Composites: Part A 40 (2009) 80–85

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Composites: Part A
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesa

Effects of processing method and fiber size on the structure and properties
of wood–plastic composites
Sebastien Migneault a, Ahmed Koubaa b,*, Fouad Erchiqui b, Abdelkader Chaala c,
Karl Englund d, Michael P. Wolcott d
a
Centre de recherche sur le bois, Université Laval, Que., Canada G1V 0A6
b
Chaire de recherche du Canada en valorisation, caractérisation et transformation du bois, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université,
Rouyn-Noranda, Que., Canada J9X 5E4
c
Service de recherche et d’expertise en transformation des produits forestiers, 25 rue Armand-Sinclair, Amqui Que., Canada G5J 1K3
d
Wood Materials and Engineering Laboratory, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-1806, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of this study was to understand the roles of processing method and fiber size on the properties of
Received 22 June 2008 wood–plastic composites (WPC). Composites were manufactured using extrusion or injection molding
Received in revised form 9 October 2008 (IM) and fibers of different fiber length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio. IM resulted in better mechanical proper-
Accepted 13 October 2008
ties and lower water absorption and swelling than extrusion. These differences can be explained by the
structure and surface quality of the composites. Fiber L/D ratio had a beneficial effect on mechanical
properties but resulted in decreased water absorption characteristics. These results allow identifying a
Keywords:
suitable forming process and/or fiber size according to application needs. This study provides a better
A. Fibers
A. Wood
understanding of the relationships between processing method, fiber characteristics, and composite
E. Extrusion behavior.
E. Injection molding Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The ability of thermoplastics to melt and re-harden has been
exploited in many different processing methods. The most com-
monly used methods to produce plastics and wood-fiber filled
plastic parts are extrusion and injection molding (IM) [1–3]. The
extrusion process produces continuous linear profiles by forcing
a melted thermoplastic through a die. The IM process produces
three-dimensional items with minimal post-manufacturing stages.
Although different, both processes follow the same basic steps:
melting, shaping, and cooling [4]. Both processes also use screws
to convey, pump, and blend the heterogeneous components [2].
Michaeli and Menges [4] compared extrusion and IM using de-
fined process parameters such as residence time, temperature,
pressure, shear rate, shear stress, and cooling rate. Regardless of
the processing data used, pressure and shearing in IM are signifi-
cantly higher than in extrusion. Conditions that vary with process-
ing method result in different final plastic product properties.
Other investigators [4] found highly oriented layers in IM inorganic
short fiber-reinforced thermoplastics. When forming, these layers
align fibers with a specific orientation: in outer layers, fibers are
oriented in the main flow direction, while in the core layer they
are oriented perpendicular to flow. With extrusion, however, struc-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 819 762 0971; fax: +1 819 797 4727.
E-mail address: ahmed.koubaa@uqat.ca (A. Koubaa).
tural parameters such as orientation and boundary layers are less
distinct.
In wood–plastic composites (WPC), Stark et al. [5] compared IM
and extruded samples made with 50% by weight of ponderosa pine
flour and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) matrix. The flexural
modulus of elasticity (MOE) of composites using both processes
was similar. However, IM resulted in higher modulus of rupture
(MOR) than extrusion. The authors suggest that the higher density
of IM samples resulted in more intimate contact between the HDPE
matrix and wood flour, and consequently higher mechanical proper-
ties. Improved interfacial contact resulted in more efficient stress
transfer between matrix and wood particles, resulting in increased
strength. Stark et al. 2004 [5] observed that IM sample surfaces were
polymer-rich, whereas wood fibers were apparent at extruded sam-
ple surfaces. In a further study, Stark [1] observed polymer flow over
wood particles at the surface of IM composites, whereas polymer
failed to encapsulate wood particles on many areas of the surface
of extruded composites. Bledzki and Faruk [6] also compared IM
and extruded WPC made with 30% by weight of hardwood particles
with a polyethylene matrix. IM produced higher specific tensile
strength, but specific bending MOEs were similar. In this study, how-
ever, composite density was similar for both processes.
Clemons and Ibach [7] compared sorption behavior in compos-
ites made with 50% by weight of 40-mesh pine flour and HDPE
manufactured by extrusion and IM. Water-soaked extruded sam-
ples absorbed more water and swelled more than IM samples.

1359-835X/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.10.004
 S. Migneault et al. / Composites: Part A 40 (2009) 80–85
The opposite trend was expected, because the IM composite had
higher density. For conventional wood-based composites, higher
density generally yields greater swelling. The authors attributed
this result to the polymer-rich surface layer and lower void content
of the IM composites. The literature contains no other studies com-
paring sorption behavior between IM and extruded WPC.
Fiber L/D ratio and size play important roles in the strength
development of non-natural fiber-reinforced polymers [8] and
wood-fiber-based products such as paper and fiberboard [9]. Com-
mercial WPC are generally produced from wood flour particles
with a low L/D ratio. Although these small-sized particles integrate
well into the processing equipment, low L/D ratios cause stress
concentrations leading to decreased strength compared to neat
polymer [10,11]. Few reports have shown that using long fibers in-
creases the mechanical strength of WPC when formed with IM
[12,13]. One study reported beneficial effects of fiber length on
mechanical properties using extrusion [14], whereas other studies
have reported limited or no effects [15,16]. Thus, the effect of fiber
size on the strength development of WPC appears to vary with the
forming process. No studies are found in the literature on interac-
tions between processing method, fiber size, and their effects on
the physicomechanical properties of WPC.
The effects of processing parameters and raw material character-
istics on the final material properties of extruded WPC have been
extensively investigated [10]. However, few studies have compared
the characteristics of extruded and injection-molded WPC. Further
research is needed to understand the relationships between process-
ing method, fiber characteristics, and material behavior. The objec-
tive of this study was therefore to understand how processing
method and fiber size affect WPC structure and properties.
2. Experimental
Three chemi-thermo-mechanical pulp (CTMP) fiber length-to-
diameter ratio (L/D) classes were obtained through mechanical
refining and characterized with a fiber quality analyzer (FQA)
according to the procedure described in Migneault et al. [14]. Fiber
characteristics for the different classes are presented in Table 1.
HDPE LB 0100-00 (Equistar) having a melt index of 0.5 g/10 min,
solid density of 953 kg/m3, tensile strength at break of 27.3 MPa,
and flexural modulus of elasticity (MOE) of 1.276 GPa was used
as the matrix. Maleated polyethylene (MAPE) AC575A (Honeywell)
was used as the coupling agent and OptiPak OP-100 (Honeywell)
was used as lubricant.
Composite formulations were produced according to a factorial
design. Factors were processing method (2 levels, extrusion, and
injection molding) and fiber L/D ratio classes (3 levels, Table 1).
This experimental design allows an evaluation of the effects of pro-
cessing method and fiber size on the physical and mechanical
properties of WPC. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Waller-
Table 1
Fiber characteristics, WPC formulations, and processing conditions.
Fiber characteristics WPC formulations
L/D L D CTMP
class (mm) (lm) wt%
Injection molding (injection speed: 8 mm/s, injection pressure: 167 MPa, injection time: 2 s)
21.3 0.481 22.6 38
13.0 0.304 23.4 38
8.3 0.196 23.7 38
Extrusion
21.3 0.481 22.6 39
13.0 0.304 23.4 39
8.3 0.196 23.7 39
a
B&S: barrel(s) and screw(s).
81
Duncan multiple comparison tests (5% significance level) were
conducted using Statistical Analysis System (SAS).
Processing conditions are presented in Table 1. All composites
were prepared in two stages: compounding for pelletizing fol-
lowed by either extrusion or IM. A Cincinnati Milacron 55-mm
counter-rotating conical twin-screw extruder having a L/D ratio
of 22:1 was used to compound the dry CTMP fibers at a proportion
of 40 wt% and HDPE at 60 wt%. The obtained compound was then
air cooled and ground with a Nelmor rotary knife grinder equipped
with a screen having 9.6-mm diameter openings to form WPC pel-
lets. The die was removed in a first step to reduce pressure, shear
stress, and residence time of the wood fibers in the extruder, and
consequently to reduce fiber degradation. Temperature and RPM
speed were adjusted according to fiber length to obtain a homog-
enous extrudate with no apparent thermal degradation. The ex-
truded material was air cooled and ground to form pellets.
Composites were formed (final stage) using either extrusion or
IM. A Cincinnati Milacron 35 mm conical counter-rotating twin-
screw extruder was used to form extruded samples. The length-to-
front diameter ratio of the screws was 23:1. The extruder die was
9.53 mm in height by 38.1 mm in width. A vacuum of approximately
300 kPa was used. Low RPM was set to limit fiber breakage. After
exiting the die, the extruded composite material was cooled by
water jets. A Sumitomo 55-US ton SE-DU Series injection molding
machine was used to form injection-molded samples. The injection
molding machine had a single screw plasticizing unit and a mold
forming one tensile test sample and one bending test sample.
Composite sample surfaces were analyzed using scanning elec-
tron microscopy (SEM) using an S-3500N variable pressure vac-
uum scanning electron microscope (Hitachi) combined with a
Link ISIS Series 300 EDS analytical system (Oxford Instruments).
Physical and mechanical properties of the obtained composites
were measured according to standard procedures: ASTM D 1037-
99 for moisture tests, ASTM D 2395-93 for specific gravity tests,
ASTM D 790-03 for three-point bending tests, and ASTM D 638-
03 for tensile tests. A span-to-depth ratio of 22 was used for
three-point bending. Specimen type number I was used for tensile
tests at a testing speed of 5 mm/min. Unmodified IM samples were
used for all tests, and extruded samples were cut to specific size
requirements (machined for mechanical tests and SEM analysis
and sandpapered for physical tests) according to the procedure de-
scribed in Migneault et al. [14]. Six replicates were run for mechan-
ical testing and three replicates were run for physical testing.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Composite structure
Electronic micrographs taken at the surface of the WPC sam-
ples showed major differences in fiber organization within the
Processing conditions
HDPE MAPE OP-100 Screw(s) Temperature (°C)
(RPM) B&Sa Die/mold
57 2 2.7 – 180 90
57 2 2.7 – 180 90
57 2 2.7 – 180 90
59 2 0 5 163 171
59 2 0 5 163 171
59 2 0 5 163 171
82 S. Migneault et al. / Composites: Part A 40 (2009) 80–85

composites (Fig. 1). Fibers were clearly aligned in the main flow
direction at the surface of IM samples (Fig. 1a and b). Frequent sur-
face defects were observed along with non-oriented long fibers on
the surface of extruded and non-machined WPC samples (Fig. 1c
and d). Fibers at the surface of extruded and machined WPC sam-
ples were more randomly oriented (Fig. 1e and f) compared to IM
samples. The literature contains reports of oriented fibers at the
surface of injection-molded parts made with short inorganic fi-
ber-reinforced thermoplastics [4]. Micrographs enlarged 450 times
show smooth, polymer-rich surfaces in IM samples, whereas sur-
face defects (exposed fiber ends and voids) are seen at the ma-
chined surface of extruded samples (Fig. 1). This result concurs
with a previous report [5]. As shown in Fig. 1, fibers at the surface
of machined and non-machined extruded samples are twisted,
damaged, and intermeshed, whereas fibers at the surface of IM
samples are straight. These structural differences suggest that the
mechanical and physical behavior of WPC differ.
Adding wood fibers to HDPE slightly increased its density. This
was expected, because cell density (about 1500 kg/m3) is much
higher than HDPE density (about 950 kg/m3), and this result is in
good agreement with previous findings [17]. A significant effect
of L/D on density of extruded composites was found, but no signif-
icant effect of L/D was found on the density of IM composites
(Table 3).
Volumetric swell and water absorption of immersed samples
were significantly influenced by processing method (Table 2). Typ-
ical water absorption and volumetric swell curves with immersion
time for the two processes are shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, respec-
tively. Water absorption and volumetric swell are on average 13%
and 42% lower for injected-molded WPC samples than for extruded
samples (averages for the three fiber size classes, Fig. 4). A similar
trend between the two processes is found in the literature for
wood-flour filled thermoplastics [7]. These differences in sorption
behavior could be explained by the surface quality of the compos-
ites: exposed fiber ends at the surface of extruded composites may
help water to diffuse from the surface to the core of extruded sam-
ples, whereas the hydrophobic polymer-rich surface of IM compos-
ites may prevent water diffusion. Fiber orientation may also have
contributed to the difference in water immersion behavior with
processing method: fibers aligned lengthwise in IM samples could
not diffuse water from the surface to the sample centers, resulting
in lower volumetric swell in IM than in extruded samples. The
presence of hydrophobic lubricant on the surface of IM composites
could also explain their lower water absorption compared to ex-
truded composites.
The effect of fiber size on water absorption and volumetric swell
in WPC was highly significant for both processes studied (Table 2).
Increasing fiber L/D ratio resulted in increasing water absorption
and volumetric swell (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3), and a similar trend was ob-
served for both processes (no significant interaction, Table 2).
Increasing water absorption with increasing sieved wood flour par-
ticle size has been reported in the literature [17]. Water absorption

Fig. 1. Electronic micrographs at 100 and 450 enlargement of (a and b) aligned fibers and smooth surface on injection-moulded sample, (c and d) surface defect and non-
oriented fibres on extruded sample (original surface), and (e and f) surface defects (exposed fiber ends and voids) on extruded machined sample.
 S. Migneault et al. / Composites: Part A 40 (2009) 80–85 83

Table 2
Results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the physical and mechanical properties of WPC.

Physical properties Mechanical properties

Density Absorption Swelling Tensile Flexure
Averagea MOE MOR Strain Energy MOE MOR Strain
Process 160.1** 5.27* 30.28** 206.1** 565.6** 510.0** 769.8** 57.16** 385.1** 600.4**
L/D class 1.26n.s. 14.18* 5.01* 44.09** 116.9** 11.92** 46.74** 16.63** 111.4** 6.88**
Process  L/D class 2.02n.s. 1.65n.s. 3.10n.s. 12.24** 6.32** 5.05* 6.55** 1.43n.s. 0.59n.s. 0.17n.s.
a
ANOVA for average value for 250, 500, 1000, 1500, and 2500 h in water immersion.
n.s.
Not significant at 0.05 probability level.
*
Significant at 0.05 probability level.
**
Significant at 0.01 probability level.

(L/D = 8.3) (averages for the two processes and all immersion
10
times). Shorter fibers might be coated with thin hydrophobic poly-
Water absorption (%)

Extrusion,
8 L/D = 21.3 mer film. The use of longer fibers may increase the probability of
voids within the composite, which represent water sites, resulting
Injection,
6 L/D = 21.3 in higher water content in the composite after several hours of
Injection,
water immersion. The variation in the adhesion in the fiber/poly-
4 L/D = 13.0 mer interface is among other factors that could explain the impact
Injection, of L/D ratio on water absorption. However, further investigations
2 L/D = 8.3 are needed to verify this hypothesis. Results of the immersion tests
suggest that short fibers and the IM process are more suitable for
0 composites to be used in moist environments.
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Another explanation for the lower volumetric swell of IM sam-
Immersion time (hours) ples is their higher stiffness (Fig. 4), because the energy required
for dimensional change increases with stiffness. However, compos-
Fig. 2. Water absorption with immersion time for extruded and injection-molded
WPC made with HDPE and CTMP fibers of different L/D ratio. ites having longer fibers are stiffer (Fig. 6) and have higher volu-
metric swell (Fig. 3). The difference in composite density could
also influence volumetric swell, although the difference in density
10 is minimal (Table 3). Thus, structural differences, as mentioned
Extrusion,
above, appear to be the dominant factors affecting sorption
Volumetric swell (%)

L/D = 21.3
8 behavior.
Extrusion,
L/D = 13.0
6 Extrusion,
3.2. Mechanical properties
L/D = 8.3
4 Injection, All mechanical properties tested varied significantly with pro-
L/D = 8.3 cessing method and fiber size (Table 2). Typical stress–strain
2 curves in flexure for the two processes with increasing fiber size
are presented in Fig. 5. For the same L/D fiber size, IM composites
0 have higher stiffness, resistance, strain to maximum load, and
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
toughness than extruded composites. Compared to extruded com-
Immersion time (hours) posites, IM composites have 17% higher tensile MOE and 31% high-
er flexure MOE (averages for the three fiber size classes, Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. Volumetric swell with immersion time for extruded and injection-molded
WPC made with HDPE and CTMP fibers of different L/D ratio.
Compared to extruded composites, IM composites have 43% higher
tensile MOR and 33% higher flexure MOR, respectively. Toughness,
measured as tensile strain energy, is 170% higher for IM than for
160 extrusion. Toughness is much higher for IM composites because
143 Extrusion
they have higher MOE, MOR, and strain to maximum load (Table
Relative properties

140 131 133 Injection

117 3). Higher MOR using IM has been reported in the literature,
120 whereas MOE was found to be similar [5,6]. This different result
100 87 can be explained by the WPC structure, as discussed below.
80 The effect of fiber size on mechanical properties of the WPC was
60
58 highly significant for both processes (Table 2). For all measured
mechanical properties, increase in fiber L/D ratio has a positive ef-
40
fect (Table 3 and Fig. 6). This result is in agreement with previous
20 studies on extrusion [14] and injection molding [12,13]. However,
0 some studies reported no significant increase with increasing fiber
Tensile Tensile Flexure Flexure Water Volumetric size [15,16]. The effect of fiber size on flexural properties is similar
MOE MOR MOE MOR absorption swell
for both processes (no significant interaction, Table 2). For tensile
Fig. 4. Relative properties for extruded and injection-molded WPC made with properties, however, the effect of fiber size differs between the
HDPE and CTMP fibers (averages for the three fiber sizes). two processes (significant interaction). This result may be ex-
plained by the fact that the bending test involves tensile and com-
and swelling for the WPC formulations using long fibers (L/D = pressive stresses, whereas the tensile test involves only tensile
21.3) are 51% and 46% higher than for those made with short fibers stress [8,9].
84 S. Migneault et al. / Composites: Part A 40 (2009) 80–85

Table 3
Average and standard deviation (between parentheses) of the physical and mechanical properties of WPC made with different processes and CTMP fibers of different L/D ratio.

Fiber Physical properties Mechanical properties

3
L/Dclass Density (kg/m ) Absorption Swelling Flexure Tensile
1500 h (%) MORa (MPa) MOE (GPa) Strain a
(%) MOR a
(MPa) MOE (GPa) Strain a
Strain energy a
(kJ/m2)
Injection molding
b
21.3 1017 C 5.30 ABC 3.94 C 51.1 A 3.39 A 3.91 A 36.5 A 3.18 A 3.28 A 92.4 A
(2.0) (0.94) (0.53) (1.3) (0.16) (0.08) (1.0) (0.09) (0.12) (4.4)
13.0 1019 C 4.87 BCD 3.68 C 46.3 B 3.29 A 3.72 B 31.5 B 3.00 B 2.83 B 76.8 B
(5.7) (0.39) (0.26) (1.4) (0.45) (0.12) (1.43) (0.12) (0.17) (7.0)
8.3 1018 C 4.13 CD 3.43 C 41.2 C 2.92 B 3.69 B 27.3 C 2.96 B 3.12 A 63.8 C
(3.7) (0.72) (0.61) (0.8) (0.22) (0.15) (0.5) (0.03) (0.21) (5.2)
Extrusion
21.3 1084 A 6.53 A 8.83 A 40.2 C 2.83 BC 2.67 C 24.9 D 2.79 C 1.95 C 35.2 D
(6.9) (0.99) (1.3) (2.2) (0.37) (0.24) (0.95) (0.09) (0.13) (3.7)
13.0 1065 B 5.71 AB 7.05 B 35.4 D 2.57 C 2.47 D 22.7 E 2.72 C 1.75 D 28.8 E
(21) (0.72) (1.9) (2.8) (0.30) (0.16) (1.8) (0.07) (0.20) (6.1)
8.3 1079 AB 3.80 D 4.72 C 29.0 E 1.95 D 2.50 D 19.0 F 2.33 D 1.58 D 22.1 F
(2.7) (0.13) (0.75) (1.0) (0.15) (0.08) (1.2) (0.11) (0.21) (4.5)
a
At maximum stress.
b
Means with the same capital letter within the same column are not significantly different (Waller-Duncan, 5% probability level).

60
direction. Accordingly, in this study, oriented fibers in IM composites
50 resulted in better mechanical performance than randomly oriented
fibers in extruded composites. SEM micrographs showed surface de-
40 fects on extruded samples, whereas the IM surface was smooth and
Stress (MPa)

polymer-rich. According to the classical theory of mechanics of

30 materials, these imperfections result in stress concentration and
consequently a decrease in strength. IM composites were tested
20 Injection, L/D = 21.
without modification, whereas extruded samples were machined.
Injection, L/D = 13.0
However, according to Stark et al. [5], planed WPC have higher
10 Injection, L/D = 8.3
mechanical properties than non-machined WPC.
Extrusion, L/D = 8.3
For both processes, the addition of wood fibers into HDPE in-
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 creased MOE. However, increased MOR was achieved with IM only
Strain (%) (Fig. 6). Using the highest L/D fiber ratio and the IM process, MOR
of the HDPE was increased by 34% and MOE of the HDPE was in-
Fig. 5. Stress–strain curves for extruded and injection-molded WPC made with creased by 165%.
HDPE and CTMP fibers of different L/D ratio. In wood-based composites, mechanical properties generally in-
crease with increasing density. Previous studies [5,7] have attrib-
MOE Injection MOE Extrusion uted the higher mechanical performance of injected-molded WPC
MOR Injection MOR Extrusion over extruded WPC to their higher density, which provides more
3.5 40 intimate contact between wood particles and matrix. In this study,
however, IM composites had exhibited lower density than ex-
35
Tensile MOR (MPa)

truded composites, but much higher mechanical properties. Thus,

Flexure MOE (GPa)

3.0
differences in structure and fiber size, as explained above, appear
30
2.5 to be the dominant factors affecting mechanical behavior in this
25 study. Other factors could have influenced the properties of the
formed WPC.
2.0
20 According to the literature, the extrusion process is generally
accompanied by fiber breakage when slender fibers are used
1.5
15 [15,16,18]. It is possible that the compounding and injection-mold-
ing processes resulted in less fiber breakage than the extrusion
1.0 10 process. Moreover, the use of lubricant in IM formulations (Table
HDPE 8.3 13.0 21.3
1) may have reduced shear forces, thereby reducing fiber breakage.
Fiber L/D ratio Further investigation is needed to better understand this phenom-
enon and to accurately assess the effects of the three processes
Fig. 6. Variation in modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) with
increasing fiber L/D ratio for extruded and injection-molded WPC and pure HDPE. (compounding, injection, and extrusion) on fiber length.
Previous reports suggest that water absorption increases when
The differences in mechanical behavior with processing method a lubricant additive is used [14] and that mechanical properties are
could be explained in part by the fiber orientation in the composite negatively affected by lubricant additive [14,19]. Thus, differences
structure. According to the classical theory of mechanics, load ap- in physicomechanical properties between the two processes could
plied to a fiber-reinforced composite material is transferred from be greater with the use of lubricant in extruded formulations.
the matrix to the fibers by shear stresses along the fiber–matrix Finally, the processing conditions such as temperature (Table 1),
interface [8,11]. Transfer efficiency increases with increasing fiber residence time, pressure, cooling rate, shear rate, and shear stress
L/D ratio and reaches a maximum when fibers are aligned in the load varied with the processing method and could have affected the
 S. Migneault et al. / Composites: Part A 40 (2009) 80–85
mechanical properties of the finished fiber-filled thermoplastic
composites [4].
3.3. Practical implications
This study demonstrates that different processing methods
and material properties significantly affected WPC properties.
The processing method is usually selected according to part
geometry or size requirements. For example, the extrusion pro-
cess is more suitable for WPC lumber whereas the IM process
is more suitable for 3D shaped items. However, when it is pos-
sible to select the processing method and high mechanical resis-
tance and good dimensional stability are required, the IM
method should be considered.
It is also common practice to use injection-molded test bars in
scientific research or to develop compounds for extrusion because
it is faster and no machining is required to obtain standard test
samples. This study shows that, despite differences in values, prop-
erty variations tend to be similar.
4. Conclusions
Wood–plastic composites (WPC) were manufactured using
extrusion or injection molding (IM) and fibers with different
length-to-diameter (L/D) ratios. The IM process resulted in better
composite physical and mechanical properties than the extrusion
process, but higher density was obtained with the extrusion pro-
cess. Therefore, the differences in mechanical behavior according
to processing method could not be explained by composite density
alone. One possible explanation for these differences is the varia-
tion in structure (fiber alignment) and surface quality identified
in this study. Electronic micrographs showed that with the IM pro-
cess, fibers were aligned in the main flow direction, whereas in
both machined and non-machined extruded samples, fibers were
randomly oriented. IM samples had smooth, polymer-rich surfaces,
whereas extruded samples showed defects (voids and fiber ends)
on the surface. Exposed fiber ends at the surface of extruded sam-
ples resulted in higher water absorption and swelling compared to
IM samples. Aligned fibers in IM samples resulted in better stress
transfer between the wood-fiber and HDPE matrix, and conse-
quently better mechanical properties than for extrusion. For both
processes, the addition of wood fibers into HDPE increased MOE.
However, increased MOR was achieved with IM only. Increasing fi-
ber L/D ratio had a beneficial effect on all measured mechanical
properties, but the effect on water absorption characteristics was
negative.
Acknowledgements
The Authors are grateful to the Canada Research Chair Program,
the Ministère du développement économique et de l’Innovation du
85
Québec (MDEIE), NSERC, Caisse Populaire DesJardins, Tembec and
the UQAT foundation for financial support. Authors are also grate-
ful to Margaret McKyes for the editorial revision of this
manuscript.
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