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(L13) Folding, Faulting, and Mountains E13
(L13) Folding, Faulting, and Mountains E13
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Types of Stress
• There are three types of stress
Compression
Tension
Shear
3
Compression
• Opposing forces directed inward along
a single line
• Compression shortens an object along
the axis of compression, and thickens it
in the directions perpendicular to the
stress direction
Before After 4
Tension
• Tension is the result of divergence,
pulling an object in opposite directions
along a common axis
• Tension lengthens an object along the
axis of tension, and thins it in the
perpendicular directions
After
Before
5
Tensional Cracking
• Tension can produce cracks in the
direction perpendicular to the axis of
tension
Cracking develops
6
Tension Crack Pictures
8
Responses to Stress
• There are three responses to stress
Elastic
Plastic
Rupture
9
Elastic Substances
• Behave elastically, stretch without
breaking
• Snap back to their original position, when
stress is removed
• Elastic limit: a limit beyond which
substances cannot be stretched without
breaking
10
Plastic Substances
• Slow deformation
without breaking
• Plastically deformed
substances do not
return to their original
shape when the stress
is removed
Silly George, by Vern Hart • Rate of deformation is
Time-lapse slumping of important - Stress
silly putty. Notice
applied quickly will
movement in upper left corner.
cause rupture
11
Plastic Deformation
• The rate of plastic
deformation makes a
difference
• Silly putty breaks if
pulled rapidly, stretches
if pulled slowly
12
Rupture
• Elastic substances stretched beyond the
elastic limit, or plastic substances
deformed quickly, will rupture
• Rupture is called brittle failure
13
Deformation
• Rocks subjected to stress may:
Deform by folding
Rupture, with subsequent movement
along the plane of rupture - this is
called faulting
Fold, then rupture
14
Folding
• Folds may be described in terms of
two parameters:
Axial Plane
Limbs
15
Anticline
• If the fold is convex upward, it is
called an anticline
16
Anticlinal Fold
18
Domes
• Domes are
anticlines that
curve in three
dimensions, like
an upside down
bowl
• Figure shows the
Black Hills, South
Dakota
19
Eroded Dome,
Sinclair, Wyoming
20
Syncline
21
Syncline Photo
• Anticline-
Syncline pair in
Devonian Old
Red Sandstone.
SW Wales, UK
• Note the
different fold
shapes
23
Basins
• Basins are
syncline that
curve in three
dimensions,
like a bowl
24
Overturned
Folds
• Overturned
fold in lower
center of
picture
25
Recumbent Folds
27
Plunging Folds
• The axes of the folds
may be tilted,
creating a series of
plunging folds
28
Folding Animation
29
Joints
35
Strike Slip Faults
Right Lateral
37
Strike Slip Faults - Left Lateral
• Dip direction is
always
perpendicular to
the strike line
39
Fault Terminology
• Foot Wall and
Hanging Wall are
borrowed from
mining terminology
• Ore veins are often
deposited along
faults
40
Normal Fault
42
Death Valley Normal Faults
43
Reverse Fault
46
Lewis Overthrust
47
Explanation of Lewis Overthrust
51
San
Andreas/Garlock
Faults From Space
52
San Andreas Fault
53
San Andreas Offsetting Fence
54
Fault Animations
55
Fault Diagram Summary
56
Orogenesis
• Tectonic forces often create mountains, a
process called orogenesis
• There are several types of mountains
Folded
Faulted
Upwarped
Volcanic
57
Orogenesis by Folding
• Plate collisions involving continental plates
can produce high mountains
Examples:
Himalayas (India, Tibet, China)
Alps (Europe)
Urals (Europe/Asia boundary)
Appalachians
58
Himalayan Mountains
60
Orogenesis by Upwarping
62
Volcanic Mountains
63
Faults
• A fault is a fracture along which definite
movement has occurred