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Years 9-10
Cell Division
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DNA
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“Mind-Map” Outline of Topic

This topic belongs to the Biology branch of Science.
It follows on from previous studies of living cells and takes you into
cell reproduction and an introduction to how biological inheritance works.
Cell Process
Structure Unicellular &
& & Purposes
Functions Multicellular Cell
Differentiation
Living Cell Division

Cells (Mitosis)
(Revision)
Sexual & Asexual

Reproduction
Cell Division
& Meiosis &
Asexual
DNA Reproduction Sexual
Reproduction
Genes,
Chromosomes
& DNA
Introduction
to Genetics
Mutations, DNA, Genes

Good & Bad &
Heredity
Simple Male or
Genetic Female?
Basic Crosses
Concepts Chromosomes
Years 9-10 Topic 17 Cell Division & DNA Usage & copying is permitted according to the
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Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Cut out the boxes. Sort them into an appropriate lay-out on a page of your
workbook, then glue them down. Add connecting arrows and colour in.
Cell Division Living Introduction

Cells to Genetics
& (Revision)
DNA Process Cell
Genes, & Structure
Purposes &
Cell Division Chromosomes Functions
(Mitosis) & DNA DNA, Genes

& Male or
Heredity Female?
Sexual & Asexual
Chromosomes
Basic
Concepts Simple
Reproduction Genetic
Meiosis &
Sexual
Crosses Reproduction
Unicellular Mutations, Asexual
& Good & Bad Reproduction
Multicellular Cell
Differentiation
Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Cut out the boxes. Sort them into an appropriate lay-out on a page of your
workbook, then glue them down. Add connecting arrows and colour in.
Cell Division Living Introduction

Cells to Genetics
& (Revision)
DNA Process Cell
Genes, & Structure
Purposes &
Cell Division Chromosomes Functions
(Mitosis) & DNA DNA, Genes

& Male or
Heredity Female?
Sexual & Asexual
Chromosomes
Basic
Concepts Simple
Reproduction Genetic
Meiosis &
Sexual
Crosses Reproduction
Unicellular Mutations, Asexual
& Good & Bad Reproduction
Multicellular Cell
Differentiation
Years 9-10 Topic 17 Cell Division & DNA 4
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The Structure & Function of Living Things

The Structure of Life: CELLS The Functions of Life
You have already studied living cells. Every cell and all living things carry out
Cells give us a structural way to define certain, basic “life functions”.
what a living thing is.
“All living things are composed of cells, or Every cell, and all living things:
are the product of cells”.
• take in substances from their
This statement is called “The Cell Theory”. surroundings, and assimilate them.
(Things taken in include food, water & oxygen.
“Assimilation” means that the substances
cell membrane taken in are used to build new cells and grow
body parts... they become part of the organism.)
cytoplasm
nucleus • extract energy from their food.
Some living things are unicellular... they • excrete their wastes.

are composed of one, single cell.
• grow.
All the familiar plants and animals are
multicellular... they are composed of • reproduce their own kind.
many cells, usually billions.
• respond to things that happen.
Unicellular & Multicellular Organisms

“Uni-” = one. “Multi-” = many. “cellular” = made of cells.
Unicellular Organisms Multicellular Organisms
There are many types of living things which All the familiar plants and animals are multicellular...
are composed of just one, single cell. they are made up of billions of cells.
The cells are all

One of the most common types is the pretty much
bacteria. the same size.
For example,
Bacteria live the cells in a
in every mouse are
exactly the
place you
same size as
can imagine. the cells in an
They live in elephant... the
water & soil, elephant simply has a lot more cells.
and on and Bacteria
inside other magnified 20,000 X
The single cell of a unicellular life-form must be able to
do everything.
living things.
In a multi-cellular creature, however, each part of the
You have millions of bacteria on your skin, in body is specialised to do a particular job, and usually
your mouth and throughout your gut. has many different specialist cells. For example,
muscle cells are different to nerve cells, and blood
Bacterial cells are very small, often only about cells are different again.
1/
1,000 mm long.
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Living Cells
All living things are composed of microscopic “bags of life”... cells.
Here is a quick revision of what you have studied previously, AND MUST KNOW.
Animal Cells There is probably
Cytoplasm no actual cell
The diagram shows the main features of a typical cell in an which looks just
fills the cell
animal. like this one.
Real shapes
Nucleus
vary greatly.
Nucleus
This organelle is the “control centre” of the cell.
The nucleus sends out “chemical messengers”
to every part of the cell, to control all the cell
processes.
Cytoplasm Various
structures
This a jelly-like liquid which completely fills called
the cell. It is mostly water, with thousands “organelles” (little
organs) have special
of different kinds of chemicals dissolved in it. Cell functions within each cell.
Also suspended in the cytoplasm are many Membrane The nucleus is the most
small structures called “organelles”. important organelle.
Many chemical reactions are constantly occurring in the cytoplasm solution, and within the
organelles. “Life” is mostly a matter of chemistry.
Cell Membrane
Surrounding the cell, and containing it, is an extremely thin, flexible layer. This membrane not
only holds all the cell parts together to form a little bag of life, but it controls all the chemicals
which enter or leave a cell.
Plant Cells
Plant cells have all the same features of animal cells, but have 2 extra features that you need
to know about. These are never present in an animal. Cytoplasm
Cell
Nucleus Membrane
Chloroplasts
These are green-coloured organelles which
absorb the energy of the Sun and use it to make
food for the plant by the process of
photosynthesis.
Not every plant cell has chloroplasts; only the

leaves and sometimes the green stem.
Cell Wall
This is a tough, fibrous, non-living layer on
the outside of the cell. It makes plant cells
stronger and helps to maintain the stiffness
and shape of thin leaves, petals and Cell Wall Chloroplasts
on the outside of the which absorb light and
fragile roots. cell membrane make food for the plant
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Body Structure of Multicellular Organisms

Plants and animals are made of many cells, but each organism is
not just a jumble of cells living and growing in a big lump.
There is always an organised structure to the way their bodies are built.
Different Cells Organs
Firstly, not all the cells in a multicellular At the next level of organisation, a
organism are the same. They are number of tissues are combined to form
differentiated into many shapes and sizes. an organ, such as a heart, a kidney, a
shin bone or an eye.
Nerve
Skin cells cells
With muscle tissues, nerve tissues,
Sperm cell connective tissues, etc, all working
together, the organ carries out a
Blood cells particular function. e.g. the heart pumps
blood, the eye senses light.
Each cell type does a different “job” in
the body, and has the shape, size and Organ Systems
ability to match that function. A number of organs work with each
other to carry out an overall task. For
Tissues example, the heart, arteries, veins and
A cell does not work alone. Thousands of capillary organs all connect to form the
cells of the same type band together to circulatory system which distributes
form a “tissue”, such as muscle tissue, substances around the body.
nerve tissue, bone tissue, and so on. Other systems include the digestive
system, the nervous system and so on.
Body Systems Serve the Needs of Cells

Every Cell Needs Things Respiratory System
Cells need oxygen, and must
Every living cell needs food, water and excrete carbon dioxide.
oxygen. Each cell must be able to get rid The lungs, breathing tubes,
of its waste products. blood vessels, etc carry out
“gas exchange” so that each
In a multicellular organism most of the cell’s requirements are met.
cells are deep inside the body. They
cannot get food, water or oxygen unless Circulatory System
it is carried to them. The blood, heart, veins, etc
have the job of distributing
The major body systems carry out the food, water, gases, wastes
tasks of getting food, water and oxygen and heat to or from every
and transporting them around so that living cell.
every cell gets what it needs.
Other body systems allow for
Digestive System moving around to find food, to respond
Cells need food. to the environment and to co-ordinate
The digestive system breaks all activites.
food into suitable molecules
and absorbs them into the Basically, it’s all about meeting
bloodstream. the needs of the body’s cells.
®
Worksheet 1
Cells & Organisms Student Name.............................................
Fill in the blank spaces. All cells have certain basic parts:
• the k).........................., or control centre.
The Cell Theory states that “all living • the cell l).............................. which
things are composed of a)................... or controls what gets in or out.
are the b)...................................................” • the m)............................... which is a
liquid containing many chemicals and
Every cell, and every organism, carries various structures called n)......................
out the basic “life functions”:
In addition, plant cells have
• they take in substances and o)............................ for making food, and
c)............................ them. a cell p).................. on the outside.
• they extract d)..................... from food.
• they e)....................... their wastes. Multicellular organisms have an
• they f)..................... (get bigger). organisation as follows. Cells of the
• they g)................................ (make babies) same type form q)........................ Various
• they h).......................... to things. types are connected together to form an
r)........................... which has a particular
Some living things are i)......................... function. A number of these work
and have only 1 cell. All the familiar together in a s)........................... which
plants and animals are j)........................... serves the needs of the t)..................
Worksheet 2 Student Name.............................................

Cells to Systems 4. Re-arrange this list to show the levels
1. Name a type of living of organisation in a multicellular
thing which is unicellular. ....................... organism.
List: tissues, body systems, cells,
2. How does the size of cells in an ant organs.
compare to the size of cells in a whale?
............ ................ ................ ....................
(simplest) (most complex)
....................................................................
3. Label the parts of this plant cell. 5.
(a)......................... Explain the concept that “body systems
(green) serve the needs of cells”.
(b)......................
To answer, refer to a body system
(c).........................
(e.g. respiratory system) and link its
function to the needs of all cells.
(d).........................
(e)..........................
.
®
Genetic Information
(“Genetic” = to do with genes, which control inheritance)
Every type of living thing must reproduce. Mice have baby mice, gum trees make seeds
which grow into new gum trees, and bacteria make more bacteria.
Each living thing carries information on how to make offspring of its own type.
Mice never make gum tree seeds, and horses do not give birth to cats.
The genetic information needed to accurately reproduce the same type

of living thing is located in the nucleus of every living cell.
DNA How Does It Work?

For the exact details, you need to study Biology
Genetic information is stored in a chemical in years 11-12. Here is a basic outline:
known as DNA. DNA molecules are the
largest known and carry a “code” within DNA molecules are huge, but very
their helix-shape structure. simple in one sense... they are made of
It is the DNA just 4 different “nucleotide” chemical
inside every units joined together by the thousands.
cell nucleus
which The exact sequence of nucleotides is a
controls “genetic code” or chemical language.
the cell
and all its A cell can “read” this code to make
functions. protein molecules to build functioning
cells, tissues and organs. Every cell in
The key to reproduction is to make your body contains all the DNA
copies of the DNA and pass it on instructions to build a unique human
to the next generation. organism... YOU!
Cell Differentiation
Every cell in the body has a complete set of all the DNA.
However, each cell only uses a small part of the total genetic information.
During the early stages of pregnancy, Cells Become Specialised
the tiny embryo grows rapidly by Within a week after fertilisation, “cell
mitosis. differentiation” begins. Cells begin to follow
particular instructions in their DNA so that they
become specialised. For example, some cells
The cells divide, then divide again,
follow DNA instructions to become (say) muscle
doubling the number of cells each time. cells.
Others ignore the “muscle
At this stage the cells are all instructions” and follow other parts
the same. They do not have of the DNA instructions to become
any particular function. The nerve cells, or bone cells, etc.
embryo does not have any
limbs, muscles, a heart, etc. Body organs, limbs and blood
vessels begin to grow, so that
If this continued, each animal
the “cell blob” develops into a
(including you) would be just perfect little human, or kitten
a big rubbery “blob” like a or gum tree, according to the
jellyfish. DNA instructions.
®
Purposes of Cell Division

All living cells are able to reproduce themselves by dividing in two.
The process is called “mitosis” and is detailed below.
The purpose of cell division depends on what kind of organism you consider.
Unicellular Life Multicellular Life

Mitosis cell division is the way that unicellular In multicellular organisms, mitosis is how
organisms reproduce. Under ideal new cells are made for growth and repair.
conditions, some bacteria can go through You started out as 1 single cell, but you now
the whole cycle in an hour or even less. have billions. All multicellular organisms
grow by adding new cells produced by
If you started with 1 bacterial cell, and it divided in two mitosis.
every hour, how many would there be after 1 day?
Time (hours) > 0 1 2 3 4 5 Cells constantly need replacing as well.
No. of Bacteria 1 2 4 8 16 32
Blood cells have a short life span and must
If you continue this calculation to 24 hours, be replaced. Skin constantly flakes off, so
you will have over 16 million cells! new layers grow. The new cells are produced
by mitosis.
Cell Division - Mitosis

Each cell first makes a duplicate copy of the DNA in the cell nucleus. In many cells, DNA is
contained within structures called “chromosomes”. The DNA contains the genetic
information which controls the structure and functioning of the cell and the entire organism.
Next, the 2 sets of genetic information are separated.

At this point it is as if the cell has 2 nuclei (plural of nucleus).
Then the cell itself divides into 2 smaller cells. Each new cell is only half-size but has a
complete nucleus with a full copy of the genetic information in its DNA.
Finally, each cell can then grow to full size before the whole process starts again.
Mitosis
Each
Nucleus new
cell
grows
to full
DNA
size.
Original DNA DNA copies are Cell 2 half-s

size cells
cell. duplicated. separated. divides. with identical
2 nuclei form. genetic
information.
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Worksheet 3
DNA & Cell Division Student Name.............................................
Fill in the blank spaces. In an early embryo, the cells are all the
same. Later, they begin to specialise or
Living things reproduce their own kind “j)....................................”. Each cell has
according to the a)...................... all the DNA, but only follows k)...............
of the instructions, so it becomes a
information stored in the chemical
l)........................ cell, or a m)....................
b).................... which is found in the cell, etc.
c)............................ of every living cell.
Simple cell division is called
DNA molecules are huge, but are very “n).....................”. In unicellular
simple in structure. They are made from organisms, this is how they o)..................
just d)......... (number) different In p)........................... organisms it is
chemicals called “e)................................” used for q)........................... and to
joined together in thousands. The r)...................... worn-out or damaged
precise sequence of these is a f)............. cells.
which cells can use to build
g)............................... and make cell The first step in cell division is to make
parts, new cells, etc. s)...................................... of the DNA.
Next these copies are t)...........................
so the cell now has 2 u).........................
Every cell in your body has the complete The cell now divides into two cells, each
set of h)............... molecules to specify one only about v)...............................
every part of you. However, each cell Finally, both new cells w).......................
only uses i).................... of the to full size before the process starts
information. again.
Worksheet 4 Mitosis
The process of cell division by Mitosis is all jumbled up in these diagrams and
captions. Cut them out and re-arrange into correct order. Connect with arrows.
Each
new
cell
grows
to full
size.
Nucleus
DNA
2 half-s
size cells DNA
with identical duplicated.
genetic Original
information. cell.
Cell
DNA copies are divides.
separated.
2 nuclei form.
Years 9-10 Topic 17 Cell Division & DNA

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How Current Research Might Affect People’s Lives

One of the areas of current biological research which may have enormous
impacts on people’s lives is known as “stem cell research”.
What are “Stem Cells”? By stimulating stem cells to differentiate

into specialist cells, scientists might
Stem cells are unspecialised human
eventually be able to replace damaged
cells that have not differentiated. They tissue to cure conditions such as
can be grown in the laboratory. If Parkinson’s Disease in which brain cells
correctly stimulated, stem cells can degenerate.
differentiate into any kind of specialist
cells such as nerve cells. Another possibility is to replace the
destroyed cells in the panceas which is
Possible Benefits the cause of diabetes.
of Research Heart muscle damaged by a heart attack
By studying the way stem cells could be repaired.
differentiate into specialist cells,
scientists may learn how cancer cells Ultimately, it is possible (although
begin. This could enable doctors to be probably far into the future) that stem
able to “turn-off” tumour cells and cure cells could help to repair a kidney or
many types of deadly cancer. liver which requires a transplant.
The promise of stem cell research is to be able to cure cancers,
diabetes and many other diseases, plus repair organs
which currently require transplants.
Social Factors Influence the Acceptance of Science

Stem cell research has the potential to benefit many people.
However, that does not automatically mean it will be accepted and used.
In fact, the research is currently restricted by law in Australia and many other
countries because there are certain ethical, moral and religious issues involved.
Sources of Stem Cells Adult Stem Cells?
The best source of stem cells for A type of stem cell can be extracted
research is from human embryos which from adults. These stem cells are not as
are “left-overs” from IVF programs. good for research because they will not
(IVF = in-vitro fertilisation or “test-tube baby” undergo such a wide range of possible
programs. This is where eggs are fertilised in the differentiations as embryo cells will.
laboratory and the embryo is artificially implanted
in the womb later. This helps some couples who A lot of research is going on to try to
are unable to have children normally.)
“re-program” adult stem cells to act like
Although these embryos do not have a embryonic cells. This would remove
nervous system or any organs, many most ethical, moral or religious
people consider them to be a human objections to stem cell research.
person. This raises the ethical issue of
killing a person for research purposes. Despite the huge potential to
The law in Australia currently allows benefit human health, stem cell
excess IVF embryos to be used, but research is limited by social
under strictly controlled licencing factors, such as people’s
conditions. In some countries the
research is banned completely. religious and ethical beliefs.
®
Sexual & Asexual Reproduction

(“Sexual” = having male & female sexes. “Asexual”= no sexes.)
All living things reproduce themselves.
We are used to the idea that reproduction involves male and female
parents who combine their genetic information to produce offspring.
However, many organisms do not need male and female parents to reproduce.
Asexual Reproduction
Unicellular Reproduction Asexual Reproduction
in Multicellular Life
Single-
celled Many multi-cellular organisms are able
organisms to reproduce asexually.
such as
bacteria Fungi, such as
reproduce mushrooms, reproduce
by simply dividing in two by mitosis. by releasing “spores”.
Each spore is a single
There is no need for “males” and cell which can grow into
“females”. Each cell can be a parent. a new fungus. The spore
cells are produced by mitosis, and
The offspring cells are genetically released from a single “parent”.
identical to each other, and to their
single “parent cell”. Many Plants can reproduce asexually
by sending out “runners”.
Regardless of the details, asexual
reproduction always: offspring
plant
• requires only one parent. The runner is an
outgrowth stem Parent
• involves mitosis cell division. which grows into Plant
• produces offspring which are a new plant.
genetically identical to the parent
and to each other. These same plants can
also reproduce sexually with their
flowers.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction always involves 2 parents who combine part of their genetic
information to produce offspring which are different to both parents.
Egg cell meiosis
Male Sperm cell
meiosis Female
Parent Parent
Fertilisation
The key to sexual reproduction is the
production of the “reproductiv
ve cells”
(egg and sperm).
This inv
volv
ves a special cell div
vision Zygote Embryo
Grows by mitosis
called meiosis. (first cell of
the offspring)
(developing
offspring)
®
Meiosis & Sexual Reproduction

In a later topic you will study the human reproductive systems.
Here we are concerned only with what is happening at the level of cells.
Meiosis Cell Division

Chromosomes Meiosis Halves
You will learn more in the next section, the Chromosomes
but for now you need to know that the To produce the reproductive cells or
genetic information (DNA) in each cell is “gametes” a different cell division
located in thread-like structures called occurs. In meiosis, the chromosomes
chromosomes. These can be seen are copied, but then the cell divides
within the cell nucleus during cell twice to form 4 cells with only half the
division. number of chromosomes.
23
The number of chromosomes varies Cell
divides...
from species to species. In humans, 46
every body cell has 46 chromosomes in 23
...then
46
the nucleus. 46 divides again.
46 23
46
During mitosis, the chromosomes (and
the DNA they contain) are first copied,
23
then divided between the “daughter In males, each of these 4 new
cells”. cells becomes a sperm cell.
Chromosomes Cell
copied divides 46
46 In human females, only 1 of the 4 new
46
cells develops into an egg. The other 3
46
46 never develop.
The result is that each new cell has a full The main point is that both sperm
set of chromosomes and complete copy
of all the genetic information.
and egg have only half the normal
number of chromosomes.
Fertilisation Restores the Chromosome Number
When a sperm cell fertilises an egg, Since the offspring receives DNA from
their nuclei combine and the both parents, it is different to both.
chromosomes of each are Egg
added together. Sperm Futhermore, because of the
way the chromosomes
23 23
This restores the chromosome separate in meiosis,
number so the offspring has the each sperm a man produces is
correct number for that species. Fertilisation different. Similarly, each egg a
woman produces is different.
Meiosis is essential for sexual
reproduction so that 2 parents can The result is that each offspring is
contribute chromosomes to the 46 genetically different, even siblings
offspring, while maintaining the from exactly the same parents.
correct total number for the species. Zygote
(Identical twins are an
exception to this.)
®
Worksheet 5
Sexual & Asexual Student Name.............................................
Reproduction Sexual reproduction always involves
j)................ parents and a special cell
Unicellular organisms reproduce by
division called “k)...........................”.
simply a)................................... Many
multicellular organisms can reproduce
During this division, the number of
b)................................ as well. Fungi
chromosomes is reduced to l).................
(such as c).........................) produce
of the number in a body cell. The special
special cells called d)..........................
cells are known generally as
which can grow into a new organism.
“m).........................”, being n)....................
Many plants can reproduce by sending
cells in males and o)................. in
out “e).............................” which grow
females.
into a new plant.
During sexual reproduction, the 2
Regardless of the details, asexual
gametes join together (“p).....................”)
reproduction always:
to form a new offspring cell called a
• involves only f)................ parent.
“q).......................”. It then grows by
• involves g)......................... cell division.
r)....................... cell division into an
• results in offspring which are
embryo. The number of s)........................
genetically h)............................... to each
in the offspring is restored by the
other and to their i)..........................
joining of the t)......................... at
u)................................
Worksheet 6
Comparing Processes Student Name.............................................
Complete each table of comparison
Table 2 Mitosis Meiosis
Table 1 Asexual Sexual No. of a) b)
Reproduction Reproduction cells
produced
No. of a) b) No. of c) d)
Parents chromosomes
in new cells
(compared to original)
Type of c) d)
Cell Div.
involved Are new cells e) f)
the same as
Are e) f) each other?
(genetically)
offspring
same as Are new cells g) h)
each other? the same as
(genetically)
Are g) h) parent cell?
(genetically)
offspring
same as Type of i) j)
parent(s)? Reproduction
(genetically)
®
Genes, Chromosomes & DNA

You may be a little confused by these words and how they relate to each other.
This section aims to make this clear.
What is a “Gene”? Genes & DNA

A gene is a unit of inheritance. What DNA is a chemical. Its molecules are the
colour eyes you have is determined by largest known; 1 molecule of DNA
which “eye-colour genes” you inherited may contain millions of atoms
from your parents. Whether your hair is bonded in a precise, helix-
naturally straight, wavy or curly shaped arrangement.
depends on the genes you inherited.
The sequence of The
In some plants, the colour of the flowers “nucleotides” nucleotide
depends on the genes inherited from its along the sequence is
a coded
parents. In flies there is a gene which DNA gene.
causes “hairy body” and another gene molecule is a chemical code.
for “hairless”. Other genes control wing
shape and eye colour, etc. This tells the cell how to build
particular proteins and structures, or
In some cases the situation is much how to develop in a particular way.
more complicated. Human height is
determined by dozens of genes as well Each gene is specified by the code in a
as by childhood health and nutrition. different DNA molecule.
However, to keep it simple (K.I.S.S.) DNA molecule = a gene
one gene one characteristic Whether your hair is straight or curly is

due to just a slight difference in the
is often true. “code” sequence of a DNA molecule in
the nucleus of your cells.
Chromosomes Each
chromosome has
1000’s of genes.
The DNA molecules which are your sa
ne i ule
genes are not just rattling around loose ge lec
ch o
in the cell nucleus. Ea A m
DN Magnified
Thousands of genes are wrapped up

together with protective proteins to form
a thread-like structure called a Chromosomes come in
chromosome. Many are roughly “X- matching pairs. The first
shaped” as in the diagram. 22 pairs are the same
size and shape in every
Chromosomes are only visible (by human.
microscope) during cell division.
The 23rd pair are different in each half
In a human body cell there are 46 of the population. This pair of
chromosomes are the “sex
chromosomes. A sperm or egg cell has
chromosomes” and determine if you
only half that number. are male or female.
®
Male or Female? The Sex Chromosomes

Human body cells have 46 chromosomes which are arranged in 23 pairs.
The first 22 pairs are the same for everyone, although of course
each person has their own particular set of genes.
The 23rd pair of chromosomes are special... they determine your sex.
Female XX Xy Male
A woman’s 23rd pair A man’s 23rd pair do
are a matching pair of not match. He has
large, X-shaped one large “X”
chromosomes. This chromosome, but its
is referred to as “XX”. partner is a small,
stubby chromosome
When she produces called “y”. He is “Xy”.
eggs by meiosis,
each egg gets one When he makes
of each pair, so Meiosis sperm cells by
every egg carries a Sperm meiosis, half of them
single “X” Eggs cells will carry an X, the
chromosome. X X other half will have a
X
X y y-chromosome.
y
X
Dad Determines the Sex of the Baby

Millions of sperm cells race to fertilise the egg.
Which one wins the race is pretty much random chance.
If the egg is fertilised by a sperm cell If the egg is fertilised by a sperm cell
carrying an X-chromosome: carrying a y-chromosome:
X X y
X
Punnett Squares Fertilisation

Fertilisation A Punnett Square is a way to work out the
probabilities of inheritance.
All the possible genes or chromosomes from
each parent are shown on the outside, and
then all the possible combinations
XX Xy
are shown inside the table.
Mother’s eggs This zygote

This zygote X X
will develop into a will develop into a
baby girl. baby boy.
Father’s X XX XX
sperm
At puberty her y Xy Xy The y-c chromosome contains just
hormones will re- a few critical genes which cause
shape her body and Offspring Boys = 50% chance the development of male organs.
bring eggs to maturity Probabilities: Girls = 50% chance At puberty, his hormones
on a regular cycle. do the rest.
copyright © 2008 keep it simple science Site Licence Conditions only
®
DNA Replication
One of the critically important steps in cell division is when duplicate copies of the
genetic information, the DNA, is made. This copying is called “replication”.
Most of the time the copying is perfect, but occasionally mistakes occur.
Importance of Mutation
Accurate Replication Accidental changes to DNA, or to an
Every cell depends on its DNA
entire chromosome, do happen. These
instructions to operate properly and
changes are called “mutations”.
efficiently.
Certain chemicals or radiations can
If an error occurs in DNA replication cause mutations, but sometimes they
during mitosis cell division, the just happen by accident during DNA
“daughter cells” may receive DNA in replication.
which the genetic code has been
changed. Sometimes a small change In a Body Cell, a mutation may cause
might not make any difference, but the death of that cell, but this may have
some changes could be fatal to the cell, no effect on the whole organism. In
or the entire organism. some cases, a mutated body cell may
develop as a cancer cell. This may
For example, if a mistake in DNA become life-threatening.
replication changed a gene needed for
In a Gamete, a mutation may kill the
cellular respiration, the cell would not egg or sperm cell, or kill the embryo.
be able to get energy from food. The cell Some disorders, such as Cystic
would die. Fibrosis, can be caused by a mutation
which has carried through an egg or
If this happened frequently to many sperm to affect the whole person.
cells, then an entire body organ might
shut down and the whole organism Generally, mutations are not good news!
could die. Luckily, it’s not that common.
Beneficial Mutations
Most mutations are detrimental to the cell, or the organism, in which they occur.
However, a very small percentage of mutations do no harm.
These are vital to life on Earth!
Evolution of Life Importance of Variations

We know that life on Earth has changed When you study Evolution,
dramatically over many millions of you will find out how
years. In a later topic you will learn more important it is for any
about the facts of these changes. species to have variations
from one individual to
another. Ultimately, these
You will also study the scientific
variations all begin as mutations.
explanation for how these changes
have occurred. This is Mutations are usually bad for
the Theory of Evolution, individuals, but are good for the survival
which underpins and evolution of the whole species.
modern Biology. Look out for this idea again later!
®
Worksheet 7
Genes & Chromosomes Student Name.............................................
Fill in the blank spaces.

Each i)............................... may contain
A unit of inheritance is called a “a)...................”. 1000’s of j)...................... packed with
Each simple characteristic of every protective proteins in structures that are
organism is controlled by a gene often k)..........-shaped.
inherited from the parent(s).
In humans, a body cell contains l).........
Each gene is actually a molecule of chromosomes, arranged in 23 m)...........
b)................ These molecules are huge, One pair are the “n)..............
but are simple in structure. They are chromosomes” which determine if you
composed of only c)............ (number) are o)................. or ................... Females
chemical units called “d)........................” have a matching pair described as p)......
joined in thousands in long, coiled Each egg passes on q).............................
chains. The exact e)....................... of from each pair, so all eggs contain one
these is a f)................... which the cell r)...............................
can “read” to build g).......................
molecules to make cell parts, or to Males have sex chromosomes s)..........
develop in a cetain way. Sperms cells contain either t)...... or ......
Which type of sperm cell
The DNA molecules are packed into u).............................. the egg determines
structures called h)................................ the v)................... of the baby.
visible during cell division.
Worksheet 8
Student Name.............................................
Replication & Mutations
Answer the following questions. 5. a) If mutation occurs in a body cell,
and the cell dies, is this a problem for
1. What is “DNA replication” and when the organism?
does it occur?
b) If the mutated cell does not die, what
might happen?
2. Why is it important that DNA c) When can a mutation affect every cell
replication is done accurately? in an organism?
6. In general terms:
a) is mutation usually good or bad for an
3. What is a “mutation”? individual?
b) is mutation good or bad for the

4. What things can cause mutations? survival of a species?
®
Introduction to Genetics
Genetics is the study of how the inheritance of characteristics works.
A Little History
A good way to learn the basics of genetics is to learn about how it was discovered.
About 150 years ago, in a monastery in central Europe, a monk with an interest in
Science did some breeding experiments in the vegetable garden.
His name was Gregor Mendel (1822-84).
Mendel’s Pea Plants Tall
Mendel noticed that some of the garden pea plants Parents
always grew tall, but others were dwarf, no matter how
well they were cared for. He decided that the difference Dwarf
must be inherited, and that parent plants must be passing
on genes for height; either “tallness” or “dwarfness”.
He figured out (from the later results) that each plant genes genes
must have two genes for either tall stem (symbol “T”) or TT tt
for dwarf stem (symbol “t”).
Plant gametes are called “ovules” crossed
(eggs) and “pollen” (sperm). They When these parent plants made
are produced in the flowers.
gametes by meiosis, only one
Mendel controlled the breeding by of these genes was passed F1
placing pollen from his selected into each gamete.
“father plants” onto the flowers of
“mother plants”.
The fertilised eggs became
Pea plants can also be “self- seeds which Mendel planted
pollinated”, or crossed with and grew. Every one grew tall.
themselves.
He explained this as follows: All offspring are Tall
• Each parent has passed on one of its height genes. genes Tt
• All the offspring plants (F1) received genes Tt.
• Gene “T” is dominant to gene “t”, so all are tall.
self-
pollinated
Next he bred a second generation (F2) by self-pollinating
the F1 plants. They produced seeds which he grew in
hundreds. 75% of these grew tall and 25% were dwarf.
These Punnett Squares explain why: F2
First Generation F1 2nd Generation F2
Genes
of Parents: TT x tt Genes of F1: Tt x Tt
(self-p
pollinated)
t t
T t
(gametes)
(gametes)
T Tt Tt
T TT Tt Second Generation
T Tt Tt 3/ Tall (75%)
t Tt tt 4
Offspring Probabilities F1 1/ Dwarf (25%)
Offspring Probabilities F2 4
100% have genes Tt.
All grow TALL because
75% have genes TT or Tt = TALL
gene T is dominant to gene t. Ratio 3:1
25% have genes tt = dwarf
Tall : Dwarf
®
More about Mendel

Gregor Mendel didn’t stop with plant heights.
He also experimented with flower colours, seed shape, pod shapes, etc.
self-
pollinated
X F2
White Purple F1 75% Purple
Flower Flower 25% White
100% Purple Ratio 3:1
pp PP Pp Purple : White
Everytime Mendel carried
out the experiment he F1
Genes
got the same results: of Parents: PP x pp F2
p p Genes of F1: Pp x Pp
• F1 plants were 100% like one (self-p
pollinated)
(gametes)
parent only, because one gene P Pp Pp P p
is dominant to the other. (gametes)
(The other one is said to be “recessive”) P Pp Pp P PP Pp
Offspring Probabilities F1 p Pp pp
• F2 plants always showed a ratio 100% have genes Pp.
approximately 3:1 (75% : 25%) All have PURPLE FLOWERS Offspring Probabilities F2
of the dominant type to the because gene P is dominant
recessive type. to gene p. 75% are PP or Pp = PURPLE
25% have genes pp = white
We now know that many genes operate this way.
Many characteristics have 2 alternative forms (e.g. tall-dwarf, purple-white, etc)
controlled by 2 genes, one of which is dominant, the other recessive.
For each characteristic, an organism carries 2 genes in its DNA. The 2 genes could
be the same (e.g. TT or tt) or may be different (Tt). When gametes (sex cells) are
formed by meiosis, only one of the 2 genes is passed on. The offspring receives one
gene from each parent. Dominance-recessiveness then determines which
characteristic the offspring will have.
Be aware also, that many genes DO NOT operate
in this “Mendelian” way... but that’s another story.
Some Genetics Words to Learn

Alleles = the alternative genes for a Phenotype = the appearance of the
characteristic. e.g. “T” and “t” are the alleles for organism caused by its genes. (e.g. genotype
stem height in Mendel’s peas. “tt” results in the phenotype “dwarf”.
Phenotype “TALL” could have genes TT or Tt.
Genotype = the genes an individual has for
a characteristic. e.g. a dwarf pea has the Homozygous = having 2 genes the same.
genotype “tt”. Genotype “Tt” would grow TALL. (e.g. “TT” or “tt”)
Notice how dominant genes are symbolised by Heterozygous = having 2 different genes.
CAPITAL letters and recessive genes by the (e.g. “Tt”)
same letter in lower case.
®
Tutorial Worksheet 9
Simple Genetic Crosses Student Name.............................................
1. Fill in the blank spaces. 2. Some fruit-flies have bodies covered in hairs,
some are “hairless”.
Another characteristic that Mendel studied was
seed shape. He found that there are 2 alleles:
hairless hairy
Gene “S” causes
smooth seeds.
SS Ss
If you cross “pure-breeding” hairy flies with
Gene “s” causes “pure-breeding” hairless flies, the offspring are
ss 100% hairy.
wrinkled seeds.
Smooth is a)................................ over wrinkled, a) Which characteristic

which is b)................................ is dominant? ..............................
b) Suggest a suitable
Possible Genotypes & Phenotypes symbol for this gene. ................
c) Which characteristic
c)................ = wrinkled is recessive? ..............................
d) Suggest a suitable
Ss = d)...................... symbol for this gene. ................
SS = e)....................... Complete the Punnett Squares for the following

crosses.
A plant with genotype Ss was crossed with a
plant with wrinkled seeds. e) Hh x Hh
f) Genotypes of these plants? ............. x ............. gametes ........... ...........
Complete the Punnett Square by filling in the

blank spaces. .......... .................. ...................
wrinkled seed parent gametes
.......... ................... ...................

g)........... ...........
Offspring
Ss parent Phenotypes Hairy : hairless
gametes h).......... i)............... ...............
ratio ............. : ...............
f) Hh x HH
............ ............... ................
gametes ........... ...........
Phenotypes .......... .................. ...................

of Offspring Smooth : wrinkled
seeds seeds
j) percentages .............% : ...............% .......... ................... ...................
k) ratio .............. : ............... Offspring

Phenotypes Hairy : hairless
percent ............. : ...............
®
Worksheet 10
Simple Genetics Problems Student Name.............................................
For each genetic cross described, fill in: 2. In fruit flies, a gene “H” causes hairs
a) the genotypes of parents (if not given) to grow on the body. Gene “h” causes
b) the genes passed on in gametes. no hair to grow.
c) the genotypes of offspring (in the
body of the Punnet Square table).
d) the phenotypes of the offspring, as
percentages, fractions or a ratio, as Work out the details of the cross:
instructed. Parents: Hh x hh
1. In mice, black fur (B) is dominant to gametes ........... ............
albino (b). (“albino” produces white fur).
a) Show the details of crossing a pure-

breeding black mouse (BB) with an albino. .......
Parents: .............. x .................
.......
gametes ........... ............
Phenotypes of
Offspring hairy : hairless
.......
percentages ............. : ..............
.......
3. Another set of alleles in fruit flies
Phenotypes of controls wing shape. A gene “N”
Offspring Black : Albino produces normal wing shape, while “n”
causes “vestigial wing” which is short,
stubby and useless for flying.
percentages ............. : .............. (insects with vestigial wings are not called flies... they
are “walks”)
b) The offspring from this cross were allowed
to mate among themselves. Work out the
Normal wing fly Vestigial wing
result in the F2 generation.
Parents: .............. x ................. Work out the outcome of this cross.
Parents: Nn x Nn
gametes ........... ............
gametes ........... ............
.......
.......
.......
.......
Phenotypes of
Offspring Black : Albino Phenotypes of
Offspring Normal : vestigial
ratio ............. : ..............
ratio ............. : ..............
®
Mendel’s Genes, Cell Division & Chromosomes

Gregor Mendel knew nothing about chromosomes or the details of cell division
because these things had not been discovered when he was breeding pea plants.
You may have already noticed how Mendel’s genes follow “rules” which match
what happens to chromosomes during cell divisions, especially meiosis.
Comparison: When chromosomes were first

discovered and scientists studied what
Mendel’s Genes Chromosomes happened to the chromosomes during
mitosis and meiosis, this comparison
Each plant has Chromosomes
became obvious.
2 genes for each in body cells are
characteristic. always in pairs.
The genes must be located
on the chromosomes.
Only 1 of the Meiosis halves
2 genes is passed the chromosome
About 100 years after Mendel’s
into a gamete. number.
experiments, the structure of the DNA
molecule was discovered.
The offspring receive The offspring get
1 gene from each chromosomes
Genes are made of DNA.
parent at from each parent
The 2 genes for any characteristic
fertilisation. and get back to
are located one on each of the
having pairs.
chromosomes in a pair.
Genetics versus Environment

Is every characteristic of every living thing determined entirely by its genes?
No, definitely not! The genes give each organism a “potential” to which it may
develop, but the environment determines if that potential is reached.
Tall Plants in Poor Soil Nature v. Nurture
(nurture = how you are brought up)
Imagine growing Statistics show that, on average,
some of Australians have been getting taller
Mendel’s pea every generation for about 100 years.
plants. You
have plants Why are humans getting taller?
(Be aware that the genetics of height in humans
which have is much more complicated that in pea plants.)
genotype “TT”.
These genes will cause them to grow Scientific studies have shown that it’s
not the genes that have changed, but
tall... or will they? improvements to health and nutrition
available in society. 100 years ago,
If these plants are grown from seed in fewer people reached their genetic
very poor soil and choked with weeds potential, so average height was less.
they cannot grow tall,
and may be Similarly, the high rate of obesity in our
society is not due to genetics, but to
“stunted” and changes in eating habits and lifestyles.
have fewer leaves.
Although genetically tall, their Overall, scientists believe that many
environment has not allowed them to characteristcs are about 50% due to
reach their genetic potential for height. genes, and about 50% due to environment.
®
Topic Test Student Name............................................. Score = /25

Cell Division & DNA
4. (8 marks)
Answer all questions This diagram summarizes the process of sexual
reproduction in a horse. The circle shapes
in the spaces provided. represent various cells. The number of
chromosomes in a horse body cell is 66.
1. (5 marks)
Male parent Female parent
Match each description to an item from the a) Name the
list. To answer, write the letter (A,B,C, etc) process “P”.
66 66
of the list item beside the description.
....................................
Process
Description matches with List Item b) Name cell types
P
a) Part of a cell where DNA Q = ........................

Cell
is located ............. R
b) Cell division which produces R= ...................... Cell Q
c) How many Process S
gametes. .............
c) Thread-like structure containing chromosomes
genes. ............. would cells Q & R Cell T
each have?
d) Cell division involved in
asexual reproduction. ............. Process U
...............
e) Change to DNA during
replication. ............. d) Name cell “T” horse embryo
and state how many
List Items Not all will be used. chromosomes it has. ........................... .................
Some may be used more than once.
A. mitosis D. mutation e) Name process “S” .............................................
B. meiosis E. gene
C. nucleus F. chromosome f) Name process “U” .............................................
2. (4 marks) 5. (5 marks)
With reference to a named body system In Mendel’s pea plants a gene for purple
and what it does, discuss the idea that flowers (P) is dominant to white flowers
“body systems serve the needs of cells”. (p). A plant with genotype Pp was
crossed with a white flowering plant.
Predict the outcome by filling in the

Punnet Square.
Parents: ........... x ...........
gametes ........... ............

3. (3 marks)
a) What is cell “differentiation”?
.......
b) For cells to take different roles, does

this mean each cell has different genetic .......
“instructions”?
Phenotypes of
Offspring Purple : White
ratio ............. : ..............
®
Answer Section Worksheet 5

a) dividing in 2 b) asexually
Worksheet 1 c) mushrooms d) spores
a) cells b) products of cells e) runners f) one
c) assimilate d) energy g) mitosis h) identical
e) excrete f) grow i) parent j) two
g) reproduce h) respond k) meiosis l) half
i) unicellular j) multicellular m) gametes n) sperm
k) nucleus l)membrane o) eggs p) fertilisation
m) cytoplasm n) organelles q) zygote r) mitosis
o) chloroplasts p) wall s) chromosomes t) gametes
q) tissues r) organ u) fertilisation
s) (body) system t) cells
Worksheet 6
Worksheet 2 Table 1
1. Bacteria a) 1 b) 2
2.They are the same size. c) mitosis d) meiosis
3. a) chloroplast d) cytoplasm e) yes f) no
b) cell wall e) nucleus g) yes h) no
c) cell membrane Table 2
4. cells, tissues, organs, body systems a) 2 b) 4
5. Every cell needs to get oxygen and to c) same d) half
get rid of CO2. The job of the respiratory e) yes f) no
system is to absorb oxygen into the g) yes h) no
blood and remove the CO2. The i) asexual j) sexual
respiratory system is doing this to meet
the needs of all the cells in the body. Worksheet 7
a) gene b) DNA
Worksheet 3 c) 4 d) nucleotides
a) genetic b) DNA e) sequence f) code
c) nucleus d) 4 g) protein h) chromosomes
e) nucleotides f) code i) chromosome
g) proteins h) DNA j) genes or DNA molecules
i) part j) differentiate k) thread-shaped or X-shaped
k) part l) muscle l) 46 m) pairs
m) nerve n) mitosis n) sex o) male or female
o) reproduce p) multicellular p) XX q) one chromosome
q) growth r) replace r) X-chromosome s) Xy
s) a duplicate copy t) X or y u) fertilises
t) separated u) nuclei v) sex
v) half-size w) grow
Worksheet 8
Worksheet 4 1. It is the copying of the DNA which
See page 10 for correct sequence. occurs just before a cell division.
2. It must be accurate or else the
“daughter cells” would receive altered
DNA instructions which might make them
act abnormally, or be unable to function.
(cont. over)
®
Worksheet 8 (cont.) f) Hh x HH
3. An accidental change to DNA (a gene) H h
or to a chromosome.
4. Some chemicals or radiation H HH Hh
(or they just happen by accident)
5. a) Usually not. A single dead cell in a
multicellular organism is totally H HH Hh
insignificant and happens all the time.
b) It may develop into a cancer cell and
become life-threatening. Offspring hairy : hairless
c) If it occurs in a gamete, which then is 100% : 0
involved in fertilisation, it can affect the Worksheet 10
whole offspring.
6. a) Generally bad, because if there is 1. a) BB x bb
any effect it usually is detrimental. b b
b) Good. Mutations create new variations
which contribute to species survival and B Bb Bb
evolution.
Tutorial Worksheet 9 B Bb Bb
1.
a) dominant b) recessive
c) ss d) smooth Offspring Black : albino
e) smooth f) Ss x ss 100% : 0
g) s, s h) S, s b) Bb x Bb
i) Ss, Ss,ss,ss j) 50% : 50% B b
k) 1 : 1
2. B BB Bb
a) hairy b) H
c) hairless d) h
e) b Bb bb
Parents: Hh x Hh
gametes H h
Offspring Black : albino
H HH Hh 3 : 1
2. Hh x hh
h h
h Hh hh
H Hh Hh
Phenotypes of
3 : 1 h hh hh

75% : 25%
®
Worksheet 10 (cont.) Topic Test

1.
3. Nn x Nn a) C b) B c) F d) A e) D
N n
2.
N NN Nn All cells need food, but large food
molecules cannot get into a cell. The
digestive system breaks food into smaller
n Nn nn molecules for absorption into cells, via
the blood. So, the system serves the
needs of the cells.
Offspring Normal : vestigial
3 : 1 3.
a) Differentiation is when cells specialise
and take on different functions. e.g.
muscle cell or nerve cell, etc.
b) No, all body cells have the same DNA
instructions. To specialise, each one
follows a different part of the total DNA.
4.
a) meiosis
b) Q = sperm, R = egg
c) 33
d) zygote, 66
e) fertilisation
f) mitosis (or growth)
5. Pp x pp
p p
P Pp Pp
p pp pp
Offspring Purple : white

1 : 1
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Year 11-12 Science Courses

All Topics Available as PHOTOCOPY MASTERS and/or KCiC

“Mind-Map” Outline of Topic

Living Cell Division

Sexual & Asexual

Mutations, DNA, Genes

Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Cell Division Living Introduction

(Mitosis) & DNA DNA, Genes

Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Cell Division Living Introduction

(Mitosis) & DNA DNA, Genes

The Structure & Function of Living Things

Some living things are unicellular... they • excrete their wastes.

Unicellular & Multicellular Organisms

The cells are all

Not every plant cell has chloroplasts; only the

Body Structure of Multicellular Organisms

Body Systems Serve the Needs of Cells

Worksheet 2 Student Name.............................................

The genetic information needed to accurately reproduce the same type

DNA How Does It Work?

Purposes of Cell Division

Unicellular Life Multicellular Life

Cell Division - Mitosis

Next, the 2 sets of genetic information are separated.

Original DNA DNA copies are Cell 2 half-s

Years 9-10 Topic 17 Cell Division & DNA

How Current Research Might Affect People’s Lives

What are “Stem Cells”? By stimulating stem cells to differentiate

Social Factors Influence the Acceptance of Science

Sexual & Asexual Reproduction

Meiosis & Sexual Reproduction

Meiosis Cell Division

Genes, Chromosomes & DNA

What is a “Gene”? Genes & DNA

However, to keep it simple (K.I.S.S.) DNA molecule = a gene

one gene one characteristic Whether your hair is straight or curly is

Thousands of genes are wrapped up

Male or Female? The Sex Chromosomes

Dad Determines the Sex of the Baby

Punnett Squares Fertilisation

Mother’s eggs This zygote

Evolution of Life Importance of Variations

Fill in the blank spaces.

b) is mutation good or bad for the

More about Mendel

Some Genetics Words to Learn

Smooth is a)................................ over wrinkled, a) Which characteristic

SS = e)....................... Complete the Punnett Squares for the following

f) Genotypes of these plants? ............. x ............. gametes ........... ...........

Complete the Punnett Square by filling in the

wrinkled seed parent gametes

.......... ................... ...................

Phenotypes .......... .................. ...................

j) percentages .............% : ...............% .......... ................... ...................

k) ratio .............. : ............... Offspring

percent ............. : ...............