in particular, Klein, Ettenson and Morris 1998;; Nakos and
socio-demographic characteristics can subdue Hajidimitriou 2007;; Shoham et al. 2006).
animosity (Nakos and Hajidimitriou 2007).
Animosity, which has been found to have a
THEORETICAL AND stronger impact on business-to-consumers
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS relationships than on business-to-business ones
(Edwards, Gut and Mavondo 2007), can
As regards theoretical implications, the present determine entry strategies into foreign markets.
study shows the similarity between country-of- Several conflicts originating from historical,
origin effect and ethnocentrism, on the one religious, and cultural issues have had a
significant role in economic matters. After targeting such markets. Firstly, the major role
.OHLQ(WWHQVRQDQG0RUULV¶VVWXGLHVRQ played by animosity in influencing purchase
DQLPRVLW\LQ&KLQDDQG1LMVVHQDQG'RXJODV¶V intention and product judgment should lead
(2004) on animosity in the Netherlands, a large managers to produce, when necessary, so-
number of studies on entry strategies have FDOOHG ³K\EULG´ JRRGV LH SURGXFWV FDUU\LQJ
examined cultural features and the distance the brand of a country, which is not however
between country-of-origin and target market the country where they were made. Secondly,
(Hennart and Larimo 1998;; Kalliny and they should separate the image of the product
Lemaster 2005). For instance, Kalliny and from the culture of its country of origin ±
Lemaster (2005) showed that animosity affects making it more standardized, and therefore
the risk perception of investments in a foreign international ± and emphasize attributes that are
country;; this, in turn, determines the amount of unrelated to the country where the product is
money a firm intends to invest, and made (Klein, Ettenson and Morris 1998).
consequently the entry strategy adopted. A high Moreover, companies already operating in a
level of animosity is therefore linked to a high specific market can deal with the problem of
risk perception. Firms that decide to invest in a a n i m o s i t y , f o r e x a m p l e t h r o u g h
country in which high animosity is expected, communications or public relations, designed to
prefer not to invest a great amount of financial soothe hostility or improve the perception of
resources and avoid exports;; thus, no local the nation ± a strategy that mostly proves
relations are established, which could however effective in situations of situational animosity
be helpful in removing negative effects of (Klein, Ettenson and Morris 1998).
animosity. Planning joint-venture investment or
licensing trade activities depend on the degree An accurate analysis on animosity should
of trust a firm has in its trading partners necessarily include the examination of its
(Kalliny and Lemaster 2005). In any case, the antecedents and effects as well. Unlike Israeli
greater the difference between two markets Jews, consumers belonging to the Jewish-
there is, the more preferable a joint venture Italian community show openness to new
entry is, rather than planning greenfield H[SHULHQFHV DQG RWKHUV¶ YLHZV DV WKH\ DUH
investments, which imply the actual location of influenced by the culture of the country where
new trade activities in the target country. It they reside ± in other words, their personalities
becomes clear that it is absolutely essential to are characterized by cross-cultural
design appropriate entry strategies, depending heterogeneities and differences. According to
on the various types of risks. For instance, a +RIVWHGH¶V FODVVLFDO PRGHO WKHOHYHO RI
firm that decides to target a market segment Individualism (i.e., preference for the individual
bearing animosity can opt for strategic alliances rather than for the community) among Israelis
which contribute to reduce the risk level and is lower than individualism among Italians: 48
obtain a competitive advantage. Some nations, percent in Israel versus 70 percent in Italy (for
such as the United States, tried to solve the up-to-date statistics, see www.geert-
problem of trade exchange with Arab countries hofstede.com). This also explains the low
by forming a series of alliances, preferring degree of dogmatism among Italians;; that is the
0LGGOH (DVWHUQ EUDQGV DQG DYRLGLQJ ³PDGH LQ reason why in Italy internationalism is inversely
86$´ ODEHOHG SURGXFWV WKXV DYHUWLQJ UHWRUWV related to animosity, but to a smaller extent
due to animosity. In addition, alliances are than it is in Israel, as was found in the previous
advantageous, as they reduce risks deriving study. There also exist great disparities between
from possible wars and allow firms more the two countries, much greater for Italy,
flexibility. concerning two other dimensions: the power
distance index ± measuring the extent to which
A high level of animosity has relevance to individuals accept and deal with a level of
marketing operations and mainly to disparity ± and the masculinity index ± i.e., the
communication strategies planned by firms level of aggressiveness between men and
women. Thus, those who reside in Italy are Arab-made goods/services, if positively
more disposed to accept an unequal distribution evaluated, as they are characterized by a
of power (and therefore tend to be less utilitarian personality.
dogmatic), but harbor repressed anger (hence a
higher degree of aggressiveness towards It would be interesting, in the future, to
injustices). replicate this research, which is the first to be
conducted in Italy using a Jewish sample, in
International companies and executives should order to make temporal comparisons. Further
not consider only the implications of animosity, research could also replicate this study in
but also cultural differences, different types of Jewish communities in other countries and
personality and the other variables which might examine the economic damages deriving from
have an influence on purchase behavior. This the continuation of the Arab Israeli conflict.
study shows that high-DQLPRVLW\ FRQVXPHUV¶ 7RGD\¶V QXPHURXV JOREDO FRQWURYHUVLHV DQG
intention to buy is influenced by product fierce antagonisms between market segments
judgment, as a consequence of Jewish-,WDOLDQV¶ determine a wide applicability of these findings
utilitarian personality. The positive relation to managerial operations;; this study draws
existing between product judgment and FRPSDQLHV¶ DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH QHFHVVLW\ ZKHQ
intention to buy underlines the necessity of marketing to high-animosity individuals, of
using traditional marketing methods, aimed at planning entry and communication strategies
emphasizing technical and qualitative attributes that avoid emphasizing the origin of a product
of goods/services, and communication or service. When necessary, companies should
strategies, which should not focus so much on separate the image of the goods/service from
the country of origin of products, but on design, the culture of its country of origin ± making it
workmanship, and a superior quality. When more standardized ± and emphasize
targeted, consumers are found to adopt a characteristics that are unrelated to the country
utilitarian purchase behavior. Marketing high- where the product is made.
quality and high-performance goods, provided
with certificates attesting to their excellence, REFERENCES
and showing a satisfactory quality-price ratio,
can consequently prove successful. $PLQH /6 ³&RXQWU\-of-Origin,
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How Far Does the Apple Fall from the Tree? . . . . Ueltschy
HOW FAR DOES THE APPLE FALL FROM THE TREE?

ADVERTISING PREFERENCES IN SPAIN AND MEXICO
LINDA C. UELTSCHY, Bowling Green State University
This research examines which cultural values are important in Spain and Mexico and then relates
those findings to the degree of customization required in those markets to yield positive attitudes
toward the advertisement. Respondents (N=356) viewed print ads using an experimental design,
with results showing total customization of the language and visual portion of the ad was preferred
for all four products, but it was most important for ads with emotional appeals. The driver of
significant differences in ads which were product-attribute driven was the language (dialect) used.
Thus, standardization would not be feasible even in these similar markets.
INTRODUCTION due to the internet, increased travel and

growing sophistication of consumers that global
In the relative nascent paradigm of consumers are emerging and that marketing
globalization, companies are moving into efforts should be standardized across markets.
developing and diverse markets to improve This was the position taken by Elinder (1961)
growth and survival prospects in this in relation to the European market and later
competitive landscape (Townsend, Yeniyurt Levitt (1983) in relation to the world.
and Talay 2009). Firms from industrialized Opponents such as Buzzell (1968) believe that
nations are increasingly seeking opportunities language and cultural differences are of
in emerging markets, where they have never paramount importance, necessitating that firms
ventured before and where cultural differences tailor their marketing efforts to each and every
tend to be significant. One thing that has market they enter. Over time firms have
become apparent is that in the international learned that it generally does not maximize
environment, it is a necessity that culture be profits to operate at either of these extremes on
well understood in order to achieve success in the standardization/customization continuum,
global marketing strategies (VanHeerden and so the question always becomes how many
Barter 2008). In fact, culture needs to be a changes does a firm have to make to render its
major determinant in the establishment of advertisements and marketing campaigns
global marketing promotions. effective? Because the answer is always
different according to the firm and its
Although culture is widely recognized as the products/services, the home country and the
single most important constraint to intended export market and their consumers,
standardization of marketing campaigns, the the debate and the resulting scholarly articles
VWDQGDUGL]DWLRQORFDOL]DWLRQ GHEDWH KDVQ¶W continue with no end in sight. This debate
changed or been resolved in almost five maintains its significance because culture has
decades;; it has just changed names (Cateora been shown to influence all aspects of
and Graham 2007). Standardization vs. consumer behavior, including life insurance
adaptation changed to globalization vs. consumption (Chui and Kwok 2008), customer
localization, which evolved into global satisfaction (Ueltschy, et al. 2008), technology
integration vs. local responsiveness, to name a adoption (Calentone, Griffith and Yalcinkaya
few. Advocates of standardization contend that 2006) and lifestyles (Sun, Horn and Merritt
The Marketing Management Journal
2004), so it is reasonable to believe culture will
Volume 20, Issue 1, Pages 19-31 impact advertising preferences, which will be
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved the focus of this study.

Thus, the objectives of this study are (1) to Agreement (MEUFTA) went into effect. Trade
question whether countries which are perceived between the EU and Mexico is expected to
as being culturally similar still differ reach $80 billion by 2014 (Prim 2009). In
significantly on the cultural values they deem 2009, the EU continued to be the second largest
as important, and (2) if these differences destination for Mexican exports and the EU
influence the degree of customization necessary was the second largest source of imports in
by a firm to render their advertisements Mexico, after the U. S. Mexico has also
effective. To achieve the objectives of this received $84 billion in Foreign Direct
research, respondents from Spain and Mexico Investment (FDI) from the EU from 1994-2008,
serve as comparative study groups, with the with Spain being the largest investor from the
Spanish language and a common heritage EU, accounting for a whopping 47 percent of
serving as uniting influences. However, the total. MEUFTA has also promoted a
different paths taken by these two nations in GUDPDWLF LQFUHDVH LQ 0H[LFR¶V )', LQ WKH (8
recent history may potentially yield cultural (Trade Links 2009).
differences.
Although Spain has been one of the fastest
SPAIN-MEXICO RELATIONSHIP growing countries in the EU for the last 15
years, the current global recession has hit them
The blood of the Spanish conquistadors runs also, with GDP growth for 2009 recorded as a
through the veins of the Mexican people, but it negative 1 percent. Spain is the second largest
has been mixed with that of the indigenous recipient of tourists in the world, but that figure
Indians to give Mexico its own unique flavor. was down for 2009 (Country Commercial
Since gaining its independence from Spain in Guide: Spain 2009).
1813, Mexico has enjoyed a friendly
relationship with Spain, which in recent times So, for Spain, focusing on export growth to
has grown into an important trade relationship. Latin America, specifically to Mexico, could
help its economic woes also. Although
The year 2010 has seen Mexico increasingly industrial production continues to play an
affected by the economic woes of its northern important role in the Spanish economy, the
neighbor and NAFTA partner, the United service sector continues to expand and currently
States. The severe recession in the U. S. has accounts for 67 percent of economic activity.
led to a drop in external demand for Mexico, a $Q LQGLFDWLRQ RI WKLV LV WKDW 0H[LFR¶V ODUJHVW
decrease in revenues from exports, tourism and bank is a Spanish bank. Although in recent
remittances from Mexican relatives living in the years Mexico has been an extremely important
U. S. Additionally, Mexico sells practically all trade partner for Spain in Latin America,
of its oil and natural gas to the U. S. foreign direct investment has been acquiring
(www.wharton.universa.net). The global growing prominence, giving a new dimension
economic downturn has resulted in a weaker to the bilateral relationship. From 1993 to
peso, a tighter credit market, lower consumer 2004, Latin America received 34.5 percent of
demand and decreased private investment Spanish FDI, making it the main area of interest
(Country Commercial Guide: Mexico 2009). after the EU. Mexico stands above the other
To offset these woes, plus the problems brought Latin American countries, representing 34.6
on by the swine flu and the violence of the drug percent of the regional total of Spanish exports
cartels, Mexico is increasingly looking to the (Santos and Pérez 2009).
European Union (EU), and Spain in particular,
to lower its economic dependence on the U. S. Thus, Spain and Mexico hold much allure and
Trade between Mexico and the EU totaled $59 potential for each other. With the same
billion in 2008, some 18 percent higher than in language and both classified as high-context
2007 and 222 percent higher than in 1999, the cultures (Hall 1977), where relationships and
year before the Mexico-EU Free Trade trust come first and completing a conversation
is more important than rushing off to a class or and groups and group harmony come before
business meeting, marketers from both welfare of the individual. Status is also
countries must wonder how much important in high-context cultures. Thus, Hall
customization is really necessary to make their would not expect to find cultural differences
DGYHUWLVLQJHIIHFWLYHLQWKHRWKHU¶VPDUNHW7KLV between Spain and Mexico. Hofstede (1980,
research will study that question. 2001) rates countries on four cultural
dimensions: power distance, masculinity,
CULTURE AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR uncertainty avoidance and individualism (see
Table 1). Although Spain and Mexico are very
&XOWXUHFDQEHWKRXJKWRIDV³WKRVHEHOLHIVDQG similar on the dimension of uncertainly
values that are widely shared in a specific avoidance, with both countries preferring the
society at a particular point in time (Ralston et status quo, significant differences can be seen
al. 2008). In recognition that culture is a multi- on the other three dimensions. It should be
layered construct (Tung 2008), the level of noted that Hofstede (2001) added a fifth
analysis in this study will be national culture. dimension, long-term orientation, mainly in
$W WKH DJJUHJDWH RU QDWLRQDO OHYHO LW LV ³WKH deference to the Asian countries, but neither
FROOHFWLYHSURJUDPPLQJRIWKHPLQG´+RIVWHGH Spain nor Mexico was rated on that dimension.
2001) that distinguishes the members of one Hence, according to the paradigm by Hofstede,
FRXQWU\ IURP DQRWKHU ³0RUH WKDQ DQ\ RWKHU Spain and Mexico would be expected to exhibit
factor, culture is the prime determinant of cultural differences.
FRQVXPHUV¶ DWWLWXGHV EHKDYLRUV DQG OLIHVW\OHV´
(Cleveland and Laroche 2007, p. 251). Cultural TABLE 1
values can be thought of as the basic motivators +RIVWHGH¶V&XOWXUDO'LPHQVLRQV
in life and the prescriptions for behavior
(Rokeach 1973) with culture determining how
people perceive and interpret phenomena Spain Mexico
(McCracken 1986). How an advertisement is Power Distance 57 81
perceived is critical in determining the
Individualism 51 30
FRQVXPHU¶VUHDFWLRQWRLWDQGKRZHIIHFWLYHWKH
advertisement ultimately is. Because culture is Masculinity 42 69
the lens through which our perceptions are 86 82
Uncertainty Avoidance
filtered, it can be viewed as extremely
important in terms of advertising.

Rather than simply accept that Spain and
To answer the question of whether the ties
Mexico are culturally similar in that they are
between Spain and Mexico are strong enough
both high-context countries (Hall 1977) or say
to allow for standardization, one must examine
that they are culturally different based on their
ERWK WKH FRXQWULHV¶ FRPPRQ URRWV DQG XQLTXH
differences on three out of four Hofstede (1980)
characteristics. A powerful unifying factor
cultural dimensions, this study will actually
would seem to be that Spain and Mexico share
survey the respondents using the 36 values in
a common language, albeit different dialects.
the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) (Rokeach
$V +DOO SXWV LW ³FXOWXUH LV
1974) to examine which values are important in
FRPPXQLFDWLRQDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQLVFXOWXUH´
each country.
Language does not merely relay our thoughts

but rather influences and shapes them. The
&8/785(¶6,1)/8(1&(
cultural paradigms most used to investigate
ON ADVERTISING
consumer behavior are Hall (1977) and

Hofstede (1980, 2001). Hall classifies Spain
As discussed above, culture affects all aspects
and Mexico as high-context cultures where
of consumer behavior. The influence of culture
relationships and trust come before business
is extremely important in transferring significant differences in acceptance of sexual

advertising strategy across borders, because imagery in advertising with the Italians, a high-
communication patterns are very closely linked context culture, being more accepting than
to culture norms in each market (Moon and those in the UK and Germany, low-context
Chan 2005). How phenomena are perceived is cultures. Choi and Miracle (2004) found that
based on the background the viewer brings to national culture has a significant main effect on
the situation. Culture colors or shades the how comparative advertising is accepted.
³UHDOLW\´ RI D VLWXDWLRQ DORQJ ZLWK WKH OLIH Respondents in Korea, a high-context and
experiences that a viewer brings. The content highly collectivistic culture, did not accept
of advertisements can activate shared cultural comparative advertising as readily as those in
values (Nelson, et al. 2006). For these reasons, the U. S., a low-context and individualistic
the impact of culture has been found to be country. Caillat and Mueller (1996) found
much stronger in the case of advertisements differences in advertising preferences in two
which have emotional appeals, where the similar cultures, the U. K. and the United
viewer must identify with the people in the ad States. These are countries viewed as being so
and the cultural values embedded in the ad for VLPLODU WKDW .DW] DQG /HH VDLG ³RQH
the advertising appeal to be effective. might claim that if standardized advertising is
to succeed anywhere, it must be in those two
Culture has been shown to influence advertising SODFHV´$QRWKHUVWXG\E\1HOVRQHWDO
in countries where the cultures are very focused on four similar individualistic
different, such as the United States and Israel countries: U. S., Canada, Norway and
(Hornik 1980), and also in countries where Denmark and found significant differences in
cultures are viewed as being very similar, such advertising based on differences in
as China, Japan and Korea, which all have their masculinity/femininity. Thus, the two countries
roots in Confucianism (Ueltschy, et al. 2009). chosen for this study, Spain and Mexico, can be
For example, Lass and Hart (2004) found expected to have significant differences in
advertising preferences even though they share
a language and are both high-context cultures.
FIGURE 1
Framework of Research
Cultural Differences

Levels of Attitude
Customization Toward
in Advertising the Ad

RESEARCH QUESTIONS The conceptual framework is best described by

AND HYPOTHESES the model presented in Figure 1. As firms
venture abroad, it is this situation, where
The research questions to be answered are: (1) cultural distance exists between the home and
Do Spain and Mexico differ significantly in the target market, that is of primary interest and
cultural values they deem important? and (2) concern. Hutzchenreuter and Voll (2008)
How do these cultural similarities or differences found that added cultural distance taken on by
affect the degree of customization necessary to international expansion negatively impacts a
make advertisements effective? Is changing the ILUP¶V SURILWDELOLW\ XQOHVV WKH QHFHVVDU\ WLPH
language (dialect) enough or does the visual and care is taken initially to ensure success in
portion and advertising appeal need to be the new market.
tailored to the target market? (see Figure 1)
METHODOLOGY
Thus, the first hypothesis to be tested is:
H1: There will be significant cultural Experimental Design
differences between Spain and
Mexico. To address the research objectives, respondents
were asked to view four print advertisements
Spain and Mexico are hypothesized to differ exhibiting different degrees of customization
significantly for the following reasons. The (see Table 2). The experimental design
Spanish conquistadors and the Spanish Catholic included two experimental variables, the
church have played an important role in the language used in the ad copy and the visual
cultural evolution of Mexico, but the significant portion of the ad with its appeal. The country
influence of the indigenous Indian cultures can in which the experiment was administered and
be seen in every aspect of Mexican culture, the product category were the blocking
including certain words used in the Mexican variables. The dependent, or criterion variable,
GLDOHFWRI³HOFDVWHOODQR´WKH6SDQLVKODQJXDJH was attitude toward the ad.
Spain, on the other hand, has received cultural
influences from the Arabs, the Romans, the The products selected were based on potential
Greeks and the Mediterranean cultures. interest to students, as indicated by a pretest of
Additionally, as was discussed previously, graduate students from both countries, and a
Spain and Mexico differ significantly on three desire to have each of four categories of
of the four dimensions of the Hofstede cultural consumer products suggested by Whitelock
paradigm. (1987) represented. The four resulting products
were Whirlpool washing machines, Ford
Given an understanding of these cultural automobiles, Kodak cameras and Avon
differences or similarities, it will then be cosmetics. The original advertisements were
feasible to assess the impact of various levels of deemed suitable in both markets and were
customization in advertising in these two modified as needed to fulfill the research
markets. Culture has consistently been objectives
mentioned as one of the key constraints to
standardizing marketing efforts globally Sample
(Terpstra, Sarathy and Russow 2006), which
leads to the second hypothesis: MBA students (N = 356) from Spain and
H2: If significant cultural differences Mexico were selected as participants for this
exist between Spain and Mexico, study since they were well matched on key
there will be significant differences demographic characteristics such as age,
in attitude toward the ad based on gender, education and international experience,
the level of customization utilized. as advocated by Calder, Phillips and Tybout
(1981) since such samples allow a stronger test
TABLE 2
Degree of Customization
T1 Total Customization Language (Dialect) Home Country
Visual & Appeal Home Country

T2 Less Customization Language Home Country
Visual & Appeal Other Country

T3 More Standardization Language Other Country
Visual & Appeal Home Country

T4 Total Standardization Language Other Country
Visual & Appeal Other Country
of theory (see Table 3). The universities study. After demographic questions, the next
selected were two private schools in each six questions pertaining to each ad were
capital city. In both samples, over 80 percent manipulation checks of the language in the ad
of the respondents were young adults 24-35 and the visual portion of the ad to ensure that
years of age. In both Spain and Mexico, over respondents perceived the language to be theirs
50 percent of the subjects had visited four or and that the visual portion looked like it was
more countries outside their own. Significant designed for their countries. In relation to the
gender differences in the sample were not manipulation checks, subjects agreed or
noted;; 65 percent of the sample in Spain were disagreed with the statements on a nine-point
male and 69 percent of the sample in Mexico Likert like scale (1 = strongly disagree and 9 =
were male. The one difference between the two strongly agree).
samples is that fewer students in Mexico have
the luxury of being full-time students;; most To compare cultural values of the participants
MBA students work full-time jobs and go to from Spain and Mexico, Form G (Feather 1988)
classes at night and on the weekend. Even of the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) was used.
though a large percentage in Spain were full- Originally designed to have subjects rank order
time students, the samples were still well- in importance 18 terminal values and 18
matched in that 92.8 percent of those instrumental values, more recent researchers
respondents in Spain were working part-time in (Munson and McIntyre 1979) have modified
professional jobs and many were sponsored by the RVS, resulting in an interval measure of
their firms and given release time to pursue value importance. Respondents rated each
their studies. Additionally, graduate students in value on a nine-point Likert like scale (1 = not
foreign countries represent the young upwardly at all important and 9 = extremely important).
mobile, which is a target market selected by Lastly, respondents listed the most and least
many firms trying to expand internationally. important values from both the instrumental
and terminal value lists.
Measurement
A three-item scale capturing global attitude
In order to maintain consistency and content, toward the ad (Zinkhan, Locander and Leigh
the questionnaire was written in Spanish by the ZDV XVHG WR PHDVXUH UHVSRQGHQWV¶
researcher and backtranslated by graduate attitudes toward the ad, using a nine-point
students from Spain and Mexico, residing in the Likert like scale to respond to the three items
U. S., who were familiar with the topic of the (1 = strongly disagree and 9 = strongly agree).
TABLE 3
Respondent Profiles
Spain (N=184) Mexico (N=172)
GENDER Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

Male 120 65.2 120 69.8
Female 64 34.8 52 30.2
Total 184 100 172 100
AGE Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
18-23 25 13.6 8 4.7
24-29 134 72.8 86 50.0
30-35 21 11.4 52 30.2
Over 35 4 2.2 26 15.1
Total 184 100 172 100
OCCUPATION Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Full-time students 103 56.0 31 18.0
Professionals 73 39.7 121 70.4
Technicians, office workers 8 4.3 11 6.4
Factory workers 0 0 9 5.2
Total 184 100 172 100
INTERNATIONAL
EXPERIENCE Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
(countries visited other than their
own)
0 ± 3 39 21.2 86 50.0
4 ± 6 55 29.9 37 21.5
7 ± 8 31 16.8 10 5.8
9 or more 59 32.1 39 22.7
Total 184 100 172 100
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS alternated in four different orders in the

booklets given to respondents. To test for
Manipulation Checks ordering effects, ANOVA was done by
selecting random variables in the ad section of
To ascertain that the desired effects were the questionnaire. No significant differences
achieved, manipulation checks were performed resulted based on the four different orders in
pertaining to the language used in the ad copy which the advertisements were presented,
and the pictures and people used in the visual meaning no ordering effects existed.
portion of the ad. T-tests were performed
between the respondents from Spain and those Hypotheses Testing
from Mexico and the results showed that the
desired effects had been obtained with To test for cultural differences between Spain
significant mean differences noted at p < .001. and Mexico, factor analysis was used to
extrapolate the value dimensions represented by
Ordering Effects the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS). With the
minimum Eigen value set at one, five factors
To control for ordering effects in the appeared using principal components analysis
experimental design, the four ads were with all 36 of the Rokeach values. These five

factors can be thought of as the global value of the five factors uncovered ranged from .76 to
dimensions present in Spain and Mexico (see .82;; thus, the RVS is a reliable measurement
Table 4) and together they account for 93.1 instrument, having been well validated in the
percent of the total variance. To assess the field.
reliability of the RVS, Cronbach alphas were
performed with all 36 values yielding a To test whether Spain and Mexico did differ
Cronbach alpha of .913. The Cronbach alphas significantly on the value dimensions
uncovered, a mean score for all Spaniards was
TABLE 4
Cultural Value Dimensions

Country Difference Between
Comparison Means
Factor 1 ± Rewards in Life
health
pleasure
comfortable life Mexico ± Spain .4553*
mature love
sense of accomplishment Spain ± Mexico -.4553*
family security
exciting life
true friendship
Factor 2 ± Peace & Beauty
inner harmony
world at peace Mexico ± Spain -.1218
equality
world of beauty Spain ± Mexico .1218
freedom
national security
Factor 3 ± Mental Attributes
independent
capable Mexico ± Spain .4823*
intellectual
imaginative Spain ± Mexico -.4823*
broad-minded
ambitious
courageous
Factor 4 ± Personal Responsibility
self-controlled
responsible Mexico ± Spain .5879*
loyal
clean Spain ± Mexico -.5879*
polite
Factor 5 ± Religious Values
forgiving
loving Mexico ± Spain .1044
helpful
obedient Spain ± Mexico -.1044
salvation
honest
* Indicates significant difference at the .05 level


calculated on factor 1 and the same done for all since only the car was pictured;; no people were
Mexicans with the same procedure followed for present. In the Whirlpool ad, people were
all five-IDFWRUV 7KHQ D 7XNH\¶V 6WXGHQWL]HG pictured and total customization was preferred,
Range test was performed on each factor but only the language of the ad was significant
yielded from the RVS. The first hypothesis at the .05 level.
was largely supported in that significant
differences were noted at the .05 level for three DISCUSSION AND
of the five factors, as one can see in Table 4. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

Next, to test whether the levels of Many researchers have conducted cross-cultural
customization influenced attitude toward the ad, research on how culture impacts various types
ANOVA was performed with the four levels of of consumer behavior and most have chosen to
customization as the independent variables and use countries thought to be very dissimilar from
attitude toward the ad as the dependent which to draw their samples, such as Laroche et
variable. The second hypothesis was supported al. (2004) which investigated customer
at the .05 level for all four advertisements, as satisfaction and service quality perceptions
can be seen in Table 5. among subjects from the U. S., Canada and
Japan., contrasting high- and low-context
TABLE 5 cultures (Hall 1977) and Eastern and Western
ANOVA cultures. Perhaps more challenging and
Attitude Toward Ad Levels of Customization interesting are those studies which choose
countries which are thought to be similar to see
if cultural differences still do exist and what
F Values Pr > F
their impact would be on consumer behavior.
Ford 3.03 .03* An example of this would be a study by
Kodak 6.96 .0001* Deshpandé et al. (2004) which sampled
respondents from China, Hong Kong, Viet
Whirlpool 3.33 .02*
Nam, Japan and Thailand and found significant
Avon 5.67 .0008* differences in innovativeness, marketing
orientation and culture. This present study
* significant at .05 level
belongs to the latter category. Spain and

Mexico are thought to be very similar
The question of interest, though, to marketers
culturally. They share a common language, a
and firms is what factors are the drivers for the
common heritage and both are classified as
significant differences noted in attitude toward
high-context cultures (Hall 1977) where
the ad? How many changes need to be made to
relationships and trust are paramount. This
make the ads effective? When looking at the
study actually surveyed the respondents as to
details of the experiment, it becomes apparent
their cultural values and their importance using
that total customization is preferred for all ads ±
the RVS, rather than assuming they were
the language (dialect) of the market and the
similar or different based on the popular
visual portion looking like it was designed for
cultural paradigms of Hall (1977) and Hofstede
that market. This was particularly true for
(1980). On three of the five cultural value
Kodak and Avon which were based on
dimensions uncovered using the RVS, there
emotional appeals. In the case of the Ford and
were significant differences between the
Whirlpool print ads, fewer significant
Spanish and Mexican samples. This probably
differences were seen since they were very
comes as a surprise to academics and
cognitively based and product-attribute driven.
practitioners alike and is a clear warning to
In the case of the Ford ad, the only significant
firms to not assume that countries are alike
difference was in relation to the language
culturally just because they speak the same
(dialect) used in the ad. This would make sense
language or are classified similarly according to
popular paradigms. This is particularly true if created for them and the language in the ad to
the advertisement uses an emotional appeal, be their dialect of Spanish. This concurs with
like Kodak and Avon did, because then the the work of Bulmer and Buchanan-Oliver
viewers must bring similar perspectives and (2006) that found that pictures are not universal
frames of reference for the ads to be effective, and visual interpretations vary as viewers use
which is where the importance of similarities cultural cues and visual signs to interpret
between cultures enters in. For product commercials. Advertising messages are
categories which typically use product processed differently by receivers raised in
attribute-driven ads, not emotional different cultures. Interpretations of a single
advertisements, such as industrial products, advertisement may vary considerably. Thus,
simply changing the language in the ad advertisers should be aware of ascribed
prototype advertising (Peebles, Ryans and meanings of their advertisement internationally,
Vernon 1978), might be very appropriate. as subtleties in campaign interpretation may
However, it should be emphasized that lead to difficulties in various markets. Another
differences in idioms, slang and vocabulary important implication for managers is that
used in the dialect were found to be important sending a print ad to a translation service and
in this study, so all the nuances of a particular telling them to translate it into Spanish is not
dialect must be adhered to in order to maximize sufficient;; the dialect of Spanish has to be
positive feelings toward an advertisement. correctly matched to the target market. The
Thus, the findings of this study concur with the viewer needs to perceive the language (dialect)
contention of Alimiéne and Kuvykaite (2008, as being their own;; understanding the message
WKDW ³VWDQGDUGL]DWLRQ LV RIWHQ RI QR XVH WR is not enough.
companies because of differences in language,
culture, and consumer preferences . . . whereas, While the findings from this research are
adaptation helps companies to evaluate and potentially very useful for managers and
effectively use cultural differences to their marketers operating in global firms, the
FRPSHWLWLYH DGYDQWDJH´ 6R LQ UHODWLRQ WR WKH limitations must also be acknowledged, and
question in the title: How far does the apple then considered as opportunities for future
fall from the tree? It does not fall directly research. This study focused solely on print
below the tree, but rolls a short distance as if to ads;; future research should investigate other
establish its own self-identity. types of media, such as television commercials
and see if similar findings result. Lastly, this
CONCLUSION AND research surveyed graduate business students,
FUTURE RESEARCH the young, upwardly mobile segment in just
two countries, so the results may be applicable
Using subjects from Spain and Mexico, this solely to the results of the investigation.
study found that significant cultural differences Subsequent research could employ samples
may be found, even in nations linked by a from other countries culturally similar to each
common language and heritage. Although other who share the same language, such as
respondents from both countries indicated that Canada and the U.K. or Germany and Austria,
salvation was the least important cultural value etc. to enhance the generalizability of the
from the RVS and health the most important, findings.
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How Do U.S. and U.K. Salespeople Compare . . . . Pettijohn, Rozell and Newman
HOW DO U.S. AND U.K. SALESPEOPLE COMPARE

ON THE DIMENSIONS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE,
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE AFFECT, AND CUSTOMER
ORIENTATION LEVELS?
CHARLES E. PETTIJOHN, Nova Southeastern University
ELIZABETH J. ROZELL, Missouri State University
ANDREW NEWMAN, Salford Business School
McGraw-Hill Best Paper Award
Identification of the variables that affect the performance of sales professionals has been an
endeavor that has lasted for decades. Specification of individual variables that not only influence
performance, but are amenable to both measurement and change has proven to be elusive. The
purpose of this research is to assess two aspects of individual behavior which are measurable and
may have profound impacts on training and development programs and selection
considerations. The constructs of emotional intelligence and dispositional affect were hypothesized
as being positively related to sales force performance. This study provides the empirical results of
analyses designed to evaluate whether salesperson performance is significantly and positively
UHODWHGWRWKHVDOHVSHUVRQ¶VOHYHORIHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHDQGKLVKHUGLVSRVLWLRQDODIIHFW Based on
these findings, implications, conclusions and suggestions for future research are provided.
INTRODUCTION be attributable to the fact that different

countries perceive the relative importance and
Personal selling in the United States (U.S.) is prestige of sales positions in different ways
increasingly becoming more highly regarded as (Honeycutt, Ford and Kurtzman 1996). For
a profession. As such, it seems that personal example, the sales profession is held in
selling is a subject which is included in many comparatively low esteem in Europe. In fact, it
university courses on many college campuses has been argued that recruiters in the U.K. have
(Michaels and Marshall 2002). However, in the difficulties recruiting good sales personnel due
United Kingdom (U.K.) it appears that personal to attitudes toward sales (Ellis 2000).
selling receives relatively less attention and
focus (Honeycutt et al. 1999;; Lysonski and In an analysis of the importance of specific
Durvasula 1998). Yet, while it seems that skills, attitudes and behaviors, a multinational
differences exist regarding the importance of perspective may be important because in some
personal selling as either a legitimate academic nations skills, attitudes and behaviors that relate
endeavor or as a career, differences in to closing are regarded as being offensive
salesperson attitudes and perceptions have not (Honeycutt, Ford and Kurtzman 1996).
been explicitly assessed. The primary purpose Further, internationally, selling is often
of this research is to empirically compare regarded as a profession that is low in status,
specific dimensions of salesperson perceptions requires manipulation, and does not contribute
DQGDWWLWXGHVEDVHGRQWKHVDOHVSHUVRQ¶VFRXQWU\ to societal goals (Lysonski and Durvasula
of origin. Exploring these issues from an 1998). Many authors note that international
international perspective may be important for a attitudes toward personal selling and sales as a
variety of reasons. One of these reasons might career are far more deleterious than are
attitudes found in the U.S. (which admittedly
are generally not very positive) (Amin,
Volume 20, Issue 1, Pages 32-39 Hayajneh and Nwakanma 1995;; Hill and
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved Birdseye 1989;; Johansson 1997;; Terpstra and
Sarathy 1997).
Ellis (2000) contends that recruiters in the U.K. surprising to note that none of the research
have difficulties recruiting good salespeople. uncovered has explicitly compared attitudes
Internationally, difficulties recruiting sales and predispositions of salespeople in these two
personnel from universities are recognized by nations. The purpose of this research is to
others who note international students do not correct this deficiency.
have positive attitudes toward personal selling
as a career (Amin, Hayajneh and Nwakanma HYPOTHESIS
1995;; Lysonski and Druvasula 1998). Ellis
(2000) sums up attitudes toward selling by Based on the review of the literature, the central
VWDWLQJ ³PDQ\ (XURSHDQ FXVWRPHUV YLHZ hypothesis of this study is that U.K. salesperson
salespeople like North Americans used to view predispositions and psychological attributes
used-FDU VDOHVSHRSOH´ ,Q WKH 8. WKLV LV will be significantly more negative than will be
certainly the case and recruiting agencies are those possessed by U.S. salespeople. This
PRUH OLNHO\ WR DGRSW WKH WHUP ³H[HFXWLYH´ RU hypothesis is largely based on research
³FRQVXOWDQWLQVDOHV´WRLQFUHDVHWKHQXPEHURI indicating that international attitudes toward
applications. These points indicate that the sales are generally negative (Amin, Hayajneh
recruiting of international sales personnel may and Nwakanma 1995;; Hill and Birdseye 1989;;
be a far more formidable task than is recruiting Johansson 1997;; Terpstra and Sarathy 1997).
of domestic (U.S.) salespeople. A study Furthermore, Ellis (2000) contends that sales in
comparing attitudes toward sales held by the U.K. is held in lower esteem than it is in the
students in Singapore, New Zealand, India and U.S. Based on these findings, the following is
the U.S. found that Singapore and New Zealand the central focus of the study:
had significantly more negative thoughts about
selling than did U.S. students. India, however, Salespeople in the U.K. will have significantly
had the most positive perceptions of the four lower levels of emotional intelligence, positive
nations analyzed. Except for India, all three affect and customer orientation than will U.S.
QDWLRQV¶ VWXGHQWV IHOW WKDW VDOHVSHRSOH DUH salespeople. Correspondingly, U.K.
pushy, aggressive and have low reputations. salespeople will have significantly higher levels
Salespeople are viewed as being low in of negative affect than will U.S. salespeople.
professionalism, sales jobs are perceived as
lacking intellectual challenge, and as not METHODOLOGY
contributing to society (Lysonski and
Durvasula 1998). Similar findings occurred in The purpose of this research is to comparatively
a study reported one year later. In this study assess differences existing between levels of
the attitudes of students from New Zealand, the salesperson customer-orientation, emotional
Philippines, and the U.S. were compared. The intelligence, positive affect and negative affect.
findings indicated that sales careers are The basic premise of the research was
perceived negatively by students from each of developed based on the perception that greater
the three nations. insights into salesperson characteristics may be
garnered by comparing salespeople based on
It is interesting to note that some research has their countries of origin (U.S. and U.K.). Based
assessed attitudes toward sales careers held by on these considerations, the first step of the
university students in countries such as the research process required the selection of
Philippines, New Zealand, India, etc. However, samples that would facilitate the comparison of
no study was discovered which examined salespeople without the mitigating effects of
attitudinal and psychological differences potentially confounding variables. Following
between salespeople in two nations. Culturally the selection of an appropriate sample, the
and historically, one could reasonably argue second step entailed the development of a data
that the U.S. and U.K. have strong ties collection instrument.
politically and economically. It seems
Based on the fact that the research was of which 10 indicate positive (e.g., active,
d e s i gn e d t o c o mp a r e s al e s pe r so n enthusiastic) and 10 indicate negative (e.g.,
predispositions and psychological attitudes, it angry, afraid) mood states. Respondents are
was decided that salespeople should be LQVWUXFWHG WR ³LQGLFDWH WR ZKDW H[WHQW \RX
employed in similar industries. Consequently, generally feel this way, that is, how you feel on
the sample consisted of salespeople employed WKH DYHUDJH´ ([WHQVLYH YDOLGLW\ HYLGHQFH LV
in the healthcare industry. In the U.S. the provided by Watson, Clark, and Tellegan
sample consisted of 245 salespeople and in the (1988), Watson, Clark, and Carey (1988), and
U.K., the sample consisted of 107 salespeople Watson (1988).
employed in the healthcare industry. Following
the specification of the sample, a survey was Customer-Orientation
developed to accomplish the research
objectives. The survey consisted of the The key component of the survey entailed the
following components: measurement of customer-orientation. As
noted, the concept of customer-orientation was
Emotional Intelligence operationalized by Saxe and Weitz (1982).
Saxe and Weitz developed a 24 item scale
The current study uses the instrument which has been used in many studies of
developed by Schutte et al. (1998). The scale is salesperson customer orientation (Brown,
a self-report measure that has been subjected to Widing and Coulter 1991;; Dunlap, Dotson and
significant validity testing (Schutte et al. 1998). Chambers 1988;; Rozell, Pettijohn and Parker
Strong conceptual grounding was used in the 2004;; Thomas, Soutar and Ryan 2001;; Periatt,
VFDOH¶VGHYHORSPHQWVLQFHWKHPRGHOSUHVHQWHG LeMay, and Chakrabarty 2004). It has been
by Salovey and Mayer (1990) was used as the GHVFULEHGDVDYDOLGPHDVXUHRIRQH¶VFXVWRPHU-
theoretical basis. The scale was subjected to orientation levels (Periatt, LeMay and
correlations with theoretically related Chakrabarty 2004). Based on these factors, the
constructs, internal consistency replication, test- SOCO scale developed by Saxe and Weitz
retest reliability, predictive validity, and (1982) was used in this research. This scale
discriminate validity with strong results for consists of 24 items using a seven point Likert-
each analysis (Schutte et al. 1998). Although type scale (7 = strongly agree and 1 = strongly
the instrument has been criticized for its self- disagree).
report approach (Mayer and Salovey 1995), the
LQVWUXPHQW¶VYDOLGLW\DSSHDUVWREHUREXVW7KH FINDINGS
scale is a 33-item self-report measure that
LQFOXGHV LWHPV VXFK DV ³%\ ORRNLQJ DW WKHLU As stated in the introduction, the purpose of this
facial expression, I recognize the emotions research entailed a comparative analysis of the
SHRSOH DUH H[SHULHQFLQJ´ DQG ³, HDVLO\ levels of emotional intelligence, customer
UHFRJQL]H P\ HPRWLRQV DV , H[SHULHQFH WKHP´ orientation, selling orientation, and positive and
Respondents use a 5-point scale, on which a negative affect of healthcare salespeople
³´ UHSUHVHQWV ³VWURQJO\ GLVDJUHH´ DQG D ³´ working in the U.K. with those working in the
UHSUHVHQWV³VWURQJO\DJUHH´WRLQGLFDWHWRZKDW 86 7KH VWXG\¶V SXUSRVHV ZHUH EDVHG RQ WKH
extent each item describes them. desire to determine, empirically, whether
GLIIHUHQFHV H[LVW EDVHG RQ WKH UHVSRQGHQWV¶
Dispositional Affectivity locales. As indicated in Table 1, the
respondents consisted of 112 U.S. salespeople,
Positive and negative affect were measured for a response rate of 46 percent;; and 77 U.K.
using the Positive and Negative Affect salespeople, for a response rate of 72 percent.
Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson, As shown in the table, demographically, the
Clark, and Tellegen (1988). The PANAS salespeople were similar. Salespeople in both
includes a list of 20 mood-relevant adjectives, countries had college degrees, the majority of
TABLE 1
Characteristics of the Sample
Characteristic Total U.S. U.K.
Percent (n) Percent (n) Percent (n)
Education:
College Degree 82.5 (155) 79.5 (87) 88.1 (69)
Graduate Degree 11.1 (25) 18.8 (21) 6.0 (4)
Other 3.4 (6) 1.8 ( 2) 6.0 (4)
Position:
Management 9.0 (16) 1.8 (2) 21.6 (14)
Sales 91.0 (161) 98.2 (110) 78.4 (51)
Compensation:
Salary 12.4 (22) 0 33.3 (22)
Salary and Commission 87.6 (156) 100.0 (112) 66.6 (44)
Income:
< 40,000 1.1 (2) 0 3.2 (2)
$40,001-60,000 8.0 (14) 0 22.2 (14)
$60,001-80,000 14.4 (25) 0 40.0 (25)
> $80,000 76.4 (133) 100.0 (100) 34.9 (22)
Gender:
Male 72.8 (123) 80.4 (90) 64.2 (43)
Female 27.2 (46) 19.6 (22) 35.8 (24)
Marital Status:
Single 14.0 (25) 10.5 (12) 19.4 (13)
Married 76.5 (137 83.0 (93) 65.7 (44)
Divorced 9.5 (17) 6.3 (7) 14.9 (10)
Mean (sd) Mean (sd) Mean (sd)
Age 36.6 (6.2) 35.9 (5.1) 37.8 (7.6)
Employment (years):
With Present Comp.: 5.3 (4.3) 4.2 (3.7) 7.1 (5.0)
In current role: 5.0 (4.4) 4.2 (4.2) 6.4 (5.0)

salespeople sampled were male, married, as managers, and were paid less (in U.S.
between 35 and 40 years of age, and were dollars) than were their U.S. counterparts.
compensated by a combination of salary and
commission. A few differences that should be Based on the literature, the study might be
noted included the fact that salespeople in the divided into five primary research questions.
U.K. were more likely to describe themselves The findings, as they relate to these research

questions are presented in Table 2. The first was anticipated that U.K. salespeople would be
research question was related to emotional less oriented toward making the sale, given that
intelligence levels of the two groups. The the research reviewed indicated that salespeople
findings indicate that no differences exist in the are not perceived positively in their culture.
emotional intelligence scores of U.S. and U.K. The findings agree with this perception, based
salespeople. Thus, it appears that emotional on the fact that selling orientation levels are
intelligence may be a relatively stable significantly lower (as noted in the reverse
construct, unaffected by cultural factors, as no scoring) for U.K. salespeople compared with
significant differences were found in emotional U.S. salespeople.
intelligence scores for the salespeople sampled.
Research questions four and five were based on
The second research question focused on the U.S. cultural stereotypes. Many in the U.S.
degree to which customer orientation levels SHUFHLYHWKDWWKHLUµFRXVLQVDFURVVWKHSRQG¶DUH
might differ between U.S. and U.K. more negative in their attitudes and attributions.
salespeople. It was anticipated that U.S. Based on this gross stereotype, it was
salespeople would have higher customer- anticipated that respondents in the U.K. would
orientation levels because in the U.S. the sales have lower positive affect scores and higher
role is more culturally acceptable then it is in negative affect scores than would U.S.
the U.K. As indicated in the table, U.S. salespeople. However, the findings indicate the
salespeople were found to be significantly stereotype is not valid for this group of
higher in their levels of customer orientation respondents, as positive affect cores are
than were their U.K. counterparts. significantly higher for U.K. salespeople than
they are for U.S. salespeople. Consistently,
Research question three was designed to assess U.K. salespeople have significantly lower
the degree to which U.S. and U.K. salespeople negative affect scores than do the U.S.
were oriented toward making the sale, salespeople.
UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH EX\HUV¶ QHHGV 6LQFH WKH
questions were reverse scored, low scores CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS
would be indicative of higher levels of sales
orientations or a desire to make the sale The results suggest some significant differences
UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH FXVWRPHUV¶ GHVLUHV with regard to sales person attitudes and
Conversely, high scores were indicative of predispositions based on their home countries.
lower levels of a sales orientation, or a As noted, salespeople in the U.K. were
recognition that the sale should not be made significantly less customer-oriented and selling-
XQOHVV WKH FXVWRPHU¶V QHHGV ZHUH VDWLVILHG ,W oriented than were their U.S. counterparts. This
TABLE 2
Comparative Responses on Scales
U.S. U.K.
ITEM: mean (s.d.) mean (s.d.) t-value (p)
Emotional Intelligence 107.5 (9.0) 105.8 (11.5) 1.3 (.19)
SOCO 173.8 (14.8) 172.4 (12.7) .5 (.60)
Customer Orientation 105.1 (8.8) 98.9 (8.5) 4.6 (.0001)
Selling Orientation 62.7 (8.7) 73.6 (13.0) 2.9 (.004)
Positive Affect 31.6 (3.4) 34.2 (5.1) 4.1 (.0001)
Negative Affect 16.6 (3.3) 12.7 (4.3) 7.0 (.0001)


finding seems to suggest that U.K. salespeople than do their U.S. counterparts we found
are more likely to be apathetic with regard to particularly unexpected given our discussions
HLWKHU WKHLU FXVWRPHUV¶ VDWLVIDFWLRQ OHYHOV RU WR surrounding research questions 1-3.
WKHLU FXVWRPHUV¶ SXUFKDVH GHFLVLRQV 7KLV LV D
negative result suggesting that U.K. sales This research has demonstrated empirically that
representatives are inferior to their U.S. our sample of U.K. salespeople are more likely
counterparts with regard to customer to have positive attributions than are U.S.
satisfaction and sales. However, as prior debate salespeople, who score higher on negative
has noted the style of U.K. sales pitches are affect than do U.K. salespeople. This leads us
necessarily different due to the intrinsic views to the conclusion that U.S. salespeople are more
held regarding the sales and buyer roles (status) likely to possess negative attitudes toward their
vis-à-vis negative connotations. Of further jobs. Both intuitively and theoretically this
significance in this debate is the effectiveness raises questions over the way in which sales
of sales approaches in general, which have been management evaluate sales performance, and
increasingly placed under scrutiny as the assign importance to the relationship building
traditional model based on sales results of and value added initiatives used to augment the
salespeople (i.e., outcome performance) is shed. sales function. It also questions whether
This is likely to be more apparent in highly scholars have sufficiently researched this area
competitive and prestigious sectors such as to discern between traditional measure and
pharmaceuticals, where the roles of salespeople more lasting lifetime value approaches to
carry greater status and the verbal exchanges customer retention.
are more delicate in nature. Moreover,
significant change and government-driven The final implication entails the recognition
competitiveness has taken place manifesting in that emotional intelligence is a common trait of
an altered attitude (and perhaps psyche) both U.S. and U.K. salespeople. Thus, it
towards pharmaceutical sales in the precarious suggests that U.S. and U.K. sales forces alike
U.K. selling environment. Hence, we may might be assessed and trained in the area of
assume that strategies increasingly rely on emotional intelligence. Such a finding
team-oriented selling and the building of long- indicates that emotional intelligence seems to
term customer relationships (Corcoran et al. be a characteristic which is not culturally
1995). This would tend to explain the poor determined.
sales customer orientation scores, as U.K. sales
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An Examination of the Antecedents . . . . DeConinck and DeConinck
AN EXAMINATION OF THE ANTECEDENTS

AND OUTCOMES OF PAY SATISFACTION
AMONG RETAIL BUYERS
JAMES B. DECONINCK, Western Carolina University
MARY BETH DECONINCK, Western Carolina University
3D\ VDWLVIDFWLRQ LV RQH RI WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW YDULDEOHV LQIOXHQFLQJ HPSOR\HHV¶ FRPPLWPHQW WR WKH
organization. The study analyzed the effect of pay level and pay raise satisfaction on turnover
among the sample of 428 retail buyers. The results indicated that both measures of pay satisfaction
were related indirectly to turnover through organizational commitment. Distributive justice was a
significant antecedent of pay satisfaction and withdrawal cognitions. Procedural justice, however,
was related significantly only to pay raise satisfaction.
INTRODUCTION construct (Heneman and Judge 2000) even

though research has found pay satisfaction to be
3D\ DQG WKH VDWLVIDFWLRQ GHULYHG IURP RQH¶V multidimensional (DeConinck, Stilwell and
pay, is one of the most important factors Brock 1996;; Heneman and Schwab 1985;; Judge
LQIOXHQFLQJ HPSOR\HHV¶ FRQWULEXWLRQ WR WKH 1993;; Vandenberghe and Tremblay 2008). For
organization (Gupta and Shaw 1998;; Heneman example, Miceli and Mulvey (2000) have
and Judge 2000). According to Locke, Ferren, stressed the importance of using multiple
0F&DOHE 6KDZ DQG 'HQQ\ ³1R RWKHU measures of pay satisfaction when investigating
incentive or motivational technique comes its relationship to outcomes. For example, is an
FORVH WR PRQH\´ S ,W KDV EHHQ XVHG WR HPSOR\HH¶VVDWLVIDFWLRQZLWKWKHOHYHORISD\RU
encourage performance (Gardner, Van Dyne satisfaction with the amount of a pay raise more
and Pierce 2004) and is correlated significantly important in determining behavioral outcomes?
to organizational commitment (Cohen and
Gattiker 1994;; Mathieu and Zajac 1990), and Another important issue is how pay satisfaction
turnover intentions (Motowidlo 1983;; Trevor, is related to organizational justice, specifically
Gerhart and Boudreau 1997). While pay to distributive justice and procedural justice.
satisfaction is important to employees, research Distributive justice, the perceived fairness in
has indicated that many employees believe they monetary outcomes has been shown to be an
are not being compensated fairly. For example, antecedent to pay and promotion satisfaction
according to Heneman and Judge (2000), (DeConinck and Stilwell 2004;; Folger and
³5HVHDUFK KDV XQHTXLYRFDOO\ VKRZQ WKDW SD\ Konovsky 1989;; McFarlin and Sweeney 1992).
dissatisfaction can have important and However, the relationship between procedural
undesirable impacts on numerous employee justice and pay satisfaction is less certain.
RXWFRPHV´S Procedural justice refers to the process and
procedures by which allocation decisions are
Although pay satisfaction has been linked to made (Folger and Greenberg 1985;; Lind and
various outcomes, its relationship with turnover Tyler 1988). While distributive justice involves
has been modest (Griffeth, Hom and Gaertner the perception of what an employee receives,
2000). This finding may be due to the fact that SURFHGXUDO MXVWLFH H[DPLQHV WKH HPSOR\HH¶V
pay satisfaction has been measured as a single perception of how he or she was treated during
the allocation process. Generally, research has
Volume 20, Issue 1, Pages 40-48 found that procedural justice is more highly
Copyright © 2010, The Marketing Management Association related to organizational outcomes such as
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
supervisor satisfaction, organizational

commitment and organizational citizenship LITERATURE REVIEW

behavior than with personal outcomes such as
pay and promotion (DeConinck and Stilwell Organizational Justice
2004;; Colquitt et al. 2001;; Cohen-Charash and
Spector 2001). However, some research For the last four decades, much research has
indicates that procedural justice is a predictor of EHHQGHYRWHGWRXQGHUVWDQGLQJKRZHPSOR\HHV¶
pay satisfaction, although it explains less perceived fairness influences their behavior
variance than does distributive justice (see Cohen-Charash and Spector 2001 and
(McFarlin and Sweeney 1992;; Miceli, Jung, Colquitt et al. 2001 for literature reviews).
Near and Greenberger 1991;; Tekleab et al. Organizational justice, which involves
2005). HPSOR\HHV¶ SHUFHLYHG IDLUQHVV DW ZRUN
primarily has been analyzed through two
A possible reason that distributive justice has constructs ± distributive and procedural justice.
explained more variance in pay satisfaction The early research concentrated on distributive
than has procedural justice is the lack of using justice ± the perceived fairness of outcomes.
multiple dimensions of pay satisfaction in The concept of distributive justice was
previous research. For example, Tekleab et al. introduced by Homans (1961). He argued that
(2005), using two samples of employees in an exchange relationship participants will
reported that both distributive justice and expect to gain proportionally with their
procedural justice were significant antecedents investments. Fairness arises when those
of pay raise satisfaction. However, only expectations are met.
distributive justice was a significant predictor
of pay level satisfaction in both studies. Thus, $GDPV H[WHQGHG +RPDQV¶ ZRUN
their results do indicate that procedural justice with his concept of equity theory. According to
LVDQLPSRUWDQWYDULDEOHH[SODLQLQJHPSOR\HHV¶ equity theory, people compare their
satisfaction with at least certain aspects of pay input/output ratio to another person. The other
satisfaction. Given the inconsistent results in person may be another employee working in a
the two studies, further research appears similar position within the organization or
warranted to understand how both dimensions another organization. They compare what they
RI RUJDQL]DWLRQDO MXVWLFH LQIOXHQFH HPSOR\HHV¶ receive from the organization (e.g., pay and
satisfaction with pay. promotion) in relation to what others receive.
The perceived ratio of what an employee
This study has two purposes. First, this study obtains from his/her job compared to what an
will analyze how two dimensions of pay employee puts into his/her job helps to
satisfaction (pay raise satisfaction and pay level determine equity or inequity. If the employee
satisfaction) are related to outcome variables perceives that he or she is receiving an adequate
(organizational commitment, turnover reward given his or her input (e.g., education
intentions, and turnover) among a sample of and seniority) in comparison to others, then a
retail buyers. The second purpose of the study perception of fairness will exist. Inequity will
is to examine the relationship between two exist in the reverse situation. Essentially the
facets of organizational justice (distributive and employee reacts to perceived pay equity or
procedural) and outcome variables with a inequity. Although equity theory has been
specific emphasis on the relationship between criticized, research generally has supported
justice and pay satisfaction. The hypotheses for Adams theory (Byrne and Cropanzano 2001).
this study appear in the literature review below.
Procedural justice focuses on the process and
procedures that are used to determine outcomes
(Cropanzano and Schminke 2001). While
distributive justice involves the perception of
what an employee receives, procedural justice
H[DPLQHVWKHHPSOR\HH¶VSHUFHSWLRQRIKRZKH level satisfaction. The same results were found

or she was treated during the allocation process. for distributive justice. However, in the second
,W RIWHQ KDV EHHQ XVHG WR DVVHVV HPSOR\HHV¶ study involving part-time MBA students,
perception of the fairness associated with hiring procedural justice was related significantly to
procedures, promotions, and performance only pay raise satisfaction while distributive
appraisals (Colquitt et al. 2001;; Folger and justice was once again related significantly to
Cropanzano 1998 Folger, R. and Cropanzano, both facets of pay satisfaction.
R., 1998. Organizational justice and human
resource management. , Sage, Beverly Hills The literature review supports hypothesizing
(CA).). Overall, research has found that people that distributive justice is related to pay
perceive the process as fairer when they are satisfaction.
JLYHQD³YRLFH´LQWKHSURFHVVYHUVXVD³PXWH´ H1: Distributive justice is related
condition where they are not allowed input positively to pay satisfaction.
(Folger and Cropanzano 1998).
The relationship between procedural justice
An important question concerns the relationship and pay satisfaction is less clear. One of the
between distributive and procedural justice and purposes of this study is to clarify the
facets of pay satisfaction. What is the relationship between procedural justice and pay
relationship between pay raise and pay level satisfaction. Since prior research has produced
satisfaction and organizational justice? An inconsistent results, a hypothesis will not be
abundance of research has determined that proposed. Rather, the following research
distributive justice is related to dissatisfaction question will be investigated.
with outcomes such as pay and promotion (e.g., R1: What is the relationship between
DeConinck and Stilwell 2004;; Folger and procedural justice and pay
Konovsky 1989;; Sweeney and McFarlin 1993) satisfaction?
while procedural justice has been linked to
satisfaction with the supervisor (DeConinck Outcomes of Pay Satisfaction
and Stilwell 2004) and organizational
commitment (Fields, Pang and Chiu 2000;; Various studies have analyzed the outcomes of
Colquitt et al. 2001). pay satisfaction. In particular, the results of
three meta-analyses have found that pay
However, some research indicates that both satisfaction is related positively to
distributive justice and procedural justice are organizational commitment (Cohen and
related to pay satisfaction. For example, in Gattiker 1994;; Mathieu and Zajac 1990;; Meyer,
their meta-analysis Williams, McDaniel and Stanley, Herscovitch and Topolnytsky 2002).
1JX\HQ FRQFOXGHG WKDW ³GLVWULEXWLYH With respect to the relationship between pay
justice was more strongly related (p = .79) to satisfaction and turnover intentions and
pay satisfaction than was procedural justice (p turnover, Williams et al. (2006) reported that
´ +RZHYHU ERWK W\SHV RI MXVWLFH ZHUH pay level satisfaction had a moderate
correlated significantly with pay satisfaction. A relationship with turnover intentions (p = -31)
recent study by Tekleab et al. (2005) provides and a weaker relationship with voluntary
further insight into the relationship between turnover (p = -17). Recently, Vandenberghe
organizational justice and facets of pay and Tremblay (2008) found that pay
satisfaction. These authors conducted two satisfaction was an indirect predictor of
studies analyzing the relationship among turnover intentions through organizational
distributive justice, procedural justice, pay raise commitment. An examination of the literature
satisfaction, pay level satisfaction, and supports the following hypothesis.
turnover. In the first study involving 288 H2: Pay satisfaction is related positively
managers, procedural justice was related to organizational commitment.
directly to both pay raise satisfaction and pay
Two additional hypotheses will be tested. response rate reported by Keaveney (1992) and
Abundance of research supports that other studies involving marketing employees
organizational commitment is an antecedent to (Ganesan and Weitz 1996;; DeConinck and
turnover intentions while turnover intentions is Stilwell 2004). At the end of one year, a
as antecedent to turnover (Griffeth et al. 2000;; telephone call was placed to the buyers who
Meyer et al. 2002;; Williams et al. 2006). Thus, had returned a survey. A total of 307 buyers
the following two hypotheses will be tested. were found to still be working for their
H3: Organizational commitment is organizations. Twelve of these buyers,
related positively to turnover however, were no longer employed as buyers
intentions. and were dropped from the study. Thus, 295
H4: Turnover intentions are related buyers were still employed in their respective
positively to turnover. jobs one year later (68 percent).

METHODOLOGY The average age of the buyers was slightly less
than 39;; they had worked for their present
Sample Characteristics and Procedure employer an average of 10.5 years;; most of the
buyers were Caucasian (415 buyers, 95
A similar procedure as used by Keaveney percent);; slightly more than half were males
(1992) in her study of turnover among retail (244, 56 percent) and the average household
store buyers was employed in this study. A income was almost $83,000. Approximately 58
probability sample of 1800 retail store buyers percent of the buyers (253) were employed by
employed by both small and large retailers chain stores.
dispersed throughout the United States was
chosen from Sheldon's Retail Directory. This Measures
directory contained the names of approximately
30,000 retail buyers. The directory was six Distributive justice was measured using the five
months old at the time the survey was sent to item Distributive Justice Index developed by
the retail buyers. A letter was sent to the 1800 Price and Mueller (1986) (a = .95). Retail
retail buyers selected informing them of the buyers were asked to rate how fair their
purpose of the study and requesting them to employers have been in rewarding them
participate. They were told that a second survey regarding their responsibility, education and
would be sent to them one year later to training, effort, job stress, and the quality of
determine if their attitudes had changed. The their work. Pay satisfaction was measured
procedure that was used to obtain respondents using two dimensions taken from the Pay
was as follows: Satisfaction Questionnaire (PSQ) developed by
1. An introductory letter was sent Heneman and Schwab (1985). The two
stating the purpose of the survey GLPHQVLRQVPHDVXUHGUHWDLOEX\HUV¶VDWLVIDFWLRQ
and asking the buyers to participate with a pay raise (Four items) (a = .84) and
in the study. satisfaction with their level of pay (Four items)
2. One week later, the survey (a = .94). The items were measured using a
accompanied with a cover letter was scale ranging from (1) very dissatisfied to (5)
sent to the sample of 1800 buyers. very satisfied. Except for turnover, all of the
3. Two weeks later, a second copy of other items were measured using a Likert scale
the survey along with a cover letter ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5)
was sent to the sample of buyers. strongly agree. Withdrawal cognitions (a
4. Three weeks later, a reminder letter EX\HU¶VLQWHQWWRVHDUFKDQGRUOHDYHWKHLUMRERU
was sent to the sample of buyers. the profession) were measured using three
items developed specifically for this study (a =
A total of 428 buyers returned the survey (23.7 .91). Affective organizational commitment was
percent). The response rate was similar to the
measured using the 6-item version of the scale Structural Model
developed by Meyer, Allen and Smith (1993) (a
= .85). Procedural justice was measured using The next step in analyzing the data was to test
seven items from the planning and feedback the hypothesized model. The results indicated a
factors developed by Folger and Konovsky very good fit by most indices (c2 = 635.99, df =
(1989) (a = .92). Turnover was measured as a 367, p = .00, GFI = .86, AGFI = .84, NFI = .97,
dichotomous variable. It was coded 1 for retail CPI = .98, RMSEA = .051). The results
buyers employed one year after the indicated support for all of the hypotheses.
questionnaire was administered and 2 for According to H1, distributive justice is related
buyers who left their jobs. positively to pay satisfaction. Distributive
justice was an antecedent to both pay raise
Statistical Analyses satisfaction (ȕ 75, t = 9.54, p = < .01) and
pay level satisfaction (ȕ 61, t = 10.08, p = <
The data were analyzed using the LISREL 8 .01). The results indicated support for H2.
program (Jöreskog and Sörbom 2005). Before Both pay raise satisfaction (ȕ 44, t = 4.79, p
analyzing the structural models, the fit of a = < .01) and pay level satisfaction (ȕ 16, t =
confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) model to 2.26, p = < .01) were related positively to
the observed data was evaluated to determine if organizational commitment. Hypotheses 3 and
the items loaded on their respective scales. 4 also were supported. Organizational
With the exception of turnover, the items were commitment was related negatively to
used as indicants of the latent variables. withdrawal cognitions (ȕ -.66, t = 11.05, p =
< .01) while withdrawal cognitions were related
RESULTS positively to turnover (ȕ 75, t = 9.54, p = <
.01).
Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model
The research question investigated the
The first step in analyzing the data was to relationship between procedural justice and pay
conduct a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) raise satisfaction. Partial support was found for
of the variables. The results of the CFA procedural justice being related significantly to
indicated a good model fit (c2 = 688.29, df = pay raise satisfaction. A significant
385, p = .00, GFI = .86, AGFI = .83, NFI = .97, relationship was found between procedural
CFI = .98, RMSEA = .053). The loadings justice and pay raise satisfaction (ȕ 16, t =
estimates ranged from .70 to .78 for pay raise 2.92, p = < .01). However, a significant
satisfaction;; .93 to .96 for pay level satisfaction;; relationship was not found between procedural
83 to .92 for distributive justice, .78 to .84 for justice and pay level satisfaction (ȕ 04, NS).
organizational commitment;; 77 to .88 for 7KH UHVXOWV LQGLFDWH WKDW D UHWDLO EX\HU¶V PRVW
procedural justice, and .90 to .96 for withdrawal recent pay raise but not his or her level of pay
cognitions. determines the perception of the fairness of the
process by which rewards are allocated.
An examination of the modification indices
indicated that one of the procedural justice The modification indices indicated that one
items (the item appears in Appendix A) loaded SDWKFRXOGEHDGGHGWRLPSURYHWKHPRGHO¶VILW
highly one or more other scale items and was This path was from distributive justice to
dropped. The data were analyzed again with the withdrawal cognitions (ȕ -.22, t = 3.53, p = <
deletion of that variable. Deleting this item .01). Thus, distributive justice is related
improved c2 by 92.15 (c2 = 596.14, df = 357, p indirectly to turnover through both pay raise
= .00, GFI = .87, AGFI = .84, NFI = .97, CFI = satisfaction and withdrawal cognitions.
.99, RMSEA = .049).


CONCLUSIONS level of pay. The results in this study partially
support the findings from prior research
The purpose of this study was to analyze the (Tekleab et al. 2005). Perhaps the economy or
relationship among organizational justice, pay other factors have a greater impact on pay level
satisfaction, organizational commitment, satisfaction than does the method in which the
withdrawal cognitions, and turnover among a supervisor conducts the performance appraisal.
sample of retail buyers. The results have Future research needs to ascertain the reasons
several important implications. First, these why only one facet of pay satisfaction (pay
results indicate the importance of raise satisfaction) is related significantly to
organizational justice in determining retail procedural justice.
EX\HUV¶ VDWLVIDFWLRQ ZLWK WKHLU SD\ %RWK
distributive justice and procedural justice were In this study, the effect of pay satisfaction on
related significantly to pay satisfaction. Retail withdrawal cognitions and turnover was
buyers will perceive greater pay satisfaction indirect through organizational commitment.
when they believe that rewards are distributed 7KLV VWXG\¶V UHVXOWV FRQILUP WKH ILQGLQJV
fairly given their efforts, educational level, and reported by Griffeth et al. (2000) in their meta-
responsibilities. analysis of turnover that the relationship
between pay satisfaction and turnover is
The research in this study both supports and mediated by other variables. However, the
contradicts prior research. As was been results contradict the results reported by
reported in previous research (e.g., DeConinck Tekleab et al. (2005). In their study Tekleab et
and Stilwell 2004;; Folger and Konovsky 1989;; al. (2005) reported a direct link between pay
Sweeney and McFarlin 1993), distributive satisfaction and turnover intentions. But, in the
justice was related to both pay raise and pay Tekleab et al. (2005) study, organizational
level satisfaction. However, contrary to the commitment was excluded. Thus, the
results reported by Tekleab et al. (2005), mediation effect of organizational commitment
distributive justice has a slightly stronger was not measured. The results from this study
relationship with pay raise satisfaction than and the one conducted by Tekleab et al. (2005)
does pay level satisfaction. However, both indicate the need for additional research to
measures of pay satisfaction were highly clarify the relationship among pay satisfaction,
significant outcomes of distributive justice. organizational commitment, and turnover
intentions/turnover.
While prior research has indicated a significant
relationship between distributive justice and One of the most interesting findings was the
pay satisfaction, few studies have examined the direct relationship between distributive justice
relationship between procedural justice and pay and withdrawal cognitions. The results indicate
satisfaction. An interesting finding is that the the important role that perceptions of
process by which allocation decisions are made distributive fairness play in determining
(procedural justice) was related significantly to withdrawal cognitions of retail buyers. Given
RQO\UHWDLOEX\HUV¶VDWLVIDFWLRQZLWKDSD\UDLVH the significant relationship between distributive
and not their pay level satisfaction. The results justice and both pay satisfaction and withdrawal
indicate that the supervisor indirectly impacts cognitions, understanding the reasons for a
turnover among retail buyers by the method by perception of distributive justice/injustice is
which the performance appraisal is conducted. important if organizations want to control
Thus, by using consistent standards, being turnover.
candid and fair, and providing feedback, the
VXSHUYLVRU FDQ LQFUHDVH D UHWDLO EX\HU¶V In summary, this study has shown the
satisfaction with the pay raise decision. importance of organizational justice and pay
However, these same methods will not have an satisfaction in the turnover process. Although
LQIOXHQFH UHWDLO EX\HUV¶ VDWLVIDFWLRQ ZLWK WKHLU the results provide important insights into
understanding turnover, several limitations DeConinck James B. and C. Dean Stilwell

exist. First, the study was limited to examining ³,QFRUSRUDWLQJ 2UJDQL]DWLRQDO
only two facets of procedural justice. Future Justice, Role States, Pay Satisfaction and
research needs to include interactional justice, Supervisor in a Model of Turnover
the interpersonal treatment or the level of ,QWHQWLRQV´ Journal of Business Research,
perceived fairness in how employees are treated Vol. 57, pp. 225-231.
in the organization, and determine its DeConinck, James B., C. Dean Stilwell and
relationship to pay satisfaction. In addition, the %DLUG$%URFN³$&RQVWUXFW9DOLGLW\
scope of the study was limited to examining Analysis of Scores on Measures of
only pay satisfaction. Including other facts of 'LVWULEXWLYH -XVWLFH DQG 3D\ 6DWLVIDFWLRQ´
job satisfaction (e.g., supervisor and promotion E d u c a t i o n a l a n d P s y c h o l o g i c a l
satisfaction) may provide more information to Measurement, Vol. 56, pp. 25-231.
assist organizations in controlling turnover Fields Dail, Mary Pang and Catherine Chiu
among retail buyers. ³'LVWULEXWLYH DQG SURFHGXUDO MXVWLFH
as predictors of employee outcomes in Hong
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Trevor, Charlie O., Barry Gerhart and John W. supervisor was completely candid and
%RXGUHDX ³9ROXQWDU\ 7XUQRYHU DQG frank with me.
Job Performance: Curvilinearity and the 5. During my last performance appraisal, my
0RGHUDWLQJ ,QIOXHQFHV RI 6DODU\ *URZWK´ supervisor gave me feedback that helped
me learn how well I was doing.
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 82,
6. During my last performance appraisal, my
pp. 44-61. supervisor discussed plans or objectives to
Vandenberghe, Christian and Michel Tremblay improve my performance.4
³7KH 5ROH RI 3D\ 6DWLVIDFWLRQ DQG 7. During my last performance appraisal, my
Organizational Commitment in Turnover supervisor and I discussed ways to resolve
Intentions: A Two ± 6DPSOH6WXG\´Journal difficulties about my duties and
of Business and Psychology, Vol. 22, responsibilities.
pp. 275-286.
Williams, Margaret L., Michael A. McDaniel Distributive Justice2
DQG 1KXQJ 7 1JX\HQ ³$ 0HWD ± 1. How fair has your company been in
rewarding you when you consider the
Analysis of the Antecedents and
responsibilities you have?
&RQVHTXHQFHV RI 3D\ /HYHO 6DWLVIDFWLRQ´ 2. How fair has your company been in
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 91, rewarding you when you consider the
pp. 392-413. amount of effort t hat you have put forth?
3. How fair has your company been in
APPENDIX A rewarding you when you take into account
the amount of education and training that
Withdrawal Cognitions1 you have?
1. Within the next six months, I would rate the 4. How fair has your company been in
probability of leaving my job as high. rewarding you when you consider the
2. Within the next 6 months, I intend to search stresses and strains of our job?
for another job. 5. How fair has your company been in
3. Within the next year, I intend to quit my job rewarding you when you consider the work
for a similar job. that you have done well?
Organizational Commitment1
1. I would be very happy to spend the rest of Pay Level Satisfaction3
my career in this organization. 1. My current salary
2. , UHDOO\ IHHO DV LI WKLV RUJDQL]DWLRQ¶V 2. My overall level of pay
problems are my own. 3. Size of current salary
3. ,GRQRWIHHOOLNH³SDUWRIWKHIDPLO\´DWP\ 4. My take-home pay
organization. (R)
4. ,GRQRWIHHO³HPRWLRQDOO\DWWDFKHG´WRWKLV Pay Raise Satisfaction3
organization. (R) 1. My most recent pay raise
5. This organization has a great deal of 2. How my raises are determined
personal meaning for me. 3. The raises I have typically received in the
6. I do not feel strong sense of belonging to past
my organization. (R) 4. 7KHFRPSDQ\¶VSD\VWUXFWXUH

1
Procedural Justice1 Items measured on a scale ranging from (1)
1. During my last performance appraisal, my strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
2
supervisor was honest and ethical in Items measured on a scale ranging from (1) very
dealing with me. unfair to (5) very fair.
3
2. During my last performance appraisal, my Items measured on a scale ranging from (1) very
supervisor used consistent standards when dissatisfied to (5) very satisfied.
evaluating my performance. 4Item deleted after CFA analysis.
supervisor did not show a real interest in
trying to be fair.
Perceptions of Retail Convenience . . . . Beauchamp and Ponder
PERCEPTIONS OF RETAIL CONVENIENCE FOR

IN-STORE AND ONLINE SHOPPERS
MICHELLE BEDNARZ BEAUCHAMP, Middle Tennessee State University
NICOLE PONDER, Mississippi State University
Shoppers seek convenience in different shopping situations;; however, marketers know very little
about the types of convenience that retailers offer and the types of convenience that consumers value.
In this study, perceptions of retail convenience are examined across two popular shopping formats²
traditional, brick-and-mortar stores and online shopping. Items measuring the retail convenience
dimensions of access, search, transaction, and possession were constructed. Data were collected
using both a convenience sample and a national online panel. Results indicate that retail
convenience is a higher-order construct consisting of four distinct dimensions²access, search,
transaction, and possession. Testing of hypotheses detailing retail convenience perceptions among
in-store and online shoppers reveal that online shoppers have more favorable perceptions of access
convenience, search convenience, and transaction convenience than in-store shoppers. The results
detail consumer perceptions of convenience regarding in-store and online shopping. In addition, this
research reveals the importance of the different dimensions of retail convenience in constructing an
overall convenience strategy.
INTRODUCTION as non-monetary costs influencing shopping

behavior (Bender 1964;; Herrmann and Beik
³/RVW WLPH LV QHYHU IRXQG DJDLQ´ a %HQMDPLQ 1968). While shopping, consumers spend time
Franklin (1743) and effort to complete multiple tasks. Some
tasks, such as selecting a retailer, searching for
Foote (1963) characterized the consumer of the product information, locating the product they
future (in the year 2000) as one whose primary wish to buy, comparison shopping, and
constraints are no longer money, but time and completing the checkout process, are performed
learning. Retailers have encountered a new whether the customer shops online or at a
type of consumer²one who considers the traditional outlet. Tasks specific to shopping at
resource of time as valuable as money (if not a traditional store include selecting a retail
PRUH YDOXDEOH %HFDXVH WRGD\¶V FRQVXPHU LV location, traveling to the location, searching for
more time-starved than ever, it is appropriate to a parking spot, and moving through the store.
carefully consider the benefit of convenience to When shopping online, customers often spend
consumers as a concept of utmost importance. time and effort locating a website, waiting for
the web pages to load, navigating the website,
In this study, consumer perceptions of retail and waiting for their purchase to be delivered.
convenience are evaluated across two different So whether consumers choose to shop online or
retail formats²traditional, brick-and-mortar in a traditional store, time and effort costs are
stores and online stores. Retail convenience is inherent to the process of shopping.
GHILQHG DV FRQVXPHUV¶ WLPH DQG HIIRUW FRVWV
associated with shopping in a retail While shoppers who are more rationally or
environment (Seiders, Berry and Gresham economically motivated seek convenience in
2000). The consumer resources of time and different shopping situations, we know little
effort are described in the marketing literature about the various types of convenience that
retailers offer their customers. Seiders, Berry
Volume 20, Issue 1, Pages 49-65
and Gresham (2000) propose four dimensions
Copyright © 2010, The Marketing Management Association of convenience particularly relevant to retailers:
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
access, search, transaction, and possession

convenience. To what extent do consumers As marketers continued to develop other

seek these types of convenience when product classification systems, convenience
shopping? How do customer perceptions of goods remained an essential staple, re-
retail convenience vary across different appearing in several other schemata (Bucklin
shopping formats? How can retailers benefit 1963;; Kaish 1967;; Holbrook and Howard 1977;;
from a better understanding of what Enis and Roering 1980;; Murphy and Enis
convenience means to their customers? This 1986). Thus, the initial use of the word
study provides a framework for addressing ³FRQYHQLHQFH´ LQ WKH PDUNHWLQJ OLWHUDWXUH ZDV
many of these important questions. as an adjective describing a class of consumer
goods. Researchers have conducted studies
The primary purpose of this paper is to provide covering the vast domain of convenience
an examination of perceptions of retail goods, including convenience foods (e.g.,
convenience for both in-store and online frozen dinners, ready-to-eat cold cereals, fast-
shoppers. Armed with this new knowledge, food restaurants) (Crist 1960;; Anderson 1972;;
retailers will be able to better understand how Reilly 1982;; Darian and Cohen 1995),
WR PHHW FXVWRPHUV¶ QHHGV WKXV LPSURYLQJ convenience time-saving durables (e.g.,
customer satisfaction. First, a review of the dishwashers, microwave ovens, washers and
literature relevant to retail convenience is dryers) (Anderson 1972;; Reilly 1982), and
presented. Then, five hypotheses related to time-saving services (e.g., child care, house
customer perceptions of retail convenience are cleaning services, lawn care services) (Brown
developed and tested. Next, the results of 1990).
hypothesis testing are discussed. Implications
for retailers and directions for future research 2YHU WLPH WKH XVH RI WKH ZRUG ³FRQYHQLHQFH´
are also provided. changed from a descriptor of products into its
own unique concept²one with an emphasis on
LITERATURE REVIEW AND time buying or time savings (Yale and
DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESES Venkatesh 1986). Many researchers (Douglas
1976;; Strober and Weinberg 1977, 1980;;
The Evolving Nature of Convenience Schaninger and Allen 1981;; Reilly 1982)
facilitated this transition by hypothesizing that
The concept of convenience first appeared in consumers with greater time constraints are
WKHPDUNHWLQJOLWHUDWXUHZLWK&RSHODQG¶V more likely to use convenience products and
classification of goods. Copeland suggests that services to save time (Yale and Venkatesh
by classifying goods according to his tripartite 1986). As a result of this evolution of meaning,
structure (convenience, shopping, or specialty the more complete definitions of convenience
goods), marketers can determine the type of now contain one common element²the
store in which the product should appear and reduction of non-monetary costs associated
the appropriate concentration of distribution. with a product (Kelley 1958;; Kotler and
Convenience goods are those lower-priced Zaltman 1971;; Etgar 1978;; Wolfinbarger and
goods which consumers are familiar with and Gilly 2001;; Rohm and Swaminathan 2004).
which are purchased from easily accessible
outlets. Gardner (1945, p. 275) provides this The Multidimensional Nature of
description, based primarily on how the Convenience
consumer shops for this type of good:
Convenience goods are articles of daily Researchers taking a closer look at the concept
SXUFKDVH«ZKLFK DUH LQVLJQLILFDQW LQ of convenience describe it as a
value or are needed for immediate use. multidimensional construct (Yale and
These goods are, to a considerable Venkatesh 1986;; Brown 1989, 1990;; Seiders,
extent, bought at the most convenient Berry and Gresham 2000;; Berry, Seiders and
SODFHZLWKRXWDFRPSDULVRQRIYDOXHV« Grewal 2002), or as a second-order construct
consisting of various types of time and effort (2000) propose four distinct dimensions of
costs (Berry, Seiders and Grewal 2002;; Seiders convenience relevant to retailers: access,
et al. 2005;; Seiders et al. 2007). To provide a search, possession, and transaction. Although
better understanding of convenience, access and transaction are dimensions common
researchers in this area have distinguished to both service convenience and retail
between different types of convenience. convenience, search and possession
Service convenience (Berry, Seiders and convenience are specific types of convenience
Grewal 2002) and retail convenience (Seiders, more applicable to retailing. Each dimension is
Berry and Gresham 2000) are two types of discussed in more detail shortly.
convenience, which have appeared recently in
the marketing literature. While the dimensions of service convenience
have only begun to be examined empirically
6HUYLFHFRQYHQLHQFHGHILQHGDVD³FRQVXPHU¶V (Seiders et al. 2007), retail convenience has yet
time and effort perceptions related to buying or to receive empirical testing. As such, the first
XVLQJ D VHUYLFH´ %HUU\ 6HLGHUV DQG *UHZDO hypothesis relates to the structure of retail
2002, p. 1), includes the dimensions of access, convenience for in-store and online shoppers.
decision, transaction, benefit, and post-benefit Remaining consistent with previous researchers
convenience. This type of convenience is who view convenience as a multidimensional
unique since these time and effort expenditures construct, Hypothesis 1 states:
occur at different points during the service H1: Retail convenience is a higher-order
encounter. Recently, Seiders et al. (2007) multidimensional construct containing
developed a scale to measure service four dimensions: access, search,
convenience (SERVCON), examining it in a transaction, and possession.
nomological network.
Figure 1 contains the higher-order factor model
In 2000, Seiders, Berry and Gresham to be tested in this study. Since this research
introduced a different type of convenience² focuses on retail convenience, a detailed
retail convenience. Retail convenience is description of the dimensions of retail
GHILQHG DV FRQVXPHUV¶ WLPH DQG HIIRUW FRVWV convenience is now provided. Hypotheses
associated with shopping in a retail related to each dimension are also presented.
environment. Seiders, Berry and Gresham
FIGURE 1
Retail Convenience for In-Store and Online Shoppers
Retail
Convenience
Access Search Transaction Possession

Access convenience LV GHILQHG DV ³WKH VSHHG alone will not necessarily lead to success. To
and ease with which consumers can reach a facilitate the decision-making process, the
UHWDLOHU´ 6HLGHUV %HUU\ DQG *UHVKDP S retailer must also provide the information
81). This access may occur in person, over the necessary for the consumer to make the best
phone, through a computer, or in other ways. purchase decision. Search convenience LV³WKH
Access convenience is an extremely important speed and ease with which consumers identify
dimension of retail convenience, because if the DQGVHOHFWSURGXFWVWKH\ZLVKWREX\´6HLGHUV
consumer cannot reach the retailer, then the Berry and Gresham 2000, p. 83), and includes
consumer would never be given the opportunity effective interactive customer systems, store
(on that particular shopping attempt) to make a design and layout, product displays, store
decision, to complete a transaction, or to signage, and knowledgeable salespeople. So
possess the desired product. while access convenience reduces the time and
effort necessary to reach a retailer, search
Consumer decision making is significantly convenience eases consumers through the
influenced by both the speed and ease with shopping process by helping them make their
which consumers can make contact with retail purchase decision.
RXWOHWV$³FRQYHQLHQWORFDWLRQ´LVYLHZHGDVD
place that minimizes the overall travel cost to Many turn to the Internet to reduce the effort
the consumer (Jones, Mothersbaugh and Beatty associated with making a decision (Todd and
2003). Traditional retailers may improve Benbasat 1992;; Ratchford, Lee and Talukdar
access convenience by operating from a 2003;; Biswas 2004;; Dabholkar 2006). Benefits
location that is easy to get to, near to most falling within the domain of search convenience
consumers, and near to other frequently visited for online shoppers include website design
stores (Seiders, Berry and Gresham 2000). (Szymanski and Hise 2000), navigation
Online retailers are certainly able to provide (Childers et al. 2001), and the selection and
access convenience, as store location becomes availability of product information
irrelevant (Rohm and Swaminathan 2004), and (Wolfinbarger and Gilly 2001). Online retailers
consumers may shop online from any location design their websites carefully to provide the
(provided they have an Internet connection), 24 consumer with a website that is easy to navigate
hours a day, seven days a week (Hofacker and easy to search. By doing so, they are
2001). Compared to shopping at brick-and- facilitating search convenience as consumers
mortar locations, shopping online saves the arriving at such a website can quickly and
consumer travel time/effort to the location, easily find exactly what they are looking for.
time/effort spent parking, and time/effort spent
walking from the parking lot to the store Also considered within the domain of search
(Bhatnagar, Misra and Rao 2000). When convenience is the product selection offered by
considering the costs and benefits associated the retailer. A virtual retailer is not limited by
with shopping, online shoppers believe the shelf space;; therefore, they can often offer a
time-saving benefit of accessing retailers via wider selection of products than traditional
the Internet far outweighs the costs of delayed retailers. In addition, online retailers are able to
merchandise possession and the risks associated provide additional written information about
with shopping online (Wolfinbarger and Gilly the product offerings. Online consumers are
2001;; Morganosky and Cude 2000). This leads often faced with an extensive product
to the development of Hypothesis 2. assortment and a limited amount of time to
H2: Online shoppers have more favorable make a decision;; therefore, several e-retailers
perceptions of access convenience are offering decision aids (i.e., recommendation
than traditional in-store shoppers. agents or shopping bots) to make the
information search process and the formation of
Although it is an important aspect of retail a consideration set more convenient for
convenience, providing access convenience consumers (Punj and Moore 2009).
Conducting such an extensive search at a influencing their decision to shop online

traditional store would consume considerable ³2QOLQH 6KRSSHUV &DUH 0RVW $ERXW 3ULFH´
amounts of time and effort. By making it quick 2007). While offering transaction convenience
and easy to compare alternatives before may not be the primary reason for shopping
purchase, online shopping facilitates search online, it still minimizes the nonmonetary costs
convenience. Consequently, online shoppers associated with shopping online. Hypothesis 4
are expected to have more favorable states the following:
perceptions of search convenience. This is H4: Online shoppers have more favorable
formally stated as Hypothesis 3. p e r c e p t i o n s o f t r a n s a c t i o n
H3: Online shoppers have more favorable convenience than traditional in-store
perceptions of search convenience shoppers.
than traditional in-store shoppers.
Seiders, Berry and Gresham (2000, p. 85)
Transaction convenience LV GHILQHG DV ³WKH define possession convenience DV ³WKH VSHHG
speed and ease with which consumers can and ease with which consumers can obtain
HIIHFW RU DPHQG WUDQVDFWLRQV´ 6HLGHUV %HUU\ GHVLUHGSURGXFWV´,QFOXGHGZLWKLQWKHGRPDLQ
and Gresham 2000, p. 86);; therefore, traditional of possession convenience are in-stock
stores and online stores with quick checkouts merchandise, timely production, and timely
and easy return policies rank high in transaction delivery. One of the motives for selecting
convenience. At traditional stores, shoppers traditional stores over online stores is the ability
often spend time physically waiting in line to to actually leave the store with the desired
complete a transaction. Because the checkout product (Alba et al. 1997;; Rohm and
process occurs at the end of the shopping Swaminathan 2004). Consumers who place a
experience, it is often frustrating for customers high value on possession convenience prefer to
to have to spend additional time and effort to shop at traditional brick-and-mortar stores
complete a transaction. because the benefit of having the desired
product in their hands at the end of the
Many retailers are turning to self-service shopping trip outweighs the costs associated
technology (in the form of self-checkout lanes) with traveling to the physical location and
to attract new customers, increase customer VHDUFKLQJ WKURXJK WKH VWRUH¶V VKHOYHV WR ILQG
loyalty, lower costs, and differentiate their exactly what they want. Online shoppers must
RIIHULQJV IURP WKH FRPSHWLWLRQ ³+HOS wait for their orders to be processed and
<RXUVHOI´ -RVHSK ,Q DGGLWLRQ WR delivered before obtaining their purchase. This
the aforementioned benefits, retailers time spent waiting for orders to be processed
incorporating self-service technology are also and for delivery is a non-monetary cost
offering greater transaction convenience since associated with online shopping. This leads to
customers perceive self checkouts to be faster Hypothesis 5.
than waiting in line (Seiders, Berry and H5: Traditional in-store shoppers have
Gresham 2000). While self checkouts offer more favorable perceptions of
transaction convenience, it is important to note possession convenience than online
that this technology is not available in every shoppers.
store.
The four dimensions of retail convenience share
One of the main benefits of shopping online is a common element²saving the consumer time
that customers never have to wait in line and effort in a unique way. Whether shopping
(Wolfinbarger and Gilly 2001). Online online or in a traditional store, consumers seek
VKRSSHUV DUH LQ ³YLUWXDO FKHFNRXW OLQHV´ ZKHUH these various convenience dimensions to reduce
they can complete the transaction themselves time and effort costs associated with consumer
when ready. Some consumers even mention decision making. The next section details the
the speed and efficiency of online checkouts as method used in testing these hypotheses.
METHOD Think about the last time you made a

minor purchase. Briefly describe your
Construct Measurement purchase experience. Please include
what you purchased and where or from
To measure the different dimensions of what company you made the purchase.
convenience, appropriate scale development
procedures were followed (Churchill 1979;; These instructions and open-ended questions
DeVellis 1991;; Spector 1992). An initial provided a frame of reference for the
survey containing several open-ended questions respondents. Those who made their most
was administered to 196 students enrolled in recent minor purchase in a traditional store
upper-level marketing courses at a major were directed to the scale items for in-store
university in the Southeastern United States. shopping, while those respondents who
4XHVWLRQV VXFK DV ³3OHDVH GHVFULEH ZKDW WKH completed their most recent minor purchase
ZRUG µFRQYHQLHQFH¶ PHDQV WR \RX´ DQG online were directed to the items for online
³'HVFULEHDVVSHFLILFDOO\DVSRVVLEOHZKDW\RXU shopping. Table 1 contains the final survey
ideal convenient shopping experience would be items measuring each convenience dimension.
OLNH´ ZHUH DVNHG WR GHYHORS WKH PRVW
appropriate phrases to capture each dimension Sampling Procedure
of retail convenience.
Using the final version of the survey, data
Many items were developed for each dimension collection was conducted in two phases. In the
based on these qualitative responses as well as first phase, data were collected from both
the convenience literature. Next, 14 expert students and non-students using a convenience
judges consisting of marketing faculty and sample. Marketing students enrolled in upper-
marketing doctoral students who are trained in level undergraduate consumer behavior courses
measurement and scale development, and who at a major university in the Southeastern United
have an interest in research related to retailing States participated as both respondents and
and consumer decision making, were asked to recruiters. These students were not the same as
rate the items according to how closely they those used to develop the initial survey items.
matched the definitions of each convenience For this study, student responses are
dimension. These judges were provided appropriate to include in the sample because
definitions of each convenience dimension and students typically face multiple demands for
were asked to rate, on a seven-point scale both their time and effort. Each student
UDQJLQJ IURP ³5HIOHFWV &RPSOHWHO\´ WR ³'RHV completed the survey and recruited one other
1RW 5HIOHFW DW $OO´ WKH H[WHQW WR ZKLFK HDFK non-student to also complete the survey. Non-
item reflected its definition. Items were student names and phone numbers were
eliminated if they were not rated as a six or collected, and ten percent of them were
seven by all expert judges. contacted to ensure authenticity. A comparison
of key construct means between the student and
A pretest was then conducted to improve/clarify non-student surveys revealed no differences;;
question wording and instructions. These thus, these groups were combined in
pretest surveys were given to a sample of 75 subsequent analyses. This process resulted in
upper-level undergraduate marketing students 346 total usable surveys (50 percent students,
to determine the necessary modifications. This 51 percent male, mean age 30);; 241 completed
process resulted in slightly different item their last minor purchase in a traditional store,
wordings for in-store and online shoppers. while 105 completed their last minor purchase
online.
When answering the questions related to retail
convenience, respondents received the A second phase of data collection was
following instructions: undertaken to increase our sample size in each
TABLE 1
Scale Items Measuring Retail Convenience
Dimension Items for In-Store Shoppers1, 2 Items for Online Shoppers1, 3

Access 1. The store was easy to get to. 1. The website was easy to find.
2. The store had convenient hours. 2. I could order any time I wanted.
3. Parking was reasonably available. 3. I could order from remote locations
(e.g., home, work, etc.)
4. It was easy to move through the store. 4 4. I was able to find the website quickly.
7KHVWRUHZDVQ¶WWRRFURZGHG4 5. The web pages loaded quickly. 4
,ZDVDEOHWRJHWWRWKHVWRUH¶VORFDWLRQTXLFNO\

Search 1. The store was well-organized. 1. It was easy to navigate the website.
2. I could easily find what I was looking for. 2. I could find what I wanted without
having to look elsewhere.
3. The store was neat. 3. The website provided useful informa-
tion.
4. The store was clean. 4. It was easy to get the information I
needed to make my purchase decision.
5. I could find what I wanted without having to 5. The website was well-organized. 4
look elsewhere. 4
6. It was easy to get the information I needed to
make my purchase decision. 4

Transaction 1. The store has a fast checkout. 1. The checkout process was fast.
2. My purchase was completed easily. 2. My purchase was completed easily.
3. I was able to complete my purchase quickly. 4 ,WGLGQ¶WWDNHDORQJWLPHWRFRPSOHWH
the purchase process.
,GLGQ¶WKDYHWRZDLWWRSD\
,WGLGQ¶WWDNHDORQJWLPHWRFRPSOHWHWKHSXU
chase process.

Possession 1. I got exactly what I wanted. 1. I got exactly what I wanted.
2. It took a minimal amount of effort on my part 2. It took a minimal amount of effort on
to get what I wanted. my part to get what I wanted.
3. What I wanted was in stock. 3. My order was delivered in a timely
fashion.
4. I got what I wanted when I wanted it. 4. I was properly notified of my order
status.
1
All items were measured on a 7-point scale anchored by Strongly Agree and Strongly Disagree.
2
Final n=756
3
Final n=465
4
Item was deleted based on expert judges or pretest results.

group. This time, the survey was administered reliability of each dimension. For both in-store
to a national online panel. As an incentive, and online shoppers, the reliabilities were quite
points transferrable to prizes were offered to high, ranging from 0.80 to 0.95 for in-store
potential respondents. Questions were asked shoppers and from 0.87 to 0.96 for online
about minor purchases both in-store and online. shoppers.
A total of 515 completed surveys were obtained
(52 percent male, mean age 47). Means of key To ensure unidimensionality, PCA was initially
constructs (including the four dimensions of undertaken on each of the final retail
retail convenience) were compared across both convenience dimensions in isolation. For
samples, and no key differences were access, search, transaction, and possession
uncovered. While all 515 respondents had convenience, one strong component clearly
completed a minor in-store purchase, only 360 emerged from the data for both in-store and
had also completed a minor online purchase. online shoppers.
Thus, subsequent analyses are conducted on a
total sample of 756 who completed a recent Next, to more closely examine the validity of
minor purchase in a traditional store, and 465 these constructs, PCA with varimax rotation
who completed a recent minor purchase online. was undertaken on all of the retail convenience
For in-store shoppers, the types of products dimensions simultaneously. Table 2 presents
purchased include groceries, toiletries, the measurement properties for the in-store
h o u s e h o l d i t e m s , c l o t h i n g , a n d shopper group, while Table 3 presents the
CDs/DVDs/video games. For online shoppers, measurement properties for the online shopper
the types of products purchased include books, group. For in-store shoppers, four components
CDs/DVDs/video games, electronics, and items with eigenvalues greater than one were
from eBay. The final sample is best described extracted from the data. Together, these four
as 52 percent male with a mean age of 39. components explain 76.86 percent of the total
variance. For online shoppers, four
Statistical Technique components emerged, explaining 83.58 percent
of the total variance.
Several statistical techniques were used to
analyze the data. To test Hypothesis 1, A more stringent CFA using LISREL 8 was
statistics typically used in scale development also undertaken to further assess convergent
ZHUH HPSOR\HG LQFOXGLQJ &URQEDFK¶V DOSKD and discriminant validity. As can be seen in
principal components analysis (PCA), Table 2, for in-store shoppers, the statistically
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and higher significant parameter estimates provide
order factor (HOF) analysis using LISREL 8. evidence of convergent validity. Three of the
To test Hypotheses 2 through 5, simple items (Access2, Access3, and Search4) were
comparisons of means were used to compare problematic in that they fell slightly below the
scale means of access, search, possession, and 0.70 threshold recommended by Garver and
transaction convenience for in-store and online Mentzer (1999). However, they were within
shoppers. Results of these statistical tests are the 0.50 threshold recommended by Bagozzi
now presented. and Yi (1988). Additionally, the majority of
the squared multiple correlations (SMCs),
RESULTS defined as the percentage of variance in each
item explained by the latent construct of
Statistical procedures commonly used in scale interest, are above 50 percent (with the
development were employed to test Hypothesis exception of Access2, Access3, and Search4),
1. Since the items within each dimension of indicating that each item performed well in
retail convenience are considered to be capturing the construct of interest. Average
reflective of their appropriate definitions, variance extracted (AVE) for search,
&URQEDFK¶V DOSKD ZDV XVHG WR H[DPLQH WKH transaction, and possession convenience are
TABLE 2
Retail Convenience Scale Results for In-Store Shoppers
Dimension Alpha Component CFA Results Average
Variance
1 2 3 4 Parameter t- SMC Extracted
Estimate value
Access1: The store was easy to get to 0.80 0.856 0.71 18.46 0.50 0.45
Access2: The store had convenient hours 0.649 0.60 15.77 0.36
Access3: Parking was reasonably available. 0.637 0.65 17.23 0.42
$FFHVV,ZDVDEOHWRJHWWRWKHVWRUH¶VORFDWLRQ 0.843 0.72 18.88 0.52

quickly.
Search1: The store was well-organized. 0.89 0.757 0.91 31.18 0.83 0.64
Search2: I could easily find what I was looking 0.660 0.86 28.20 0.73
for.
Search3: The store was neat. 0.841 0.74 22.85 0.54
Search4: The store was clean. 0.801 0.67 20.14 0.45
Transact1: The store has a fast checkout. 0.95 0.871 0.89 30.96 0.79 0.82
Transact2: My purchase was completed easily. 0.800 0.86 29.30 0.74
7UDQVDFW,GLGQ¶WKDYHWRZDLWWRSD\ 0.899 0.92 32.77 0.84
7UDQVDFW,WGLGQ¶WWDNHDORQJWLPHWRFRPSOHWH 0.907 0.95 34.75 0.90

Possess1: I got exactly what I wanted. 0.91 0.862 0.87 29.55 0.75 0.74
Possess2: It took a minimal amount of effort on 0.735 0.74 23.31 0.55
my part to get what I wanted.
Possess3: What I wanted was in stock. 0.875 0.89 30.74 0.79
Possess4: I got what I wanted when I wanted it. 0.869 0.92 32.76 0.85
Variance Extracted=76.86% Overall Fit Statistics

Varimax Rotation X2=433.9, 96df, p=0.00
RMSEA=0.069;;
RMR=0.055
GFI=0.93, AGFI=0.90
CFI=0.96
n=756
above the 0.50 level as recommended by and Possess2 (It took a minimal amount of
Bagozzi and Yi (1988). The AVE for access is effort on my part to get what I wanted). After
0.45, signaling possible problems with returning to the item wordings for further
convergent validity. review, it appears that these items may be
capturing overall satisfaction with their
For in-store shoppers, the modification indices purchase rather than transaction convenience
associated with constructs and error terms and possession convenience. This most likely
reveal issues regarding discriminant validity. contributed to problems with discriminant
Specifically, there were two problematic items± validity.
Transact2 (My purchase was completed easily)
TABLE 3
Retail Convenience Scale Results for Online Shoppers
Dimension Alpha Component CFA Results Average
Variance
1 2 3 4 Parameter t- SMC Extracted
Estimate value
Access1: The website was easy to find. 0.89 0.793 0.74 17.91 0.55 0.66
Access2: I could order anytime I wanted. 0.627 0.85 22.10 0.72
Access3: I could order from remote locations 0.771 0.79 19.68 0.62
(e.g., home, work, etc.)
Access4: I was able to find the website quickly. 0.775 0.86 22.27 0.73
Search1: It was easy to navigate the website. 0.94 0.712 0.90 24.89 0.81 0.79
Search2: I could find what I waned without hav- 0.784 0.85 22.50 0.72
ing to look elsewhere.
Search3: The website provided useful informa- 0.820 0.89 24.56 0.80
tion.
Search4: It was easy to get the information I 0.756 0.92 25.66 0.84
needed to make my purchase decision.
Transact1: The checkout process was fast. 0.96 0.788 0.97 28.33 0.93 0.89
Transact2: My purchase was completed easily. 0.775 0.96 28.16 0.93
7UDQVDFW,WGLGQ¶WWDNHDORQJWLPHWRFRPSOHWH 0.732 0.91 25.31 0.82

Possess1: I got exactly what I wanted. 0.87 0.625 0.85 21.46 0.73 0.64
Possess2: My order was delivered in a timely 0.810 0.77 18.51 0.59
fashion.
Possess3: I was properly notified of my order 0.836 0.77 18.58 0.60
status.
Variance Extracted=83.58% Overall Fit Statistics
Varimax Rotation X2=218.88, 69df, p=0.00
RMSEA=0.066;;
RMR=0.025
GFI=0.94, AGFI=0.91
CFI=0.98
n=465
Additionally, there were five modification provide evidence of convergent validity. All of
indices indicating that some within-construct the SMCs are above 50 percent, and all AVEs
error terms tended to correlate. These changes are above 0.50, indicating that each item
were not incorporated in the model, as performed well in capturing the construct of
conceptually it does not make sense to do so. interest. This evidence of convergent validity is
In spite of these seven problematic modification similar to the patterns for in-store shoppers.
indices, overall fit of the model is good: chi- Similar problems with discriminant validity
square=433.9, 96 df, p=0.00;; RMSEA=0.07;; surfaced in the measurement model for online
RMR=0.06;; GFI=0.93, AGFI=0.90, CFI=0.96. shoppers. With respect to the modification
LQGLFHV7UDQVDFW,WGLGQ¶WWDNHDORQJWLPHWR
For online shoppers (see Table 3), the complete the purchase process) tended to be
statistically significant parameter estimates associated with other constructs, while three

within-construct error terms had a tendency to dimension are statistically significant, which
correlate. In spite of these issues, the model supports the HOF structure. Thus, there is
achieved good overall fit: chi-square=218.88, evidence in support of Hypothesis 1.
69 df, p=0.00;; RMSEA=0.07;; RMR=0.03;; Regardless of the shopping format (i.e., in-store
GFI=0.94, AGFI=0.91, CFI=0.98. versus online shopping), retail convenience is a
higher-order construct consisting of four
Finally, to test H1, the factor structure of retail distinct dimensions ²access, search,
convenience as depicted in Figure 1, HOF transaction, and possession.
models were assessed for both in-store and
online shoppers. For the model to be properly For Hypotheses 2 through 5, the mean scale
identified, five items measuring retail scores for access, search, transaction, and
convenience in general were used to measure possession convenience were compared for
the exogenous construct. These items online and in-store shoppers. The results of the
(convenient ± inconvenient;; easy ± hard;; hassle- mean comparisons appear in Table 5.
free ± stressful;; effortless ± strenuous;; and
saves time ± wastes time) were in a seven- Hypothesis 2 states that online shoppers have
point, semantic differential format and more favorable perceptions of access
produced an alpha level of 0.93 for the in-store convenience than in-store shoppers. A
group and 0.96 for the online group. comparison of scale means for these two groups
yields a t statistic of 5.91 (p=0.000). Online
Table 4 shows results of the HOF models. In shoppers do have more favorable perceptions of
both groups, the structural paths leading from access convenience (scale mean=6.43) than in-
the general retail convenience construct to each store shoppers (scale mean=6.09), providing
TABLE 4
Higher-Order Factor (HOF) Model Results
Path Estimate t-value Path Estimate t-value
5(7&21ĺ$&&(66 0.45 11.02 0.67 15.86
5(7&21ĺ6($5&+ 0.68 16.32 0.79 19.63
5(7&21ĺ75$16$&7 0.63 15.52 0.87 22.50
5(7&21ĺ3266(66 0.65 16.08 0.64 15.10
Overall fit statistics Chi-sq=798.13, df=181, p=0.00 Chi-sq=695.4, df=144, p=0.00
RMSEA=0.07;; RMR=0.09 RMSEA=0.08;; RMR=0.08
GFI=0.91;; AGFI=0.89 GFI=0.88;; AGFI=0.84
CFI=0.95 CFI=0.94
TABLE 5
Comparison of Means
In-Store Online
Dependent Signif.
Measures n Mean Std. Dev. n Mean Std. Dev. t-value Level
Access 769 6.09 1.00 460 6.43 0.99 5.91 0.000
Search 770 5.72 1.11 466 6.11 1.17 5.86 0.000
Transaction 771 5.14 1.63 466 6.26 1.18 13.94 0.000
Possession 771 5.95 1.22 466 6.13 1.22 2.51 0.012

support for H2. Hypothesis 3 states that online FRQYHQLHQFH LV GHILQHG DV ³WKH VSHHG DQG HDVH
shoppers have more favorable perceptions of ZLWK ZKLFK FRQVXPHUV FDQ UHDFK D UHWDLOHU´
search convenience than in-store shoppers. (Seiders, Berry and Gresham 2000, p. 81). This
Here the comparison of means produces a t includes how quick and easy it is to access the
statistic of 5.86 (p=0.000). The scale mean of shopping channel initially and how quick and
5.72 for in-store shoppers is significantly less easy it is to access the merchandise once the
than the scale mean of 6.11 for online shoppers;; consumer is at the store. Returning to the item
thus, there is evidence in support of H3. wordings for further review, it appears that
Access1 and Access4 are capturing the speed
Hypothesis 4 pertains to transaction and ease associated with initial access to the
convenience and states that online shoppers retailer, while Access2 and Access3 are
have more favorable perceptions of transaction capturing the speed and ease associated with
convenience than in-store shoppers. The t accessing the merchandise. This may account
value of 13.94 (p=0.000) indicates a for lower SMCs associated with Access2 and
statistically significant difference between the Access3 and problems with convergent validity.
two group means. The mean for online
shoppers (6.26) is greater than the mean for in- Furthermore, upon examination of the phi
store shoppers (5.14), providing support for H4. matrix for online shoppers, the dimensions of
Finally, Hypothesis 5 predicts that in-store access and search convenience were correlated
shoppers have more favorable perceptions of at 0.80, and the dimensions of search and
possession convenience than online shoppers. possession convenience revealed a correlation
The t statistic is again significant (t=2.51, of 0.82. Construct correlations for in-store
p=0.012);; however, the results are in the shoppers were lower, in the 0.40 to 0.60 range.
opposite direction. The possession convenience These findings suggest that while distinct
scale mean for in-store shoppers is 5.95, while dimensions of convenience certainly exist
the scale mean for online shoppers is 6.13. theoretically, consumers may tend to view
This finding is counter-intuitive, as one would convenience as more of a general construct,
expect in-store shoppers to benefit more from particularly with online shopping.
possession convenience than online shoppers.
Possible reasons for this result are provided in Hypotheses 2 through 5 were tested by
the next section. examining differences in scale means across
two shopping formats²in-store shopping and
DISCUSSION online shopping. These differences were
examined for access, search, transaction, and
In this study, consumer perceptions of retail possession convenience. Although the results
convenience were examined for both in-store for Hypotheses 2 through 4 were expected, one
and online shopping. Hypothesis 1 was particularly interesting finding is the result of
developed to better understand the structure of H5. The differences in mean scores for
the retail convenience construct. Results possession convenience across the in-store and
provide support for retail convenience as a online shopper groups are significant;; however,
higher-order construct consisting of access, the scale means are contrary to the hypothesis.
search, transaction, and possession Online shoppers have significantly higher
convenience. These results are consistent for perceptions of possession convenience than in-
both in-store and online shopping, highlighting store shoppers. These findings are counter-
the importance of convenience regardless of the intuitive as in-store shoppers take immediate
shopping format chosen. possession of their purchase and online
shoppers must wait for delivery.
The results of the CFA reveal issues
surrounding the measurement of access Recall that convenience is characterized by
convenience for in-store shoppers. Access both time and effort expenditures. This means
that possession convenience deals with both the MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

time and effort associated with acquiring a
purchase. While shopping at a traditional store In a market characterized by uniform product
is certainly faster than waiting for delivery of offerings, retailers should focus on the
online orders, consumers must put forth effort importance of convenience in adding value to
at other stages of the shopping process to reap the retail experience. Doing so allows retailers
the benefits of immediate possession. So, while to improve upon and differentiate their
in-store shoppers can obtain the purchase offerings from those of the competition. While
quickly, they expect to expend a certain amount many retailers realize that convenience is an
of effort to gain possession. On the other hand, important offering, few are confident in
online shoppers obtain the purchase easily developing strategies to enhance and deliver
through parcel delivery;; however, the ease superior convenience (Berry 2001). This study
associated with delivery is accompanied by a provides an important first step by empirically
longer wait time. It may be that the examining consumer perceptions of retail
contradictory finding of Hypothesis 5 is the convenience across two popular retail formats.
direct result of the tradeoffs consumers are
willing to make when selecting a shopping Results reveal that retail convenience is a
format. That is, online consumers expect to higher-order factor, consisting of access,
obtain the product with little/no effort at the search, transaction, and possession
expense of having to wait for delivery. By convenience. In addition, the dimensions of
meeting or exceeding these expectations, online retail convenience are highly related. Perhaps
retailers are improving perceptions of the specific dimensions of retail convenience
possession convenience. are not easily distinguishable in the minds of
consumers. Rather, they tend to think in more
A post hoc review of the item wordings for JHQHUDO WHUPV RI ³7KLV LV VDYLQJ PH WLPH
possession convenience reveals that the DQGRU HIIRUW´ $UPHG ZLWK WKLV NQRZOHGJH
possession convenience items likely captured retailers should realize the importance of each
satisfaction with possession. Possession convenience dimension in influencing overall
FRQYHQLHQFH LV GHILQHG DV ³WKH VSHHG DQG HDVH consumer satisfaction with convenience. If a
with which consumers can obtain desired UHWDLOHU¶VFRQYHQLHQFHVWUDWHJ\LVOLPLWHGLQWKH
SURGXFWV´6HLGHUV%HUU\DQG*UHVKDPS types of convenience it provides, then
,WHPVFDSWXULQJWKLVGLPHQVLRQLQFOXGH³, FRQVXPHUV¶ RYHUDOO FRQYHQLHQFH SHUFHSWLRQV RI
JRW H[DFWO\ ZKDW , ZDQWHG´ DQG ³,W WRRN D that retailer could surely suffer. Not only is it
minimal amount of effort on my part to get important to focus on each independent
ZKDW , ZDQWHG´ :KLOH FRQFHSWXDOO\ WKHVH dimension, but it is also important to combine
items reflect the definition, it is suspected that the dimensions in creating a comprehensive
respondents in the online shopper group did convenience strategy (Seiders, Berry and
perceive higher possession convenience Gresham 2000).
because they were more satisfied with the
overall shopping experience. That is, they did This study provides evidence of higher
not mind the wait for their product as other perceptions of access, search, and transaction
aspects of the purchase process (e.g., access and convenience for online shoppers (when
search) required minimal time and effort compared to traditional in-store shoppers).
expenditures. Thus, possession convenience in When considering the concept of convenience
this study may have been more of a general across retail formats, customers and marketers
appraisal of, or satisfaction with, the entire alike have come to think of online shopping as
purchase process, rather than a specific aspect ³FRQYHQLHQW´ DQG LQ-store shopping as
of completing the purchase. ³LQFRQYHQLHQW´7KRXJKWKHGLIIHUHQFHLVRIWHQ
perceived as simple, this study illustrates that
different types of convenience contribute to our
RYHUDOOWKRXJKWVUHJDUGLQJZKDWLV³FRQYHQLHQW´ on the creation of items to measure the time and
RU ³LQFRQYHQLHQW´ LQ D UHWDLO VHWWLQJ 1RW RQO\ effort associated with initial access to the
should retailers keep these differences in mind retailer. Second, attention should be given to
when developing convenience strategies, but improving the discriminant validity of the scale,
they should also develop distinct convenience particularly with Transact2 and Possess2 for in-
strategies for in-store and online formats. store shoppers and with Transact3 for online
shoppers. In addition, retail convenience
The fact that possession convenience was should be examined in the context of other
viewed more favorably by online shoppers than construct to test aspects of nomological validity
in-store shoppers seems to be an indication of and predictive validity. By improving current
the trade-offs consumers are willing to make in measures, future researchers can contribute to
the purchase process. In order to have access the operationalization of the retail convenience
anywhere and anytime, and in order to be able construct.
to carry out the search process with ease, online
shoppers are willing to wait for their product to The scale items measuring each retail
arrive. Furthermore, they are not convenience dimension were formulated to
inconvenienced by the wait. Some retailers capture both the time and the effort
HJ :DOPDUW %HVW %X\ DQG /RZH¶V QRZ expenditures associated with retail shopping.
offer in-store pick up for online purchases to In the future it would be interesting to separate
give consumers the best of both shopping out the effects of both time and effort on the
formats²the benefits of shopping online and different dimensions of retail shopping
more immediate product possession (Gunn convenience. Are time and effort expenditures
2006;; Wolf 2007). equally important to all dimensions, or is one
particular facet (i.e., time or effort) more
LIMITATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR important in establishing a particular
FUTURE RESEARCH dimension? This question and its practical
implication to the retail arena deserve further
This study is an initial attempt to delineate the attention.
different retail convenience dimensions for in-
store and online shoppers. As such, several Additional research on retail shopping
limitations must be mentioned. In collecting convenience and its application to retail
the data, convenience samples were used. The environments is also warranted. Following
first data collection involved a combination propositions set forth by Berry, Seiders and
student/non-student sample concentrated in the Grewal (2002), future studies should investigate
southeastern part of the United States, and the the effect of distractions, engaging activities,
second data collection involved a national firm-related factors (e.g., retail brand), wait
online panel. With an online survey, several time information, and time-saving options on
members of the population are eliminated as perceptions of retail convenience. Another
possible respondents. These include future research outlet is to determine the effect
individuals not currently online, without access of different dimensions of retail shopping
to the Internet, and/or lacking the online skills convenience on consumer outcomes of
necessary to participate in the study. Using an satisfaction and quality. By learning more
online panel also introduces self-selection bias. about retail convenience and its effect on
The combination of these sampling issues limits consumer perceptions, retailers can become
the generalizability of the findings. more effective in their service to customers.

In future research, efforts to improve the Retailers could also benefit from greater
measures of retail convenience are warranted. understanding of the trade-offs consumers are
First, future attempts to measure access willing to make for convenient shopping.
convenience for in-store shoppers should focus Researchers interested in this area could
perform a conjoint analysis to determine %URZQ /HZ * ³7KH 6WUDWHJLF DQG
exactly where those trade-offs occur. Tactical Implications of Convenience in
Information gained could help retailers &RQVXPHU 3URGXFW 0DUNHWLQJ´ Journal of
GHWHUPLQH WKHLU RSWLPDO ³FRQYHQLHQFH PL[´± Consumer Marketing, 6 (3), 13-19.
that is, the optimal combination of access, ------ ³&RQYHQLHQFH LQ 6HUYLFHV
search, transaction, and possession convenience 0DUNHWLQJ´Journal of Services Marketing, 4
to best serve their customers. Regardless of the (1), 53-59.
avenue chosen by future researchers, retail %XFNOLQ /RXLV 3 ³5HWDLO 6WUDWHJ\ DQG
convenience is an important construct for WKH &ODVVLILFDWLRQ RI &RQVXPHU *RRGV´
consumers faced with purchase decisions. Journal of Marketing, 27 (1), 50-55.
Childers, Terry L., Chresrwher L. Carr, Joann
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PUBLICATIONS COUNCIL OF THE MARKETING MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION

C. L. Abercrombie John C. Hafer Rajan Nataraajan

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FROM THE EDITORS

MANUSCRIPT AND SUBMISSION GUIDELINES

0LNHG¶$PLFR Charles E. Pettijohn

EFFECTS OF JEWISH-­ITALIAN CONSUMER

INTRODUCTION economic disagreement influence and modify

1 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

/LNHUW VFDOH UDQJLQJ IURP  ³GHILQLWHO\ RESULTS

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 8

Factors B Beta t Sig.

Dogmatism .073 .071 1.131 .259

Nationalism .580 .348 5.518 .000

Internationalism -­.220 -­.178 -­2.975 .003

Factors B Beta t Sig.

Animosity -­.291 -­.354 -­5.850 .000

Factors B Beta t Sig.

Animosity -­.561 -­.546 -­10.078 .000

Factors B Beta t Sig.

Animosity -­.111 -­.151 -­2.365 .019

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 10

Factors B Beta t Sig.

Product judgment .683 .546 10.072 .000

Factors B Beta t Sig.

Product judgment .522 .587 11.211 .000

11 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

Factors Mean Standard Deviation t-­value p-­value

Utilitarian personality 5.367 .772

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 12

Balabanis, G., A. Diamantopoulos, R.D. 'UXFNPDQ '   ³1DWLRQDOLVP

17 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 18

HOW FAR DOES THE APPLE FALL FROM THE TREE?

INTRODUCTION due to the internet, increased travel and

19 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

is extremely important in transferring significant differences in acceptance of sexual

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 22

RESEARCH QUESTIONS The conceptual framework is best described by

GENDER Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS alternated in four different orders in the

25 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 26

29 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 30

Ueltschy, Linda C., Michel Laroche, Man

31 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

HOW DO U.S. AND U.K. SALESPEOPLE COMPARE

INTRODUCTION be attributable to the fact that different

35 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 36

Watson, D., L.A. Clark and G. Carey (1988).

39 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

AN EXAMINATION OF THE ANTECEDENTS

INTRODUCTION construct (Heneman and Judge 2000) even

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 40

commitment and organizational citizenship LITERATURE REVIEW

H[DPLQHVWKHHPSOR\HH¶VSHUFHSWLRQRIKRZKH level satisfaction. The same results were found

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 44

understanding turnover, several limitations DeConinck James B. and C. Dean Stilwell

Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010 46

*XSWD1LQDDQG-DVRQ'6KDZ  ³/HWWKH McFarlin, Dean B. and Paul D. Sweeney

47 Marketing Management Journal, Spring 2010

EFFECTS OF JEWISH-ITALIAN CONSUMER

/LNHUW VFDOH UDQJLQJ IURP ³GHILQLWHO\ RESULTS

Internationalism -.220 -.178 -2.975 .003

Animosity -.291 -.354 -5.850 .000

Animosity -.561 -.546 -10.078 .000

Animosity -.111 -.151 -2.365 .019

Factors Mean Standard Deviation t-value p-value

Balabanis, G., A. Diamantopoulos, R.D. 'UXFNPDQ ' ³1DWLRQDOLVP

*XSWD1LQDDQG-DVRQ'6KDZ³/HWWKH McFarlin, Dean B. and Paul D. Sweeney

INTRODUCTION as non-monetary costs influencing shopping

$FFHVV,ZDVDEOHWRJHWWRWKHVWRUH¶VORFDWLRQ 0.843 0.72 18.88 0.52

7UDQVDFW,GLGQ¶WKDYHWRZDLWWRSD\ 0.899 0.92 32.77 0.84

7UDQVDFW,WGLGQ¶WWDNHDORQJWLPHWRFRPSOHWH 0.907 0.95 34.75 0.90

7UDQVDFW,WGLGQ¶WWDNHDORQJWLPHWRFRPSOHWH 0.732 0.91 25.31 0.82

------, Leonard L. Berry and Larry G. Gresham